12.

WAVES & SOUND

n Waves : A wave is a repeating disturbance or movement that transfers energy through matter or space. For
example, ocean waves disturb the water and transfer energy through it. During earthquakes, energy is transferred
in powerful waves that travel through Earth. Light is a type of wave that can travel through empty space to
transfer energy from one place to another, such as from the Sun to Earth.
n Waves are a form of travelling energy : A wave moving across the surface of water is different from water
moving, as in a stream. As the wave moves by, an individual particle of water oscillates up and down with the
wave but remains in the same place. Watch a floating piece of cork on water (see fig.) as a wave passes. You will
see that the cork moves up and down in about the same place as the wave moves under it. The energy moves
through the water causing the surface to oscillate up and down as the wave energy passes through. Thus, a wave
is a travelling form of energy.

l For waves, there is no net displacement of the particles (they return to their equilibrium position), but there
is a net displacement of the wave. There are thus two different motions: the motion of the particles of the
medium and the motion of the wave.
l Waves transfer energy, momentum and pattern of disturbances from one place to another.
l Periodic motion : A motion that occurs when an object moves in Extreme Mean Extreme
a repeated pattern (a cycle) over equal periods of time is called a position position position
periodic motion.
Examples : Wave motion, motion of an oscillating pendulum, uniform Amplitude Amplitude
circular motion, all are periodic motions.
l Oscillatory motion : A motion that occurs when an object moves
to and fro about its mean position over equal periods of time is An oscillating particle
called an oscillatory motion or vibratory motion.
Examples : Motion of a simple pendulum, motion of a vibrating stretched string, motion of an oscillating spring.
l Equilibrium position (or mean position) : A position in the path of an oscillating particle at which the
net force acting on the particle is zero is called its equilibrium position or mean position.
n Mechanical and non-mechanical waves
l Mechanical Waves : These waves require a medium for their propagation. For example, sound waves
travel through the air to reach your ears. Ocean waves move through water to reach the shore.
l A medium is the substance or material in which a wave will move. A medium can be a solid, a liquid, a gas,
or a combination of these.
l Non-mechanical waves : These waves do not require any medium for their propagation. They can travel
through space. These waves are also called electromagnetic waves. For example, light, radio waves,
gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays, infrared rays, microwaves, all are electromagnetic waves.
l Wave pulse :
A pulse is a single disturbance that moves through a medium.
Amplitude

Position
} Amplitude of a wave pulse : The amplitude of a pulse is a
of rest
measurement of how far the medium is displaced from rest
(see fig.).
} Pulse speed : Pulse speed is the distance a pulse travels in a
Pulse length
unit time interval.
n Mechanical waves are of two types namely, transverse waves and longitudinal (compressional) waves. But
electromagnetic waves are always transverse in nature.
n Transverse waves : A transverse wave is a wave where the movement of the particles of the medium is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave (see fig.).
Direction of wave travel

Particle motion

Line of zero
disturbance

A transverse wave
l Line of zero disturbance : It is the line at which the net force on the particles of the medium is zero. That
is, when an oscillating particle reaches this line, it achieves its equilibrium position.
l Crest and trough : Transverse waves consist of moving crests and troughs. A crest is the part of the
transverse wave which is above the line of zero disturbance. A trough is the part of transverse wave which
is below the line of zero disturbance.
Crest

Equilibrium

Trough
Crests and troughs in a transverse wave
l Amplitude : The amplitude is the maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position in
either direction.

Amplitude
Equilibrium
Amplitude

Amplitude of a transverse wave

l Transverse waves can be formed in solids and on the surfaces of liquids only.
l When a transverse wave propagates, there are no pressure changes in the medium.
n Longitudinal waves : A longitudinal wave is a wave where the particles in the medium move parallel to the
direction of propagation of the wave. For example, if a long spring is given jerk along its length, a longitudinal
wave is produced in it which is shown in fig.. Sound is also a longitudinal wave.
Direction of motion of wave

Direction of motion of particles of the spring

Longitudinal wave through a spring
l Compression (or condensation) : A compression is a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles
are closer together than their normal separations.
l Rarefaction : A rarefaction is a region in a longitudinal wave where the particles are farther apart than
their normal separations.
l Compressions are regions of high molecular density and high pressure while rarefactions are the regions of
low molecular density and low pressure.
 l Longitudinal waves can travel through all the three media namely, solids, liquids and gases.
Compression

