Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications

Sneha Samal, Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
r 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Thermal plasmas are characterized by high electron densities (typically above 1022 m 3) and temperatures between 5000 and
50,000K (Samal, 2017). By definition thermal plasmas are in Local Thermal Equilibrium (LTE), i.e., they can be characterized by a
single temperature value except for the radiation field. The two principal advantages of thermal plasma for materials processing are
the choice of medium and unique properties associated with thermal plasmas, namely high specific heat, high thermal con-
ductivity, a variable electrical conductivity, and high emission of radiation. These characteristics are used by plasma reactors for
materials processing. The plasma generators have essentially two functions in the transformation of electrical energy into thermal
or plasma energy, and transfer of the plasma energy to the material to be treated. In order to utilize the advantages of thermal
plasmas, the energy transfer should take place at temperature levels above 3000K. At these temperatures, the energy transfers from
the plasma to a solid or a cold reactant is associated with strong gradients of temperature, density and composition, and
consequently with deviations from equilibrium. The term “pseudo-thermal” is chosen to describe plasmas, which have boundaries
incompatible with LTE plasma conditions, which is the case for most processing plasmas. Therefore, the non-equilibrium
boundary region surrounding the plasma is included in the consideration of the plasma generation (Samal et al., 2012).
There are two types of discharges commonly used for the generation of thermal plasmas, the electric arc (dc or ac) and the high
frequency (hf or rf for radio frequency) induction discharge. In the arc discharge, the plasma generating current flow from one
electrode to the other through the plasma. The size of the plasma column is determined by the balance of electric power
dissipation with heat loss by conduction, radiation, and convection. Energy densities increase for the gases used in plasmagen such
as argon, nitrogen, helium, hydrogen gases (Samal and Park, 2012).
Two principal uses of thermal plasma in materials processing are the bulk heating/reacting of reactants and the energy transfer
to surfaces. There are in principle three ways in which discharge plasmas can be provided for.

(1) The material to be treated is passed directly through the discharge; in this case, the material is exposed to the highest heating
rates, and the power dissipation will adjust to the heating requirements and will only be limited by the plasma system design.
(2) The plasma is extracted from the discharge region by a superimposed flow, and this plasma jet is used to treat the materials;
mixing of the plasma jet with the material or with a cold environment will cool the plasma, thus limiting the amount of
energy available for the treatment. Both, arc discharges and hf discharges can be used for these arrangements.
(3) For the treatment of a metallic surface, an arc discharge can be transferred to the surface making it one of the electrodes; the
highest surface heating rates and most efficient energy transfers are obtained in this way (Boissonnet et al., 2019).

Plasma generators are classified according to the generation method as arc discharge (dc or ac plasma torch) or hf induction
generators. The arc discharge requires the emission of electrons from the cathode, and there are two basic mechanisms by which a
surface can provide these electrons:

(1) Thermo-ionic emission from a surface heated to a temperature allowing the escape of sufficiently large numbers of electrons
from the conduction band; typically, temperatures above 3000K are needed for this emission mechanism, and refractory
metals like W are used to avoid bulk melting; addition of a low work function material such as ThO2 or La203 to the W will
increase the number of electrons emitted at a given temperature (Samal, 2016).
(2) Field emission of electrons due to high electric fields in front of the surface; this emission mechanism rarely provides a
sufficient number of electrons for arc plasmas, but a combination of field with thermo-ionic emission (TF emission), or with
an emission mechanism where microscopic evaporation the sites provide a partially ionized metal vapor, is the dominant
provider of electrons with “cold cathodes” such as water-cooled copper (Lashmi et al., 2020).

