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College of Architecture
University of Santo Tomas

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3
1st Semester Ay 2010-2011

INDIAN ARCHITECTURE (2,500 B.C. – Present)

INDUS REGION - was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations

A. INFLUENCES:

I. Geographical and Topographical Influences:

India - Bharat in Hindi

Seventh-largest country (3,287,240 km2) in the world and the second most populous
(1,147,995,904), after China

Consists of the entire Indian peninsula and portions of the Asian mainland, once included
Pakistan, and Bangladesh

Borders:
North - Afghanistan, Tibet, Nepal, China, and Bhutan;
South - Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar, which separate it from Sri Lanka, and the
Indian Ocean;
West - Arabian Sea and Pakistan;
East - Myanmar (Burma), Bay of Bengal and Bangladesh, which almost cuts off north-
east India from the rest of the country.

Well defined geographical regions:
1. Mountain zone of the Himalayas,
2. Indo-Gangetic plain (formed by the basins of three great rivers Indus, Ganges and
Brahmaputra),
3. Central and Southern peninsula of the Deccan Plateau,
4. Western Region – divides India from Pakistan
• Kashmir
• Punjab plains
• Great Thar desert
5. Islands – Andaman and Nicobar

II. Climate:

Tropical to temperate zonal extremes

III. Geological (Material) Influences:

1. Stone
- Fine red and cream sandstone in Agra used mainly as facing for rubble walling
- Stone of carpentry works using white marble of Rajasthan in the north
- Granite of Deccan and volcanic potstone (soapstone - metamorphic rock of talc schist)
of Halebid, center and southern part
2. Lack of building stone and the availability of timber along the Indus and Ganges valley
- Teakwood - Burma
- Softwood deodar - Northern mountain ranges
- Shisham (Indian Rosewood) - hardwood found in the river valleys of the north
3. Bricks and Terra Cotta - Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Punjab

IV. Religious Influences:

Religion plays an important role in the everyday life than in the West as it was the basis of
social structure

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1. Vedism and Brahmanism

Polytheistic religion brought around 1500 B.C.E. by invading Aryan tribes who
gradually conquered the earlier Indus Civilization (already in its decline).

The Veda (knowledge) - scripture with a collection of hymns composed between 1500
and 900 B.C.E.

Brahmanism
o Theory of Bhakti “trusting worship”
o Asceticism (yoga)
o Spiritual Knowledge (Jñana)
o Period of great epics:
1. Ramayana
2. Mahabharata which contains mystical poems, the Bhagavad Gita or
‘Song of the Blessed’
2. Hinduism

Hindu is derived from the river Sindhu or Indus, Santana Dharma (immemorial
tradition) – Sanskrit term

Sanskrit is the sacred language

Complex mixture of:
o Vedic philosophies,
o Dogmatic Brahmanical rituals,
o Yogic mysticism,
o Tantric occultism,
o Fertility cults,
o Monastic orders,
o Pagan customs and the
o Belief in God who manifests as innumerable divine beings.

Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated from Hinduism which also shares the
concept of dharma. Dharma - moral order, duty and right action

Brahma is the chief god, the omnipresent one who is father of the Brahman Trinity.

Has 4 heads, 3 of which (representing their Trinity) can be seen from any
point of view

Three major groupings of deities worshipped by Hindus,
o Saktas - worship a Mother Goddess
o Saivites - worship the god Siva
o Vaishnavites - worship the god Vishnu.

Believes in reincarnation- rebirth, kharma- person’s misfortune are the result of his or
her own misdeeds in a previous life and ahimsa- nonviolence and respect for all living
things.

Hindus treat the cow with great respect and is considered the mother to the Indian
people.

Caste System – a social group, based partly on occupation which grew up with
Hinduism
A. Brahmins – priests
B. Kshatriyas – kings and warriors
C. Vaisyas – merchants and farmers
D. Sudras – workers
E. Untouchables – outcasts

3. Jainism

Established in the 6th c. BCE by Vardhamana, called Mahavira “the Great Hero” or
Jina, the “Victorious One”.

