Waves & Superposition

In this unit we shall study;

✓ Progressive waves [Transverse and longitudinal waves]
✓ The Doppler Effect
✓ The electromagnetic spectrum
✓ Stationary waves
✓ Two-source interference
✓ Diffraction and diffraction gratings
A wave is a disturbance from an equilibrium condition that travels through a
medium transferring energy from one region to another without transferring
matter. Waves can be categorized as mechanical waves or electromagnetic waves.
Mechanical waves: These are waves that require a material medium for their
propagation e.g. sound waves, water waves, waves in a stretched string and
waves in a helical spring. These waves are produced by a disturbance in a
material medium and are transmitted by particles of the medium; moving or
oscillating to and fro. Such waves can be felt or seen. They cannot travel in a
vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves: These are waves that do not require a material
medium for their propagation. e.g. light waves, x–rays, radio waves, ultraviolet
rays, infra red rays and gamma rays. These waves consist of disturbances
inform of varying electric and magnetic fields. They can freely travel through a
vacuum.
Wave motion is a means of transferring energy from one point to another without
their being any transfer of matter between the points. The particles in the medium
do not move with the energy, instead they oscillate about their equilibrium
position. For example, electromagnetic waves from the Sun carry the energy that
plants need to survive and grow. The energy carried by sound waves causes our ear
drums to vibrate. The energy carried by seismic waves (earthquakes) can devastate
vast areas, causing land to move and buildings to collapse. Waves which move
energy from place to place without the transfer of matter are called progressive
waves.
Generation and propagation of mechanical waves
Waves are generated when particles in a transmitting medium at any point are
disturbed. These particles start vibrating. As they vibrate, they cause the
neighboring particles to vibrate in turn. In this way, the vibrations continue from
the source to other regions in the transmitting medium. The disturbance spreads
from the source outwards and it constitutes the waves.
For example, a vibrating tuning fork sets the air close to it into oscillation, and a
sound wave spreads out from the fork. For a radio wave, the vibrating objects are
electrons.

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Types of waves
Waves are of two types;
▪ Transverse waves and
▪ longitudinal waves
Transverse waves

A transverse wave is one in which the vibrations of the particles in the wave
are at right angles (perpendicular)to the direction in which the energy of the
wave is travelling.

See illustration below. movement

𝝀 of energy

A B
vibration of
the rope
When a wave travels down a rope –say , from left to right as shown above, the
particles of the rope vibrate up and down, in a direction transverse(i.e.
perpendicular or at right angles) to the motion of the wave itself from A to B.
There is no transfer of matter from A to B. This type of wave is called transverse
wave.
Examples of transverse waves include light waves (all electromagnetic
waves), surfaces water waves, and secondary seismic waves (S-waves).
Transverse waves consist of crest and troughs.
distance between successive crests or troughs is a wavelength

Longitudinal waves
These are waves in which the direction of vibrations of the particles in the
wave is parallel to (or along) the direction in which the energy of the wave
is travelling.

See illustration below

movement
of energy
A 𝝀
B

vibration
of coils
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Longitudinal waves are readily formed on a stretched slinky spring by alternatively
compressing and expanding one end as shown above. The coils of the spring
vibrate along the length of the spring, whilst the energy traveles along the same
line from A to B.
Note that the spring itself does not move from A to B but a series of compressions
and expansions(rarefactions) propagte along the spring.
Compressions are regions in a longitudinal wave profile where there is high
particle density (where particles are close to each other). For the spring above,
where the coils are momentarily close together is where we have compressions.
Rarefactions are regions of low particle density in a longitudinal wave profile. For
the spring above, where the coils are momentarily far apart is where we have
rarefactions.
The compressions and rarefactions correspond to the crests and troughs of a
transverse wave.
distance between successive compressions of successive rarefactions is a
wavelength
Examples of longitudinal waves include sound waves, waves in a helical spring,
and primary seismic waves (P-waves)
The table below summarizes the differences between Longitudinal and transverse
waves.
Transverse wave Longitudinal waves
▪ particles vibrate perpendicular to ▪ particles vibrate parallel to the
the direction of propagation of the direction of propagation of the
wave energy. wave energy.
▪ they undergo polarization ▪ do not undergo polarization
▪ E.g. light waves ▪ E.g. sound waves

Graphical representation of waves

A transverse wave can be represented graphically by plotting displacement of
particles, y on the y –axis against distance x along the wave, in the direction of
energy travel, on the x –axis as shown below.
crest 𝝀
displacement

Amplitude

Amplitude distance
equilibrium/ rest
trough position
𝝀

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Terms used
(a) Displacement: The displacement of a particle on a wave is its distance in a
specified direction from its rest position. Displacement is a vector quantity;
it can be positive or negative.
(b) Amplitude, A: This is the maximum displacement of a particle on a wave
from the equilibrium position. It is the maximum height of a crest or depth of
a trough, relative to the equilibrium position.
(c) Crest: This is the point on the wave profile with maximum positive
displacement(upwards)
(d) Trough: This is the point on the wave profile with maximum negative
displacement (downwards)
(e) Wavelength, 𝝀: This is the shortest distance between two successive
particles/points that are vibrating in phase.
It is the shortest distance between any two successive identical points on the
wave.
It is also the shortest distance between two successive crests or troughs.
It is also the distance moved by the wave front during one oscillation of the
source of the waves.
Note that particles are said to be in phase if they are at the same stage of
their motion i.e. have the same displacement from the equilibrium position
and are travelling in the same direction.
As applied to longitudinal waves, a wavelength is the distance between two
successive compressions or rarefactions. See the comparison below.

Distance

𝜆
Displacement

Distance

➢ You must have observed that the crests of a transverse wave correspond with
the compressions of a longitudinal wave and the troughs with the
rarefactions. In other words, displacement of longitudinal waves is
represented in terms of compressions and rarefactions along the direction of
travel.

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 ▪ Another way to represent waves is to plot a graph of displacement y of a
point on the wave against time t. Again, the wave repeats itself after a
certain interval of time called the period.
displacement

Period time, t

Note: For a longitudinal wave, a similar plot would be obtained if we plot

the pressure difference from the normal against either distance or time.
(f) Period, T: The period of the wave is the time taken for a particle in the wave
to complete one cycle or one vibration. It can also be defined as the time
take by a wave to travel through one wavelength. The SI unit is seconds (s)
(g) Frequency, f: This is the number of complete cycles, vibrations or
oscillations of a wave that pass a given point per unit time. It can also be
defined as the number of complete wavelengths that pass a fixed point per
unit time. The SI unit of frequency is the Hertz (Hz).
𝟏
Recall the relation between frequency and period i.e. f = . This suggests
𝑻
another unit of frequency equivalent to Hertz which is per second (1Hz =1s-1)
(h) Phase: A phase is a fraction of a cycle which has elapsed after a particle in
the wave passing a fixed point. We shall discuss phase in details later.
(i) Wave speed, v: The wave speed is the speed at which wave crests (or any
other part of the waveform) travels in the direction of propagation of the
wave. Wave speed = wavelength × frequency.
(j) Wave front: A wave front is any line or section taken through an advancing
wave in which all particles are in phase. It is an imaginary line which joins
the set of particles that are in phase.
Remember that particles are in phase if they are at the same stage of their
motion at the same time and are moving in the same direction.
The direction of travel of the wave is at right angles to the wave front.

The two major forms of wave forms are; circular and plane wave fronts
▪ Circular wave fronts consist of wave fronts that are concentric circles with the
source of the wave at the centre. A circular wave front can be obtained when a
surface of still water is disturbed by a round object such as s marble or stone.
▪ Plane wave fronts are wave fronts which are parallel to each other. Such a
wave front can be obtained when the surface of water is disturbed by a plane
object such as a ruler

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▪ Light is thought to be propagated to the Earth as plane wave fronts.

source 𝜆

ray ray

circular
𝜆 wave front plane wave fronts

A ray is a line at right angles/ perpendicular to a wave front that shows the
direction of travel of an advancing wave.
Along a wave front, every particle transmitting the wave is at the same
distance from the source of the wave and is in the same state of disturbance.
The distance between two successive wave fronts is a wavelength.

Relationship between v, f, T and 𝝀

Consider a source of waves that produces waves of frequency f and wavelength, λ
Whenever the source makes 1 oscillation, the wave travels forward by 1
wavelength, λ
If f oscillations are made per second, the wave travels forward by a distance given
by; Distance = λ𝑓 in that second.
But distance moved per second is speed, v
𝒗 = 𝛌𝒇
This is the fundamental wave equation and it applied to all wave motions.
𝛌 𝟏
It can also be written in the form 𝒗 = since 𝒇 =
𝐓 𝐓
Examples
1. A tuning fork of frequency 170Hz produces sound waves of wavelength
2.0m. Calculate the speed of sound.

2. The amplitude of a wave in a rope is 15mm. If the amplitude were changed

to 20mm, keeping the frequency the same, by what factor would the power
carried by the rope change?

Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude. We shall see that

20
later. Here the amplitude has been increased by a factor of , so the power
15
20 2
carried by the wave increases by a factor of ( ) =1.8
15
3. Water waves of wavelength 0.080m have a frequency 5.0Hz. Calculate the

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 4. The speed of sound is340𝑚𝑠 −1 . Calculate the wavelength of the sound
wave produced by a violin when a note of frequency 500Hz is played.

5. A sound wave has twice the intensity of another sound wave of the same
frequency. Calculate the ratio of the amplitudes of the waves.
6. Determine the wavelength and amplitude of each of the waves shown below.
Displacement/cm

Distance/cm
7. Sound is a mechanical wave that can be transmitted through a solid.
Calculate the frequency of sound of wavelength 0.25 m that travels through
steel at a speed of 5060 m s-1.
8. A cello string vibrates with a frequency of 64 Hz. Calculate the speed of the
transverse waves on the string given that their wavelength is 140 cm.
9. An oscillator is used to send waves along a stretched cord. Four complete
wave cycles fit on a 20 cm length of the cord when the frequency of the
oscillator is 30 Hz. For this wave, calculate:
(a) its wavelength (b) its frequency (c) its speed.
10.Copy and complete the table below (You may assume that the speed of radio
waves is 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 ).
Station Wavelength/m Frequency/ MHz
Radio A (FM) 97.6
Radio B (FM) 94.6
Radio C (LW) 1515
Radio D (MW) 693

Progressive waves
Waves which transfer energy from one point to another without the transfer of
matter are called progressive waves. In a progressive wave, the wave profile
moves from the source to the surrounding region at the same speed as the wave
motion. The vibrations of the particles are of the same amplitude and frequency,
but the phase of the vibrations changes from one point to another along the wave.
Class activity: To visualize the idea of progressive waves, attach a ribbon
on a slinky spring and observe the position of the ribbon when the slinky
waves are generated.

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Intensity of a wave
Intensity is the rate of flow of energy per unit area perpendicular to the wave
velocity. Or the rate of transfer of energy per unit area normal to the direction of
wave propagation.
It can also be defined as the energy per second flowing through an area of one
square meter perpendicular to the path of travel of the wave.
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
-2
The SI unit of intensity is Wm .

Intensity and amplitude

The intensity of a wave generally decreases as it travels along. There are two
reasons for this.
• The wave may ‘spread out’ (as in the example of sound spreading out
from the source)
A sound wave travelling outwards from the source has its energy spreading
over the surface of a sphere centered at the source. The intensity at any given
point which is at a distance x, from the source can be given by;
𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 1 𝑃
𝐼= = 2
= ( ) 2 But = 𝑘 a constant
𝐴 4𝜋𝑥 4𝜋 𝑥 4𝜋
1
𝐼 = 𝑘 ( 2)
𝑥
𝟏
𝑰∝ 𝟐
𝒙
From the above, it can be observed that the intensity of sound is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the source. This relationship
assumes that there is no absorption of wave energy.
Intensity also depends on frequency. Intensity is proportional to frequency2.
This does not apply to light or electromagnetic waves.
• The wave may be absorbed or scattered (as when light passes through the
Earth’s atmosphere). As sound travels further away from the source,
some energy is lost to the transmitting medium.
As a wave spreads out, its amplitude decreases. This suggests that the
intensity I of a wave is related to its amplitude A.
In general, intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
𝑨𝟐
𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕(𝒌)
𝑰
Take care not to confuse the relationship between intensity and amplitude
𝟏
(𝐼 ∝ 𝐴2 ) with the ‘inverse-square’ relationship (𝑰 ∝ 𝟐)
𝒙
For sound waves, intensity is associated with loudness. The higher the
intensity, the louder the sound.

Page 8
 For electromagnetic waves, Intensity is associated with the number of
photons. The higher the intensity, the greater the number of photons of the
electromagnetic wave.

Examples
1. Explain why the amplitude of a wave decreases as the distance from the
source increases.
Solution:
This is because as the distance from the source increases, there is a
decrease in the intensity of the wave caused by;
- loss of energy of the wave to the transmitting medium
- the wave energy spreading over a wider area. For a point at a
distance, r from the source.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑰 ∝ 𝟐 but also 𝑰 ∝ 𝑨𝟐 ⇒ 𝑨𝟐 ∝ 𝟐 Thus 𝑨 ∝
𝒙 𝒓 𝒙
Therefore, the amplitude is inversely proportional to the distance of the
wave from the source and so should decrease as the distance increases.
This explains why the loudness of sound decreases with increasing
distance from the source
2. A 100W lamp emits electromagnetic radiation in all directions. Assuming
the lamp to be a point source, calculate the intensity of the radiation:
(a) at a distance of 1.0 m from the lamp.
(b) at a distance of 2.0 m from the lamp.
3. Waves from a source have an amplitude of 5.0 cm and an intensity of
400 𝑊𝑚−2 .
(a) The amplitude of the waves is increased to 10.0 cm. What is their
intensity now?
(b) The intensity of the waves is decreased to 100 𝑊𝑚−2 . What is their
amplitude?

The Wave Phase and Phase difference

As mentioned earlier, a phase is a fraction of a cycle which has elapsed after a
particle in the wave passing a fixed point. The term Phase describes the point that
an oscillating particle has reached within the complete cycle of an oscillation.
▪ Particles are in phase if they are at the same stage of their motion at the same
time and are moving in the same direction. They are always 1 wavelength or 1
period apart. We could also say that the phase difference between them is thus
0oor 360o or (2𝜋𝑛 radians where n = 0, 1, ….)
▪ The Phase angle is the angular displacement between two wave oscillations. It
can also be the angular displacement between particles at different points in a
wave profile. The phase angle is represented by 𝝓 and it is a measure of how
far out of step different points are in a wave form. It is measured in radians.
Page 9
 ▪ The term Phase can also be used to describe the relative positions of the crests
or troughs of two different waves of the same frequency. When the crests and
troughs of two waves are aligned, the waves are said to be in phase. When
the crests and troughs are not aligned, the waves are said to have phase
difference.
▪ When waves are out of phase with a crest aligned with a trough, one wave is
half a cycle behind the other and the phase difference is 180o or 𝜋 radians and
are said to be in anti-phase.
▪ Therefore, the phase difference is the difference in the phase angles at any
two points along the wave motion or between two corresponding points on
two waves. The phase difference is the amount by which one oscillation leads
or lags behind another.
This phase difference is measured as a fraction of an oscillation in degrees or in
radians (its values range from 0 to 2𝜋 radians).
Consider two points P and Q on a single wave form represented on both
displacement – time and displacement –distance graphs
P P Displacement
Displacement

T 𝜆
Q Q
time distance
𝑡 𝑥

The particle at P is said to lag behind the particle at Q by a phase difference Φ

determined by t from the displacement –time graph or x from the displacement –
distance graph. Phase difference = fraction of an oscillation in radians or degrees
For a wave of period T, the phase difference between P and Q is given by;
𝒕 𝒕 𝒐
𝚽 = 𝟐𝝅 ( ) 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = [𝟑𝟔𝟎 ( )]
𝑻 𝑻
For a wave of wavelength 𝜆, the phase difference between P and Q is given
𝒙 𝒙 𝒐
by; 𝚽 = 𝟐𝝅 ( ) 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 = [𝟑𝟔𝟎 ( )]
𝝀 𝝀
These two values will exactly agree.
If you have two waves that are out of step with one another but with the
same frequency as represented below, t is the time interval out of step.
A
B
Displacement

t
time

Page 10
 1
These waves have a phase difference of one quarter of an oscillation (90o or 𝜋)
2
Wave A leads wave B by 90o or B lags behind A by 90o.
1
You might be wondering how? but from the diagram a quarter of a period (t = 𝑇)
4
1 𝑜
𝑡 𝑡 𝑜 𝑇
4
Phase difference = 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = [360 ( )] = [360 ( )] = 90o
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇
Examples
1. The figures below shows two oscillations which are out of phase. By what
fractions of an oscillation are they out of phase? Why would it not make
sense to ask the same question about figure (b)?
Displacement