Plasma Processing
Large potential growth in the area of the plasma processing generates value added materials. Thermal plasma synthesis offers a
versatile, cost-effective technology for the industrial–scale production of many advanced materials for demanding applications in
high tech industries. The need for materials with improved physical and mechanical properties for demanding applications is
becoming increasingly apparent in such high tech industries as aerospace, chemicals, electronics and semiconductors, transpor-
tations and nuclear power.
Plasma processing has inherent advantages in the production of advanced materials. Plasma processing allows vapor phase
reaction process that melt down of feeding particles in high temperature zone of the plasma flame and deposit the ions of particles
in quenching chamber as by product. These high temperatures, along with the chemically reactive species formed in the plasma,
may accelerate chemical reactions by several orders of magnitude. Residence time in the high-temperature zone is short and
controllable. The ability to quench rapidly from very high temperatures produces spherical particles. By suitable choice of feed

Encyclopedia of Materials: Metals and Alloys doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.12104-6 1

2 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications

gases, reactions can take place in an inert atmosphere, or a suitable oxidizing, reducing or another reactive environment. Generally,
reactants can be chosen to avoid the production of corrosive or toxic byproducts e.g., metals can be fed as oxides rather than
chlorides (Na et al., 2020).
A major advantage of plasma processing is that, as a consequence of the rapid quenching that can be achieved, materials can be
produced which are metastable under ambient conditions. The economics of plasma production of high-value materials is
attractive. Thermal plasma processing is highly needed due to the following reasons (Samal et al., 2010a).

(1) High surface area and high temperature strength.

(2) Reduction reactions.
(3) Highly endothermic reactions.
(4) The volume of the reactive zone (flame) expanded increasing the throughput using a suitable reactor.
(5) The presence of ionic and exciting species and high temperature increases the reaction kinetics.
(6) Processing time reduced considerably.
(7) Greater flexibility in oxygen potential (Different plasmagen gas Ar, N2, O2, etc.).
(8) Ore fines can be directly charged.
(9) The high temperature and high energy density in the thermal plasma render relatively high output.
(10) Plasma heating has wide flexibility in the choice of precursors.
(11) High energy density (105 – 107 w/cm 2) and high gas/ ion temperature (B 15,000K)
(12) Electric arc (plasmagen gas – Argon) (IP- 15.75 ev).
(13) The heat produced due to recombination & collision.
(14) Temperature: 103 to 104 K.
(15) Charged particle’s conc.: 1016 to 1017/c.c.

The thermal plasma generator, generally known as the plasma torch, is already in practical use in various fields of the metal
industry such as welding, cutting, and metal spraying. In addition, many studies have been made for the utilization of thermal
plasma for smelting and melting and refining in the plasma reactor. The obstacle to thermal plasma is a large increase in power
consumption. The energy consumption is reduced by the development of the reactor having good thermal efficiency in the area of
high-temperature metallurgical processes (Chen et al., 1997).
The temperature of the thermal plasma generated by the plasma torch ranges from 5000 to 20,000K in the pressure range of
about 0.1 MPa, and it can be said that electric energy is converted into the gas-flow containing high-density thermal energy. Since
the plasma torch can use various gases such as H2, CH4, and N2 as well as inert gases like Ar as a plasma generating gas, it can also
be used to allow the gases activated at a high temperature to participate in the reactions.
Thermal plasma is used in series or processes required for the production of metals from ores are generally referred to as
“plasma metallurgy” for direct reduction of oxide ores, carbon reduction smelting of metal oxides, decomposition of ores and
reduction of chlorides, etc (Li et al., 2020).
The use of thermal plasma in extractive metallurgy has the following advantages.

(1) It produces a continuously stable ultra-high temperature and has a high rate of heat transfer into the object to be heated,
making it possible to achieve a reaction. In addition, the rate of reaction increases exponentially as the temperature rises.
(2) It can be used with any kind of plasma generating gases according to purpose, including inert gases, oxidizing gases and
reducing gases.
(3) It is capable of continuous treatment of pulverized materials, and thermal decomposition of powder ores by feeding them
into high-temperature plasma.
On the other hand, the thermal plasma is disadvantageous in that it consumes large quantities of electric power and gas such as
Ar. The melting of metals and alloys with a plasma arc is currently entering into the stage of practical applications. In plasma arc
melting, the transferred arc type, which has a high rate of heat transfer into the metal, i.e., the object of heating, is in general use
(Tanaka, 2018). It is a superior system for the high-temperature heating of metals and has the following features:

(1) The refining effect can be expected as melting is done in an inert or reducing gas atmosphere.
(2) Molten slag/metal reaction can be used for refining by an additional flux.
(3) Evaporation loss is small as melting is carried out under ordinary pressure.
(4) Melting operation, such as output control is easy.

