HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE III ​ ​

Asian Architecture​ ​ ​

MODULE NO. 4

ARCHITECTURE IN SOUTH ASIA

I.​ BACKGROUND
A.​ INTRODUCTION
-​ The architecture of India includes present day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka.
-​ These countries later on got separated by political boundaries, but still share common
cultural heritage.
-​ The diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture.
-​ Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building
type, forms and technologies from west, central Asia, and Europe.
-​ Indian architecture has influenced the surrounding regions of the world, especially the
eastern Asia, due to the spread of ideas with Buddhism.
-​ Early Indian architecture is the story of how powerful and popular religions celebrated
their beliefs through monumental design.

B.​ INFLUENCES
-​ The rivers Indus and Ganges
GEOGRAPHY -​ The Himalayas
-​ The Everest mountain
-​ Surrounded by seas and Indian ocean
-​ Many cities were founded on the banks of rivers
-​ Timber was available in plenty in Indus and Ganges valleys
GEOLOGICAL -​ In some parts of India white marble and rock-cut temples are
CONDITION available
-​ Bricks are standard building material
-​ Warm, dominated by monsoon winds; size difference in
CLIMATE location, elevation and relation to the oceans result in local
variations in temperature and rainfall
-​ More than half of the country lies in Tropic Cancer
-​ Buildings are built to adapt to the climate
-​ In north flat roofs were common, but steep pitched roof were
used in West coast due to heavy rain
1.​ HINDUISM
RELIGION -​ Evolve form a combination of the faiths of the
indigenous Dravidian and Aryan invaders
-​ Essentially an individual act of worshipping, except on
certain specified occasions for communal worship
2.​ BUDDHISM
-​ SIDDHARTA (GAUTAMA), the first buddha
-​ The religion teaches against animal sacrifices to
observe oneness, humanity, the deliverance from
sorrow and all trouble and from ignorance through
enlightenment to the ultimate Nirvana.

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-​ Became concentrated in monasteries and in shrines
where relics of those who had achieved salvation
(Nirvana) were deposited
3.​ JAINISM
-​ The goal of salvation is through successive rebirths, the
ideal being rigid asceticism and the avoidance of injury
to every living creature

HISTORICAL EVENTS
1.​ ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
a.​ THE INDUS CIVILIZATION
-​ Ranks with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, as one of the three
earliest civilizations, displaying planned cities, agriculture, writing, architecture, etc.
the Indus civilization was by far the most geographically extensive of the three.
-​ Characterized by a variety of house types, many of which had private baths connected
to public drainage systems.

CHARACTERISTICS
-​ Modular size of baked bricks for houses and public buildings
-​ Settlement layouts
-​ Lack royal burials, great funerary statues, monumental art, and other symbols of
prestige and authority
-​ No wealthy class as shown by the absence of larger, more ornate and exotic luxury
goods
-​ Well planned cities and houses where religion did not seem to play an active role
-​ Drainage systems and public baths showed advanced standards of hygiene and
sanitation and ingenious planning.

HARAPPA, 6000 – 2600 BC

●​
-​ Independent city; has no religion and social classes; 2 sections include the raised
platform or citadel and houses (with toilets indoor, canals, public drain, water
system, stairs, granary (foor food upper part of citadel) and great bath)
-​ A raised citadel which is composed of 6 metropolitan centers, 20 towns and more
than 200 villages with uniform architecture and urban form
-​ GRANARIES can be found in the metropolitan centers, of uniform size, made of
timber resting on brick podium
-​ HOUSES were flat timbered roofs and with bathrooms
-​ Intricate sewerage and water supply system
●​ MOHENJO –DARO, 2500 – 1700 BC
-​ Ritual and ceremonial buildings, extensive granaries, sacred tanks, assembly halls
-​ Fortified citadel on artificial platform of mud and mud brick, 20-50 feet high
-​ Town was laid out on a grid plan on rectilinear streets
-​ Sewerage system
-​ HOUSES varied in size but all of them had rooms arranged around a courtyard,
flat roofed single and two-storey houses with brick staircase; with private well;
fireplaces; bathrooms and latrine (tiled, systematically drained) into a covered
drain underneath the street surface
-​ Only monumental buildings were the GRANNARIES and the GREAT BATH
2.​ ARYAN INVASION - houses were subdivided in rough fashion and streets were encroached
upon