(a)

time

(b)
Displacement

time

Solution
✓ Half an oscillation (180o or 𝜋 radians)
✓ The waves have different frequencies so the phase difference is continuously
changing.
2. Which wave leads the other in a displacement-distance and a displacement-
time graphs below
A
A
B
B

(a) (b)
Solution
✓ In (a) wave A leads wave B by phase 𝚽. Φ in degrees can be obtained
𝒙 𝚽
from the relationship =
𝝀 𝟑𝟔𝟎

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 ✓ In (b) wave B leads wave A by phase 𝚽. Φ in degrees can be obtained
𝒕 𝚽
from the relationship =
𝑻 𝟑𝟔𝟎
3. The figure below shows displacement – time graphs for two identical
oscillators. Calculate the Phase difference between the two oscillations. Give
your answer in degrees and in radians.
Displacement/cm

Solution
time interval between two corresponding points on the graph is t = 17ms
the period for one complete oscillation is T = 60ms
Remember a complete oscillation is when the object goes from one side to
the other and then back again.
𝑡 𝑡 𝑜
Phase difference = 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = [360 ( )]
𝑇 𝑇
17𝑚𝑠 17𝑚𝑠 𝑜
Phase difference = 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = [360 (60𝑚𝑠)]
60𝑚𝑠
Phase difference = 1.8 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝒐
4. By referring to the figure below, complete the table by writing down all the
pairs of particles that are; in phase (1λ or 1T apart), 180o out of phase
1 1 1 1
( λor T apart) and 90o out of phase ( λor T apart).
2 2 4 4
B F

A C E G

D H
Particles in phase Particles 180o out of Particles 90o out of phase
1 1 1 1
(1λ or 1T apart) phase ( λor T apart) ( λor T apart)
2 2 4 4
A an E A and C, B and D A and B , B and C
B and F C and E, D and F D and E, C and D
C and G E and G, F and H E and F, F and G
D and H G and H

Page 12
 Mark a point on the curve above which is 45o out of phase with
particle A. Label that point X
5. Find the phase difference between two waves each of wavelength 40 cm
when one leads the other by a distance of
𝟑
(i) 20 cm, (ii) 30cm (iii) 40 cm [Ans. 𝝅, 𝝅, 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔]
𝟐

Determination of the frequency of sound using a calibrated c.r.o.

Remember that the frequency of a wave depends on the frequency of
vibration of the source.
A c.r.o with a calibrated time-base may be used to determine the frequency of
sound. A method of measuring the frequency of sound waves is illustrated in the
figure below.
A signal generator and loudspeaker are used to produce a note of a single
frequency. The microphone is connected to the Y-plates of the c.r.o.

o An oscilloscope is a test instrument which

allows you to look at the ‘shape’ of
electrical signals by displaying a graph of
voltage against time on its screen. It is like
a voltmeter with the valuable extra
function of showing how the voltage varies
with time. The 1cm grid enables you to
take measurements of voltage and time
from the screen.

A c.ro has a calibrate time –base, so that measurements from the screen of the c.r.o can be used
to give values of time intervals. One application is to measure the frequency of a periodic signal,
for example the sine –wave output of a signal generator. The signal is connected to the Y –input
of the c.r.o, and the y –amplifier and time –base controls are adjusted until a trace of atleast one
but fewer than about five, complete cycles of the signal is contained on the screen. The distance
L on the graticule (the scale on the screen) corresponding to one complete cycle is measured. It
is good practice to measure the length of say four cycles, and then divide by four so as to obtain
an average value of L.

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 The graticule will probably be divided into cm
and perhaps mm or two –millimeter divisions.
If the time base setting is x (which will be in
units of seconds, milliseconds or microseconds
per centimeter), the time T for one cycle
(period) is given by T = Lx. The frequency f
𝟏
of the signal is then obtained from f = 𝑻

Examples
1. The microphone above detects the sound and a trace on the c.r.o. can be
obtained by adjusting the Y-plate sensitivity and the time-base setting. A
typical trace is shown in the figure below

The distance between peaks or troughs is measured using the scale on the c.r.o.
display. The time-base setting is used to determine the time period T and
frequency of the sound. The calculated value can be compared with that shown
on the signal generator.
The time-base setting for the c.r.o. used to obtain the trace in the figure above is
2.0 ms cm-1. Determine for the sound.
(a) the time period, [Ans. 0.006 s]
(b) the frequency. [Ans. 1Hz]
2. The time-base on a c.r.o. is set on 0.50 ms cm-1. The trace obtained for a sound
wave shows three complete time periods in 7.2 cm. Calculate
(a) the time period
(b) the frequency
3. The output of a signal generator is connected to the Y –input of c.r.o. When the
time – base control is set at 0.50 ms per centimeter, the trace shown is
obtained. What is the frequency of the signal?

Page 14
 Two complete cycles of the trace occupy 6.0cm
on the graticule. The length of one cycle is
therefore 3.0cm. The time –base setting is 0.50ms
cm-1, so 3.0cm is equivalent to 3.0 x 0.5 = 0.15
ms. The period T = 0.15ms. The frequency is
1
thus 1.5×10−3 = 𝟔𝟕𝟎𝐇𝐳

4. The same signal is applied to the Y-input of the c.r.o as in the example 1, but
the time –base control is changed to 2.0ms per centimeter. How many
complete cycles of the trace will appear on the screen, which is 8.0cm wide.
(Ans. 10cycles)
Question: A loudspeaker produces a sound wave of constant frequency. Outline
how a cathode –ray oscilloscope (c.r.o) may be used to determine this frequency.
Solution
▪ connect terminals of loudspeaker to Y –plates of c.r.o
▪ adjust the c.r.o to produce steady wave of 1 or 2 cycles or wavelengths on
screen
▪ measure the length of one cycle (wavelength 𝜆(𝑐𝑚)) and note time –base
b(s cm-1)
▪ period T= 𝜆𝑏
1 1
▪ frequency =
𝑇 𝜆𝑏

General points to note.

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against
time. The shape of this graph is determined by the nature of the input signal.
In addition to the properties labeled on the graph, there is frequency which is
the number of cycles per second

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is

measured in Volts, V.
Peak voltage is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is
another name for amplitude.
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 The period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is
measured in seconds, but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms)
and microseconds (𝝁𝒔) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s an 1 𝜇𝑠 = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz
(kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz =
1000000Hz.
1
Frequency = and vice versa.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
Voltage is shown on the vertical y- axis and the scale is determined
by the Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒎 × 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕 /𝒄𝒎

Sample Past paper questions about c.r.o

1

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2

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 Solution

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5

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7

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 9

10

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12

13

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Solution

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 Solution

Doppler Effect
When you look in the night sky, you observe as if the colour of a moving star
keeps changing.
You must also have observed that the siren of an ambulance, police car and that of
a jet plane appears to increase in pitch as they approach you whereas it appears to
become lower as they go away from you. This phenomenon is called Doppler
Effect.
Doppler Effect sound is the apparent change in the frequency of sound when there
is relative motion between the source and the observer. It occurs with sound waves
and all electromagnetic waves.
– Imagine you are in a boat that is lying at anchor on a gentle sea where the
waves have a period of T = 2s. This means that every 2s a crest hits your
boat with the water waves moving say toward the boat. If you set your
stopwatch to t = 0, just as the crest hits, the watch reads 2s when the next
crest hits, 4s when the 3rd crest hits, and so on.
1 1
From 𝑓 = , 𝑓 = = 0.5Hz
𝑇 2
– Suppose you start heading directly into the oncoming waves. Again you set
your watch to t = 0 as a crest hits the front of your boat.
Now, however, because you are moving towards the next wave crest as it
moves toward you, it hits you less than 2s after the 1 st hit. In other words, the
period you observe is shorter than the 2s period which you observed when
you were stationary.
1
From 𝑓 = , you observe a higher wave frequency than when at rest.
𝑇
– If you turn around and move in the same direction as the waves, you observe
the opposite effect. If you set your watch to t = 0 as a crest hits the back of
the boat, because you are now moving away from the next crest, more than
2s have elapsed on your watch by the time that crest catches you.
1
So from 𝑓 = , you observe a lower frequency than when you were at rest.
𝑇
➢ The above effects occur because the relative speed between your boat and
the waves depend on the direction of travel and on the speed of your boat.
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➢ You must have noticed that the whistle of a train or the siren of a police car
appears to increase in frequency as it moves towards a stationary observer.
The frequency change due to the relative motion between a source of sound
or light and an observer is known at the Doppler effect.
When the observer and the source of sound are both stationary, the number
of waves per second reaching the observer will be the same frequency as the
source. This is illustrated below.

The source emits waves of wavelength 𝜆. The stationary observer receives

waves with the same wavelength 𝜆.
When the source moves towards the observer the effect is to shorten the
wavelength of the waves reaching the observer.

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Calculation of apparent frequency
Let: 𝑣 − 𝑏𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑣𝑠 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑓𝑠 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒.
𝜆 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠.
We shall consider the following cases:
1. Source moving towards the stationary observer
▪ For a stationary source, S, 𝑓𝑠 waves are sent out in one second towards the
observer O and occupy a distance, v (distance = 𝑣 × 𝑡 = 𝑣 × 1 = 𝑣)
S O
𝑓𝑠 waves
𝒗
𝒗 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The wavelength 𝜆 is given by 𝝀 = . ( )
𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑠
If an observer was stationary, he or she would deect wave fronts at a rate 𝑓 𝑠
(i.e, vs = 0).
The observed frequency, 𝑓𝑜 = source frequency 𝑓𝑠
▪ If the source moves with a speed 𝑢𝑠 towards O, the 𝑓𝑠 waves sent out occupy
a smaller distance, (are compressed), i.e. (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 ) , because S moves a
distance 𝑣𝑠 towards O in one second.
S 𝑣𝑠 O
𝑓𝑠
𝒗waves
− 𝒗𝒔
As a result, the wavelength 𝜆𝑜 , measured by an observer O is shorter than
the wavelength 𝜆𝑜 of the source. In fact the wave fronts heard by the
observer are closer together than they would be if the source were not
moving.
During each vibration, which lasts for a time interval T (the period), by this
𝑣
amount the source moves a distance ∆𝜆 = 𝑣𝑠 𝑇 = 𝑠 and the wavelength is
𝑓𝑠
shortened. Therefore, the observed wavelength 𝜆𝑜 is
𝑣 𝑣
𝜆𝑜 = 𝜆𝑠 − ∆𝜆 = 𝜆𝑠 − 𝑠 but 𝜆𝑠 =
𝑓𝑠 𝑓𝑠
𝒗−𝑣𝑠
Thus the apparent wavelength 𝜆𝑜 of the waves that reach O is 𝜆𝑜 =
𝑓𝑠
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑂
∴ The apparent frequency 𝑓𝑜 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂
𝒗 𝒗 𝒗𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑜 = = 𝒗−𝑣𝑠 =
𝜆𝑜 𝒗−𝑣𝑠
𝑓𝑠
𝒗𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑜 =
𝒗 − 𝑣𝑠

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 Since (𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 ) < 𝑣, the apparent frequency 𝑓𝑜 is greater than 𝑓𝑠 .
Hence the observed frequency is increased whenever the source is moving
toward the observer.
2. Source moving away from a stationary observer
If S moves with velocity 𝑢𝑠 away from O, the 𝑓𝑠 waves emitted move a
distance 𝒗 + 𝒗𝒔 towards the observer in 1 second.
𝑣𝑠 S O
𝑓𝑠 waves
𝒗 + 𝑣𝑠
When the source moves away from a stationary observer, the observer
measures a wavelength 𝜆′ that is greater than 𝜆 and hears a decreased
𝑣
frequency. 𝜆𝑜 = 𝜆 + ∆𝜆 = 𝜆 + 𝑠
𝑓
𝒗+𝑣𝑠
The apparent wavelength 𝜆𝑜 of the waves that reach O is 𝜆𝑜 =
𝑓𝑠
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑂
∴ The apparent frequency 𝑓𝑜 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑂
𝒗 𝒗 𝒗𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑜 = = 𝒗+𝑣𝑠 =
𝜆𝑜
𝑓𝑠
𝒗+𝑣𝑠 𝒗𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑜 =
𝒗 + 𝑣𝑠

Since (𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠 ) > 𝑣, the apparent frequency 𝑓𝑜 is lower than 𝑓𝑠 .

Hence the observed frequency is decreased whenever the source is moving
away from the observer.
Thus we come up with the general Doppler shift expression below.
𝒗
𝒇𝒐 = ( ) 𝒇𝒔
𝒗±𝑣 𝑠

The general expression follows the following sign convention

➢ For 𝑣 ± 𝑣𝑠 , we use (+) sign when source moves away from the observer, and
(−) sign when source moves towards the observer.
A convenient rule concerning the above signs for you to remember when working
with all Doppler Effect problems is as follows:
✓ The word toward is associated with an increase in observed frequency.
✓ The words away from are associated with a decrease in observed frequency.

. The frequency is increased when the source moves towards the

observer and the frequency is decreased when the source moves
away from the observer

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Note:
Although the Doppler Effect is most typically experienced with sound
waves, it is a phenomenon that is common to all waves including light.
In astronomy, the wavelength tends to be measured rather than the
frequency. If the measured wavelength of an observed spectral line is less
than that measured for a stationary source, then the distance between the
source (star) and detector is decreasing (blue shift). If the measured
wavelength is greater than the value of a stationary source, then the source is
moving away from the detector (red shift). The blue and red shifts are
referred to in this way as red has the longest wavelength in the visible
spectrum and blue the shortest. Astronomers use the effect to determine the
speeds of stars, galaxies, and other celestial objects relative to the Earth.
The microwave Doppler Effect is used in police radar systems to measure
the speeds of motor vehicles and also used for tracking satellites.

Examples
1. A train approaching a railway crossing at 20 m/s sounds a whistle of
frequency 440 Hz when 1.0 km from the crossing. If there is no wind, and
speed in air is 320 m/s, what frequency is heard by a stationary observer at
the crossing?
Solution
𝒗
𝒇𝒐 = ( ) 𝒇𝒔 , vs =20 m/s, v = 320 m/s, 𝒇𝒔 =440 Hz
𝒗±𝑣𝑠

Source is moving towards a stationary observer, 𝒇𝒐 > 𝒇𝒔

𝑣𝑓 320×440
Thus, 𝒇𝒐 = = = 𝟒𝟔𝟗. 𝟑𝑯𝒛
𝑣−𝑣𝑠 320−20
2. A car travelling at 20 m/s has a siren that produces a sound of frequency
500Hz. Determine the difference between the frequency of sound heard by
an observer at the road side as the car approaches and as it recedes from the
observer (speed of sound is 330 m/s).
Solution; vs = 20 m/s, v = 330 m/s, 𝒇𝒔 = 500 Hz
When the car is approaching;
𝑣𝒇𝒔 330 × 500
𝑓 ′1 = = = 𝟓𝟑𝟐. 𝟑𝑯𝒛
𝑣 − 𝑣𝑠 330 − 20
When the car recedes;
𝑣𝒇𝒔 330 × 500
𝑓′2 = = = 𝟒𝟕𝟏. 𝟒𝑯𝒛
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠 330 + 20
The difference between the frequencies is = 𝑓 ′1 − 𝑓 ′ 2 = 𝟔𝟎. 𝟗𝑯𝒛
Note: Doppler Effect has these applications
- used to estimate the speeds of distant objects like stars, galaxies etc.
- used by the police to estimate the speed of a car etc.
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3. (i) A train moving with uniform velocity, u, sounds a horn as it passes a
stationary observer. Derive the expression for apparent frequency of the
sound detected by the observer.
(ii) If the frequency of the sound detected by the observer after the train
passes is 1.2 times lower than the frequency detected in (i), find the speed of
the train (speed of sound in air 330 m/s)
Solution
(i) When the train is moving towards observer, apparent frequency is given
𝑣𝒇
by; 𝒇′ 𝟏 = 𝒔
𝑣−𝑣𝑠
(ii) When the train is passes away from the observer, wavelength of the
𝑣+𝑣𝑠
waves reaching the observer 𝜆2 =
𝒇𝒔
𝒗 𝒗 𝑣
apparent frequency is given by; 𝒇′ 𝟏 = = ( 𝒗+𝒗𝒔 ) = ( ) 𝒇𝒔
𝜆2 𝑣+𝑣𝑠
𝒇𝒔
1
when f2 is 1.2 times lower than f1, ⇒ 𝑓2 = 𝑓1
1.2
𝑓2 1
=
𝑓1 1.2
𝑣 𝒗 1
( ) 𝒇𝒔 ÷ ( ) 𝒇𝒔 =
𝑣 + 𝑣𝑠 𝒗 − 𝒗𝒔 1.2
𝑣 − 𝑢𝑠 1
=
𝑣 + 𝑢𝑠 1.2
330 − 𝑢𝑠 1
=
330 + 𝑢𝑠 1.2
𝒖𝒔 = 𝟑𝟎𝒎/𝒔
Therefore speed of the train is 30m/s
4. Rumenera’s alarm clock awakens him with a steady and irritating sound of
frequency 600 Hz. One morning, it malfunctions and cannot be turned off. In
frustration, Rumenera drops the alarm clock out of his three –story dorm
window, 15.0m from the ground. Assume the speed of sound is 343 m/s.
As Rumenera listens to the falling alarm clock, what frequency does he hear
just before he hears the clock striking the ground? [Ans.571.43]
5. The siren of a police car at rest emits at a predominant frequency of 1600
Hz. What frequency will you hear if you are at rest and the police car moves
at 25.0 m/s (a) toward you, and (b) away from you?
(speed of sound in air is 343 m/s)
𝒗
Solution: Using 𝒇𝒐 = ( ) 𝒇𝒔
𝒗±𝑣𝑠
(a) The source moves towards you (giving higher frequency;𝒇𝒐 > 𝒇𝒔 ) so we
use a minus sign.