DC transferred-arc plasma technology is widely preferred for metallurgical processing for the following reasons.
(1) The electrical supply characteristics and geometrical arrangement of the transferred-arc furnace are similar to those of
conventional submerged-arc furnaces, and the change to DC operation is relatively straightforward.
(2) Scale up to the industrial operation, when a graphite electrode is used.
(3) The use of an open bath of liquid slag and metal (the anode) permits greater control of the process metallurgy than a choke-
fed furnace.
(4) Transferred-arc devices have low cooling-water losses (usually less than 10 per cent).
 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications 3

The most important feature of DC operation is the ability to sustain longer, more stable arcs than AC operation, with
independent current and voltage control (Cho et al., 2013). As a result, a significant reduction of electrode consumption, electrical
disturbances, and noise can be obtained. However, it should be pointed out that, given the same throughput rate and power flux,
the thermal efficiency of the plasma-arc furnace is lower than that of a submerged arc furnace. Three factors are responsible for this.

● More energy is lost, by radiation from the open arc and molten bath, to the walls and roof of the furnace.
● Some vaporized material is lost to the off-gas stream from the arc-attachment zone.
● Little of the sensible energy of the gases evolved are utilized in preheating the feed material
Consequently, for a particular power requirement, any decrease in the current arising from an increase in the voltage implies a
decrease in electrode consumption. At high currents, the electrode erosion rate is lower for graphite than it is for its major
competitor (in transferred-arc devices), thoriated tungsten (Heberlein, 2002). However, the improvements in arc stability have
usually been accompanied by additional costs such as inert-gas injection, water-cooling of the plasma device, or rectification of the
power supply. Hollow graphite electrodes are usually used as cathodes, but water-cooled electrodes have also been used when
required. Graphite electrodes are preferred for most purposes as they impose no limits on current, are simpler and introduce no
source of water into the furnace.

Industrial Applications
The characteristics of the plasma are the base for the increment of its industrial interest.

(1) Very high processing power densities. (up to 105 KW/cm2).

(2) Possibility of selecting processes atmospheres (oxidizing, reducing, inert).
(3) Wide range of process temperatures (typically from 3000 to 10,000K).
(4) Choice of electrode material (depending on the particular process).

Some unique advantages of plasma-arc furnace technology for industrial use include the following.

Fine particle feed capability

The direct use of fine feed materials is possible, without the need for costly agglomeration. Plasma systems can operate with a wide
range of gas flow rates allowing fine particles to be introduced into a flowing stream reactor. Under low gas-flow conditions, fine
particles can be bulk charged into a reactor with minimal entrainment and carry over in the off gas. Particles can be introduced
through a hollow electrode for maximum exposure to the high-temperature arc environment.

Independent energy source

The feed rate and power can be controlled independently. The electrical conductivity of the materials does not limit input power.
The power input to the furnace is largely unconstrained by the resistivity of the materials smelted or remelted. This allows greater
freedom of choice with respect to charge composition, without having to consider the electrical characteristics of the charge.

Gas environmental control

Energy can be provided to a system with any desired oxygen potential (i.e., oxidizing, reducing, or inert gas conditions), inde-
pendent of the temperature. This is a distinct advantage over combustion systems where the available energy flux and the oxygen
potential are not independent of temperature. Where reactions are highly endothermic or require strongly reducing conditions.

High temperatures
The usual gas temperature ranges of 3000–60001C (even up to 10,0001C) and the gas enthalpies for plasma systems can be
significantly higher than those where combustion is the energy source (up to 40001C).

High energy fluxes

High energy fluxes are a result of the higher temperature, high jet velocities, high thermal conductivities of plasma gases that
permit the design of the reactors with high reaction volume densities. For transferred arcs, there is an additional energy flux from
the electron transfer at the anode arc root-attachment area. High energy flux allows high smelting capacity with smaller furnace
dimensions.

High throughput
There is considerable scope for the achievement of high throughputs in open-bath processes, because of the higher reaction rates
attained by the use of finer feed particles.

Gas flowrate control

The gas mass flow rate and temperature can be controlled independently of the energy input, by proper selection of the plasma
system. In combustion systems, the gas flowrate, temperature, and energy input are independent.
4 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications

Electrical energy intensive

Where hydro-electric or nuclear power is available, decreased dependence on fossil fuels is possible.