Rarefaction
Compressions and rarefactions on a longitudinal wave
n Some basic terms related to waves :
l Wavelength : The minimum distance in which a wave repeats itself is called its wavelength. Also, the
distance travelled by a wave when it completes its one cycle is called its wavelength. It is represented by a
Greek symbol 'l' called lambda.
} The wavelength in a transverse wave refers to distance between peaks of two consecutive crests or two
consecutive troughs. The length of one complete crest and trough also represents one wavelength of a
transverse wave.
l l

l
Wavelength of a transverse wave
} The wavelength in a longitudinal wave refers to the distance between two consecutive compressions or
between two consecutive rarefactions. The length of one complete compression and rarefaction also
represents one wavelength of a longitudinal wave.
l l

l
Wavelength of a longitudinal wave
} S.I. unit of wavelength : Meter (m)
l Time period (or period) : The time period T is the time taken by a particle to move through one complete
cycle of motion. In other words, time taken to complete one oscillation of a wave is called time period or
simply the period of the wave.
} For a transverse wave, the time period (T) is the time taken for two successive crests (or troughs) to pass
a fixed point. For a longitudinal wave, the time taken by two consecutive compressions or rarefactions
to cross a fixed point is called the time period of the wave.
} S.I. unit of time period : Second (s)
l Frequency (n) : The frequency n is the number of complete cycles or vibrations per unit of time. Also, it can
be defined as the number of oscillations per second.
} For transverse wave, the frequency is the number of successive crests (or troughs) passing a given point
in 1 second. For longitudinal wave, the frequency is the number of successive compressions (or rarefactions)
passing a given point in 1 second.
} Unit of frequency : Frequency is measured in cycles per second. The term “cycles” is usually left off
and the unit is written as s–1 or 1/s. This unit is also called hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle /sec or 1 oscillation/sec = 1 s–1
l Relationship between time period and frequency :
1
Frequency (n) is the reciprocal of time period (T). That is, n =
T
l Wave speed (v) : Wave speed is distance travelled by the pattern of the wave per unit time.
v =n l That is, speed = frequency ×wavelength.
n Graphs of waves : Graphs of waves are plotted between any property of the wave and the distance (or time).
In a transverse wave, the property of the wave that is used to plot the graph is 'displacement' of the particles
from their equilibrium position. In a longitudinal wave like a sound wave, the property of the wave that is used
to plot the graph is 'pressure' or 'density'.
Compression
Crest

(or pressure)
Displacement

Average density

Density
Line of zero
disturbance Distance (or pressure) Distance
(or time) (or time)
Trough Rarefaction
Graph of a transverse wave Graph of a longitudinal wave (a sound wave)
n Sound : All types of sounds originate from vibrating objects. But, some vibrations are visible some are
not. If you pluck a guitar string or strike a low-frequency tuning fork, you can see the actual vibrations of the
object. When you make a whistling sound by blowing over an empty pop bottle, the air molecules in the bottle
vibrate to produce sound.
l Frequency of sound produced is exactly equal to the frequency of the vibrating source. This means, an
object that vibrates faster forms a sound wave with a higher frequency and vice-versa.
l Propagation of sound : Sound moves through a medium from the point of generation (source) to the
listener. When an object vibrates, it sets the particles of the medium around it vibrating. The particles do not
travel all the way from the vibrating object to the ear. A particle of the medium in contact with the vibrating
object is first displaced from its equilibrium position (mean position). It then exerts a force on the adjacent
particle. As a result of which the adjacent particle gets displaced from its position of rest. After displacing
the adjacent particle the first particle comes back to its original position. This process continues in the
medium till the sound reaches your ear. The disturbance created by a source of sound in the medium travels
through the medium and not the particles of the medium.
} Propagation of sound can be visualised as propagation of density variations or pressure variations in the
medium.
l Understanding propagation of sound using a vibrating tuning fork : Air is the most common medium
through which sound travels.
(a) When a tuning fork is not vibrating, the air particles around it are at their normal positions, i.e., the
molecular density is uniform throughout the medium [see fig.(a)].
(b) When the prong of tuning fork swings to the right [see fig.(b)], the molecules in the air to the right of the
prong are forced closer together than normal. Such a region of high molecular density and high air
pressure is called a compression. This compression moves away from the fork (to the right) like a ripple
on a pond.
(c) When the prong swings to the left [see fig.(c)], the molecules in the air to the right of the prong spread
apart, and the density and air pressure in this region are then lower than normal. Such a region of low
molecular density and low air pressure is called a rarefaction. The rarefaction also moves to the right,
following the previously produced compression.
(d) As the tuning fork continues to vibrate, a succession of compressions and rarefactions forms and spreads
out from it [see fig.(d)].