Based on asceticism and ahimsa, theory and practice of non-violence (non-injury to
all living things)
4. Buddhism

Religion and philosophy founded in northeastern India in the 5th c. B.C.E., and based
on the teaching of Siddhartha Gautama, a Sakya prince known as Buddha the
enlightened one.

Adopted some ideas from Hinduism, doctrine of karma but rejected caste system
and all of its gods.
5. Islam

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V. Historical and Political Influences (selected)

A. Indus Valley Civilization (around 2500 BC)

Civilization began to develop around the Indus River in what is now Pakistan and
western India.- Harappa (Punjab) and Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh).

Writing and counting, built drainage systems that ran into brick-lined sewers and dug
canals to irrigate their farms were developed systems

Civilization developed by the Dravidians equaled and possibly surpassed in splendor
the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Civilization is founded upon three basic concepts: the sacred, universal and
ritualistic

B. ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

Monolithic

Monumental

Free standing construction

Rock-cut buildings
Laid down by Brahmanism (Barabar) and by Jainism (Udayagiri and Khandagiri).
Buddhist - magnificent development and artistic character

1. INDUS CIVILIZATION
• Began to develop around the Indus River in what is now Pakistan and western India.
• Two principal cities planned systematically:
1. Harappa, Punjab – elevated citadel (urban center)
2. Mohenjo-Daro, Sindh - town proper consisting of houses and market palaces
3. Dholavira – another significant site, which has some of the best preserved stone
architecture.
- Had several large reservoirs, and an elaborate system of drains to collect water
from the city walls and house tops to fill these water tanks.

System of Construction:
• Cities were well planned with wide streets, public and private wells, drains, bathing
platforms and reservoirs.
• Houses of the city were constructed of bricks and consisted of apartments built around an
open courtyard
o Alternating a course of headers (also known as English bond)- method of brick
construction
o Corbelled arch obtained by schematic arrangement of bricks so as to leave an empty
space resembling the shape of an arch.

2. BUDDHIST ART AND ARCHITECTURE:

• Designed for congregational use
• Monumental and sophisticated

Symbolic forms:
1. Lotus – divinity/ man’s salvation
2. Wheel – cycle of life, death and rebirth/ teaching of
Buddha
3. Four animals – 4 quarters of the compass
4. Lion – Sakyamuni Buddha known as the Lion of the
Sakya Clan.
5. Elephant
6. Tree (enlightenment)
7. Stupa
•

A. STAMBHAS OR LATHS Lion Capital, Column erected by

Emperor Ashoka (272-232 BC)

Monumental pillars standing free without any structural
function, with circular or octagonal shafts.
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Inscriptions carved on the shaft.

Polished sandstone or metal some as high as 18 -21 m.

Pillar symbolizes the world axis(axis mundi)

Columns crowned with bell-shaped capitals based on
Persepolis and decorated with one or more animals
joined together.

Hellenistic Iran influence

B. ROCK-CUT SANCTUARIES/CAVE TEMPLES

• First rock cut technique was initiated by Emperor Ashoka
• The Barabar and Nagarjuni caves excavated were hewn out of the granite rock
• Other names given to the structure:
1. Chaityagrihas/Chaitya – place worship, assembly halls
Chaitya hall consists of:
a. Ornamental façade
b. Central hall divided by means of pillars into a nave and aisles
c. Rock-cut stupa at the rear end of the hall with enough space around it for
performing the rite of circumambulation (pradakshina patha)
2. Vihara – monasteries
Consisted of cell and one or more small chapels
• Plan of a rock-cut chamber - facilitate religious services around the principal symbol
of worship - stupa

Examples:

1. Ajanta Caves
• Contains 29 caves
• Most magnificent examples of rock cut architecture and cave paintings which
dates back to the 5th c.
• The paintings and sculptures of major events in the life Buddha are considered
masterpieces of Buddhist religious art.