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 𝑣 343
So we use 𝒇𝒐 = ( ) 𝒇𝒔 = (343−25) × 1600 = 𝟏, 𝟕𝟐𝟓. 𝟕𝟗 Hz
𝑣−𝑣 𝑠
(b) The source moves away from you (giving a lower frequency), so we use
the plus sign.
𝑣 343
So we use 𝒇𝒐 = ( ) 𝒇𝒔 = ( ) × 1600 = 𝟏, 𝟒𝟗𝟏. 𝟑𝟎 Hz
𝑣+𝒗𝑠 343+25
A car sounds its horn as it travels at a speed of 15 m/s along a straight road
between two stationary observers Keza and Niyongabo. Keza hears a
frequency of 538 Hz while Niyongabo hears a lower frequency. Calculate
the frequency heard by Niyongabo assuming the speed of sound in air is 340
m/s.(Hint obtain frequency of the source 𝒇𝒔 = 514.26 Hz).[Ans. 492.54 Hz ]
6. The sound emitted from the siren of an ambulance has a frequency of
1500Hz. The speed of sound is 340 m/s. Calculate the difference in
frequency heard by a stationary observer as the ambulance travels towards
and then away from the observer at a speed 30 m/s.
7. A police car travels towards a stationary observer at a speed of 15 m/s. The
siren on the car emits a sound of frequency 250Hz. Calculate the observed
frequency. The speed of sound is 340 m/s. [Ans. 260 Hz]

Electromagnetic waves
This unit is concerned with the properties of electromagnetic waves, which (unlike
mechanical waves) can propagate through empty space.
Visible light is just a small region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
James Clerk Maxwell’s (1831 -1879) crowning acheievement was to show that a
beam of light is a travelling wave of eletric and magnetic fields, an electro-
magnetic wave. .It is not immediately obvious that light has any connection at all
with electricity, magnetism and waves. These topics had been the subject of study
by physicists for centuries before the connections between them became apparent.
An electric current always gives rise to a magnetic field (this is known as
electromagnetism). A magnetic field is created by any moving charged particles
such as electrons. Similarly, a changing magnetic field will induce a current in a
nearby conductor. These observations led to the unification of the theories of
electricity and magnetism
In maxwell’s time, the visible, infrared and ultraviolet form of light were the only
electromagnetic waves known. Heinrich Hertz then discovered what we now call
radio waves and verified that they move through the laboratory at the same speed
as visible light.We now know a wide spectrum of electromagnetic waves. The sun,
being the dominant source of these waves, continually bathes us with
electromagnetic waves throughout this spectrum.
Clerk showed that the speed of Em waves in vacuum was not dependent on the
frequency of the waves

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The nature of Electromagnetic waves
All electromagnetic waves are transverse waves, consisting of electric and
magnetic fields which oscillate at right angles (90o) to each other and to the
direction in which the wave is travelling. This is illustrated in the figure below.

y
oscillating
E electric field

B
direction of
z transfer of
oscillating energy
magnetic field x

Electromagnetic (Em) waves show all the properties common to wave motions:
- Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
- They are produced by oscillating charged particles.
- They do not require any medium for their propagation i.e. propagate
through a vacuum.
- All Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light (3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠) in a
vacuum but they have different wavelengths and frequencies.
- They show diffraction, reflection and refraction.
- They obey the principle of superposition and produce interference patterns.
- They show polarization effect

Electromagnetic spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into regions based on the properties of
electromagnetic waves in these regions. The regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum in order of increasing wavelength are: gamma (𝛾) rays, X-rays,
ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves and radio waves.
Note that since they all move at the same speed of light, increasing wavelength
means decreasing frequency. Thus, the regions in order of increasing frequency
are: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma
rays. We now regard all of these types of radiation as parts of the same
electromagnetic spectrum, and the names given to the types of waves are simply
for convinience in describing the region of the spectrum in which they lie.
▪ Radio waves, whose wavelengths range from more than 104 m to about 0.1m,
are the result of charges accelerating through conducting wires and are used
in radio and television communication systems.
Page 32
▪ Microwaves have wavelengths ranging from approximately 0.3m to 10−4 m
and are also generated by electronic devices. Because of their short
wavelengths, they are well suited for radar systems and for studying the atomic
and molecular properties of matter.Microwave ovens are an interesting
domestic application of these waves. Satellite television and telephones also
use microwaves.
▪ Infrared waves have wavelengths ranging from approximately 10−3 m to the
longest wavelength of visible light, 7 × 10−7 𝑚. These waves, produced by
molecules and room-temperature objects, are readily absorbed by most
materials. The infrared (IR) energy absorbed by a substance appears as
internal energy because the energy agitates the atoms of the object, increasing
their vibrational or translational motion, which results in a temperature
increase. Infrared radiation has practical and scientific applications in many
areas, including physical therapy, IR photography, lasers, electrical
appliances (radiant heater and grills), remote controllers for televisions and
intruder alarms etc.
▪ Visible Light, the most familiar form of electromagnetic waves, is the part of
the electromagnetic spectrum that the human eye can detect. Light is produced
by rearrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules.The various
wavelengths of visible light, which coresspond to different colors, range from
red (𝜆 ≈ 7 × 10−7 𝑚)to violet (𝜆 ≈ 4 × 10−7 𝑚).The sensitivity of the human
eye is a function of wavelength, being a maximum at a wavelength of about
5 × 10−7 m. With this in mind, why do you suppose tennis balls often have a
yellow-green color? Monochromatic light (light of a single wavelength and
colour) is used in lasers.
▪ Ultraviolet waves cover wavelengths ranging from approximately 4 × 10−7 𝑚
to 6 × 10−10 𝑚. The sun is an important source of utraviolet (UV) light, which
is the main cause of sunburn. Sunscreen lotions are transparent to visible light
but absorb most UV light. UV rays have also been implicated in the formation
of cataracts, a clouding of the lens inside the eye.
Most of the UV light from the sun is absorbed by ozone (O 3) molecules in the
Earth’s upper atmosphere, in a layer called the stratosphere. The ozone shield
converts the high-energy UV radiation to infrared radiation, which in turn
warms the stratosphere.
▪ X-rays have wavelengths in the range from approximately 10−8 𝑚 to 6 ×
10−12 𝑚. The most common source of X-rays is the stopping of high-energy
electrons upon bombarding a metal target. X-rays are used as a diagnostic
tool in medicine and as a treatment for certain forms of cancer. Because X-
rays damage or destroy living tissues and organisms, care must be taken to
avoid unnecessary exposure or over exposure. X-rays are also used in the

Page 33
 study of crystal structures because X-ray wavelengths are comparable to the
atomic separation distance in solids (about 0.1 nm).
▪ Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves emitted by radioactive nuclei (such
as 60Co and 137Cs) and during certain nuclear reactions. High energy gamma
rays are a component of cosmic rays that enter the Earth’s atmosphere from
space.They have wavelengths ranging from approximately 10−10 𝑚 to less than
10−14 𝑚. They are highly penetrating and produce serious damage when
absorbed by living tissues. Consquently, those working near such dangerous
radiation must be protected with heavily absorbing materials, such as thick
layers of lead.
Note the wide ranges of frequencies and wavelengths. No sharp dividing
point exists between one type of wave and the next.
Remember that all forms of the various types of radiation are produced by
the same phenomenon –accelerating charges.
The figure below indicates the regions of the electromagnetic radiations
Energy increases
Short wavelength long wavelength

10-5nm 10-3nm 1nm 103nm 106nm 1m 103m

Gamma X rays Ultraviolet Infrared Microwaves Radiowave
s
high frequency low frequency

Visible light

𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 Hz 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 Hz
Summary of the approximate wavelengths of the principle radiations
Radiation wavelength /m Freq/Hz Uses
−10 −16
Gamma 10 − 10 Cancer treatment, Medical
Imaging
−9 −12
X-rays 10 − 10 Medical Imaging
−7 −9
Ultraviolet 10 − 10 Vitamin D synthesis
−7
Visible light 4 × 10 − 7 × 10 −7

Infrared 10−2 − 10−6 Bluetooth, Tv Remotes

−3 −1
Microwaves 10 − 10 Wifi & satellite communication
Radio 10−1 − 104 Communication
waves

Page 34
 A simple mnemonic to remember the order of the electromagnetic spectrum in
order of decreasing wavelength but increasing frequency is
“Rumenra’s Mother Is Visiting Uncle Xavier’s Garden”
This means Radiowaves have the longest wavelength but lowest frequency
and Gamma rays have shortest wavelength but highest frequency.
Group Assignment.
1. Come up with a personal mnemonic to remember the order of the EM
spectrum.
2. In your respective groups research and prepare a presentation on one of the
regions of the EM spectrum. In your discussion you must include
- range of frequencies and wavelengths
- speeds in different media
- method of production
- method of detection
- use in different spheres of interest

Note: Although light, X rays, infra-red radiation e.t.c behave, in many situations,
like waves, experiments with very low levels of light show that they also have
particle like properties. These particles of electromagnetic radiation are called
photons. We shall discuss this in A’level.

Quick self check

1. Red light of wavelength 700 nm in a vacuum travels into glass, where its
speed decreases to 2.0 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Determine:
(a) the frequency of the light in a vacuum
(b) its frequency and wavelength in the glass.
2. A sinusoidal electromagnetic wave of frequency 40.0 MHz travels in free
space in the x direction as shown in the figure below.
y
E Determine the wavelength and period
of the wave.
c
B [Ans. 7.50m, 𝟐. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝒔 ]
x
z
3. In many kitchens, a microwave oven is used to cook food. The frequency of
the microwaves is on the order of 1010 Hz. The wavelengths of these
microwaves are on the order of
A. kilometers B. meters C. centimeters D. micrometers
Page 35
 4. Calculate the frequency in MHz of a radio wave of wavelength 250m.
5. Calculate the wavelength in nm of an X-ray wave of frequency 2.0 ×
1018 Hz. [Ans. 0.15 nm]
6. Calculate the frequency of red light of wavelength 6.5 × 10−7 m.
7. Calculate the wave length of microwaves of frequency 8.0 GHz.
8. A beam of red light has an ampliude that is 2.5 times the amplitude of a
second beam of the same colour. Calculate the ratio of the intensities of the
waves.
9. State one property of electromagnetic waves that is not common to other
transverse waves.
10.The seven regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are represented by blocks
labeled A to G in the figure below.

A typical wavelength for the visible region D is 500 nm.

(i) Name the principal radiations and give a typical wavelength for each of the
regions B, E and F.

(ii) All the waves in the spectrum shown above can be polarized. Explain the
meaning of the term polarized.
11.For each of the following frequencies, state the type of electromagnetic
radiation it corresponds to.
(a) 200 kHz (b) 100 MHz (c) 5 × 1014 Hz (d) 1018 Hz
12.For each of the following wavelengths measured in a vacuum, state the type
of electromagnetic radiation it corresponds to
(a) 1 km (b) 3cm (c) 5000nm (d) 500nm (e) 50nm (f) 10-12m
13.A radio wave of frequency on the order of 105 Hz is used to carry a sound
wave with a frequency on the order of 103 Hz. The wavelength of this radio
wave is on the order of
A. kilometers B. meters C. centimeters D. micrometers [A]

Page 36
 14.When light (or other electromagnetic radiation) travels across a given region,
what is it that oscillates? What is it that is transported?
✓ Energy moves, no matter moves but the electric and magnetic fields
oscillate at a fixed point. The fields constitute the medium for the
wave.
15.What is the fundamental source of electromagnetic radiation?
✓ Acceleration of electric charges.
16.What are the wavelength ranges in (a) the AM radio band (540-1600 kHz),
and (b) the FM radio band (88.0 -108 MHz)?

Polarisation
Earlier on we described the transverse nature of light and all other
electromagnetic waves. Polarization discussed in this section, is firm evidence of
this transverse nature.
Simple analogy of Polarisation
➢ Imagine you fix one end of a rope to a post. Grab the other end of the rope
and pull it tight so that it is stretched out horizontally. Move the rope
repeatedly vertically up and down. This will produce a transverse wave on
the rope. The vibrations of the rope are in just one plane -the vertical plane.
The vibrations are described as plane polarized in the vertical plane.
➢ You could also produce plane polarized vibrations in the horizontal plane by
moving the rope repeatedly from side to side.
➢ If u keep changing the direction of vibration of the rope, you will produce an
unpolarized wave where the vibrations are in more than one plane.
➢ If the plane polarized wave is incident at a vertical slit, it will pass through
this slit as shown below. When the slit is turned through 90o, the plane
polarized wave will be blocked.
Therefore, when an unpolarized wave is incident at a vertical slit, then all
vibrations, other than those in the vertical plane (in blue), will be blocked. The
electric and magnetic vibrations of an electromagnetic wave occurs in numerous
planes. The wave passing through the slit will be a plane polarized wave in the
vertical plane.
vertical slit
plane polarized
wave

un polarised
wave Direction of
wave energy

Page 37
Unlike longitudinal waves, Polarisation is a phenomenon associated with only
transverse waves.
Longitudinal waves (such as sound) vibrate along the direction of wave travel,
so no matter what the orientation of the slit, the waves will be able to get
through.

Polarisation of light
Light is a transverse wave. It consists of vibrations of electric and magnetic fields
travelling through space. Light which is unpolarised has vibrations in all
directions at right angles to the direction in which it is travelling.
When the light passes through a piece of Polaroid (Polarising filter), it becomes
polarized.
Plane Polarized light waves are light waves in which the vibrations/
oscillations occur in a single plane.

So, polarization of light can best be defined as the process of confining

the vibrations of the particles in a single plane normal to the direction of
propagation.

A transverse wave is said to be plane polarized when all particles oscillate in

the same plane all the time.
An unpolarised transverse wave can be polarized using a polarizer (Polaroid
filter) as shown below.

Unpolarized light Vertically

Polaroid Polarized light
How polarization occurs
Plane polarized light can be produced by selective absorption using a Polaroid.
To produce the polarized light, un polarized light is made incident on a plane sheet
of Polaroid. The transmitted light will be completely plane polarized.
The Polaroid sheet absorbs the light vibrations in one plane leaving only vibrations
in a perpendicular plane to pass through.