Compression (C)
(a) No vibrations in the tuning fork (b) Forward movement in the tuning fork

R C R C R C
Rarefaction (R)
(c) Backward movement in the tuning fork (d) Vibrations in tuning fork produces
series of compressions and rarefactions
Production of sound by a tuning fork
 l Sound needs a medium for propagation : Sound is also a mechanical wave thus, it requires a material
medium like air, water, steel , etc. for its propagation. It cannot travel through vacuum.
l Speed of sound in different media : The speed of sound is fastest in solids, faster in liquids, and slowest
in gases. Speed of sound waves depends on the nature of material (or medium). As a sound wave travels
through a material, the particles in the material collide with each other. In a solid, molecules are closer
together than in liquids or gases, so collisions between molecules occur more rapidly than in liquids or gases.
l Speed of sound depends on the temperature of the medium : Speed of sound depends on the
temperature of the material through which the sound waves are travelling. As a substance heats up, its
molecules move faster, so they collide more frequently. The more frequent the collisions are, the faster the
speed of sound is in the material. For example, the speed of sound in air at 0 °C is 332 m/s; at 20 °C, it is
343 m/s. The effect of temperature on the speed of sound is maximum in gases.
} For every rise in temperature of 1°C, the speed of sound in air increases by 0.59 m/s. The speed of
sound in air at normal atmospheric pressure can be calculated using the equation,
1/2
æ t ö
v = v 0 ç1 + ÷ Where, v0 = speed of sound at 0 °C = 332 m/s ; t is temperature in °C.
è 273 ø
For t << 273°C, an approximate formula is,
v = (332 + 0.6 t) m/s
} Lightning and thunder : Light travels nearly 1 million times faster than sound in air. Thus, we see
lightning first and then we hear its sound (thunder).
n Factors affecting speed of sound : Speed of sound in
l Effect of density : Higher the density of the medium, lesser different media at 25 °C
will be the velocity and vice-versa.
Speed
State Substance (m/s)
1 v2 r1
vµ Also, v = r
r 1 2 Aluminium 6420
Nickel 6040
For example, under similar condition, v H2 > v O2 . This is
Solids

Steel 5960
because rH2 < rO2 . Iron 5950
Brass 4700
l Effect of humidity : Density of water vapours is less than Glass (Flint) 3980
dry air at same pressure and temperature. Thus, density of
moist air is less than that of dry air. Sea water 1531
Liquids

Distilled water 1498

1 Ethanol 1207
Now, v µ Methanol 1103
r
Therefore, speed of sound increases as humidity increases. Hydrogen 1284
l Effect of temperature : As the temperature increases, Helium 965
Air 346
Gases

speed of sound increases and vice-versa.