Rapid response
The furnace can respond to changes in a relatively short period.

Low electrode consumption

The pre-baked graphite electrodes used in DC transferred-arc furnaces are consumed more slowly than the self-baking Söderberg
electrodes usually used in AC furnaces, resulting in a higher degree of purity of the melt. Electrode consumption is lower, but the
electrodes are usually of higher quality and are therefore more expensive. The lower electrode consumption is due partly to the
lower electrode surface area and partly to the lower tip-erosion encountered.

Control of refractory consumption

Maximum throughput and furnace efficiency would be attained if a liquid slag layer were maintained right up to the side-walls.
This would be expected to result in high refractory costs due to slag erosion of the side-wall refractories. A controlled “freeze lining”
of maximum thickness would be the ideal solution to these conflicting requirements, which requires a high degree of control.

Low noise level

Electrical and acoustic noise levels are reduced significantly in thermal plasma processes.

Elimination of solid wastes by plasma

The high temperatures and high energy densities of the plasma can destroy both the stable toxic molecules of residues and of those
generated during thermal treatment which by other means would have remained unaltered and therefore incretion would be
ineffective, the heat transfer in plasma processes is independent of the chemical reactions involved.
The plasma will specify the suitable conditions for destroying several different types of toxic residues to wastes, with the
characterization of both the final inert residues and the purified gas emissions. The results obtained will also be evaluated. With
such conditions, the application possibilities will be studied for industrial and similar residue treatment technologies.

Metal recovery by plasma

High temperatures allow two recovery methods, which depend on the properties of residues treated.

● Volatile metal vaporization at high temperatures and alloy formation of non-volatile metals
● The inertness of non-recoverable fractions by forming very stable insoluble slag.
● The plasma will study the economic and technical feasibility of recovering different residues and industrial application
possibilities.

This process has a further scope of producing high value by product, which has reached economic potential (Samal et al.,
2010b). In order to carryout melt separation at high temperature without the addition of any flux, plasma operation could be
employed in the melting of metallized ilmenite.

Scope of the Present Work

Thermal plasma technology is emerging as one of the eco-friendly processes for metallurgical applications due to stringent
restrictions on pollution and disposal of effluents, especially involving chemical routes. There is immense potential to develop an
alternate process to produce synthetic rutile and separate iron values as pig iron. However, the major limitation of the thermal
plasma process is its high electrical power consumption, which makes it economically non-competitive, especially in countries
where power is costlier.
Thermal plasma technology advances from a lab scale basis to various industrial applications in the wide categories. The
domain of the thermal plasma lies in the area of higher temperature, which is depicted in Fig. 1. The thermal plasma arc is
generated in the thermal plasma reactor chamber that maintains the arc between anode and cathode electrode with a lower
quenching chamber. The various types of arcs are categorized in Fig. 2. That falls into the category of transferred, non-transferred
and radio frequency (RF) plasma arc in the chamber of the static reactor (Shin and Park, 2010). A schematic diagram of the non-
transferred arc reactor of the plasma chamber is represented in Fig. 3. One of the examples of mineral synthesis categorized in the
area of “Ilmenite” which is considered as one of the potential resources for titanium dioxide by thermal plasma processing for
mineral synthesis, metal recovery as well as nanoparticles synthesis for the production of TiO2 nano particles. Thermal decom-
position of ilmenite powder was carried out in a non-transferred arc plasma reactor for the preparation of TiO2 particles. Argon
and argon–nitrogen gases were considered as plasma gases in the plasma torch. It offers a broad perspective of application from
minerals synthesis to metal, nanoparticles and zero waste utilization. Here the category of application of thermal plasma from
classic to advanced techniques are listed as below.
 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications 5

Fig. 1 Domains of plasma as the function of temperature and electron density.

Fig. 2 Schematic diagram of a dc arc plasma (a) transferred; (b) non-transferred; (c) RF inductively coupled plasma. Reproduced from Samal, S.,
2017. Thermal plasma technology: The prospective future in material processing. Journal of Cleaner Production 142 (Part 4), 3131–3150.

Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials

Thermal Plasma for the Synthesis of Materials

Over the past years, thermal plasma synthesis of ultrafine and pure powders has been attracting increased interest, especially in
connection with the synthesis of ceramic materials. High-intensity arcs, plasma jets, and high-power radio frequency discharges are
the primary sources for producing thermal plasmas required for this emerging technology.
Because of the high temperatures (4104K) of the thermal plasmas, the chemical reactions are much faster than those
encountered in conventional processing. Also, quench rates were very rapid for the product powders to avoid decomposition of the
products. Fast reaction and quench rates have residence time for short milliseconds. In spite of this attractive feature, the relatively
higher processing costs of using plasma processing must be offset by some superior material properties. A number of ultrafine
oxide powders have been produced in thermal plasmas. Ultrafine oxides have a wide range of applications in the area of surface
coatings, high-density ceramics (“high-tech” ceramics), pigments, catalysts and dispersion strengthening of metals. Three arc-
related plasma techniques have been explored in the reaction of volatile metal chlorides with oxygen, evaporation and subsequent
condensation of oxide powders. Industrially, TiO2 and high-purity SiO2 are produced by the chloride process. Mixed oxides of
chromium and titanium or chromium and alumina have been produced by introducing mixed chlorides into the plasma reactor.
In recent developments, the synthesis of nanometer-sized particles in thermal plasmas has been demonstrated. Such small particles
are considered to be the key materials for the new generation of engineered materials with advanced functional properties (Fig. 4).
Fig. 5 shows the induction coil plasma system for nanoparticle e fabrication. The RF (radio-frequency) plasma system consists
of a tubular reactor, non-transferred arc thermal plasma torch, rapid quench, filter, powder feeder, power control operator and
exhaust system (Mukherjee et al., 2006). The ilmenite powder is fed into the plasma by means of a powder feeder using argon as a
carrier gas. The gaseous stream leaving the quench section was passed through a filter and a liquid trap before venting into the
stack. The reactor was stabilized with an increased amount of input power to make it thermal equilibrium before feeding. The
6 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications

Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of the non-transferred DC thermal plasma reactor. Reproduced from Samal, S., Kim, D.W., Kim, K.S., Park, D.W.,
2012. Direct synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles by using the solid-state precursor TiH2 powder in a thermal plasma reactor. Chemical Engineering
Research, and Design 90 (8), 1074–1081.

Fig. 4 Induction coil mechanism in thermal plasma process for the nanoparticles. Reproduced from Tanaka, Y., 2018. Synthesis of nanosize
particles in thermal plasmas. In: Kulacki, F.A. (Ed.), Handbook of Thermal Science and Engineering, Springer. pp. 2791–2828.

feeding rate was 0.1 g/min for each experiment. After completion of the experiment, the whole system was shut down and allowed
to cool under an argon atmosphere. The product was collected from the wall of the reactor, quench box, when the system reached
the room temperature. Fig. 6 represents the schematic diagram of thermal plasma with a transferred arc reactor for the fabrication
of alloy nanoparticles (Samal, 2018a). It shows the mechanism of nanoparticles formed in the chamber of the non-transferred arc
thermal plasma reactor. These are some of the most advanced areas in thermal plasma technology. The vapor condensation
process allows the formation of nanoparticles from the molten metal mixture at the graphite crucible. The plasma arc converts
metal particles into molten liquid form during the cooling process that condenses to form nanoparticles. Thermal decomposition
of ilmenite powders was carried out inside the argon plasma jet. Micro-sized particles of ilmenite powder are well decomposed to
 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications 7

Fig. 5 Schematic diagram of thermal plasma as the transferred arc reactor for alloy nanoparticles. Reproduced from Shin, M.G., Park, D.W.,
2010. Synthesis of copper nanopowders by transferred arc and non-transferred arc plasma systems. Journal of Optoelectronics and Advanced
Materials 12 (3), 528–534.

