1

APPRECIATION
Special thanks to God for building this project since 2006, with lot
of students who have benefited from it. I specially thank
Oluwadare Victoria ( Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma) a medical
laboratory scientist for your contribution, Afolabi Damilola
( university of Ibadan) a dentist, Ajayi Doyin (university of Ibadan)
department of health science, medicine and surgery, Bimisola
Fumilayo (university of Calabar) a medical laboratory scientist,
Julius Tosin (Obafemi Awolowo university) a pharmacist,
Lieutenant Saporu Olarewaju (university of Benin) chemical
engineer and to many whose names are not mentioned and have
benefited from this foundation.
I want to thank Mr Oluborode Kehinde (Nigerian Navy secondary
school), Mr Oluseyi Ajayi (Nigerian Navy secondary school) who
have contributed to this foundation and spiced up this book with
questions and solutions.

2
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including
photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical
methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except in case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and
certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law.
Copyright © BIMISOLA BENJAMIN. S, 2022

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
MOTION
CONCEPTS OF WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
FRICTION
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
HEAT ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
ELECTRIC CHARGES PRODUCTION
FIELD
SURFACE TENSION – DEFINITION, EFFECTS, APPLICATION AND
REDUCTION

4
5
 INTRODUCTION
Physics is one of the core subjects as a science subject. Many
students are almost scared of physics. Do not be afraid, concepts
are very important in physics, it is what lead to numerical analysis.
This book treats each topic from the basic to complex, from
unknown to known with explanation.

HOW TO USE THIS BOOK

1. Have the belief that you do not know anything in
physics: In a situation you begin to count how many topics
you have known, your problem begin almost immediately from
there. Each topic are important in physics, especially the first
topic. All examination bodies start from there in asking
question. It should be noted that if it is not important, it
won’t be there.

2. Know the basics: Do you know that your genetic makeup

today are deeply rooted from your parents. The second topic in
physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology e.tc are all
dependent on the first topic. Start with the basics to have
something to build upon. Also, go through the solved
examples.

3. Know your formula: Try to understand the pattern of

derivations and practice questions based on them. This will
help you to register them into your mind.

4. Prepare your notes: Don’t be too lazy to jot what you have
read, what you write is what you know. A very close friend of
mine told me a story about his brilliant friend who got a job in
Lagos as a secretary. The boy was so brilliant that he
remember everything discussed in any meeting he and his
boss attended, so there was no need for him to jot anything
because he believed so much in his brain. On one faithful day,
6
 they went to meeting as usual and it was about goods to be
distributed and he believed he would remember the items with
their price tags.

He could not jot anything, getting to office his boss asked, get
me the quotations for the goods, though he tried and
mentioned few but could not get them all. Finally, he was
sacked. So, being brilliant does not mean you should not jot
down. Learn from this.

5. Your room, your school: Nothing stops you from writing

formulas on paper and place it on the four wall corner of your
room. An adage says, seeing is believing, but in physics it is
look and learn.

6. Listen to your mind: Take it or leave it, reading is a spirit.

Sometimes ago, I read dispersion in physics and I was happy
that I have known it. That same day, I was to travel to see my
brother, after I had left home and looking for taxi; then my
mind asked me a question “what is dispersion?” I made
mockery of the question because I believed I just finished with
it, but it kept coming to my mind and when I tried to answer it,
I could not say anything. It is not a joking matter, I left my bag
there and went home to open my textbook again, immediately
I picked up from there and I know it till today. It is possible
that if I turned a deaf ear to my mind, I might find it difficult to
cope thereafter. Don’t joke with any question your mind ask
you. It is the spirit of reading.

7. Practice past questions in jamb, Waec, Neco, Nabteb, Waec

Gce, Neco gce e.t.c.

BIMISOLA BENJAMIN . S
The surgeon educational consultant
7
CHAPTER ONE
MEASUREMENT OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
Unit is a standard measure of a quantity, units are very important in physics which
enables us to identify the quantity we are dealing with. Any calculations made in
physics without unit (specified) renders the calculation useless; though not all e.g
coefficient of friction, relative density, velocity ratio and mechanical advantage have
no unit.
The quantity used as standard for measurement is called unit.
Q = nu …………………………………….. eqti
Physical Quantity = Numerical value × unit
Q = Physical Quantity
n = Numerical value
u = Standard unit
e.g. Mass of stool = 15 kg
Mass = Physical quantity
15 = Numerical value
Kg = Standard unit
8
Means mass of stool is 15 times of known quantity i.e. Kg.
Characteristics of Standard Unit: A unit selected for measuring a physical quantity
should have the following properties
1. It should be well defined i.e. its concept should be clear.
2. It should not change with change in physical conditions like temperature,
pressure, stress etc..
3. It should be suitable in size; neither too large nor too small.
4. It should not change with place or time.
5. It should be reproducible.
6. It should be internationally accepted.
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES/ UNITS
Fundamental quantities and units are those in which other quantities and units
depend.
NOTE: the three most important basic quantities in physics are ( MLT ), mass,
length and time which is also referred as ( kg, m, s ) i.e kilogram, metre and
second. Examples of fundamental quantities and units are:
Quantity Unit
Length Metre ( m )
Mass Kilogram (kg )
Time Second ( s )
Electric current Ampere ( A )
Temperature Kelvin ( K )
Amount of substance Mole ( mol )
Luminous intensity Candela ( cd )