Page 38
A Polaroid consists of a long chains of molecules all aligned in one
particular direction that absorb the energy from the oscillating electric field.
Any electric field vibrations along these chains of molecules are absorbed.
The energy absorbed by these molecules is transferred to thermal energy in
the Polaroid.
Electric field vibrations at right angles to the chains of molecules are
transmitted with negligible absorption.
If these molecules are arranged vertically, they absorb light waves whose
electric field is oscillating up and down and light waves (whose electric field
is oscillating from side to side) pass through unaffected. This is now
described as plane polarized.
The general rule is that the electromagnetic vibrations that are in a direction
parallel to the alignment of the molecules are absorbed.
The figure below shows the unpolarized light incident at a polaroid – the
transmitted light is plane polarized.

When two Polaroids are used, plane polarised light produced by the first
Polaroid will also pass straight through the second Polaroid as shown in (a)
since its transmission axis is initially vertical like that of the first one. The
second Polaroid is often known as the analyser.
When the analyser is rotated through 90o, so that the transmission axis is
horizontal, this time the analyser will absorb all the light as shown in (b).
The analyser will appear black. Turning the analyser through a further 90o
will let the light through the analyser again. What happens at other angles
between 0o and 90o is discussed under Malus’ law.

Page 39
 (a)

(b)

The following are some effects that use polarization of light. You may research
more about them.
❖ Polaroid sunglasses: When light reflects off a shiny surface, such as glass,
water or even snow, the reflected light is partly polarized. These reduce
glare by one transmitting plane of polarization of light waves only, so the
amount of unpolarised light reaching the eyes is reduced. This is how your
Polaroid sunglasses work. Polarising filters help in photography.
❖ Stresses in materials: When materials are stressed (for instance, when they
form part of a structure such as a bridge), some parts may become more
stressed than others. This can lead to unexpected failure of the structure.
Engineers make models from transparent plastic materials. If the model is
viewed through a Polaroid, areas of stress concentration show up where the
coloured bands are closest together.
❖ Liquid-crystal displays: The liquid-crystal displays of some calculators and
laptop screens produce plane polarized light. You can investigate this effect
by putting a piece of Polaroid over the display and rotating it. Or you can
twist the polaroid on your calculator display and see it vanish. Try it out.

Page 40
Malus’s law

The figure above shows un polarised light incident at a polaroid (polarizer) where
it is plane polarised. The plane polarised light is now incident on another polaroid
(analyser) at an angle ϕ to the axis of transmision.
Now you already know that when ϕ = 0(plane of incident light is parallel
to the axis of transmission), then the light will go through the polaroid, and
when ϕ = 90𝑜 (plane of incident light is perpendicular to the axis of
transmission), there is no transmittted light.
The intensity of the transmitted light depends on the angle ϕ.
Let us consider the incident plane polarised light to the polaroid to be of amplitude
𝑨𝒐 . Ofcourse only a component of the amplitude of the incident light parallel to the
transmission axis of the polaroid will go through the polaroid.

Page 41
From the diagram, the component of the amplitude transmitted is 𝑨𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟.
Recall that intensity of light is directly proportional to the amplitude squared.
Therefore incident intensity 𝑰𝒐 ∝ 𝑨𝒐 𝟐
Thus, 𝑰𝒐 = 𝒌𝑨𝒐 𝟐
Intensity transmitted, 𝑰 = 𝒌 (𝑨𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟)𝟐
𝑰 = 𝒌𝑨𝒐 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛟
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝛟
Where is the intensity of the incident and I is the transmitted intensity at an angle
between the transmission axis of the Polaroid and the plane of the incident
polarized wave
The relationship 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛟 is known as Malus’s law.
The fraction of the light transmitted is equal to 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝛟. This means that a
graph of I against 𝛟 is a cosine squared graph as shown below.

From the graph, you notice maximum intensity when ϕ = 0𝑜 , 180o and so
on and zero intensity when, ϕ = 90𝑜 , 270o and so on.

Self-check
1. State what is meant by plane polarized light.
2. Vertically plane polarized light is incident on three polarizing filters. The
transmission axis of the first Polaroid is vertical. The transmission axis of
the second filter is 45o to the vertical and the transmission axis of the last
filter is horizontal. Determine the intensity of light emerging from the final
filter.
3. Plane polarized light of intensity 20 Wm-2 is incident at a polaroid. Calculate
the intensity of the transmitted light when the angle between the plane of
polarization of the incident light and the transmission axis of the Polaroid is
(a) 30o (a) 45o (c) 60o (d) 75o (e) 90o
4. Plane polarized light is incident at a Polaroid. Calculate the angle,𝜃 , which
gives transmitted light of intensity 60% that of the incident intensity of light.

Page 42
Superposition of waves
In this section we shall discuss the wave properties of interference and diffraction

Two-source Interference
Any moment now the unsuspecting fisherman in the figure below is going to
experience the effects of interference. The amplitude of oscillation of his boat will
be significantly affected by two approaching waves and their interaction when they
reach his position.

If two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement is the sum of the
individual displacements. Recall that displacement is a vector quantity. The
overlapping waves are said to interfere. This may lead to a resultant wave of
either a larger or a small displacement than either of the two component waves.
Interference is the superposition/overlaping of waves from coherent sources at a
point resulting into alternate regions of maximum and minimum intensity i.e.
points of reinforcement and cancellations
We shall explain coherent sources under sound wave.
In the laboratory interference can be demonstrated in a ripple tank by using two
point sources.
The two dippers in the ripple
tank shown in the figure are
positioned so that they are just
touching the surface. When the
bar vibrates, each dipper acts
as a source of circular ripples
spreading outwards. Where
these sets of ripples overlap, an
interference pattern is
observed.

Page 43
The figures below show clearly how the interference pattern arises

lines of maximum
crest + crest
tough + trough displacement
crest + trough
trough
crest

point sources

Another way to observe interference in a ripple tank is to use plane waves

passing through two gaps in a barrier. The water waves are diffracted at the
two gaps and then interfere beyond the gaps. We shall see this later under
diffraction.
The figure above shows two waves arriving at a point at the same time.
If the two waves shown above arrive at a point at the same time in phase –
that is, if their crests arrive at exactly the same time – they interfere
constructively. A resultant wave will be produced which has crests much
higher than either of the two individual waves, and troughs which are much
deeper.
If the two incoming waves have the same frequency and equal amplitude A,
the resultant wave produced has an amplitude of 2A. The frequency of the
resultant is the same as that of the incoming waves. This is called
superposition of waves.

Page 44
Illustration of constructive interference
A

2A
+ =

If the two waves arrive in anti-phase (with a phase difference of 𝜋 or 180o)

the crest of one wave arrives at the same time as the trough from another,
they will interfere destructively. The resultant wave will have a smaller
amplitude. In the case of the figure below where the incoming waves have
equal amplitude, cancellation occurs and the resultant wave has zero
amplitude or zero intensity.
Illustration of destructive interference
A

+ =

A
If the two waves in question are sound waves, then during constructive
interference a very loud sound is heard while during destructive interference,
no sound or near silence is heard as we shall see later.
If the waves are light waves, a much brighter light is observed during
constructive interference whereas darkness is observed during destructive
interference as we shall see later.

Principle of superposition state that;

When two or more waves of the same type meet or overlap at a point,
the resultant displacement at that point is equal to the algebraic sum
of the displacements of the individual waves at that point.

Page 45
 This principle can be applied to all types of waves. Normally a crest is
considered positive and a trough negative. I will illustrate this with
interference concept later.
Conditions for two-source interference
▪ Two coherent waves (of the same type) must meet at a point.
Coherent waves have the same wavelength, frequency and
maintain a constant phase difference.

Path difference as applied to interference

Whether the waves interfere constructively or destructively at a point depends on
the path difference of the waves from the two sources.
The path difference is defined as the extra distance travelled by one of the waves
compared with the other. It is the difference between the lengths of the paths
travelled by two waves before the meet.
By considering the effect of superposition at a number of points in space, we can
build up a pattern showing some areas where there is constructive interference, and
hence a large wave disturbance, and other areas where the interference is
destructive, and there is little or no wave disturbance.
Consider the figure below illustrating the interference of waves from two
point sources A and B.
The point C is equidistant from A and B: a wave travelling to C from A moves
through the same distance as a wave travelling to C from B (path difference is
zero). If the waves started in Phase at A and B, they will arrive in phase at C
(phase difference is zero). They combine constructively, producing a maximum
disturbance at C.
path difference =𝜆
D – constructive interference
will occur here

A path difference = 0
– constructive interference
C will occur here
𝜆
path difference =
B 2
E – destructive interference
will occur here
At point D the waves from A have travelled 5 whole wavelengths (5𝜆). The waves
from B have travelled 6 whole wavelengths (6𝜆).The path difference between the
waves arriving at D is 1 wave length (1𝜆).If the path difference is a whole number

Page 46
of wave lengths (1𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆, 𝑒𝑡𝑐) the waves arrive in phase and interfere
constructively, producing maximum disturbance again.
The equivalent phase differences between the waves are 2𝜋, 4𝜋, 6𝜋,etc. or 360o,
720o, 1080o, etc. However, at places such as E, the path difference is an odd
𝜆 3𝜆 5𝜆
number multiple of half –wavelengths ( , , , 𝑒𝑡𝑐). The waves arrive in
2 2 2
antiphase, and interference is destructive, producing a minimum resultant
disturbance. The equivalent phase differences between the waves are 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋,etc.
or 180o, 540o, 900o, etc.
The maxima and minima disturbances are called fringes. The collection of
fringes produced by superposition of overlapping waves is called an
interference pattern as that shown by the ripples above.
In summary, the conditions for constructive and destructive interference are
outlined below. These conditions apply to all waves (water waves, light,
microwaves, radio waves, sound, etc) that show interference.
✓ For constructive interference the path difference is a whole number
multiple of the wavelength:
path difference = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆, etc or path difference = 𝒏𝝀
n stands for any whole number –including zero i.e n = 0, 1,2….
✓ For destructive interference the path difference is an odd number multiple
of half wavelength:
1 1 1 1 1 3 5 7
path difference = 𝜆,1 𝜆, 2 𝜆, 3 𝜆, etc or 𝜆, 𝜆, 𝜆, 𝜆, etc
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝜆 𝟏
or path difference = (2𝑛 + 1) or (𝒏 + )𝝀
2 𝟐
Summary of the differences between constructive and destructive interference
Constructive interference Destructive interference
– occurs when a crest of one wave – occurs when a crest meets a trough.
meets a crest of another or a
trough meets a trough
– reinforcement occurs – cancellation occurs
– resultant displacement/intensity is – resultant displacement/intensity is
maximum or higher minimum or lower.
– occurs when path difference is a – occurs when the path difference is an
whole number multiple of full odd multiple of half wavelength i.e
wavelength (𝒏𝝀) or zero 𝜆
(2𝑛 + 1)
2
– phase difference is n2𝝅 (for n =
– phase difference is (2n+1) 𝝅 (for n =
0,1,2..)
0, 1, 2……)

Page 47
Producing an interference pattern with sound waves
Sound is energy transmitted through a longitudinal wave and causes a sensation
of hearing. It therefore consists of compressions and rarefactions propagating
through a medium.
Sound waves are generated when particles of a medium are set into oscillation by a
vibrating object. The vibrating object superposes an oscillatory to and fro motion
on the particles of the transmitting medium along the direction of the wave.
For example, as a loudspeaker cone vibrates, it moves forward and backwards,
which squashes and stretches the air in front. As a result, a series of compressions
(squashes) and rarefactions (stretches) travel out through the air, these are sound
waves which can be detected by the ear.
The figure below illustrates propagation of sound
Motion of air molecules Propagation
associated with sound of sound

When a compression passes, the air pressure rises. When a rarefaction passes, the
pressure falls. The distance from one compression to the next is the wavelength.
Compression is a high pressure section of the wave where particles are
squashed together and a rarefaction is a low pressure section of the wave
where particles are spread out.
The number of compressions produced per second can be referred to as
frequency, f, of the sound wave and it is equal to the frequency of the
vibrating object like the cone of the loud speaker above.
Note: The approximate range of audible frequencies for a healthy human
ear is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
Sound is a mechanical wave and therefore requires a material medium to be
propagated. Without a medium, there is nothing to pass on any oscillations.
Hence sound can not travel through a vacuum (completely empty space
without any particles or matter).
Sound waves can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.

Page 48
 ▪ The speed of sound is highest in solids (concrete: about 5000 m/s and steel:
about 6000 m/s) then in liquids (pure water: about 1400 m/s) and slowest in
gases (gases/air at 0oC: about 340 m/s)
▪ Sound travels fastest in solids because the particles or molecules are very
close to each other. However, the sound in solids doesn’t travel so far.

Experiment to demonstrate interference of sound waves

- Two loud speakers facing the same way about one meter apart are
connected to the same audio signal generator and amplifier, so that each
speaker produces a note of the same frequency.
- Moving about in the space around the speakers, you pass through places
where the waves interfere constructively and you can hear a loud sound. In
places where the waves interfere destructively, the note is much quieter than
elsewhere in the pattern.

The loudest sound (maximum sound) is heard in region of constructive

interference and a quieter sound (minimum sound) is heard in a region of
destructive interference. This alternate maximum and minimum intensity is
called interference pattern.
This experiment is best carried out in the open air(on playing-fields, for
example) to avoid reflections from walls, but it should be a windless day.

Page 49
Question:
Two loud speakers producing sound of the same frequency are placed 50m apart
facing each other. An observer walks from one speaker to the other along the line
of the speakers.
(a) What does the observer hear?
(b) Explain the observation in (a) above.
Solution
(a) The observer hears alternate loud and soft sound or near silence. The
loudness and near silence comes at equal time intervals from each other.
(b) The loud speakers act as coherent sources producing sound of the same
frequency. The sound waves from the two loud speakers become
superimposed and interference occurs.
Constructive interference will occur where the path difference is a whole
number multiple of the wave length of sound; so that reinforcement occurs
resulting into a loud sound.
Destructive interference occurs when the path difference is an odd number
multiple of half wavelengths resulting into cancellation and near silence.

Interference of light waves

Earlier on we found that the superposition of two mechanical waves can be
constructive or destructive. In constructive interference, the amplitude of the
resultant wave at a given position or time is greater than that of either individual
wave, whereas in destructive interference, the resultant amplitude is less than that
of either individual wave. Light waves also interfere with each other.
Fundamentally, all interference associated with light waves arises when the
electromagnetic fields that constitute the individual waves combine.
If two light bulbs are placed side by side, no interference effects are
observed because the light waves from one bulb are emitted independently of
those from the other bulb. The emissions from the two light bulbs do not
maintain a constant phase relationship with each other over time. Light
waves from an ordinary source such as a lightbulb undergo random phase
changes in time intervals less than a nanosecond. Therefore conditions for
constructive interference, destructive interference, or some intermediate
state are maintained only for such short time intervals. Because the eye can
not follow such rapid changes, no interference patterns are observed. Such
light sources are said to be incoherent.
Similarly soundwaves from two loudspeakers, each connected to separate
signal generators won’t produce observable interference patterns.

Page 50
Thus, to produce observable interference in light waves, the following conditions
must be met:
✓ The two wave sources must be coherent –that is, they must maintain a
constant phase relationship with respect to each other (they have the same
frequency and nearly equal amplitude).
✓ The two wave sources must have the same single frequency (single
wavelength). Remember light with the same single frequency is said to be
monochromatic.
In the sound experiment, the waves from the two loudspeakers have the same
frequency and a constant phase relationship because the loudspeakers are
connected to the same oscillator and amplifier. If the waves emitted from the
loudspeakers are in phase when the experiment begins, they stay in phase for the
whole experiment.
Generally, wave sources which maintain a constant phase relationship
are described as coherent sources.

Illustration of coherent sources

two coherent
wave sources

The sources of light emitting waves with random phase difference are called
incoherent sources.
Light is emitted from sources as a series of pulses or packets of energy.
These pulses last for a very short time, about a nanosecond (10-9s).
Between each pulse there is an abrupt change in the phase of the wave.
Waves from two separate sources may be in phase at one instant, but out of phase
in the next nanosecond.
The human eye can not cope with such rapid changes, so the pattern is not
observable.
Thus, separate light sources, even of the same frequency, produce incoherent
waves as shown below.