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3.​ DRAVIDIAN - was an architectural idiom that emerged in the Southern part of the Indian
subcontinent or South India. It consists primarily of temples with pyramid shaped towers and
are constructed of sandstone, soapstone or granite.
4.​ MACEDONIAN INVASION – Buddhism came in contact with Macedonian art (Alexander the
Great)
5.​ MAURYAN EMPIRE4th century
●​ ASOKA 273-232 BC- the most famous ruler converted to Buddhism and made it the official
religion of the empire, erected Buddhist shrines and monuments
●​ THE GREAT STUPA, SANCHI
-​ Derived from the funeral mounds of earlier times and had a similar function – to hold
Buddhist relics
-​ Made up of a mound of earth and stone covered with bricks and plaster with small
spaces at the center (for relics), niches (for lamps set indome) and an enclosing
ambulatory
6.​ GUPTA EMPIRE 320 – 535 AD
-​ Hindu temples began to take shape
-​ Buddhism still flourished – monasteries with libraries
-​ Most brilliant period in Indian history
The Gupta Dynasty, founded by Chandragupta I (accession c. 320 CE), ruled in North
Central India between the 4th and 6th centuries CE and the period is considered a golden
age of artistic accomplishment. The Guptas were the first architects of
purpose-built Hindu (but sometimes also Buddhist) temples which evolved from the earlier
tradition of rock-cut shrines. Adorned with towers and elaborate carvings, these temples
were often dedicated to all the Hindu gods.
●​ THE CAVES AT AJANTA
-​ 29 caves dating back to the 2nd century BC – 8th century AD
-​ Cut in a U-shaped hillside above the ravine with chaityas (Buddhist sanctuaries) and
VIharas (monks’ houses/monasteries
-​ Paintings depict Buddha and the life and culture of the time in every imaginable aspect
7.​ MUGHAL DYNASTY (Islam to India)
-​ The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty who ruled over a majority Hindu population. By
1750, they had dominated much of South Asia for several centuries. Muslims were
already living in India when the Mughals first arrived.
-​ Building style that flourished in northern and central India under the patronage of the
Mughal emperors from the mid-16th to the late 17th century.
-​ The Mughal period marked a striking revival of Islamic architecture in northern India.
Under the patronage of the Mughal emperors, Persian, Indian, and various provincial
styles were fused to produce works of unusual quality and refinement.
-​ SHAH JAHAN – Fifth Mughal emperor. The use of the double dome, the recessed archway
inside a rectangular fronton, and parklike surroundings were all favourite devices of Shah
Jahān period builders. Symmetry and balance between the parts of a building were
always stressed, as was delicate ornamental detail.
-​ Marked by a great period of building
●​ FATEHPUR “victory” SIKHRI – made from sandstone and marble swan into slabs planks,
beams and columns; elaborate stone grills as windows on screens; city of victory
a.​ DIWAN-I-KHAS – throne room; central platform carried on a stone post, connected by
bridges to a gallery
b.​ GREAT MOSQUE OF FATEHPUR SIKHRI
c.​ TOMB OF SALEM CHISTI – external walls of pierced marble panels set between marble
posts; wide marble eaves carried on unique serpentine brackets; SALEM CHISTI was
an spiritual adviser

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d.​ MAUSOLEUM at the TAJ MAHAL, AGRA – marble tomb raised on a terrace and reflected
in the central canal; 4 minarets set symmentrically about the tomb; slightly bulbous
dome
e.​ TOMB OF HUMAYUN, DELHI – built by Indian craftsmen under Persian masters; set in
a formal garden with canals and pathways
8.​ COLONIAL PERIOD
-​ The need to erect structures quickly encouraged the development of new construction
techniques such as pre-fabricated systems with standard plans which where suited to
industrially manufactured components; materials
-​ European styles
-​ Tropical climate also influenced the design
●​ SIR EDWIN LUTYENS – British architect who is known for imaginatively adapting
traditional architectural styles to the requirement of his era.
-​ Design the India Gate and the Viceroy’s House
●​ SIR HERBERT BAKER – British architect who worked with Luyens and went to design the
Secretariat buildings in New Delhi and Parliament house
9.​ 20 CENTURY
TH

●​ INTERNATIONAL STYLE – became the dominant style due to the perception of modern
buildings as symbol of progress
●​ CHANDIGARH – one of the three capitals commissioned in the 1950’s; master plan and
design of government buildings were made by LE CORBUSIER
-​ The main body of the city was planned on a grid creating rectangular sectors
containing relatively low-rise dwellings in sort of garden city arrangement. It also
incorporated ideas from Paris, Peking and New Delhi
-​ The capital complex include:
THE PARLIAMENT
THE HALL OF JUSTICE
THE SECRETARIAT and
THE GOVERNOR’S PALACE

II.​ ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER

BUILDING COMPONENTS
1.​ DOORS AND -​ Were provided with decorated tympanums, reproducing wooden
WINDOWS forms and with gable or ogee arch above
-​ Entrances to scared areas were provided with toranas
-​ Blind doors and windows to achieve symmertry
-​ Gable or dormer windows later became horseshoe arches
2.​ WALL -​ A sacred structure is usually enclosed by a wall or railing