2. Ellora Caves
• Excavated from the solid rock and symbolizes the three faiths of Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism.
• 350 AD to 700 AD, finest examples of rock cut cave - temple architecture houses,
detailed facades and exceptionally carved interiors.
• 34 caves:
o 12 caves to the south are Buddhist,
o 17 in the centre are Hinduism,
o 5 caves to the north are Jainism

1. Chaitya Hall, Karli, 3. 100 AD

• Nave of 17.7 m. high, 36.45 m. long
and 12.9 m. wide. Leads to a monolithic stupa in the apse
• Aisle formed by a series of massive columns crowned with male and female
riders on elephants

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Chaitya Hall, Karli Plan and Section

C. STUPA (TOPE)
• Beginnings were traced back to the funerary customs of the Vedic age
• Dome-shaped mound that mimics the funerary mounds used to mark the graves of
great kings
• Contain holy relics to indicate the sacred character of the place or commemorate an
important event associated with Buddha
• Spatial characteristics:
o Stupa plans develops symmetrically about a central point - centrality
o Stupa volume develops symmetrically about an axis that rises vertically from
the central point- axiality
o Stupa mass is oriented in accordance with the directions of cosmic space

N S
Axis Mundi, Umbilicus Mundi, Sun

• Free standing architecture built out of stone and bricks

• Hemispherical mound consisting of 3 main parts:

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Northern Stupa at Sanchi

(D) Medhi – first part in the circular base

(B) Anda – Dome
(C) Harmika – pedestal crowned by an apex

Other parts:
(A) Vedika- railing composed of a framework consisting of vertical posts and cross bar
(E) Sopana – staircases going to the terrace

Pradakshina-patha (circumambulation) - the faithful would use this to circle the stupa to pay
homage to the Buddha. Motion was always clockwise, since this kept one's right side
(considered better) toward the relics.

• The perimeter wall has a gateway at

each cardinal direction, and the
carvings on these illustrate events
from the Buddha's life and past lives.

Torana (Gateway) – circular stone

gateways around the whole structure
(on all four sides)
• 10.2 m. in height with 2 pillars and
architrave.

Examples:
1. Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh- best specimen of stupa art.
2. Amaravathi, Andhra Pradesh – finest Buddhist stupa in South India
3. Stupas in Nagarjunakonda, Jaggayapetta and Ghantasala in South India.

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Buddhist Ornaments
• Restrained both in character and extent.
• Painted wall decoration was widely used and ranged from purely architectural forms
to very elaborate genre paintings - cave walls at Ajanta.
• Provide invaluable social and architectural records of the period.
• Female form in its most voluptuous - common motif used in architectural sculpture.

3. HINDU ART AND ARCHITECTURE

• Early HINDU building art and architecture was the representation of the existing
religious perception of the people in a tangible form.
• Foreign invaders including Greeks, Bactrians, Parthians, Kushans and Sakas have
influenced Indian architecture.

A. MANDIR – HINDU Temples

• Residence for the god and not a hall for congregational worship.
• Symbol of the purusha or primordial man.
• Mandala - generic name for any plan or chart which symbolically represents the
cosmos (magic diagram of the cosmos). An expression of sacred geometry.
• Vastu Purusha Mandala
• Constitutes the mathematical and diagrammatic basis for generating design.
• Metaphysical plan of a building that incorporates the course of the heavenly
bodies and supernatural forces.
• Purusha refers to energy, power, soul or cosmic man.
• Associated with the Earth and its movable and immovable basic elements of
nature, such as the earth, water, fire, air and space; just as a human being
does.
• Visualized in the basic plan of a Hindu temple, house and even in the city
planning.
• Accurate laying out of the temple ground plan in relation to the cardinal
directions and the heavens. Meeting ground of heaven and earth.
• Consists of intersection of:
1. Square shape – symbol of earth, signifying the four directions which bind
and define it. (four castes; the four Vedas etc.).
2. Circle - metaphor for heaven without beginning or end, signifying
timelessness. eternity and perfection.

http://www.answers.com/topic/mandala http://dcsymbols.com/mastersquare/
page4.htm

The center of the mandala is called the station of Brahma, the first of beings
and the engineer of universal order. Surrounding Brahma are the places of
twelve other entities known as the sons of Aditi, who assist in the affairs of
universal management. The remaining empty squares represent the akasha

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The temple itself should always face east, considered the most auspicious
direction-the place of origin of the sun. From the east appears the rising sun,
the destroyer of darkness. The sun is the giver of life. It brings joy and
happiness and is the watchful eye of the "Cosmic Being.