Page 51
 abrupt change
in phase

two incoherent
wave sources

abrupt change
in phase
Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
A common method for producing two coherent light sources is to use a
monochromatic source to illuminate a barrier containing two small openings
(usually in the shape of slits). This is called division of wavefront. In this method
the wavefront (which is a locus of points of the same phase in a wave) is divided
into two parts. The light emerging from the two slits is coherent because a single
source produces the original light beam and the two slits serve only to separate the
original beam into two parts. Any random change in the light emitted by the source
occurs in both beams at the same time, and as a result interference effects can be
observed when the light from the two slits arrive at a viewing screen.
Note:If the light waves travel only in its original direction after passing through the
slits, as shown in figure (a), the waves would not overlap and no interference
pattern would be seen. However the waves spread out from slits as shown in (b). In
otherwords, light deviates from a straight-line path and enters the region that
would otherwise be shadowed.

(a) (b)
Page 52
This spreading of light passing through narrow slits into regions of geometrical
shadows is called diffraction. There will be more spreading when the size of the
slit decreases. And maximum spreading occurs when the size of the gap/slit =
wavelength of the waves.
Interference in light waves from two sources was first demonstrated by Thomas
Young in 1801. Plane light waves arrive at a barrier that contains two parallel slits
S1 and S2. These two slits serve as a pair of coherent light sources because waves
emerging from them originate from the same wave front and therefore maintain a
constant phase relationship. The light from S1 and S2 produces on a viewing screen
a visible pattern of bright and dark parallel bands called fringes.
➢ When the light from S1 and that from S2 both arrive at a point on the screen
such that constructive interference occurs at that location, a bright fringe
appears.
➢ When the light from the two slits combines destructively at any location on the
screen, a dark fringe results.
The figure below shows an interference pattern produced by two coherent
vibrating sources in a water tank.

Barrier

Viewing
(a) screen (b)

Page 53
The figure (a) above is a schematic diagram of Young’s double-slit experiment.
Slit S1 and S2 could also behave as coherent sources of light waves that produce the
interference pattern on the viewing screen shown above (drawing not to scale).
Figure (b) shows an enlargement of the center of a fringe pattern formed on the
viewing screen.
The interference pattern above shows bright and dark regions that appear similar to
the antinodes and nodes of a standing-wave pattern on a string that we discussed
earlier. While both patterns depend on the principle of superposition, here are two
major differences:
✓ waves on a string propagate in only one dimension while the light-wave
interference pattern exists in three dimensions;
✓ the standing-wave pattern represents no net energy flow, while there is a net
energy flow from the slits to the screen in an interference pattern.
The figure below shows some of the ways in which two waves can combine at the
screen to form the observed patterns.

S1 S1 S1
Slits P P P
bright
S2 fringe S2 S2
R dark
fringe
Q Q
bright
Viewing (b) fringe
(a) (c)
screen
▪ In (a), the two waves, which leave the two slits in phase, strike the screen at the
central point P directly opposite the midpoint of the slits. Because both waves
travel the same distance, they arrive at P in phase. The path difference between
the two rays of light is zero. As a result, constructive interference occurs at this
location, and a bright fringe is observed at P. This interference pattern is called
the zeroth order (n= 0) or central maximum.
▪ In (b) the two waves also start in phase, but in this case the upper wave has to
travel one wavelength farther than the lower wave to reach point Q. Because
the upper wave falls behind the lower one by exactly one wavelength (the path
difference is now a whole wavelength), they still arrive in phase at Q, they
interfere constructively and so a second bright fringe appears at this location.
▪ At point R in (c), however, between points P and Q, the upper wave has fallen
half a wavelength behind the lower wave i.e. the path difference between the
𝜆
rays of light is ( ). This means that a trough of the lower wave overlaps a crest
2
of the upper wave i.e. the two rays must be in antiphase (phase difference

Page 54
 180o); this gives rise to destructive interference at point R. For this reason, a
dark fringe is observed at this location.
In summary
✓ Bright fringes (maxima/antinodes) are seen where constructive interference
occurs –that is, where the path difference between two diffracted waves from
the slits is a whole number multiple of wavelength (i.e n𝝀 where n is a whole
number)
✓ Dark fringes (minima/node) are seen where destructive interference occurs.
The condition for a dark fringe is that the path difference should be (𝑛 +
1
)𝝀. I.e. odd number multiple of half wavelength.
2

Young’s interference Equation [𝒙 = 𝝀𝑫/𝒂] or 𝝀 = 𝒂𝒙/𝑫

First barrier
Second barrier

(a) Slit separation a: This is the distance between the centers of the slits, though
it may be easier to measure between the edges of the slits. (It is difficult to
judge the position of the center of a slit. If the slits are the same width, the
separation of their left –hand edges is the same as the separation of their
centers.) A travelling microscope is suitable for measuring a.
(b) Fringe separation or fringe width x: This is the distance between the centers
of two successive bright fringes or two successive dark fringes. It is best to
measure across several fringes (say, ten) and then to calculate later the
average separation. A meter rule or travelling microscope can be used.
Page 55
 (c) Slit-to-screen distance D: This is the distance from the midpoint of the slits
to the central fringe on the screen. It can be measured using a meter rule or a
tape measure. At times L is used instead of D as seen before.
The fringe width 𝒙 is related to the wavelength 𝝀 of the light source by the
equation
𝒂𝒙
𝝀=
𝑫
where D is the distance from the slits to the screen and a is the distance
between the centers of the slits.
Note:
Because the wavelength of light is so small (of the order of 10-7m), to produce
observable fringes, D needs to be large and a as small as possible (D>> a).
(This is another reason why you could never see an interference pattern from
two sources such as car headlamps).
Although Young’s original double-slit experiment was carried out with light,
the conditions for constructive and destructive interference apply for any two-
source situation. The same formula applies for all types of wave, including
sound waves, water waves and microwaves, provided that the fringes are
detected at a distance of many wavelengths from the two sources.

White light-fringes
If the two slits in Young’s experiment are illuminated with white light, each of the
different wavelengths making up the white light produces its own fringe pattern. At
the center of the pattern, where the path difference for all waves is zero, there will
be a white maximum with a black fringe on each side. Therefore, the maxima and
minima of the different colours overlap in such a way as to produce a pattern of
coloured fringes. Only a few will be visible; a short distance from the centre so
many wavelengths overlap that they combine to produce what is effectively white
light again.
Examples
1. In a double –slit experiment using light from a helium–neon laser, a student
obtained the following results:
width of 10 fringes 10x = 1.5 cm
separation of slits a = 1.0 mm
slit-to-screen distance D = 2.40 m
Determine the wavelength of the light.
Solution
1.5×10−2
Fringe separation x = = 1.5 × 10−3 m
10
𝑎𝑥 1.0×10−3 ×1.5×10−3
From 𝜆 = = = 6.3 × 10−7 m
𝐷 2.40
So the wavelength is 6.3 × 10−7 m or 630 nm

Page 56
2. If the student in worked example 1 moved the screen to a distance of 4.8 m
from the slits, what would the fringe separation become? [Ans. 3.0mm]
𝑎𝑥
3. Use 𝜆 = to explain the following observations.
𝐷
(a) With the slits closer together, the fringes are further apart.
(b) Interference fringes for blue light are closer together than for red light.
(c) In an experiment to measure the wavelength of light, it is desirable to
have the screen as far the slits as possible.
(d) When the source is brought near the slits, the fringe width is not affected.
Solution
𝜆𝐷 1
(a) 𝑥 = Therefore 𝑥 ∝ , so decreasing 𝑎 gives increased x. Increasing
𝑎 𝑎
the slit separation brings about a decrease in both the angular
separation and the fringe width.
(b) Blue light has a shorter wavelength so x is less since 𝑥 ∝ 𝜆
(c) For larger D, x is greater, so there is greater precision in x since 𝑥 ∝ 𝐷
(d) When the source is moved near the slits, the separation of the fringes
remains fixed but intensity of the fringes increases until the fringes
disappear.
4. Yellow sodium light of wavelength 589 nm is used in the Young double–slit
experiment. The slit separation is 0.20mm, and the screen is placed 1.20m
from the slits. Calculate the separation of neighbouring fringes formed on
the screen. [Ans. 3.5 mm]
5. In a double-slit experiment, filters were placed in front of a white light
source to investigate the effect of changing the wavelength of the light. At
first, a red filter was used (𝜆 =600 nm) and the fringe separation was found
to be 2.40 mm. A blue filter was then used (𝜆 =450 nm). Determine the
fringe separation with the blue filter.
Solution
D and a are fixed. So:
𝜆1 𝜆2 4.5×10−7 ×2.4×10−3
= and so: 𝑥2 = = 1.8 × 10−3 𝑚 = 1.8 mm
𝑥1 𝑥2 6.0×10−7
3 3
Or wavelength is of previous value, so spacing of fringes is of previous
4 4
value.
6. Calculate the observed fringe width for a Young’s double slight experiment
using light of wavelength 600 nm and slits 0.50 mm apart. The distance from
the slits to the screen is 0.80m. [Ans. 0.96 mm]
7. A screen containing 2 slits 0.100mm apart is 1.20m from the viewing screen.
Light of wavelength 𝜆 = 500 nm falls on the side from a distant source.
Approximately how far apart will adjacent bright interference fringes be on
screen? [Ans.6.00 mm]

Page 57
 8. Monochromatic light of wavelength 5 × 10−7 m is incident on two slits of
separation 4 × 10−4 m. Calculate the fringe separation on a screen placed
1.5m from the slits. [Ans. 0.00188m]
9. Two slits 0.50 mm apart are placed at a distance of 1m from the screen. The
slits are illuminated with light of wavelength 550 mm. Calculate the distance
between the fourth and second bright fringes of the interference pattern.
[Ans. 𝟐. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 m]
10.In Young’s double slit experiment, the 8th bright fringe is formed 5mm away
from the center of the fringe system when the wavelength of light used is
6.2 × 10−7 m. Calculate the separation of the two slits if the distance from
the slits to the screen is 80cm. [Ans. 𝟕. 𝟗𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 m]
11.Calculate the wavelength of light which produces fringes of width 0.50 mm
on a screen 60 cm from two slits 0.75 mm apart. Radar waves of wavelength
50mm are emitted from two aerials and create a fringe pattern 1.0 km from
the aerials. Calculate the distance between the aerials if the fringe spacing is
80cm.
12.(a) Explain the term coherence as applied to waves from two sources.
(b)Describe how you would produce two coherent sources of light.
(a) A double –slit interference pattern is produced using slits separated by
0.45 mm, illuminated with light of wavelength 633 nm from a laser.
The pattern is projected on to a wall 2.50m from the slits. Calculate the
fringe separation.
13.The figure below shows the arrangement for obtaining interference fringes
in Young’s double –slit experiment. Describe and explain what will be seen
on the screen if the arrangement is altered in each of the following ways:
(a) the slit separation a is halved,
(b) the distance D from slits to screen is doubled,
(c) the monochromatic light source is replaced with a white-light source.

D
a
monochromatic
light source
single
slit double screen
slit
14.In a double-slit interference experiment using light of wavelength 540 nm,
the separation of the slits is 0.700 mm. The fringes are viewed on a screen at
a distance of 2.75 m from the double slit, as illustrated in the figure below.
Page 58
coherent light
0.700mm
wavelength 540nm

2.75 m screen
(a) Calculate the separation of the fringes observed on the screen.[Ans.2.12mm]
(b) State the effect, if any, on the appearance of the fringes observed on the
screen when the following changes are made, separately, to the double-slit
arrangement in above.
(i) The width of each slit is increased but the separation remains
constant.
(ii) The separation of the slits is increased.
Answer
(i) fringe separation remains the same, bright areas become brighter, there
is no change for dark areas, fewer fringes are observed.
(ii) smaller separation of fringes, no change in brightness.
17.Explain the terms path difference and Fringe spacing with reference to the
interference of light.
The path difference is the difference in the distance travelled by two
waves from their sources to a given point on a viewing screen.
The fringe spacing is the distance between two adjacent bright (or dark)
fringes.
18.In Young’s double-slit experiment the fringe separation observed using
yellow light was found to be 0.275 mm. The yellow lamp, giving a
wavelength 5.55× 10−7 m is replaced by a purpose one giving wavelength
4.00× 10−7 m in the violet and 6.00× 10−7 m in the red. The remainder of
the apparatus is undisturbed. Calculate:
(a) the distance between the fringes formed by the violet light.[Ans.0.22mm]
(b) the distance between the fringes formed by red light. [Ans. 0.33 mm]
19.Monochromatic light illuminates a narrow slit which is 4.0 m away from a
screen. Two narrow parallel slits 0.50 mm apart are placed mid way between
the single slit and the screen so that interference fringes are obtained. If the
spacing of five fringes is 10 mm, calculate the wavelength of light.
𝑎𝑥
using, 𝜆 =
𝐷
- x is the fringe spacing, 𝑥 = 2.5𝑚𝑚
- 𝑎 = 0.5𝑚𝑚 is the distance between two parallel slits.

Page 59
 4.0
- 𝐷= = 2.0m is the distance between the parallel slits and screen.
2
𝑎𝑥 0.5 × 10−3 × (2.5 × 10−3 )
𝜆= = = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎
𝐷 2.0
20.A progressive and stationary wave each have a frequency of 240Hz and a
speed of 8 m/s. Calculate the;
(a) phase difference between two vibrating points in the progressive wave
which are 6cm apart.
(b) distance between nodes in the stationary wave.
Solution
2𝜋𝑥 𝑣 8 1 2𝜋×6×10−2
(a) Φ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜆 = = = ⇒Φ= 1 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝝅 radians
𝜆 𝑓 240 30
30
1
𝜆 30 1
(b) Distance between successive nodes = = = m we shall see this
2 2 60
later.
21.The frequency of a wave is 600Hz and is travelling at a speed of 340 m/s.
Find the phase difference between two points which are
(i) 0.17m apart, (ii) 1.7m apart
Solution
2𝜋𝑥 𝑣 2𝜋𝑥𝑓 2𝜋×0.17×600
(i) Φ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝜆 = ⇒Φ= = = 0.6𝜋 radians
𝜆 𝑓 𝑣 340
(ii) 6𝜋 radians

Stationary/ standing waves

The notes we hear from a string musical instrument are created by the vibrations of
its strings. The wave patterns on the vibrating strings are celled stationary waves
(or standing waves). The waves in the air which carry the sound to our ears
transfer energy and are therefore called progressive waves.
Stationary waves are formed in a medium when two waves of equal
amplitude and frequency but travelling with the same speed in opposite
directions along the same line are superposed (interfere in a confined
space).

Generally, such waves are formed by the superposition of a forward wave and the
reflected wave. Both longitudinal and transverse types of waves can form a
stationary wave.
When reflection occurs at a free end, there is no reversal of phase. i.e., a crest
returns as a crest and trough as a trough.
To understand the concept of stationary waves, let us consider the waves of a
slinky spring.

Page 60
The figure (a) below shows a single transverse pulse travelling along a slinky
spring. The pulse is reflected when it reaches the fixed end. If a second pulse is
sent along the slinky as shown in figure (b), the reflected pulse will pass through
the outward-going pulse, creating a new pulse shape. Interference will take place
between the outward and reflected pulses.
Outward pulse

fixed
end
(a) Single transverse pulse travelling along a slinky
Outward pulse

fixed
end

reflected pulse
(b) Reflected pulse about to meet an outward-going pulse
If the interval between outward pulses is reduced, a progressive wave is
generated. When the wave reaches the fixed end, it is reflected. We now
have two progressive waves of equal frequency and amplitude travelling in
opposite directions on the same spring. The waves interfere, producing a
wave pattern below (c) in which the crests and troughs do not move. This
pattern is called a stationary or standing wave, because it does not move.

fixed end

(c) A stationary wave is created when two waves travelling in opposite

directions interfere.

Page 61
 As the waves pass over each other, constructive and destructive interference
occurs resulting in positions of maximum particle displacement (antinode)
and constant zero displacement (node).

Resonance and Stationary waves on strings

A String fixed at one end displaced up and down forms a stationary wave pattern.
When one end is displaced, a progressive wave travels from the free displaced end
towards the fixed end where it is reflected back towards the source. The incident
and reflected wave superpose to form a stationary wave.
In a similar way if a string is plucked and allowed to vibrate freely, there are
certain frequencies at which it will vibrate. The amplitude of vibrations at these
frequencies is large. This is known as resonance effect. We shall discuss
resonance in A’level.