A.​ BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE

-​ Buddhist temples are all designed for congregational use (monasteries, meeting halls
“choityas” and stupa are all planned to accommodate large groups of worshipper
-​ Buddha himself is not represented in figural form. His presence is suggested by
symbols such as the wheel, footprints, a throne or Bo tree
-​ Primarily represented by three important building types: the Chaitya Hall, Vihara and
the Stupa

BUDDHIST STRUCTURES

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1.​ STUPAS – originated as prehistoric burial mounds to hold the remains of holy men and
nobles; could be an actual tomb, place over remains of the Buddha or holy Buddist
individuals or could act as a symbol to commemorate a sacred place; symbol of Nirvana
(the goal of Buddhism); solid mounds of rubble, bricks with stone facing; no interior
space;
2.​ VIHARA – monasteries consists of a quadrangle surrounded by a verandah on to which
open simple square cells.
3.​ CHAITYA – place of worship; assembly hall, Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at
one end.
4.​ BO TREE SHRINES – (Buddha was believed to have achieved enlightenment while
medidating under a bayan or bo tree)
5.​ PREACHING HALLS
6.​ TORANAS – gateways usually used on stupas located on cardinal points; yahshi/yaksha –
goddess of fertility that guards the torana
7.​ STAMBHA or LATH – a monumental pillar standing free without any structural function,
with circular or octagonal shafts

BUILDING EXAMPLES
CUT-OUTS OF BUILDINGS with hand written descriptions

B.​ HINDU ARCHITECTURE

-​ Not basically a congregational religion
-​ Structural system was essentially trabeated; stone is the basic raw material; construction
was carried out with minimal or no mortar
-​ Decoration was fundamental to Indian architecture and is seen in the myriad details of
figured sculpture as well as in architectural elements
-​ An open, symmetry driven structure with many variations, on a square grid, depicting
perfect geometric shapes such as circles and squares.
-​ The underlying principle in a Hindu temple is built around the belief that all things are
one, everything is connected.
-​ The pilgrim is welcomed through mathematically structured spaces, a network of art,
pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and
necessary principles of human life - the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), the pursuit
of kama (desire), the pursuit of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and the pursuit
of moksha (release, self-knowledge).

THE SITE
The appropriate site, suggest ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus
and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without
fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with the
explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu
temples.

HINDU STRUCTURES
1.​ GARBA GRIHA – or the womb chamber; forms the central focus housing the deity of the
temple and is provided with a passage around; small in scale when compared to the
whole temple complex; more on sculpture than architecture
a.​ GOPURAM – gateways decorated with animals on human figures
b.​ SIKHARA OR YIMAMA – umbrella like that covers the garbagriha
-​ These are the peaks of the towers rising from the core of Hindu temples
c.​ MANDAPA – halled passageway leading to the garbagriha

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BUILDING EXAMPLES
CUT-OUTS OF BUILDINGS with hand written descriptions

C.​ JAIN ARCHITECTURE

-​ Rock-cut shrines; later temples were traditional stone buildings, crowned with a dome
and spire, with pillared porticoes; highly ornamented with human and animal forms

BUILDING EXAMPLES
CUT-OUTS OF BUILDINGS with hand written descriptions

D.​ ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

-​ Brought by the Moguls in the 10th century; first mosques were built in Delhi and Ajmer in
the 12t century with arcaded proticoes, minarets, pointed arches, stucco work, floral
patterns set in geometrical framework
-​ The arch and dome began to be used and the mosque or masjid began to form part of
the landscape
-​ Islam prohibited idol worship and therefore a concentrated point of focus such as the
garba griha was unnecessary.

ISLAMIC STRUCTURES
1.​ MOSQUE
-​ Muslim center for worship
-​ Serves as a gathering place for prayer, teaching and also acts as a town hall
-​ Usually axial and is oriented towards Mecca (Islam’s most holy site)