Temple are made of hard crystalline rock with carvings on it or soft stone
covered with countless figures.
– Granite
– Sandstone

• TEMPLE COMPLEX
1. MAIN SHRINE - nucleus
2. School
3. Hospital
4. Courts for the community
5. Spacious halls of the temple - place for the recitation and listening of folktales,
Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata and debates.
6. Gopurams
7. Reservoir - Water is used for rituals and also to keep the temple floor clean or
even for a ritual bath before entering the holy area.
8. Walkways

• ELEMENTS OF A HINDU TEMPLE (MAIN SHRINE):

a. VIMANA – sanctuary as a whole and consist of two parts:
1. SIKHARA or SHIKHARA (Dome and Steeple)
• Steeple of the dome is called ‘ (summit), represents the mythological
‘Meru’ or the highest mountain peak.
• Shape of the dome varies from region to region and the steeple is
often in the form of the trident of Shiva.
• Other parts of a sikhara:
o Amalaka –
• Flattened fluted melon shaped massive stone member
crowning the top of sikhara
• Distinctive circular piece of stone which is shaped like a
clogged wheel, with bead-like mouldings along the periphery.
o Kalasha – top decorative element of Amalaka

2. GARBHAGRIHA (Inner Chamber ‘or ‘womb-chamber’) - where the

image or idol of the deity ‘murti’ is placed.
• Small unlit shrine for the cult image or symbol crowned with spire-
shaped sikhara roof.
• Only the temple priests are allowed inside.
• Thick walls and heavy ceiling to protect the deity.
• Doorway for the devotee to enter – the only architectural necessity.

b. PRADAKSHINA PATHA
• Ambulatory passageway for circumambulation.
• Consists of enclosed corridor around the outside of garbhagriha.
• Devotees walk around the deity in clockwise direction as a worship
ritual and symbol of respect to the temple god or goddess.

c. MANDAPA (Temple Hall)

• Pillared hall in front of the garbhagriha, for the assembly of the devotees.
• Used by the devotees to sit, pray, chant, dance, meditate and watch the
priests performing the rituals.

Other essential element found in the Hindu Temple:

d. PITHA - the plinth or the platform of the temple.
e. ANTARALA - vestibule or the intermediate chamber. It unites the main
sanctuary and the pillared hall of the temple.

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f. ARDHAMANDAPA - front porch or the main entrance of the temple

leading to the mandapa.

Example Plan of a
Hindu Temple

Example Elevation of a Hindu Temple

(www.art-and-archaeology.com)

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GOPURAMS (Watch tower gateways, Gate pyramids)

• Principal features in the quadrangular enclosures that surround the more notable
temples.
• Monumental and ornate tower at the entrance of the temple complex, specially found in
south India.
• Ornately decorated with sculpture and carvings, painted with themes derived from the
Hindu mythology associated with the presiding deity.

East Gopuram, Meenakshi Amman Temple

http://www.hindu.com/mag/2007/04/22/stories/2007042200140400.htm

THREE STYLES:
1. DRAVIDIAN (southern) style
• Found between the Krishna river and Cape Comorin.
• South-Indian Hindu temples are often like miniature towns. A broad open courtyard
(prakaram) surrounds the temple and mandapa (porch) on all sides.
• The roof contains a vaulted octagonal or domical structure.
• Complex is composed of:
1. Vimana
2. Mantapams/Mandapas (porches)
3., Gopurams (Gate-pyramids/sculptured gateway)
4. Chaultris/Chawadis (Pillared halls).

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Vertically represents the god’s body with the sikhara as the head and the garbhagriha as
the neck, mandapa as the body and gopura as the feet.