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of the non-transferred arc static bed thermal plasma reactor. Reproduced from Mukherjee, P.S., Samal, S., Mukherjee,
T.K., 2006. In-flight thermal plasma processing of pre-reduced ilmenite. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals 59 (3), 353–358.
8 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications

produce nano-sized particles of titanium oxides with submicron sized particles of metallic iron. This disintegration confirms
(cracking on the surface of the particles) the synthesis of ilmenite into titanium dioxide powder and metallic iron. Similarly,
spherical nano-sized glass powders with average diameters of 40 nm (d50) and very narrow size distribution were successfully
fabricated without any significant changes in composition (mol%). Non-transferred dc thermal plasma provided high tempera-
tures and rapid quenching rates, which induced melting and evaporation of the precursor, followed by the condensation of nano-
sized particles. Oxygen gas was used as are active gas and played an important role in obtaining the amorphous structure of the
Bi2O3 based glass system. Finally, a comparison of the shrinkage dependance on the particle size showed a relatively earlier
densification behavior in the nano-sized glass powder (Samal, 2018b). Based on this research, the dc non-transferred thermal
plasma process is a promising technique for the synthesis of nano-sized glass powders, which can be important in electronic
devices. As well as induction coil thermal plasma and transferred arc plasma have a significant contribution in the preparation of
nanoparticles not only in oxides also in metal, alloy and glass powders.

Application of Thermal Plasma Synthesis in Extractive and Process Metallurgy

The application of thermal plasma in the metallurgy field covers melting and remelting. The key advantages of thermal plasma
applied in metallurgy technologies include.

(1) The ability to achieve a steady-state, uniform flow of partially ionized gas with bulk gas temperatures well above those
obtained with chemical (combustion) flames or resistance heater systems.
(2) Operation in an inert or reactive environment, thus providing complete control of the atmosphere.
(3) The possibility of a compact system that can process material in a variety of forms at high throughput rates and with relatively
high electrical and thermal efficiency.

Today, a wide variety of arc plasma torches are in use or projected for scrap melting, alloying, iron melting in cupolas and remelting
technologies. These plasma torches operate with direct or alternating current in either non-transferred or transferred mode and at power
levels up to almost 10 MW. In the case of non-transferred arcs, the plasma torch is essentially an arc gas heater producing extremely hot
gases, which emanate from the torch in the form of a plasma jet. The more common approach, however, makes use of transferred arcs
where the molten pool serves as one of the electrodes and the major energy input at the arc root of the molten bath surface.
The considerable interest in extractive metallurgy is evidenced by the numerous laboratory and pilot-plant-scale studies reported
in the literature (extraction of iron, titanium, molybdenum, and ferroalloys). Two different types of furnaces have been used for
plasma extractive metallurgy such as transferred arc reactors for ferroalloy production. The reduction of the ores was to be treated in a
furnace filled with coke, which is mainly used as a refractory material for providing a sufficiently long residence time for the injected
ore particles to be reduced. The thermal plasma developments concern the extraction of heavy metals from baghouse dust and the
recycling of catalytic converters for the recapturing of platinum. Since thermal plasma metallurgy consumes large amounts of electric
energy, economic considerations have been a primary criterion for the development of such technologies. In addition, technical
problems associated with electrode lifetime performance of high-power plasma torches have played a major role in this application.
In accordance with this, it has been found that improvements in operation and in the economy for the process, can be effected
by the inflight extended arc plasma reactor design and parameters of operation, which are described herein. The improved design is
based on the extended arc plasma which is stabilized with one electrode having an axial opening through which an appropriate gas
is passed. Gases such as argon are fed into the arc. The reactor design also features a vertical powder feeder positioned in the top
electrode which is above the extended arc so that the particulate charge may be fed by gravity directly into the stabilized extended
arc plasma zone.
It has been found that this operation results in:
(1) Reduced energy consumption;
(2) Improved heat transfer;
(3) Reduced heat loss;
(4) Improved power control;
(5) Reduced acoustical and electrical noise.
The preparation of the TiO2 rich slag by this process is beneficial in many ways. The process is eco-friendly and the creation of a
large amount of effluent by chemical route can be avoided while producing synthetic rutile using titania rich slag. Secondly, energy
consumption can be reduced considerably in comparison to the conventional processes and the by-product viz-high value iron
known as Sorel metal is an equally important and marketable product.
The main advantages of the process are:
(1) A modified energy-efficient process to melt separate iron from the metallized ilmenite.
(2) The by-product of the process is metallic iron known as Sorel metal which has high value and very good demand.
(3) The titania rich slag obtained is of good quality for use as a starting material for further processing in the pigment industry.
(4) The process can be used for continuous production with the periodic taping of slag and metal.
(5) The flow of argon gas through plasma and particulates through hollow graphite enables a rapid propagation of heat into a
larger volume of the charge without significant enthalpy loss and enables intensive, rapid and localized heating.
 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications 9

Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of the moving bed plasma reactor. (1) Water cooling system for cathode, (2) Hollow graphite electrode, cathode,
(3) Lever for horizontal movement of the cathode, (4) Lever for vertical movement of the cathode, (5) Tray for holding the charge,
(6) Charge (Metallized Ilmenite), (7) Water cooling system for the tray, (8) Rack and pinion arrangement, (9) Gear box, (10) AC motor,
(11) Cable to positive terminal of DC plasma power supply Cable, (12) Cable to negative terminal of DC plasma power supply Cable.

The extraction of metals from minerals by the plasma reduction method has emerged as one of the efficient techniques in
industrial and commercial basis. The agglomeration of metal particles during plasma melting leads to separation and collection of
the smaller metal particle for the formation of large metal lumps. The lumps of the metal deposit towards the base of the slag due
to higher density. The plasma-treated slag is separated from the metal and undergoes leaching treatment for the production of final
product titanium oxides particles. Thermal plasma offers a broad prospect in the extraction of iron, and other metals from
minerals. The mineral converts into slag and pure metal can be extracted from the lump of the slag easily. Ilmenite is one of the
minerals composed of Fe and TiO2 and undergoes a step reduction process in the plasma reactor. The thermal plasma reduction
process renders separation of Fe from mineral ilmenite, FeTiO3 and converts into Ti-rich slag. The slag undergoes the chemical
process for the production of pure TiO2 particles as synthetic rutile. This product has wide applications in the field of medicinal
industry, paper and pharmaceutical, and pigment industries (Figs. 7 and 8).
Fig. 9(a)-(c) shows SEM images of plasma treated mineral, which shows a clear separation of metal and deposited below part of
the slag due to higher density (b). Fig. 9(c) shows the metal that can be easily deducted from the plasma treated mineral. Fig. 10
shows the effect of input power on the yield, energy consumption and metal recovery of moving bed plasma reactor. It has been
observed that a continuous process of metal recovery could be performed on a moving bed reactor bed (Zhang and Jia, 2019).

Plasma Consolidation and Powder Sintering – A Role in Powder Metallurgy

Plasma consolidation includes the processes of spheroidization, densification, and sintering. The first two of these processes are
already commercially developed, whereas plasma sintering is still in the laboratory stage.
Frequently, spheroidization and densification occur simultaneously as porous, irregularly shaped agglomerates and are injected
into a thermal plasma. Equipment similar to that used for plasma spraying is employed for these processes, but the particle size of
the agglomerates may be substantially (c100 mm) larger than that used for plasma spraying. As the particles sinter and/or melt in
the plasma, they assume a nearly spherical shape and densify at the same time. Commercially, fine particles are spheroidized in
10 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications

Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of an inflight D.C. extended arc plasma reactor. Reproduced from Mukherjee, P.S., Samal, S., Mukherjee, T.K., 2006.
In-flight thermal plasma processing of pre-reduced ilmenite. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals 59 (3), 353–358.

plasma for a variety of applications, including materials with a controlled porosity, catalysts, abrasives and materials used for
powder metallurgy. A wide range of different materials has been spheroidized, including oxides and carbides.
Plasma densification of pre-sintered agglomerates of metals (e.g., W, Mo) and of carbide-metal mixtures (e.g., WC-Co) has
been used to produce spherical, densified powders (Li and Ishigaki, 2002). Such powders possess excellent flow ability, which is
beneficial to subsequent thermal coating operations.
Sintering of high-tech ceramics in thermal plasmas has the potential of drastically reducing the time period required for this
process, compared with conventional technology. In addition, plasma sintering offers the opportunity for restrained grain growth
and for tailoring heat transfer during the sintering process, which may result in desirable structures and properties of the sintered
materials. The essential characteristics of plasma sintering and of any other sintering process are an increase in density and strength
of a powder compact on heating.