Modes of vibration of a stretched string

Strings vibrate according to how they are plucked and the different ways in which
the strings vibrate are called harmonics.
Fundamental mode (1st harmonic)
The simplest way in which a stretched string can vibrate is shown below. The wave
pattern has a single loop. This is called the fundamental mode of vibration or the
first harmonic. The fundamental note is the lowest audible note produced by the
vibrating string. At the ends of the string there is no vibration. These points are
called nodes. At the centre of the string, the amplitude is maximum. A point of
maximum amplitude is called an antinode. Nodes and antinodes do not move along
the string.

The lowest audible frequency is called fundamental frequency and corresponds to

one antinode (or one loop). And as can be seen in the figure above, the whole
1
length corresponds to one half wavelength. Thus L= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = 2𝐿
2
𝒗
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝒇𝒐 = where v is the speed of the progressive waves which
𝟐𝑳
have interfered to produce the stationary wave.
𝒗
Frequency of first harmonic 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒇𝒐 =
𝟐𝑳

Page 62
2nd Harmonic (1st overtone)
The second mode of vibration after the fundamental has two loops and is called the
second harmonic or 1st overtone.
Overtones are notes of higher frequency than the fundamental note of a particular
instrument. They are notes whose frequency is higher than the fundamental
frequency. The length of the string L at 2nd harmonic corresponds to one complete
wavelength. L= 𝜆

Let 𝒇𝟐 be the frequency of the 2nd

harmonic.
𝑣 𝑣
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓2 = =
𝜆 𝐿
𝒗
⇒ 𝑓2 = 2 ( )
𝟐𝑳
𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝒐
Hence𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟏

3nd Harmonic (2nd overtone)

The third mode is called the second overtone, or third harmonic. This is a pattern
with three loops. Let 𝒇 be the frequency of the 3rd
𝟑
harmonic
3 2𝐿
You observe that L = 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
2 3
𝑣 𝑣
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓2 = = 2𝐿 =
𝜆
3
𝑣
⇒ 𝑓3 = 3 ( )
2𝐿
Hence 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝒐 or 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟏
In general, the frequency 𝒇𝒏 of the nth mode (nth harmonic or (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒕𝒉
overtone ) is a whole number multiple of the fundamental frequency. I.e.
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏𝒇𝒐 where n = 1, 2, 3,……
You must have noted that:
The points where the particles are permanently at rest are known as nodes.
They have constant zero displacement. These points result from destructive
superposition where waves always meet out of phase by 𝝅 radians.
The points midway between successive nodes will have their particles
vibrating with maximum amplitude. These positions of maximum particle
displacement are known as antinodes. They result from constructive
superposition where waves meet in phase.

Page 63
 The distance between any two successive nodes or two successive antinodes
is equal to half the wavelength of the stationary wave.
That is, distance between two successive nodes = 𝝀⁄𝟐
That is, distance between two successive antinodes = 𝝀⁄𝟐
1
The distance between a node and a neighboring antinode = (𝜆⁄2) = 𝝀⁄𝟒
2

The general characteristics of a stationary wave include

• Wave energy is not transferred in a stationary wave.
As the stationary waves are produced due to superposition of two identical
waves (incident and reflected) travelling with the same speed in opposite
directions, therefore at any point of the medium the amount of energy
flowing in one direction due to incident wave is the same as that due to
reflected wave in opposite direction.
Consequently there is no net flow of energy in a medium by means of
stationary wave but the particles of the medium vibrate forming peaks along
the motion.
• It has nodes and antinodes. At nodes, particles are permanently at rest
while at antinodes the particles have maximum displacement. The nodes and
antinodes occur alternately at equal distances.
The amplitude of vibration increases gradually from zero to maximum from
a node to an anti-node.
• At points between successive/adjacent nodes, the vibrations are in phase.
• The medium is split up into segments. The particles in a segment vibrate in
phase. The particles in one segment are out of phase with the particles in the
neighboring segment by 180o.
Therefore particles on either side of a node or antinode are 180o out of
phase.
• All particles have the same frequency except for the nodes.

1 Page 64
We can therefore summarize the differences between stationary and progressive
waves in the table below.
Stationary waves Progressive waves
➢ They don’t transfer energy (stores ➢ They transfer energy from one
energy) point to another.
➢ Each point along the wave has ➢ The vibrations of particles are of
different amplitude of vibration the same amplitude along the
from the neighboring points. It’s length of the wave.
is zero at a node and maximum at
antinode.
➢ Between adjacent nodes, all ➢ Phase varies continuously along
points of the stationary wave the wave. All neighbouring points
vibrate in phase. That is, all along the wave are out of phase
particles of the string are at their with each other, they reach their
maximum displacement at the maximum displacement at
same instant. different times
There is a phase change of 𝜋 only
at nodes.
➢ The nodes and antinodes do not ➢ The crests and troughs do move
move along the string along the string.
➢ There are only certain frequencies ➢ The allowed frequencies depend
of stationary waves possible on on the length L of the string and
the string the speed v of the progressive
waves that form the stationary
wave

Explanation of stationary waves by interference

Let us explain the formation of a stationary wave using the principle of
superposition.
A stationary wave formed by waves on a string may be illustrated in 3-D as shown
below

The set of graphs below represent two progressive waves of equal amplitude and
frequency travelling in opposite directions.
When a string is clamped (at the right-hand end), the effect of the clamp is to
change the phase of the reflected wave by 𝜋 rad (180o).

Page 65
 (a) t=0

𝟏
(b) 𝒕= T
𝟒

𝟏
(c) 𝒕= T
𝟐

(d) 𝟑
𝒕= T
𝟒

(e)
𝒕=T

wave moving from left to right

wave moving from to right to left
Resultant wave
Graph (a) catches the waves at an instant at which they are in phase.
Superposition gives the curve which has twice the amplitude of either of the
progressive graphs.

Page 66
Graph (b) is the situation a quarter of a period (cycle) later, when the two
progressive waves have each moved a quarter of a wavelength in opposite
directions. This has brought them to a situation where the movement of one
relative to the other is half a wavelength, so that the waves are exactly out of
phase. The resultant, obtained by superposition, is zero everywhere.
Graph(c) half a period from the start, the waves are again in phase, with maximum
displacement for the resultant. The process continues through graph (d) showing
the next out-of-phase situation, with zero displacement of the resultant everywhere.
Finally graph (e), one period from the first, brings the wave into phase again.
You must have noticed how there are some positions, the nodes N, where the
displacement of the resultant is zero throughout the cycle.
The displacement of the resultant at the antinodes A fluctuates from a
maximum value when the two progressive waves are in phase to zero when
they are out of phase

Stationary waves in air

The figure aboveshows an experiment to demonstrate the formation of stationary

waves in air. A fine dry powder such as lycopodium powder is sprinkled evenly
along the transparent tube. A loudspeaker powered by a signal generator is placed
at the open end. The frequency of the sound from the loudspeaker is gradually
increased. At certain frequencies, the powder forms itself into evenly spaced heaps
along the tube. A stationary wave has been set up in the air, caused by the
interference of the sound wave from the loudspeaker and the wave reflected from
the closed end of the tube . At nodes (positions of zero amplitude) there is no
disturbance, and the powder can settle into a heap. At antinodes the disturbance is
at a maximum, and the powder is dispersed.
For stationary waves in a closed pipe, the air cannot move at the closed end, and so
this must always be a node N. However, the open end is a position of maximum
disturbance, and this is an antinode.
In fact, that antinode is slightly outside the open end. The distance of the
antinode from the end of the tube is called the end-correction. The value of
the end-correction depends on the diameter of the tube.

Page 67
Waves in pipes (Vibrating air columns)
In vibrating air column, stationary waves are set up. These are the sources of sound
in most wind instruments. Wind instruments consist of pipes which may be closed
at one end and open at the other or open at both ends.
By blowing at the open end, a progressive sound wave travels to the end of the
pipe where it is reflected so that it travels back to the end where it was produced.
The incident and reflected progressive waves superpose to produce a stationary
wave.
Modes of vibration in a closed pipe
A closed or stopped organ pipe consists of a metal pipe closed at one end. When a
blast of air is blown at the open end of the pipe, a progressive wave travels down
the pipe to the closed end where it is reflected so that a stationary wave is obtained.
The stationary wave obtained is such that a displacement node is formed at the
closed end while a displacement antinode is formed at the open end. This is
because air at the open end is free to vibrate and so vibrates with maximum
amplitude resulting into an antinode (point of minimum pressure). On the other
end, at the closed end, the air isn’t free to vibrate and is therefore permanently at
rest giving rise to a node (point of maximum pressure).
Fundamental mode of vibration of air in a closed pipe (1st Harmonic)
The figure below shows the simplest way in which the air in a pipe closed at one
end vibrates. Figure (a) illustrates the motion of some of the air particles in the
tube. Their amplitude of vibration is zero at the closed end, and increases with
distance up the tube to a maximum at the open end. Figure (b) is the conventional
way of showing the amplitude of vibration. The amplitudes along the axis of the
tube are plotted as a continuous curve. One danger of using diagrams like that in
(b) is that they give the impression that the sound wave is transverse rather than
longitudinal. So be very careful.

(a) (b)

The fundamental frequency is obtained as follows;

The distance L is the distance between the node and the antinode. The wavelength
𝜆 of the stationary wave is related to L as follows.
Page 68
 1
L= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = 4𝐿 (end-correction ignored)
4
𝑣 𝒗
from v= 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 = ⇒ 𝒇𝒐 =
𝜆 𝟒𝑳
Since the fundamental mode is the first harmonic, then;
𝒗
𝒇𝟏 = , where v is the speed of the sound in air.
𝟒𝑳

1st overtone (2nd harmonic)

Overtones in a closed pipe
An overtone is a note of higher frequency than the fundamental frequency
which is produced in a pipe together with the fundamental frequency.
▪ In pipes overtones are produced by blowing harder at the open end.
The figure below shows the second mode (the 1st overtone or second harmonic) of
air in a closed pipe.

3 4𝐿
L= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
4 3
𝑣
from v= 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 =
𝜆
𝑣 3𝑉
⇒ 𝑓2 = 4𝐿 =
4𝐿
3
By comparing 𝒇𝟐 and 𝒇𝒐
𝑣
𝑓2 = 3 ( )
4𝐿
⇒ 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝒇𝒐

2nd overtone (3rd harmonic)

The figure below shows the third mode of vibration of air in a closed pipe
5 4𝐿
L= 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
4 5
𝑣
from v= 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 =
𝜆
𝑣 5𝑉
⇒ 𝑓3 = 4𝐿 =
4𝐿
5
By comparing 𝒇𝟑 and 𝒇𝒐
𝑣
𝑓3 = 5 ( )
4𝐿
⇒ 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟓𝒇𝒐

Page 69
 The general expression for the frequency 𝒇𝒏 of the nth mode of vibration of
the air in the closed tube (the nth harmonic, or (n −1)th overtone) is
𝒇𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏)𝒇𝒐
This is another example of resonance. The particular frequencies at which
stationary waves are obtained in the pipe are the resonant frequencies of the
pipe. The particular frequencies of stationary waves possible in the pipe
depend on the length L of the pipe and v, the speed of sound in air
Modes of vibration of air in open pipes
An open pipe is one which is open at both ends. When air is blown at one end of
the pipe, a progressive wave travels from that end to the opposite end where it is
reflected on encountering (meeting) free air. The incident and reflected progressive
waves superpose to form a stationary wave.
The stationary wave is such that a displacement antinode exists at both ends.
Fundamental mode (1st Harmonic)
𝜆 𝜆
A 𝐿 = 2 ( ) = ⇒ 𝜆 = 2𝐿
4 2
𝑣
Using 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 =
𝜆
𝑣
N 𝑓𝑜 =
L 2𝐿
This is the fundamental frequency of an open pipe and
forms the 1st harmonic.
𝒗
A 𝒇 𝟏 = 𝒇 𝒐 =
𝟐𝑳
st nd
1 overtone (2 Harmonic)
A 𝜆
𝐿 = 4( ) = 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 = 𝐿
4
𝑣
Using 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 =
N 𝜆
𝑣 𝑣
L 𝑓2 = = 2 ( )
𝐿 2𝐿
N 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒇𝟎
This is the 1st overtone in an open pipe and forms the
A 2nd harmonic.
2nd overtone (3rd Harmonic)
A 𝜆 3 2𝐿
𝐿 = 6( ) = 𝜆 ⇒ 𝜆 =
4 2 3
𝑣
N Using 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 =
𝜆
𝑣 3𝑣 𝑣
L N 𝑓3 = 2𝐿 = = 3( )
2𝐿 2𝐿
3
𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎
N This is the 2nd overtone in an open pipe and forms the
3rd harmonic.
A

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 Therefore, all harmonics are generally obtainable in an open pipe. I.e.
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏𝒇𝒐 where n stands for the nth harmonic not overtone
Note that the nth harmonic is the (n-1)th overtone.

Demonstrating stationary waves using microwaves

Stationary waves can be demonstrated using microwaves.
A source of microwaves is placed facing a metal reflecting plate as shown below.
A smaller detector is placed between the source and reflector. The reflector is
moved towards or away from the source until the signal picked up by the detector
fluctuates regularly (maxima, minima observed) as it is moved slowly back and
forth. The minima are nodes of the stationary wave pattern, and the maxima are
the antinodes.
Measure the distance moved by the detector between successive nodes and this
distance is half the wavelength of the microwaves (wavelength is twice distance
between adjacent nodes)

Measuring speed of sound using stationary waves

The principle of resonance in a tube closed at one end can be used to measure the
speed of sound in air.
A glass tube is placed in a cylinder of water. By raising the tube, the length of the
column of air can be increased.
A vibrating tuning fork of known frequency f is held above the open end of the
glass tube, causing the air in it to vibrate. The tube is gradually raised, increasing
the length of the air column. At a certain position the note becomes much louder.
This is known as the first position of resonance, and occurs when a stationary
wave corresponding to the fundamental mode is established inside the tube. The
length L1 at this position is noted. The tube is raised further until a second
resonance position is found. This corresponds to the second mode of vibration. The
length L2 at this position is also noted. The two resonance positions are illustrated
below.

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Observe that a node is always formed at the surface of water.
Note: When a loud sound is heard, the frequency of the sound equals the
frequency of the tuning fork being used.
Alternatively, we would have used a tube with a tap at the bottom. In that
case, the length of the air column would be increased by gradually opening
the tap at the bottom and reducing the water in the tube.
𝝀
– At the first position of resonance, = 𝒍𝟏 + 𝒆 where e is the end-
𝟒
correction of the tube (to allow for the fact that the antinode is slightly
above the open end of the tube)
𝟑𝝀
– At the second position of resonance, = 𝒍𝟐 + 𝒆
𝟒
Subtracting equation the two equations, we can eliminate e to give,
𝜆
𝑙2 − 𝑙1 = ⇒ 𝜆 = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
2
Using, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆,
𝒗 = 𝟐𝒇(𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
The velocity of sound is calculated from the above expression since f, 𝑙1 and
𝑙2 are known.

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Method of measuring the wavelength and speed of sound using stationary
waves in free air, rather than in a resonance tube.
The signal generator and loudspeaker produce a note of known frequency f.