Oxygen 316
v µ T (where T = temperature in Kelvin). Also, Sulphur 213
dioxide
v1 T1
=
v2 T2
l Effect of pressure : Pressure has no effect on the speed of sound.
l Effect of wind : If wind speed and speed of sound are in same directions, they are added together i.e.,
speed of sound increases. If wind speed and speed of sound are in opposite directions, the net speed of
sound is the difference of them i.e., speed of sound decreases.
n Audible and inaudible sounds : The ears of most young people respond to sound frequencies of between 20
Hz and 20,000 Hz.
l The sounds of frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz that can be detected by the human ear is called
audible sounds. The sounds of frequencies less than about 20 Hz and those higher than 20,000 Hz cannot
be detected by the human ear. Such sounds are called inaudible sounds.
l Frequencies of less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic sounds. Frequencies that are higher than 20,000 Hz
are called ultrasonic sounds.
l Rhinoceroses communicate using infrasound of frequency as low as 5 Hz. Whales and elephants produce
sound in the infrasound range. It is observed that some animals get disturbed before earthquakes. Earthquakes
produce low-frequency infrasound before the main shock waves begin which possibly alert the animals.
 l Children under the age of five and some animals, such as dogs can hear up to 25 kHz. As people grow older
their ears become less sensitive to higher frequencies. Ultrasound is produced by dolphins, bats, porpoises
and moths of certain families. Rats also play games by producing ultrasound.
n Characteristics of audible sounds :
l Pitch : We can say that a thinner voice like a female voice has high pitch while a thicker (heavy) voice like
a male voice has low pitch. Sounds of musical instruments like guitar, sitar, violin, veena are high pitch
sounds while sounds of drum, tabla, dholak are low pitch sounds.
} The frequency determines the shrillness or pitch of a sound. If the frequency of vibration is higher we
say that the sound is shrill and has a higher pitch. If the frequency of vibration is lower, we say that the
sound has a lower pitch.
} The frequency of a wave is an objective quantity that can be measured, while pitch refers to how
different frequencies are perceived by the human ear.

Low frequency High frequency

t t

Low pitch High pitch

(a) (b)
Pitch and frequency are related
l Loudness : The loudness of the sounds humans perceive relates to the intensity of the audible sound. Sound
intensity is energy carried by the sound per unit time per unit area i.e. amount of sound energy passing each
second through unit area. Sound intensity is usually measured in watt/(meter)2 or (W/m2).
} The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of vibration. The greater the amplitude, the higher
the volume (loudness) of the sound. A speaker making a loud sound moves back and forth more than a
speaker making a soft sound.
} Unit of loudness : The loudness is expressed in a unit called decibel (dB). On the decibel scale,
0 dB (= 10–12 Watt/m2) is called the threshold of hearing. Every change of 10 units on the decibel
scale represents a tenfold effect on the intensity level.
High amplitude

Low amplitude

Soft (or quiet)

Loud
Amplitude and loudness are related
} Intensity of sound (or any wave) is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the sound (or wave).
I µ A2
} Intensity of sound wave varies inversely with the square of the distance from the source (I µ 1/r2).
} Another unit for measuring loudness is Bel. 1 decibel = (1/10) bel.
Loudness of sound coming from various sources
S.No. Source of sound Loudness (in dB)

1. Threshold of hearing 0
2. Normal breathing 10
3. Soft whisper (at 5m) 30
4. Normal conversation 60
5. Busy traffic 70
6. Average factory 80
7. Threshold of pain 130
l Loudness and intensity are not always the same : Loudness is a measure of the response of the ear to
the sound. Intensity is an objective property of the sound wave — in fact, it is related to the square of the
wave amplitude, and does not depend on the particular characteristics of a person’s ears. Loudness, on the
other hand, is a subjective property of the sound that depends on the human ear, the sensitivity of the ear to
the frequency of the sound, and the distance from the source of the sound.
} In other words, loudness can be considered as the intensity of an audible sound. If there are two sounds
of equal intensity, one is audible and another is inaudible, then, our ears will hear the audible sound as
a loud sound while the inaudible sound will not be detected by our ears.
l Quality (or timbre) : Quality of a sound is the subjective property by which two sounds of the same pitch
(or frequency) and loudness emitted by two different sources can be distinguished from each other. It depends
on the waveform of the sound produced by a source.
} A clarinet sounds different from a violin because of differences in quality (timbre), even when both
instruments are sounding the same note at the same volume (see fig.).

Clarinet
Waveform

Waveform
Violin
A clarinet and a violin produce different waveforms for the same note (pitch)
} The sound which is more pleasant to human ear is said to be of a rich quality. Eg. music.
l Tone : A sound of single frequency is called a tone or pure tone. For example, a tuning fork produces a
single frequency i.e, a pure tone.
l Note : The sound which is produced due to a mixture of several frequencies is called a note and is pleasant
to listen to. The notes produced by musical instruments are not pure tones.
l Sonic boom : When the speed of any object is less than the speed of sound, it is said to be travelling at
subsonic speed. When the speed of any object is equal to the speed of sound, it is said to be travelling at
sonic speed. When the speed of any object exceeds the speed of sound, it is said to be travelling at
supersonic speed. Bullets, jet aircrafts etc. often travel at supersonic speeds.
} When a sound producing source moves with a speed higher than that of sound, it produces shock waves
in air. These shock waves carry a large amount of energy. The air pressure variation associated with this
type of shock waves produces a very sharp and loud sound called the “sonic boom”.
} A shock wave due to a jet traveling at the speed of sound is made visible as a fog of water vapor. The
large pressure variation in the shock wave causes the water in the air to condense into water droplets.

