LIGHT

Light is a form of energy that allows us to see, with the Sun being a primary
source. Light from a source strikes an object and then reflects back into our
eyes, enabling us to perceive the object.
Reflection:

• The process of light bouncing off surfaces is known as reflection.

• The ray of light that hits a reflecting surface is called the incident ray, and
the ray that bounces back is the reflected ray.
• An imaginary line perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of
incidence is known as the normal.
• The angle of incidence (∠i) is the angle between the incident ray and the
normal, while the angle of reflection (∠r) is the angle between the
reflected ray and the normal.
laws of reflection :-
1. The angle of incidence (∠i) is always equal to the angle of reflection (∠r),
meaning ∠I = ∠r.
2. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie on the same
plane.
Types of reflection:-
Regular Reflection occurs when light reflects off a smooth, polished surface
like a mirror.

• The reflected rays are parallel

• The reflection strictly follows the laws of reflection, resulting in a clear
image.
Diffused Reflection happens when light reflects off a rough or irregular
surface.

• The reflected rays scatter in different directions

• The laws of reflection still apply locally, but the reflection does not
produce a clear image.

Types of images:-
Real Image:

• Formed by the actual convergence of light rays.

• Can be projected onto a screen.
• Real images are usually inverted (upside down) relative to the object and
can be seen in convex lens.
Virtual Image:

• Formed bye divergence of light rays.

• Cannot be projected onto a screen because the light rays do not actually
meet.
• Virtual images are always upright and can be seen in plane mirrors as well
as convex mirrors.

Lateral inversion:-
When an image is formed in a mirror, the left side appears at the right side of
the image and vice-versa. This is called lateral inversion.
Multiple Reflections:-
Multiple Reflections occur when two mirrors are inclined to each other, causing
the light to bounce back and forth between them. This leads to the formation of
multiple images.
Infinite Images: When an object is placed between two parallel plane mirrors,
an infinite number of images can be seen due to continuous reflections
between the mirrors. The number of visible images depends on the angle
between the mirrors.
Periscope:-

• An instrument that is used to look at objects that are not in the line of
sight of the observer.
• It is used to see objects that are hidden.
• Inside the periscope, there are two mirrors that are inclined at an angle
of 45 degrees.
• It is generally used in submarines, tanks and bunkers by the soldiers.
Kaleidoscope:-

• A cylindrical device with three plane mirrors inside it.

• It contains several pieces of beads, broken glass, pebbles etc.
• When the light falls upon these objects in kaleidoscope, multiple
reflections of these objects are created in the three mirrors.
• This results in formation of colourful patterns.
Dispersion:-
Dispersion occurs when light is split into its component colours. This happens
because different colours of light bend when passing through a medium, such
as a prism. This separation of light into its constituent colours creates a
spectrum(band of colours).
Example: Formation of a rainbow. When sunlight passes through water droplets
in the atmosphere, it disperses into its component colours to form a rainbow.
HUMAN EYE
The human eye is a spherical organ, approximately 2.3 cm in diameter,
responsible for vision. It enables us to perceive colours, depth, and details in
our surroundings. Here’s how its various parts contribute to vision:

• Cornea: It is present on the outer side of the eye. Light first enters the eye
through the cornea, a transparent, bulging membrane at the front.
• Iris: The iris is a dark, muscular diaphragm surrounding the pupil. It
regulates the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting the size of the
pupil. The iris has colourful pigments grey, blue, black, brown etc.
• Pupil: This is the small opening in the centre of the iris that allows light to
pass through.
• Lens: Located behind the pupil, the lens helps to focus light onto the
retina by adjusting its shape for objects at different distances.
• Retina: It is the layer present at the back, behind the lens. The retina acts
as the screen where images are formed. It contains photosensitive cells
known as rods and cones which after receiving light transform the
information into electric impulse. Rods are sensitive to low light, enabling
vision in dim conditions, while cones are sensitive to bright light and are
responsible for colour vision.
 • Optic Nerve: This nerve transmits visual information from the retina to
the brain, allowing us to interpret and understand what we see.
• Vitreous humour: The inner space of the eyeball called the transparent
vitreous chamber and it contains gel like substance. It maintains the right
pressure in the eye and maintains stability of the eye ball.
• Blind spot: This point is located at the junction between retina and optic
nerve where no sensory cells are functional. It does not support any
vision.
• Suspensory ligaments: When the eye focuses on objects at different
distances, the suspensory ligament tightens and pulls the lens. This
allows the lens to change shape so light can focus on the retina.
• Aqueous humour: The aqueous humour flows in and out of the front of
your eye. Its job is to keep proper ocular pressure (eye pressure) in our
eye.
• Ciliary muscles: It changes the shape of the lens when your eyes focus
on a near object.
How to take care of our eyes:-
1. Regular eye check-up
2. Always study or watch TV in sufficient light. Studying in dim light can
cause strain to your eyes as well as Symptoms of migraine.
3. Wear spectacles if your eye sight is weak.
4. Intake of vitamin A rich foods.

Night Blindness:-
It is also known as nyctalopia. It is a defect in eyes where the person can not
see the nearby objects at dim light or at night. This disease can be genetic but
mostly caused due to deficiency of vitamin A.
Visual Defects:-
Visual defects can significantly impact one’s ability to see clearly. Common
issues include:
Myopia (Near sightedness): Difficulty seeing distant objects clearly while close
objects are seen well.
Hyperopia (Far sightedness): Difficulty seeing nearby objects clearly while
distant objects are seen better.
Cataract: In older adults, the lens of the eye can become cloudy, leading to
impaired vision.
BRAILLE SYSTEM
For individuals who are visually impaired or blind, the Braille system provides a
method to read and write.

• This system was developed by Louis Braille in the year 1821 but it was
adopted since 1932.
• This system was developed for many languages with Braille code. The
Braille code has 63 dots. These are arranged in two vertical rows with
three dots each.
Braille: A writing system consisting of patterns of raised dots. Each pattern
represents a letter, number, or punctuation mark.
Braille Sheets: These sheets have dot patterns that can be read by touch,
allowing visually impaired individuals to read and write. The system helps in
communication and access to written information for those who cannot use
conventional visual methods.