The reflector is moved slowly back and forth until the trace on the oscilloscope has
a minimum amplitude. When this happens, a stationary wave has been set up with
one of its nodes in the same position as the microphone. The microphone is now
moved along the line between the loudspeaker and the reflector. The amplitude of
the trace on the oscilloscope will increase to a maximum, and then decrease to a
minimum again. The microphone has been moved from one node, through an
antinode, to the next node.
– The distance d between these two positions (adjacent nodes) is measured.
𝜆
We know that the distance between nodes is . The speed of sound can then be
2
calculated using 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆, giving
𝒗 = 𝟐𝒇𝒅
Examples
1. If a violin string vibrates at 440 Hz as its fundamental frequency, what are
the frequencies of the first four harmonics?
Solution
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜
𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑜 = 440Hz, 𝑓2 = 880Hz, 𝑓3 = 1320Hz, 𝑓4 = 1760Hz.
2. A violin string vibrates at 294 Hz when unfingered. At what frequency will
it vibrate if it is fingered one–third of the way down from the end? (That is,
only two-thirds of the string vibrates as a standing wave.)
Solution
The fundamental frequency of the full string is given by
𝑣
𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = = 294Hz
2𝐿
2
If the length is reduced to of its current value, and the velocity of waves on
3
the string is not changed, then the new frequency will be
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 𝑣 3 𝑣 3
𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 2 = ( ) = × 294 = 𝟒𝟒𝟏Hz
2(3𝐿) 2 2𝐿 2
3. A particular string resonates in four loops at frequency of 280 Hz. Name at
least three other frequencies at which it will resonate.
Solution
4 loops is the standing wave pattern for the 4th harmonic,
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 ,
𝑓4 = 4𝑓𝑜 = 280Hz,
𝑓𝑜 = 70 Hz,
𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑜 = 70Hz, 𝑓2 = 140Hz, 𝑓3 = 210Hz, 𝑓5 = 350Hz.
4. The velocity of waves on a string is 92 m/s. If the frequency of standing
waves is 475 Hz, how far apart are two adjacent nodes?
Solution
𝑣 92
𝜆= =
𝑓 475
𝜆 92
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠 = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟕𝒎
2 2×475
5. If two successive overtones of a vibrating string are 280 Hz and 350 Hz,
what is the frequency of the fundamental?
Solution
Since, 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 , 𝑓𝑛+1 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑓𝑜
Then two successive overtones differ by the fundamental frequency as
shown below,
∆𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑛+1 − 𝑓𝑛 = (𝑛 + 1)𝑓𝑜 − 𝑛𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑜 = 350Hz − 280Hz =70Hz
6. A cello A-string vibrates in its 1st normal mode with a frequency of 220 Hz.
Determine the frequency of vibration when the string vibrates in three
segments.
Solution A A A
𝑓𝑜 = 220𝐻𝑧 , N N N N
(a) 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 ,
𝑓3 = 3𝑓𝑜 = 3 × 220 = 𝟔𝟔𝟎Hz

7. A string 75 cm long is fixed at one end. The other end is moved up and
down with a frequency of 15 Hz. This frequency gives a stationary wave
pattern with three complete loops on the string. Calculate the speed of the
progressive waves which have interfered to produce the stationary wave.
[Ans. 7.5 m/s]
8. Find the fundamental frequency and the first two overtones of an organ pipe
which is 0.17 m long and closed at one end. The speed of sound in air is 340
m/s. [Ans. 2400Hz]
9. A violin string with a fundamental frequency of 440 Hz.What are the
frequencies of its two overtones?

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10.You can make an empty lemonade bottle resonate by blowing across the top.
What fundamental frequency of vibration would you expect for a bottle 25
cm deep? The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
11.The speed of waves on a certain stretched string is 48m/s. When the string is
vibrated at frequency of 64 Hz, stationary waves are set up. Find the
separation of successive nodes in the stationary wave pattern.
12.A certain organ pipe, closed at one end, can resonate at consecutive
frequencies of 640 HZ, 896HZ and 1152 Hz. Deduce its fundamental
frequency. [Ans. 128 Hz]
13.Determine the frequency of the first overtone of a sound note set up in a pipe
of length 0.5m if it is:
(a) open at both ends
(b) closed at one end
(take the velocity of sound in air to be 330 m/s)
Solution
(a) l = 0.5m
In an open pipe 1st overtone occurs when L = 𝜆
using 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
𝑣 𝑣 330
𝑓= = = = 𝟔𝟔𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝜆 𝑙 0.5
3𝜆
(b) When the pipe is closed at one end, 1st overtone occurs when L =
4
4𝑙
⇒𝜆=
3
using 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
𝑣 3𝑣 3×330
𝑓= = = = 𝟒𝟗𝟓 𝑯𝒛
𝜆 4𝑙 4×0.5
14.(a) Determine the frequencies of the first three harmonics of the culvert if it
is cylindrical in shape and open at both ends. Take v = 343 m/s as the speed
of sound in air.
(b)What are the three lowest natural frequencies of the culvert if it is blocked
at one end?
(c) For the culvert open at both ends, how many of the harmonics present
fall within the normal human hearing range (20 to 20,000 Hz)?
Solution
(a) The frequency of the first harmonic of a pipe open at both ends is
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑜 = = = 𝟏𝟑𝟗. 𝟒Hz
2𝐿 2×1.23𝑚
(b) Because both ends are open, all harmonics are present; thus,
𝑓2 = 2𝑓𝑜 = 278.8 Hz and 𝑓3 = 3𝑓𝑜 = 418.2 Hz
The fundamental frequency of a pipe closed at one end is
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑜 = = = 𝟔𝟗. 𝟕Hz [𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏𝒇𝒐 ]
4𝐿 4×1.23𝑚

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 In this case, only odd harmonics are present; hence, the next two harmonics
have frequencies 𝑓3 = 3𝑓𝑜 = 209.1Hz and 𝑓5 = 5𝑓𝑜 = 348.5Hz
(c) Because all harmonics are present for a pipe open at both ends, we can
express the frequency of the highest harmonic heard as 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 where n
is the number of harmonics that we can hear. For 𝑓𝑛 = 20,000 Hz, we
find that the number of harmonics present in the audible range is
20000Hz
𝑛= = 𝟏𝟒𝟑
139 Hz
Only the first few harmonics are of sufficient amplitude to be heard
15.The overall length of a piccolo is 32.0 cm. The resonating air column
vibrates as in a pipe open at both ends.
(a) Find the frequency of the lowest note that a piccolo can play, assuming
that the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
(b) Opening holes in the side effectively shortens the length of the resonant
column. If the highest note a piccolo can sound is 4000 Hz, find the
distance between adjacent antinodes for this mode of vibration.
Solution
𝑑𝐴𝐴 = 0.320 𝑚; 𝜆 = 0.640 𝑚
𝑣
(a) 𝑓 = = 𝟓𝟑𝟏. 𝟑 Hz
𝜆
(b) 𝜆 = 0.085 𝑚, 𝑑𝐴𝐴 = 𝟒𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
16.Calculate the length of a pipe that has a fundamental frequency of 240 Hz if
the pipe is (a) closed at one end and (b) open at both ends. (v =343 m/s)
Solution
(a) For the fundamental mode in a closed pipe, 𝜆 = 4𝐿 (you can sketch)
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
But 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝐿 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟕𝒎
4𝑓 4(240 𝐻𝑧)
(b) For an open pipe, 𝜆 = 2𝐿 (you can sketch)
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
But 𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓 ⇒ 𝐿 = = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟏𝟓𝒎
2𝑓 2(240 𝐻𝑧)
17.The fundamental frequency of an open organ pipe corresponds to middle C
(261.6 Hz on the chromatic musical scale). The third resonance of a closed
organ pipe has the same frequency. What are the lengths of the two pipes?
(v = 343 m/s)
Solution
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
The wavelength is 𝜆 = = = 1.31𝑚
𝑓 261.6 𝐻𝑧
So the length of the open pipe vibrating in its simplest (A-N-A) mode is
1
𝑑𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 = 𝜆 = 0.656𝑚 (you may sketch)
2
A closed pipe has (N-A) for its simplest resonance,
(N-A-N-A) for the second,
and (N-A-N-A-N-A) for the third. (you may sketch)

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 5 5
Here, the pipe length is 5𝑑𝑁 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 = 𝜆 = (1.31) = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟒m
4 4
18.When an open metal pipe is cut into pieces, the lowest resonance frequency
for air column in one piece is 256 Hz and that for the other is 440 Hz.
(a) How long was the original pipe?
(b) What resonant frequency would have been produced by the original
length of pipe? (v = 343 m/s)
Solution
(a) Suppose 256 Hz and 440 Hz are the lowest resonances of the enclosed air
columns
𝑣 343 𝜆
For 256 Hz, 𝜆= = = 1.34 m, Length = 𝑑𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 = = 0.67m
𝑓 256 2
𝑣 343 𝜆
For 440 Hz, 𝜆= = = 0.78 m, Length = 𝑑𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 = = 0.39m
𝑓 440 2
So the original length = 1.06m
𝜆
(b) 𝑑𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 = = 1.06 ⇒ 𝜆 = 2 × 1.06 = 2.12𝑚
2
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓= = = 𝟏𝟔𝟏. 𝟖Hz
𝜆 2.12𝑚
19.What will be the fundamental frequency and first three overtones for a 26cm
long organ pipe at 20oC if it is (a) open and (b) closed? (The speed of sound
at 20oC is 343 m/s)
Solution
(a)For the open pipe, the fundamental frequency is
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓𝑜 = = = 660 𝐻𝑧 (you may sketch for clarity)
2𝐿 2×0.26𝑚
The overtones include all harmonics given by 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 for n =1, 2, 3,….
I.e. 1320 Hz, 1980 Hz, 2640 Hz, and so on.
(b) For a closed pipe, the fundamental frequency is
𝑣 343 𝑚/𝑠
𝑓𝑜 = = = 330Hz (you may sketch for clarity)
4𝐿 4×0.26𝑚
Only odd harmonics are present given by, 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 for n = 1, 3, 5, ……
1st harmonic 𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑜 = 330Hz,
The first three overtones; 𝑓2 = 990Hz, 𝑓3 = 1650Hz and 𝑓3 =2310 Hz.
20.An organ pipe has two successive harmonics with frequencies 1372 Hz and
1764 Hz.
(a) Show that this is a stopped (closed) pipe
(b) What two harmonics are these?
(c) What is the length of the pipe?
Solution
(a) If the pipe is stopped and these harmonics are successive,
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 where 𝑓𝑜 is the fundamental frequency
𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 = 1372 Hz and
𝑓(𝑛+2) = (𝑛 + 2)𝑓𝑜 =1764 Hz (successive harmonics differ in n by 2.)

Page 77
 𝑓(𝑛+2) − 𝑓𝑛 = (𝑛 + 2)𝑓𝑜 − 𝑛𝑓𝑜 = 1764 − 1372
⇒ 2𝑓𝑜 = 392
𝑓𝑜 = 196 Hz
From 𝑓𝑛 = 𝑛𝑓𝑜 = 1372
𝑛 × 196 = 1372 ⇒n = 7
The pipe is stopped because the solution gives the odd integer n =7 as it
should be.
(b) These are the 7th and 9th harmonics.
𝑣 340
(c) For a closed pipe L = = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟒m
4𝑓𝑜 4×196

Diffraction of waves
When waves pass through a narrow gap, they spread out. This spreading out is
called diffraction.

Diffraction is defined as the spreading of a wave into regions of

geometrical shadows (regions where it would not be seen if it moved only
in straight lines) after passing through a narrow slit or past an edge.

Diffraction can be demonstrated in a ripple tank as shown below.

Plane waves are generated using a vibrating bar, and move towards a gap in a
barrier. Where the ripples strike the barrier, they are reflected back. Where they
arrive at the gap, however, they pass through and spread out into the space beyond.
It is this spreading out of waves as they travel through a gap (or past the edge of a
barrier) that is called diffraction.

Observe from the figure above that ripples, initially straight, spread out into the
space beyond the gap in the barrier.
The separation between adjacent wave fronts is equal to the wave length 𝜆 of
the ripples.

Page 78
The figure below summarizes the effect on the ripples when they encounter a gap
in a barrier.
The amount of diffraction depends on the width of the gap. There is hardly
any noticeable diffraction when the gap is very much larger than the
wavelength. As the gap becomes narrower, the diffraction effect becomes
more pronounced. It is greatest hen the width of the gap is equal to the
wavelength of the ripples.
(a) (b) (c)

As mentioned earlier, the extent to which ripples spread out depends on the
relationship between their wavelength and width of the gap.
➢ In (a), the width of the gap is very much greater than the wavelength and
there is hardly any noticeable diffraction.
➢ In (b), the width of the gap is greater than the wavelength and there is
limited diffraction.
➢ In (c), the gap width is equal to the wavelength and diffraction effect is
greatest.

Hence the extent of diffraction/spreading of the wave depends on two factors;

✓ wavelength of the waves
✓ size of the gap or aperture
Note that the wavelength does not change when diffraction occurs.
Note: Diffraction occurs with waves of all types.
❖ The idea of sound waves bending round corners is unsurprising. You can
hear someone calling you when you are around a corner because sound
waves have longer wavelengths and therefore can be easily diffracted even
around relatively wider apertures allowing the sound waves to spread
beyond the corner. For example you talk quietly to someone outside past an
open door. The door opening is similar in width to the wavelengths of sound
produced in normal speech, and acts as a diffraction aperture.
❖ The suggestion that light waves curve around obstacles appears to
contradict the obvious statement that ‘light travels in a straight line’. When
waves pass the edge of an obstacle, they curve but this effect is small when
the gap size is large compared to the wavelength as seen above. So we can
not see around corners because light waves have much shorter wavelengths

Page 79
 (of order 10-7m) and therefore don’t spread appreciably beyond their
geographical shadows. Hence diffraction effects are not usually noticeable
or difficult to detect.

Diffraction Grating
Diffraction grating is similar to the slide used in the double-slit experiment, but
with many more slit than just two.
A diffraction grating consists of a large number of parallel, identical, very closely
spaced slits/lines ruled on a glass or plastic plate. There may be as many as 10000
lines per centimeter. Each line is capable of diffracting the incident light
If monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of narrow bright
interference fringes is produced as shown below

These can be observed on a screen as with the double slits .However, it is usual to
measure the angle θ at which they are formed, rather than measuring their
separation. With double slits, the fringes are equally spaced and the angles are very
small. With a diffraction grating, the angles are much greater and the fringes are
not equally spaced.
The fringes are also referred to as maxima. The central fringe is called the
zeroth-order maximum,( θ = 0o) the next fringe is the first-order maximum, and
so on. The pattern is symmetrical, so there are two first-order maxima, two second-
order maxima, and so on.

Page 80
Deriving the Diffraction grating formula

d d
Monochromatic
light of
wavelength 𝜆

Parallel rays of a monochromatic light of wavelength 𝝀 are incident on a

diffraction grating in which the slit separation is d. If the grating has N lines per
metre, the grating line spacing d is given by:
𝟏
𝒅=
𝑵
Constructive interference only occurs along a few precise directions, one of which
is shown in the diagram above. Light from A must be in phase with light from B,
and this can only happen when the path difference is a whole number multiple of
complete wavelengths (even number multiple of half-wavelengths)
We have assumed that the screen is far away from the two sources and the
wavelength is very small, therefore the waves are approximately parallel as shown
above.
The path difference AC = 𝒏𝝀 where n = 0,1,2,3,…..
𝐴𝐶
By trigonometry, sin θ = 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑨𝑪 = 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
So it does not take a genius to see that:
𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 = 𝒏𝝀 where,
d = distance between successive slits = reciprocal of number of lines per meter
θ = the angle of diffraction (measured from horizontal equilibrium)
n = spectrum order or order number.
When n = 0, sin θ = 0 and θ is also zero, this gives the straight on the direction or
what we call the zeroth-order maximum
When n = 1, we have first order diffraction maximum and so on.

Page 81
The figure below shows maxima in the diffraction pattern of a diffraction
grating

Since sinθ can never be greater than 1, so there is a limit to the number of
spectra that can be obtained.

Diffraction grating has the advantage over the double-slit method of

measuring wavelength in that. Many slits are better than two:
• With diffraction grating, the maxima are more sharply defined.
• With a diffraction grating the maxima are also very bright. This is because
the beam passes through more slits than two, so the intensity of light is high.
• With diffraction grating, the angles are larger so that they can be measured
with greater precision.
• With two slits, there may be a large inaccuracy in the measurement of the
slit separation a. The fringes are close together, so their separation may
also be measured imprecisely.

The diffraction grating with white light

– If white light is incident on a diffraction grating, each wavelength 𝝀 making
up the white light is diffracted by a different amount as given by the
equation 𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 = 𝒏𝝀. This splitting of white light is what we call
dispersion.
– Red light, because it has the longest wavelength in the visible spectrum, is
diffracted through the greatest angle. Violet light has the shortest
wavelength, and is diffracted the least. Thus white light is split into its
component colours, producing a continuous spectrum. The spectrum is
repeated in different orders of diffraction as shown below.

Page 82
 2nd order

1st order

zero order (white)

1st order

2nd order

– A zeroth-order, white maximum is observed at θ = 0o, because all waves of

each wavelength are in phase in this direction.
An important use of the diffraction grating is in a spectrometer, a piece of
apparatus used to investigate spectra. By measuring the angle at which a
particular diffracted image appears, the wavelength of the light producing
that image may be determined.
Thus diffraction grating is a simple way of separating white light into its
constituent wavelengths.