• Seven kingdoms and empires stamped their influence on architecture during

different times:
1. PALLAVA
• Ruled from 600-900 AD
• Greatest constructed works are the single rock temples in
Mahabalipuram and their capital Kanchipuram located in Tamilnadu.
• Pioneers of south Indian architecture. .
2. CHOLA
• Ruled from 900 -1150 AD
• Reached apex of South Indian Architecture
• Temples:
o Brihadeshvara temple
o Siva temple of Thaniavur – largest and tallest
o Gangaikondacholapuram – one of the two great temples
• Remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.
3. BADAMI CHALUKYAS
• Ruled from 543-753 A.D.
• Rock-cut temples of Pattadakal a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
Badami and Aihole- most celebrated monuments.
• Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of
the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are attributed to them -
beginning of Chalukya style of architecture and a consolidation of
South Indian style.
4. RASHTRAKUTA
• Ruled the Deccan in the period 753-973 AD.
• Rock-cut shrines at Ellora and Elephanta, situated in present day
Maharashtra
o 34 rock-cut shrines, but most extensive is the Kailasanatha
temple at Ellora.
• The architectural style used was dravidian - does not contain the
Sikharas common to the Nagara style and built on the same lines as
the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal,
5. WESTERN CHALUKYA
• Ruled from 973-1180 AD.

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• Art of Western Chalukyas is called the “GADAG style" after the

number of ornate temples.
• Well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni) - served as ritual
bathing places, found in Lakkundi. Their stepped well designs were
later incorporated by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire.
• Over 50 temples exists
o Kasi Vishveshvara, Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna, Kuruvatii,
Kalleshwara temple, Bagali and Mahadeva, Itagi - finest
examples
6. HOYSALA
• The finest examples of their architecture are the
o Chennakesava temple, Belur,
o Hoysaleswara temple,
o Halebidu and Kesava temple, Somanathapura.
• The Hoysala architecture style is described as Karnata Dravida as
distinguished from the traditional Dravida and considered an
independent architectural tradition with many unique features.
7. VIJAYANAGAR
• Ruled from 1343- 1565 AD
• Combination of the styles developed in South India in the previous
centuries.
• Yali columns (pillar with charging horse), balustrades (parapets) and
ornate pillared manatapa are their unique contribution.
• Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa
(open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower).
• Used of hard granite - durable since the kingdom was under constant
threat of invasion.
• Vijayanagara open air theatre of monuments – UNESCO World
Heritage Site.

2. Vesara or mixed style

• Found between the Krishna and Vindhyas is circular in plan.
• In its later evolution, adopted the square for the sanctum, circular or stellar plan
was retained for the vimana.
• The vesara, which came to prevail mostly in western Deccan and south Karnataka
was a derivation from the apsidal chapels of the early Buddhist period which the
Brahmanical faith adopted and vastly improved.

3. Nagara (northern) style

• Found between the Vindhyas and Himalayas.
• Use of a square or cruciform plan but the walls are sometimes so broken up that
the tower often gives the impression of being circular.
• Prasada or vimana rises vertically from its base in a curvilinear form.
• Characterized by a beehive shaped tower made up of layer upon layer of
architectural elements such as:
o kapotas and gavaksas,
o topped by a large round cushion-like element called an amalaka

Examples:
1. Temples at Khajuraho
2. Surya temple at Modhera - exquisitely carved
3. Orissa - most outstanding examples of nagara architecture
• Region of Orissa is an important landmark in the temple building activity in
India.
• Parasuramesvara temple at Bhubaneswar in Orissa - consisting only of a
shrine and a hall
• Composed of two portions:
1. Central shrine
2. Porch in front, raised on a square ground-plan.

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• Orissan builders tried to symbolize the human body in the composition of the
vertical sections of the body.
• Temple is made to look like a tabernacle of the Godhead

Parts of an Orissan Temple (after the Lingaraja Temple at Bhuvaneswar)

The temple is made to look like a tabernacle of the Godhead.
1. Bada – foot, the lower portion of the human body. It is composed of
horizontal mouldings ensuring stability of the structure.
2. Gandi – trunk, main body of the human being. The trunk is decorated
with the motifs of miniature
3. Mastaka – apex which corresponds to the head portion of the human
body.The crown is decorated by a beautiful fluted disc (Amalaka).