(d) Supersonic speed

(a) Rest (b) Subsonic speed (c) Sonic speed (sonic boom)
Sound waves propagating outward from jet moving at various speeds.
} Mach number : When aircraft or any object get close to or go faster than the speed of sound, a
different unit is often used to describe their speed. It’s called the Mach number, named after Ernst
Mach. The Mach number of a source of sound is the ratio of the speed of the object to the speed of
sound in air at that location.
Speed of object
Mach number =
Speed of sound
 If mach number is less than one, this means objects are travelling at subsonic speeds.
If mach number is equal to one, this means objects are travelling at sonic speeds.
If mach number is greater than one, this means objects are travelling at supersonic speeds.
n Reflection of sound : Just as a mirror reflects light, when sound waves radiating out from a source strike a
rigid obstacle, the angle of reflection of the sound waves equals the angle of incidence. Also, the incident ray, the
reflected ray and the normal, all lie in the same plane.
l Echo : If we shout or clap near a suitable reflecting object such as a tall building or a mountain, we will hear
the same sound again a little later, and fainter. This sound which we hear is called an echo.
} Echoes are produced when sound is reflected by a hard surface, such as a wall or cliff. An echo can be
heard distinctly only if the time interval between the original sound and the reflected sound is greater
than 0.1 s. This is because the sensation of sound persists in our brain for about 0.1 s.
v×t
l Distance between the source and the reflecting surface s =
2
Let us take the speed of sound in air to be 344 m/s. The sound
must go to the obstacle and reach back the ear of the listener on Incident sound
reflection after 0.1 s i.e., t = 0.1 s.
Reflected sound
Hence, the minimum total distance covered by the sound from the
Listener s
point of generation to the reflecting surface and back is,
2s = v × t = (344) × 0.1 = 34.4 m. Wall
The minimum distance between the observer and the reflecting surface is, (or hard surface)

v× t 344 × 0.1
s= = = 17.2 m, for an echo to be heard.
2 2
l Reverberation : Persistence of sound after the source has stopped as a result of repeated reflections from
walls, ceilings, and other surfaces is called reverberation.
} The reverberation time is the amount of time it takes for a sound’s intensity to decrease by 60 dB.
} To reduce reverberation, the roof and walls of the auditorium are generally covered with sound-absorbent
materials like compressed fibreboard, rough plaster or draperies. The seat materials are also selected
on the basis of their sound absorbing properties. Padded furnishings and plants can also be arranged.
} The qualities of a room or auditorium that determine how well sound is heard are called acoustics. Also,
the total effect of sound produced in an enclosed space is called acoustics.
n Uses of reflection of sound :
l Megaphones or loud hailers, horns, musical instruments such as trumpets and shehanais, are all designed to
send sound in a particular direction using multiple reflection. Thus, they travel a greater distance as compared
to the distance travelled without the help of megaphone.
l Stethoscope is a medical instrument used for listening to sounds produced within the body, chiefly in the
heart or lungs. When the metallic disc (see fig.) is gently pushed against the part of the body to be examined,
the vibrations of this part vibrates the diaphragm. These vibrations after suffering multiple reflections in the
tube assembly ultimately reach the earphones.

Ear phones

Metal & rubber

tube assembly

Megaphone

Multiple reflection
of sound
Metal disc
with diaphragm
Horn A stethoscope
 l Usually, the ceilings of concert halls, conference halls and cinema halls are made curved so that sound after
reflection reaches all corners of the hall (see fig.). Sometimes a curved (concave) sound board may
be placed behind the stage so that the sound, after reflecting from the sound board, spreads evenly across
the width of the hall (see fig.). In this case, the source of sound is placed at the focus of the concave
shaped sound board. Thus, the sound after reflection from the sound board gives an almost parallel beam.