Examples
1. Monochromatic light is incident normally on a grating with 7.00 × 105 lines
per metre. A second-order maximum is observed at an angle of diffraction of
40.0o. Calculate the wavelength of the incident light.
Solution:
The slits on a diffraction grating are created by drawing parallel lines on
the surface of the plate. The relationship between the slit spacing d and the
1 1
number N of lines per metre is 𝑑 = =
𝑁 7.00×105
using 𝑛𝜆 = 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑑 1
𝝀 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 5
sin 40.0𝑜 = 𝟒𝟓𝟗 𝒏𝒎
𝑛 (7.00×10 )×2
2. Monochromatic light is incident normally on a grating with 5.00 × 105 lines
per metre. A third-order maximum is observed at an angle of diffraction of
78.0o. Calculate the wavelength of the incident light. [Ans. 𝟔𝟓𝟐 𝒏𝒎]
−7
3. Light of wavelength 5.90 × 10 m is incident normally on a diffraction
grating with 8.00 × 105 lines per metre. Calculate the diffraction angles of
the first-and second-order diffraction images. [Ans.28.2o; 70.7o]

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4. Light of wavelength 590 𝑛𝑚 is incident normally on a diffraction grating
with spacing 1.67 × 10−6 m. How many orders of diffraction maxima can
be obtained. [Ans. 2 or 3 if zero order is included]
5. A diffraction grating has 300 lines per mm. When it is illuminated normally
by light of wavelength 530 nm, what is the angle between the first and
second order maxima? What is the highest maximum that can be obtained?
[Ans. θ = 9.39o]
The highest order maximum occurs when sin θ is maximum (sin θ = 1)
This gives you n= 6.3
Since the orders of maxima have to be whole numbers, the maximum order
has to be 6. If the answer to the problem had been 6.87, the maximum order
would still be 6, even though the nearest whole number was 7
6. Monochromatic light is incident normally on a diffraction grating having
300 lines per centimeter. The angular separation of the zeroth-and first-order
maxima is found to be 10o. Calculate the wavelength of the incident light.
[Ans. 580 nm]
7. For the case described in number 6, at what angle would you expect to find
the second-order maximum (n=2)? Repeat the calculation of the angle for
n=3,4, etc. What is the limit to this calculation? How many maxima will
there be altogether in this interference pattern?
[Ans. 20.4o, 31.5o, 44.2o,60.6o. You cannot have sin θ > 1. There are 11
maxima]
8. Consider the equation 𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆. How will the diffraction pattern change
if:
(a) The wavelength of the light is increased?
(b) the diffraction grating is changed for one with more lines per centimetre
(slits that are more closely spaced)?
[Ans.(a) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∝ 𝜆; 𝜃 increases, so the maxima are more spread out and
1
there may be fewer of them, (b) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∝ ; d decreases, so again 𝜃
𝑑
increases, the maxima are more spread out and there may be fewer of
them ]
9. A student is trying to make an accurate measurement of the wavelength of
green light from a mercury lamp (𝜆 = 546 𝑛𝑚). Using a double slit of
separation of 0.50 mm, he finds he can see ten clear fringes on a screen at a
distance of 0.80 m from the slits. The student can measure their overall
width to within ± 1 mm. He then tries an alternative experiment using a
diffraction grating that has 3000 lines per-centimetre . The angle between
the two second-order maxima can be measured to within ±0.1o.
(a) What will be the width of the ten fringes that he can measure in the first
experiment?

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 (b) What will be the angle of the second-order maximum in the second
experiment?
(c) Suggest which experiment you think will give the more accurate
measurement of 𝜆.
Answers
(a) Calculation gives total width of 8.7 mm, but with a ruler the student will
measure 9 mm.
(b) Calculation gives an angle of 19.12o, but the student will measure 19.1o.
(c) For the double-slit experiment, a measured width of 9 mm for ten fringes
will give an answer for the wavelength of 562 nm. For the diffraction
grating experiment, the measured second-order angle of 19.1o will give
an answer of 545 nm. Hence the diffraction grating method is more
accurate. In practice, it is also much more precise because the fringes
are bright and sharp (well-defined).
10.White light is incident normally on a diffraction grating with a slit separation
d of 2.00 × 10−6 𝑚.
(a) Calculate the angle between the red and violet ends of the first-order
spectrum. The visible spectrum has wavelengths between 400 nm and
700 nm. [Ans, angular separation = 9.0o]
(b) Explain why the second- and third-order spectra overlap.
[The third-order maximum for violet light is deflected through a smaller
angle than the second-order maximum of red light.]

Self-check
1. A red light emitted by a laser radiation has the frequency 𝑓 = 4.74 ×
1014 𝐻𝑧. Speed of light c = 3 × 108 m/s.
(a) Calculate the wavelength of the emitted radiation [𝑨𝒏𝒔. 𝟔. 𝟑𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 𝒎]
(b) The wavelengths of the limits of visible radiation are 0.75 𝜇𝑚 (for red
light) and 0.4 𝜇𝑚 (for violet). Calculate the frequencies corresponding to
such wavelengths. [Ans. 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 4.0 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 , 𝑓𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 7.5 × 1014 𝐻𝑧]
2. Two sound waves originating from the same source, travel along different
paths in air and then meet at a point. If the source vibrates at frequency of 1
kHz and one path is 83 cm longer than the other, what will be the nature of
interference? (The speed of sound in air is 332 m/s)
Solution
𝑣 332
𝜆= = = 0.332𝑚
𝑓 1000
𝜆
Distance between two successive nodes = = 0.166
2
Path difference = d1 –d2 = 0.83
𝑑1 −𝑑2 0.83
𝜆 = =5
0.166
2

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 𝜆
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 = 5
2
𝜆
Thus the path difference is an odd multiple of hence we have destructive
2
interference.
3. The diagrams represent water waves in a tank. Which diagram represents a
wave that changes speed?

barrier barrier barrier shallow

water
deep
water

4. The diagram below shows a water wave in a ripple tank. Which line
represents a wavefront?

5. Plane water waves travel from a shallow region into a deeper region. They
travel more quickly in the deeper water.

shallow water

boundary
wave
direction
deep water

Which direction shows the wave pattern in the deeper water?

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6. (a) The figure below represents a wave in a water tank. Five distances are
shown, labeled A, B, C, D and E

(i) 1. Which property of the wave is represented by distance C?

2. Which of the labeled distances represents the wavelength of the wave?
(ii) Water waves are transverse waves. State another example of transverse
waves
(iii) The speed of the wavefronts is 7.5 cm/s. Calculate the distance moved
by a wavefront in 4.0s [Ans. 0.3m or 30cm]
(b) The figure below shows, from above, a wave travelling on water.
shallow
water
water
tank

deep
water direction of
travel of wave
wavefront

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 The wave has reached an area of shallow water, where it travels more
slowly.
(i) Complete the diagram to show the wavefronts in the shallow water.
(ii) State the term used to describe what happens to the wave as it enters the
shallow water.
7. (a) (i) A long rope, fixed at one end, is being used by a student to
demonstrate transverse waves. State what the student does to the rope to
produce the transverse wave.
(ii) The figure below shows a section of the rope when the transverse wave
is present.

On the figure, show

1. a distance, labeled 𝜆, corresponding to the wavelength of the wave,
2. a distance, labeled A, corresponding to the amplitude of the wave
(iii) Suggest what the student could do to reduce the wavelength of the
wave. [Ans. increase rate of shaking end of rope to increase frequency]
8. Some plane waves travel on the surface of water in a tank. They pass from a
region of deep water into a region of shallow water. The figure below shows
what the waves look like from above.
boundary

waves move
this way
deep shallow
water water
(a) State what happens at the boundary, if anything, to
(i) the frequency of the waves,
(ii) the speed of the waves,
(iii) the wavelength of the waves.
(b) The waves have a speed of 012 m/s in the deeper water. Wave crests are
0.08m apart in the deep water. Calculate the frequency of the source
producing the waves.

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 (c) The figure below shows identical waves moving towards the boundary at
an angle.
boundary

waves move
this way

deep shallow
water water
On the figure above, draw carefully the remainder of waves A and B, plus
the two previous waves which reached the shallow water. You will need to
use your ruler to do this neatly.
9. The figure below shows a scale drawing of plane wavefronts approaching a
gap in a barrier.
direction of wave travel

barrier

(a) On the figure above, draw the pattern of the wavefronts after the wave has
passed through the gap.
(b) The wave approaching the barrier has a wavelength of 2.5cm and a speed of
20m/s. Calculate the frequency of the wave. [Ans. 8Hz]
(c) State what happens, if anything, to the frequency of the wave as it passes
through the gap. [Ans. Remains the same]
(d) Explain, in terms of diffraction, why a car radio may pick up low frequency
radio signals but not pick up high frequency radio signals when the car is
travelling behind a hill.
– low frequency signals have longer wave length than high frequency
signals and so diffract more around an obstacle like a hill thus can
reach the car radio unlike the high frequency signals.
10.(a) State how a longitudinal wave differs from a transverse wave.
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 (b) A sound wave of frequency 7.5 kHz travels through a steel beam at a
speed of 6100 m/s.
(i) Calculate the wavelength of this sound wave in the steel beam.
[Ans. 0.83m]
(ii) The sound wave passes from the end of the beam into air. State
1. the effect on the speed of the sound, [decreases]
2. the effect on the wavelength of the sound.[remains same]
11.Some waves are longitudinal; some waves are transverse.
Some waves are electromagnetic; some waves are mechanical.
Put ticks in the table below to indicate which of these descriptions apply to
the light waves of the lightning and the sound waves of the thunder

12.The figure below illustrates a sound wave travelling through the air.

direction of
wave travel

(a) On the figure above, mark clearly the direction in which the air particles are
moving
(b) Use the figure to measure the wavelength of the sound wave in cm
(c) The pitch of the sound wave is raised. State how the sound wave pattern
would differ from that shown above.[Ans. more waves/shorter 𝝀]
13.The figure below shows a section through a series of waves on water

(a) On the figure, mark clearly the direction in which the water molecules are
moving
(b) From the figure measure the wavelength of the water wave

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(c) The amplitude of the water wave is increased. State how the appearance of
the water waves would differ from that shown in the figure above.
[Ans. taller waves]
14.Radio waves are received at a house at the bottom of a hill

hill

The waves reach the house because the hill has caused them to be
A. diffracted B. radiated C. reflected D. refracted
15.The diagrams show water waves that move more slowly after passing into
shallow water at the broken line. Which diagram shows what happens to the
waves?

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16.The diagrams below show examples of wave motion

17.Which waves are longitudinal?

micro waves sound waves

light waves from an oven from a trumpet water waves
from a lamp on a pond
18.A navigation buoy floating on the sea oscillates up and down as a wave
passes.

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 navigation buoy

In exactly 2 minutes, six complete wavelengths pass the buoy.

What is the frequency of the waves?
A. 0.050 Hz B. 0.33 Hz C. 3.0 Hz D. 20 Hz
19.The diagram represents water waves about to move into shallow water from
deep water.

wavefront

deep water
shallow water
Which property of the waves remains the same after the waves move into
shallow water?
A. frequency B. speed C. wavefront direction D. wavelength

Consolidation Selfcheck questions

1. (a) Explain the terms wavelength and wavefront as applied to wave motion.
(b) Describe how you would determine the velocity of sound in air using a
resonance tube.
(c) Explain with the aid of suitable diagrams the terms fundamental note and
overtone as applied to a vibrating wire fixed at both ends.
2. Two slits 0.50mm apart are placed at a distance of 1m from the screen. The
slits are iluminated with light of wavelength 550mm. Calculate the distance
between the fourth and second bright fringes of the interference pattern.
[Ans.𝟐. 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝒎]
3. In Young’s double slit experiment, the 8th bright fringe is formed 5mm away
from the centre of the fringe system when the wavelength of the light used is
6.2 × 10−7 𝑚. Calculate the separation of the two slits if the distance from
the slits to the screen is 80 cm. [Ans.𝟕. 𝟗𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝒎]
4. A progressive and a stationary wave each has frequency of 240 Hz and a
speed of 80 m/s. Calculate the Phase difference between two vibrating points
in the progressive wave,which are 6cm apart. [Ans.1.13 radians]
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5. (a) Define the wavelength of a wave.
(b) A source of sound moving with velocity Us approaches an observer
moving with velocity Uo in the same direction. Derive the expression for the
frequency of sound heard by the observer.
(c) Explain what happens to the pitch of the sound heard by the observer
above when: (i) Observer moves faster than the source
(ii) Observer’s velocity is equal to that of the sound
(d) State and explain one effect of the Doppler Effect.
6. Describe the appearance of the fringes in Young’s double slit experiment if
white light is used.
7. State and explain four ways in which stationary waves differ from
progressive waves.
8. A string is stretched between two fixed supports separated by 1.20m.
Stationary waves are generated on the string. It is observed that two
stationary wave frequencies are 180 Hz and 135 Hz; there is no resonant
frequency between these two. Calculate: (a) the speed of progressive
waves on the stretched string,
(b) the lowest resonant frequency of the string.
9. A source of sound of frequency 2000 Hz is placed in front of a flat wall.
When a microphone is moved away from the source towards the wall, a
series of maxima and minima are detected.
(a) Explain what has happened to create the maxima and minima.
(b) The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. Calculate the distance between
successive minima.
10.A string is stretched between two fixed supports 3.5m apart. Stationary
waves are generated by disturbing the string. One possible mode of vibration
of the stationary waves is shown in the figure below. The nodes and
antinodes are labeled N and A respectively.
(a) Distinguish between a node and an antinode in a stationary wave.

A A A A A

(b) State the phase difference between the vibrations of particles of the string
at any two neighbouring antinodes.
(c) Calculate the ratio of the frequency of the mode of vibration in figure
above to the frequency of the fundamental mode of vibration of the
string.

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 (d) The frequency of the mode of vibration shown above is 160 Hz.
Calculate the speed of the progressive waves which produced this
stationary wave.
11.A vibrating tuning fork of frequency 320 Hz is held over the open end of a
resonance tube. The other end of the tube is immersed in water. The length
of the air column is gradually increased until resonance first occurs. Taking
the speed of sound in air as 340 m/s, calculate the length of the air column.
(Neglect any end -correction).
12.We can hear sounds round corners. We cannot see round corners. Both
sound and light are waves. Explain why sound and light seem to behave
differently.
13.State two features of a stationary wave that distinguish it from a progressive
wave.
14.A string 75cm long is fixed at one end. The other end is moved up and down
with a frequency of 15 Hz. This frequency gives a stationary wave pattern
with three complete loops on the string. Calculate the speed of the
progressive waves which have interfered to produce the stationary wave.
[Ans. 7.5 m/s]
15.A violin string vibrates with a fundamental frequency of 440 Hz. What are
the frequencies of its first two overtones?
16.Find the fundamental frequency and the first two overtones for an organ pipe
which is 0.17 m long and closed at one end. The speed of sound in air is 340
m/s [Ans. 2500 Hz]
17.The speed of waves on a certain stretched string is 48 m/s. When the string
is vibrated at frequency of 64 Hz, stationary waves are set up. Find the
separation of successive nodes in the stationary wave pattern.
18.You can make an empty lemonade bottle resonate by blowing across the top.
What fundamental frequency of vibration would you expect for a bottle 30
cm deep? The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
19.A certain organ pipe, closed at one end, can resonate at consecutive
frequencies 640 Hz, 896 Hz and 1152 Hz. Deduce its fundamental
frequency. [Ans128 Hz]
15.(a)A ripple tank is used to demonstrate interference between water waves.
Describe the apparatus used to produce two sources of coherent waves that
have circular wavefronts,
(b) A wave pattern produced in (a) is shown below

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 Solid lines on figure represent crests.
On the figure above
(i) draw two lines to show where maxima would be seen (label each of these
lines with the letter X),
(ii) draw one line to show where minima would be seen (label this line with
the letter N).
16.(a)A long tube is open at one end. It is closed at the other end by means of a
piston that can be moved along the tube as shown below.
tube piston

loud speaker L

A loudspeaker producing sound of frequency 550 Hz is held near the open

end of the tube.
The piston is moved along the tube and a loud sound is heard when the
distance L between the piston and the open end of the tube is 45 cm. The
speed of sound in the tube is 330 m/s.
(i) Show that the wavelength of the sound in the tube is 60 cm.
(ii) On the figure above, mark all the positions along the tube of
1. the displacement nodes (label these with the letter N)
2. the displacement antinodes (label these with the latter A).
(b) The frequency of the sound produced by the loudspeaker in (a) is
gradually reduced. Determine the lowest frequency at which a loud sound
will be produced in the tube of length L = 45 cm.

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