DRAVIDIAN STYLE
• Octagon in plan NAGARA STYLE VESARA STYLE
• Square in their plan • Apse or circle in plan
• Vimanam (Sikhara) - in the
• Sikhara curvilinear, or • Sikhara - combines both
form of truncated pyramids
beehive tower styles

4. JAIN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

• Concept of `mountains of immortality’ – building of temple-cities on hills.
• Temples - militant aura around them, surrounded by embattled walls
• Divided into wards similar to fortified cities with parapets and niches to repel armed
aggression.
• Considered richest temples in the world, surpassing even Mughal buildings in grandeur
and material wealth.
• Temples - Jina idols along with demigods and goddesses are kept on stone or marble
made altar under aesthetic beauty.
• Richness of sculptural detail and material, especially
Solanki temple style of Gujarat in Dilwara Temples, Mt. Abu
Ananthanatha Swami Temple, Puliyarmala, outside Kalpetta
• Temples sometimes have a stupa (tope)

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Hastinapur, Mathura etc.

• Free standing pillars called vanity-subduing pillars
• Examples:
1. Dilwara Temples, Rajasthan (11th - 13th c. AD)
2. Kharatara Vsahi ( Parshvanatha Temple) of different style

5. ISLAMIC ART AND ARCHITECTURE (To be discussed in detail later)

• Impact of Islam in the 8th c.
o Arabs, Turks, Afghans, and Mughals
• Great builders
• Excellence in paintings, miniatures, music, dance, poetry
• Art took place during the reign of Shah Jehan between 1628-1659
• Capitals of Agra, Delhi and Lahore - display great buildings and structures.
• Use of white marble and the red sandstone.
• Great Islamic gardens – Shalimar Garden in Lahore, one of the finest surviving
ensembles

• Taj Mahal (Palace of the Crown) of Agra also known as the pearl of India represents
absolute perfection .
o Erected by Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved queen, Arjumand Banu Begum,
called Mumtaz Mahal (Mausoleum)
o Year after her death in 1631, 22 years to complete,
o 20,000 workers, costing 32 million rupees
o Combines elements of Persian, Central Asian, and Islamic architecture
o Complex is comprised of five main elements:
1. Darwaza (main gateway)
2. Bageecha (garden) - fascinating feature with its water channels, lotus
pools and colourful flowerbeds and trees
3. Masjid (mosque)
4. Naqqar Khana (rest house)
5. Rauza (Taj Mahal mausoleum)

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Indian style Hindu and Buddhist temples were constructed abroad in ancient times,
o Cambodia's Angkor Wat
o Java's Prambanan.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:
Auboyer, Jeannie. Landmarks of the World Art: The Oriental World. India and South-East Asia.
Mc. Graw-Hill Book Company, New York, Toronto. 1967.
De la Croix, Horst and Richard Tansey. Gardner;s Art Through the Ages. Ancient, Medieval and
Non-European Art. 7th ed. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. USA. 1976.

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Harris, Cyrill M. Historic Architecture Sourcebook. Von Hoffman Press, Inc. 1977
th
Palmes, J.C. Sir Banister Fletcher’s A History of Architecture. 18 ed.The Athlone Press,
University of London. London
Snodgrass, Adrian. The Symbolism of the Stupa. Studies on Southeast Asia. Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York. 1985
Tadgell, Christopher… History of Architecture - India and Southeast Asia, The Buddhist and Hindu Tradition.
Ellipsis, London. 1988

Westwell, Ian. Timeless India. Chartwell Books, Inc., New Jersey, USA. 2007

DVD Sources courtesy of Archt. Nick Ramos:

What the Ancient Did for Us: The Indians BBC, UK.
Mysteries of Asia: Lost Temples of India, Discovery Channel
Temple of Kama Sutra, Discovery Channel

Other Sources:
Lecture notes of Archt. Nick Ramos
Internet sources

HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE 3
st
1 Semester AY 2010-2011, 2012-2013

Prepared by:

Archt. Clarissa L. Avendaño

Associate Professor

Rev. July 2012

CLAvendano, UST HOA 3 1 sem AY 2012-2013