Sound
board

Source of sound

Curved ceilings in concert halls Use of curved sound board

helps to reach the sound in all parts of a hall spread the sound evenly in the hall
n Applications of ultrasound : Ultrasounds are able to travel along well-defined paths even in the presence of
obstacles.
l Industry :
} Cleaners : Ultrasound is generally used to clean parts located in hard-to-reach places, for example,
spiral tube, odd shaped parts, electronic components, etc. Objects to be cleaned are placed in a cleaning
solution and ultrasonic waves (usually from 20 – 400 kHz) are sent into the solution. Due to the high
frequency, the particles of dust, grease and dirt get detached and drop out. The objects thus get
thoroughly cleaned.
} Ultrasonic cleaners are often used to clean jewellery, lenses and other optical parts, watches, dental and
surgical instruments, fountain pens, industrial parts and electronic equipment.
} Detectors : Ultrasounds are used to detect cracks and flaws in metal blocks that are generally used in
construction of big structures like buildings, bridges, machines and also scientific equipment.

Defect or flaw
Ultrasound

Detectors

Metal block
Detection of defects in metal blocks
l Medical diagnostics :
} Echocardiography : Ultrasonic waves are made to reflect from various parts of the heart and form
the image of the heart. It can provide many helpful informations, including the size and shape of the
heart, its pumping capacity and the location and extent of any damage to its tissues. It is especially
useful for assessing diseases of the heart valves.
} Ultrasonography : Ultrasound scanner is an instrument which uses ultrasonic waves (in the range of
1–10 MHz) for getting images of internal organs of the human body and for examination of foetus
during pregnancy.
} Surgery : Ultrasound is now used to break up kidney stones into smaller pieces so that they can be
flushed out with urine without needing a painful operation.
 l Sonar : Sonar stands for ‘SOund Navigation
and Ranging’. This process is used to
determine the depth of water under a Ship
boat or ship. By measuring the length of
time between emitting a pulse of sound Water surface
and hearing its echo off the ocean floor,
the distance to the ocean floor can be Transmitter +
measured. Sonar also can be used to Receiver
detect submarines, sunken objects like s Transmitted
ships, schools of fish, etc. sound
Let the time in terval between Sound reflected
transmission and reception of ultrasound from the bottom
signal be t and the speed of sound
Sea bed
through seawater be v.
Distance between the ship and the
v× t
seabed, s =
2
n The human ear : The human ear consists of three sections: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear (see fig.).
l The outer ear consists of the external ear (pinna) and the auditory canal. The external ear is shaped to
collect sounds, which then travel down the auditory canal to the eardrum.
l The middle ear is separated from the outer ear by the eardrum, a very tough, tightly stretched membrane
less than 0.1 mm thick. The eardrum is forced to vibrate by sound coming down the ear canal. The vibration
of the eardrum has the same frequency as the source of the sound waves.
Oval
Hammer Stirrup window
Anvil
Eardrum
External ear Cochlea
or pinna Auditory
nerve

Auditory
canal Eustachian
tube

Outer Middle Inner

ear ear ear

A human ear
l Attached to the inside of the eardrum are three small interlocking bones: the hammer (malleus), the anvil
(incus), and the stirrup (stapes). These bones transmit the vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear, mechanically
magnifying the pressure variations by a factor of 18. The stirrup transmits the eardrum vibrations to the
threshold of the inner ear at the oval window.
l The vibrations set up pressure waves in the fluid that fills the inner ear’s cochlea. The cochlea is a snail-
shaped organ approximately 3.0 cm long, divided into two equal sections by a partition for most of its
length. Waves are transmitted down one side of the cochlea, around the end of the partition, and back
almost to the point of origin.
l As these waves move, they cause approximately 23,000 microscopic hairs to vibrate. Each hair is connected
to a cell that converts the mechanical motion of the hair into an electrical signal, which in turn is transmitted
to the brain by the auditory nerve.
l The cavity containing the middle ear is filled with air and is connected to the mouth by the Eustachian tube.
It equalizes the air pressure in the middle ear.
 l Hearing aid : A hearing aid is an electronic device that amplifies sounds for people with hearing impairments.
l Echolocation : Dolphins and orca whales rely on the production and reflection of sound to navigate,
communicate, and hunt in dark waters. The location of an object using reflected sound is called echolocation.
Most bats use echolocation for navigation in the dark and for finding food. The bat can identify an object by
the echo of the ultrasound and can even tell the size, shape, and texture of a small insect.
n Frequency of a vibrating string : More the tension in the string i.e. tighter it is, more will be the frequency produced.
n Simple pendulum : Motion of a pendulum is an oscillatory motion.
Its motion is also called simple harmonic motion. Time period of a
simple pendulum is given by,