Thermal Plasma, Environment, and Innovation in Techniques and Product Materials

Thermal plasma technology offers a safe route for materials processing with environmentally friendly issues. The thermal plasma
reactor is considered as equipment with different changeable torches, together with waste feeder and gas inlet and outlet system.
Thermal plasma has a significant impact on every aspect of the issue that ends with the concept of being environmental friendly in
nature. It is a direct one step integrated process with zero waste that contributes towards the safest cleaner technology. Thermal
plasma and environment plays a crucial role in adapting the direct solution towards waste destruction and creating a safer, cleaner
environment. Thermal plasma technology converts waste products into the source of energy for industrial purposes. Plasma has
been proposed as a potential method for a safer environment.

Present Scenario of Thermal Plasma in R and D Efforts

Thermal plasma opens up various possibilities in the areas of metals, alloys, nano materials, waste destruction, and metal recovery
sector. R & D sector opens up lab scale basic analysis that utilizes thermal plasma technology as a tool for value added products.
Many research laboratories all over the world are engaged in advancing the frontiers of knowledge in this field. An interesting
example of the use of plasma processing has been demonstrated recently in connection with a breakthrough in the field of
diamond film deposition (Bolelli et al., 2006). Thermal plasmas provide the highest deposition rates among all known diamond
film deposition techniques. This trend will not be restricted to the development of new materials but will also include the refining
of the materials by coating and the development of new processing routes that are more energy efficient, more productive, and less
damaging to our environment. In spite of great strides over the past 25 years, the number of successful industrial applications on a
 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications 11

Fig. 9 (a)-(c) SEM image of ilmenite, slag and iron metal. Reproduced from Samal, S., 2018b. Thermal Plasma Processing of Ilmenite, Springers
Applied Sciences. Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70733-4.

broad base has been relatively small (Bonizzoni and Vassallo, 2002; Jia and Gitzhofer, 2009; Tamošiūnas et al., 2019; Kim et al.,
2017; Wang et al., 2020). A graphical presentation of thermal plasma technology and its application in various sectors is well
presented in Fig. 11. The primary reason for the relatively slow growth of this technology has been the lack of a solid engineering
base. Industrial efforts have not been sufficiently paralleled by basic studies at universities and national research laboratories, and,
as a consequence, the required engineering base for many processes is still poorly developed. This problem is directly linked with
the nature of thermal plasma processing as a highly interdisciplinary field that cannot succeed without extensive interdisciplinary
endeavors. Knowledge of plasma physics, gaseous electronics, fluid dynamics, and heat transfer has to be combined with
experience in surface chemistry, electrochemistry, and materials science (Jia and Gitzhofer, 2009).

Summary and Conclusion

The summary of the various application of thermal plasma describe its significant potential in various fields starting from day to
day life towards the technology of application. Researchers not only use this technique in laboratory-based research also used this
approach to use plasma in medicine as well as discover innovative materials. This summary opens up various possibilities of
thermal plasma in solving various issues and also simultaneously proves the potential method of environmental factors. Plasma
technology emerges as a direct step for solving environmental issues with zero-waste production. This technology starts with the
issue of life and environment in medicine sectors and waste destruction. Also, this tool has a significant influence on plasma
metallurgy and metal recovery in the extractive metallurgy sector. This article, in the end, provides an overview knowledge of
thermal plasma technology and its application in various sectors. As a result, it will open a wide possibility of application of
thermal plasma in various sectors of application more in a technology that can be the direct link with commercial applications. As
a result, economic growth will enhance using one step, direct route in industrial sectors with zero waste technology.
12 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications

Fig. 10 Effect of input power on yield, energy consumption and metal recovery in moving bed reactor.

Fig. 11 A schematic presentation of thermal plasma in various sectors.

 Thermal Plasma Processing of Materials: High Temperature Applications 13

Acknowledgment

The work is supported by Operational Program Research, Development and Education financed by European Structural and
Investment Funds and the Czech Ministry of Education,Youth and Sports (ProjectNo. SOLID21-CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_019/
0000760).

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