ARCHITECTURAL FEATURES
a.​ QIBLA – THE WALL IN A MOSQUE IN WHICH THE MIHRAB IS SET, ORIENTED TO
MECCA
b.​ MINARET – visual focal point and is used by a MUEZZIN to call for a faithful prayer
-​ comes from the Arabic word Minara , in turn, a derivation of another Arabic
word Nur, meaning Light. Hence Minara in essence means Tower of Light. It is a
generic term, referring to any towers, from lighthouses to mosque towers.
-​ In Islamic Architecture, it refers to the tower that stands near a mosque where
the Muezzin (The person who calls for prayers) recite the Azan to call the faithful
to prayer.
-​ Developed from the Christian bell tower
c.​ DOME – usually located in the center of the façade; a focal point that covers the main
prayer hall
-​ QUBBA, from the Arabic term meaning domes. It is a prevalent architectural
feature in Islamic Architecture, usually decorates the rooftops of mosques. The
earliest example of Islamic dome is the Dome of the Rock, dated around 685 to
691.
d.​ SAHN – a courtyard with ablution (ablution fountain – where worshippers symbolically
washes before prayer) area
-​ essentially means courtyard. It is a central courtyard usually before the main
prayer hall of a mosque or the main hall for public buildings.
-​ Typically, most mosques have Sahns and in Central Asia it have a central pool
called Howz for ritual ablution (Wudhu) or for drinking, or for aesthetics. It is
surrounded usually by arcades all around. Some, especially for private buildings
have gardens.

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e.​ MUQARNAS – stalactite Vaulting (Persian architectural ornament) Mocárabe
-​ meaning Stalactite Vault in Arabic is the term used for the decoration in the form
of small niches in a honeycomb like pattern stacked in tiers set in small
projections. It is often set in the void spaces underneath domes, pendentives,
cornices, squinches and the undersides of arches and vaults.
f.​ MASHRABIYA – projecting window enclosed with carved window lattice
-​ is a window that is projecting off a wall usually with carved wood latticework
located on second floor of a building or higher, often lined with stained glass.
-​ It is built usually facing the streets, but sometimes it is also built
overlooking Sahns. It is a common feature in homes and palaces in Middle Eastern
Architecture. Sometimes it also decorates public buildings such as government
buildings, hospitals and the like.It is also spelledmoucharaby.
g.​ DIKKA – a place where royal message is being delivered BY WHO?
h.​ PRAYING HALL – main area where congregation prayeris being done
i.​ MIMBAR – a pulpit where IMAM deliver KHUTBATT
-​ the pulpit where the Imam (Religious leader) delivers his sermons orKhutbah. It
is a fundamental part of a mosque, usually shaped like a small tower with stairs
leading up to it. It is also spelled Mimbar.
j.​ MIHRAB – a semi-circular or pointed (ogee) niche in the wall of a mosque that
indicates the QIBLA (shows the direction of Mecca which the faithful must face when
praying
-​ Prayer Niche. Refers to the niche in a mosque on one wall where it faces
the Qibla (The direction to the Holy City of Makkah) Itliterally means Special
Room.
-​ Originally denotes Prophet Muhammad’s special room for prayers, it is by time
refers to the wall that faces the Qibla and subsequently a niche carved on the wall
itself. Parallels in other religions include the Torah Ark in Synagogues and Haikals
of the Coptic Churches.
k.​ IWAN - Described as “Vaulted halls or space, walled by three sides with one end open.

III.​ BUILDING EXAMPLES

1.​ AJANTA-ELLORA CAVES
●​ Built from the 2nd century B.C. to the 6th century A.D., these caves are the finest
examples of rock-cut caves. Honed out of volcanic ballistic formations while existing
in a linear pattern, there are 34 caves containing the remnants of Buddhist, Hindu,
and Jain temples.
●​ These walls are equipped with engravings showing the life of Lord Buddha. The
purpose of these caves was to provide a sanctuary for the monks to meditate.

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2.​ CHAND BAORI

●​ It is the deepest step-well in the world. Situated in Rajasthan, it was built in the 9th
century as a water source for people in the neighboring villages. The structure is
square, 100 feet deep, with 3500 steps and a periphery of 140 meters. It shows the
geometrical intelligence of architects and local artisans of that era. This step-well
stands as a perfect example that shows how Vernacular architecture is of, for, and
by the people.

3.​ SANCHI STUPA

●​ One of the oldest stone structures in India and is considered one of the finest
examples of Buddhist architecture and art, built by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.

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The stupa has a hemispherical dome that is surrounded by a railing and four
gateways, each adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures depicting stories from
the life of Buddha. The Stupa is a UNESCO World Heritage site and is a must-visit
for anyone interested in history and architecture.

4.​ TAJ MAHAL

●​ Considered one of the finest examples of Mughal architecture, the white marble
building comprises a square plinth with a central structure topped by a vast dome
and surrounded by four minarets at each corner. It is considered one of the world’s
seven wonders in the modern era.

INDIA-PAKISTAN-BANGLADESH
On 2 June 1947, the last Viceroy of India, Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten, announced that
Britain had accepted that the country should be divided into a mainly Hindu India and a
mainly Muslim Pakistan, encompassing the geographically separate territories of West
Pakistan (now Pakistan) and East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

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