l
Time period, T = 2p Bob
g

Where, l is the length of pendulum (it is the distance

KE = 0 KE = 0
between the point of suspension and the centre of PE = maximum PE = maximum
the bob).
l Effect of the length l on the time period T : KE = maximum
PE = 0
Time period depends on l as T µ l or T2 µ l .
l In a simple pendulum, at extreme position, kinetic energy is zero while potential energy in maximum.
At its mean position, kinetic energy is maximum while potential energy is zero.
l A pendulum oscillates because of gravity, the force of gravity acts as a restoring force for its oscillatory
motion. A pendulum will not oscillate in space (zero gravity) or in a satellite moving round the earth
or when it is allowed to fall freely under gravity (its time period becomes infinite).
n Free oscillations : The oscillatory motions we have considered so far have occurred under an ideal frictionless
system, that is, one that oscillates indefinitely under the action of only a linear restoring force. Such oscillations
are called free oscillations i.e., vibrations or oscillations of a body with constant amplitude and constant
frequency. The frequency of the freely vibrating body is called its natural frequency. Free vibrations can occur
only in vacuum, therefore these vibrations cannot be realised in practice.
n Damped oscillations : In most systems, resistive forces, such as friction, air resistance are present and
they retard the motion of the system. Consequently, the mechanical energy and amplitude of the system
decrease with time, and such oscillations are called damped oscillations.
n Forced oscillations : We have seen that the mechanical energy of a damped oscillator decreases with
time as a result of the resistive force like friction. It is possible to compensate for this energy decrease by
applying an external force that does positive work on the system. Such an oscillator then undergoes forced
oscillations. At any instant, energy can be transferred into the system by an applied force that acts in the
direction of motion of the oscillator. For example, a child on a swing can be kept in motion by appropriately
timed “pushes.” The amplitude of motion remains constant if the energy input per cycle of motion exactly
equals the decrease in mechanical energy in each cycle that results from resistive forces.

Constant amplitude Constant amplitude

Decreasing
Displacement

Displacement

Displacement

amplitude

0 0 0
time time time

(a) Free vibration (b) Damped vibration (c) Forced vibration

Graphs showing free vibration, damped vibration and force vibration

n Resonance : Resonance is a special case of forced oscillations. The phenomenon of dramatic increase in
amplitude when the frequency of the driving force is close to the natural frequency of the oscillator is called
resonance.
l Resonance can be demonstrated with a series of
pendulums suspended from a stretched string
(see fig.). When A is set in vibration, E begins to
vibrate in time with it. Although B, C, and D may C
B D
begin to vibrate, they do not continue to vibrate
A E
nor do they vibrate as much. When B is set in
vibration, D begins to vibrate in sympathy, but A,
C, and E vibrate intermittently and only a little.
The pairs A and E, and B and D each have the
same lengths and, thus, have the same natural A series of pendulums suspended
frequencies. The periodic vibratory force exerted from a string used to show resonance.

by one pendulum moves through the supporting

string to the other pendulums, but only the
pendulum with the same natural frequency begins
to vibrate in resonance.
l Applications of resonance :
} A troop of soldiers marching in step across a bridge, can create a periodic force that sets the bridge
in resonant vibration and cause the bridge to collapse.
} If an opera singer sings a note with the same natural frequency as that of a wineglass, the glass
will begin to vibrate in resonance, with an amplitude large enough that it may shatter.
} During an earthquake, the structure attached to the ground is the oscillator. It has a set of natural
frequencies, determined by its stiffness, its mass, and the details of its construction. The periodic
driving force is supplied by the shaking of the ground. If a natural frequency of the building matches
a frequency contained in the ground shaking, the vibrations of the building can build to a very large
amplitude, large enough to damage or destroy the building.