NOTE: The Surgeon Acronym for fundamental quantities and units is LAMELTT
Where;
L = length ( m )
A = amount of substance ( mol )

9
M = mass ( kg )
E = electric current ( A )
L = luminous intensity ( cd )
T = time ( s )
T = temperature ( K )

DERIVED QUANTITIES AND UNITS AND THEIR DERIVATION

Derived quantities and units are dependent on the fundamental quantities and
units. Examples
No Derived Derivation Unit
quantity
1 Area Length x breadth mxm
= m2
2 Volume Length x breadth x m x m x m
height = m3
3 Density Mass/volume Kg/m3
= kgm-3
4 Velocity m/s
Displacement/time = ms-1
5 Acceleration Change in m/s2
displacement/ = ms-2
time
6 Force Mass x Kg x ms-2
acceleration = kgms-2
Or Newton ( N )
7 Work or energy Force x distance Kgms-2 x m
= kgm2s-2
Nxm
=Nm
10
 Or Joule ( J )
8 Power Work/time Kgm2 s – 2 /s
= kgm2 s – 2 – 1
= kgm2s – 3
Nm/s
= Nms – 1
J/s
= Js – 1
Or Watt ( W )
9 Momentum Mass x velocity Kg x ms-1
= kgms-1
10 Pressure Force/area Kgms – 2 /m2
= kgm1 – 2 s – 2
=
kgm – 1 s – 2
N/m2
= Nm – 2
Or Pascal ( Pa )
11 Frequency Number of Hertz ( Hz )
oscillations/time S–1
12 Electric charge Coulomb ( C )
13 Electric Volt ( V )
potential
difference
14 Electric Ohm ( Ω )
resistance
15 Electric Farad ( F )
capacitance

DIMENSION ANALYSIS
In the dimension analysis of the physical nature of a quantity, the representative
symbols for mass, length and time are M, L and T respectively. One of the beauty of
dimension is that once you are able to understand units, it can easily be transcribed
to dimension.
11
Example 1: deduce the dimension for;
a. Work
b. Power
c. Pressure
Solution:
To solve this problem, once you are able to get the unit; transcribing it to dimension
will be very easy.
a. Work = force x distance
= kgms-2 x m
= kgm2 s-2
In dimension, kg is M , m2 is L2 and s – 2 is T – 2
= ML2T – 2
b. Power = work/time
Kgm2 s – 2 /s
= kgm2 s – 2 – 1
= kgm2s – 3
In dimension is ML2T – 3
c. Pressure = force/area
= Kgms – 2 /m2
= kgm1 – 2 s-2
=
kgm-1 s-2
In dimension is ML – 1 T – 2

Example 2: The correct unit of energy density is …………. ( jamb 2006 )

Solution:

12
Energy density = energy/ volume
Energy = force x distance
Energy density = force x distance/volume
= kgms – 2 x m/ m3
= kgm2s – 2 /m3
= kgm2 – 3 s – 2
= kgm – 1 s – 2
Example 3: At what respective values of x, y and z would the unit of force, the
newton be dimensionally equivalent to Mx Ly Tz ? ( jamb 1997 )
Solution:
Force = Mx Ly Tz
Mass x acceleration = Mx Ly Tz
Kg x ms – 2 = Mx Ly Tz …………. In terms of unit
MLT – 2 = Mx Ly Tz ………………. In terms of dimension
By equating powers mathematically
M1 = Mx
X=1
L1 = Ly
Y=1
And T – 2 = Tz
Z=-2
Hence, x = 1, y = 1 and z = - 2
Example 4: The equation Px Vy Tz = constant is Boyle’s law if ……….. ( jamb 1982 )
Solution:

13
From Boyle’s law, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
pressure at constant temperature.
Mathematically Vα 1/p at constant T
V = k/p
VP = K at constant T
Relating to the equation
Px Vy Tz = P1 V1 T0
Equating powers
Px = P1
X=1
Vy = V1
Y=1
Tz = T0
Z=0
Hence, x = 1, y = 1 and z = 0
Example 5: The velocity V of a wave in a stretched string depends on the tension T,
in the spring and the mass per unit length µ of the spring. Obtain an expression for V
in terms of T and µ, using the method of dimensions ( waec 2020 )
Solution:
Mathematical expression for the relation and note that the word “ depend “ as used
means directly proportional
V ∝ Tμ
V = KTµ where K is a constant with no dimension
Let T and µ have x and y indices.
V = K Tx µy ………………….eqti
Dimension for velocity V = LT – 1
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Dimension for Tension, which is same as force = MLT – 2
Dimension for µ = mass per unit length i.e mass/ length = ML – 1
Combining all the dimensions expressed into eqti
LT – 1 = K [ ( MLT – 2 ) x X ( ML – 1 ) y ]
LT – 1 = K ( Mx Lx T – 2x X My L –y )
LT – 1 = K ( Mx x My x Lx x L –y x T – 2x )
Applying the law of indices i.e Ax x Ay = Ax + y
LT – 1 = K ( Mx + y x Lx – y x T – 2x )
Equating powers
On the left side of the equation, M = 0
M0 = Mx + y
0 = x + y ……………. Eqti
L1 = Lx – y
1 = x – y …………….. eqtii
T – 1 = T – 2x
-1 = - 2x ………………eqtiii
From eqtiii
2x = 1
X=½
Substitute x = ½ in eqtii
1=x–y
1=½-y
1–½=y
Y=½

15
Substitute x and y into the mathematical expression
V = K Tx µy
V = KT1/2 µ - ½
V = K√T x 1/√µ
V = K√T/µ
Example 6: A sphere of radius r moving with a velocity V under streamline
conditions in a viscous fluid experiences a retarding force, F, given by F = KrV where
K is a constant. Derive the S.I units of K in terms of the base units.
Solution:
Parametric expression is F = KrV
Make K the subject of the formula
K = F/rV…………………………….eqti
Where F = force, r = radius ( m ) and V = velocity
= kgms – 2 /m x ms – 1
= kgms – 2 / m2s – 1
= kgm1 – 2 s – 2 – ( - 1 )
= kgm – 1 s – 2 + 1
K = kgm – 1 s – 1

PRINCIPLE OF HOMOGENEITY OF DIMENSIONS

It states that the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of an equation must be
the same. According to the principle of homogeneity, the comparison, addition and
subtraction of all physical quantities is possible only if they are of the same nature
i.e., they have the same dimensions.

16
If the power of M, L and T on two sides of the given equation are same, then the
physical equation is correct otherwise not. Therefore, this principle is very helpful to
check the correctness of a physical equation.
Example: A physical relation must be dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., all the terms
on both sides of the equation must have the same dimensions.
In the equation, S = ut + ½ at2
The length (S) has been equated to velocity (u) and time (t), which at first seems to
be meaningless, But if this equation is dimensionally homogeneous, i.e., the
dimensions of all the terms on both sides are the same, then it has physical
meaning. Now, dimensions of various quantities in the equation are:
Distance, S = [L1 ]
Velocity, u = [L1T – 1 ]
Time, t = [T1 ]
Acceleration, a = [L1T – 2 ]
½ is a constant and has no dimensions.
Thus, the dimensions of the term on L.H.S. is S= [L1 ] and
Dimensions of terms on R.H.S.
ut + ½ at2 = [L1T – 1 ] [T1] + L1T – 2 ] [T2]
= [L1T – 1 + 1] + [L1T – 2 + 2] ( applying the laws of indices )
= [L1] + [L1]
Hence [L1] = [L1] + [L1]
Here, the dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the equation are the same.
Therefore, the equation is dimensionally homogeneous.

DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS, APPLICATIONS OF DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

Dimensional Analysis: A careful examination of the dimensions of various quantities
involved in a physical relation is called dimensional analysis. The analysis of the
17
dimensions of a physical quantity is of great help to us in a number of ways as
discussed under the uses of dimensional equations.
Uses of dimensional equation: The principle of homogeneity and dimensional
analysis has put to the following uses:
i. Checking the correctness of physical equation.
II. To convert a physical quantity from one system of units into another.
III. To derive relation among various physical quantities.
To check the correctness of Physical relations: According to principle of
Homogeneity of dimensions a physical relation or equation is correct, if the
dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the equation are the same. If the
dimensions of even one term differs from those of others, the equation is not
correct.
Example 1. Check the correctness of the following formulae by dimensional analysis.
𝐹 = 𝑚v2/r
(ii)𝑡 = 2𝜋√𝑙/𝑔 Where all the letters have their usual meanings.
Solution
. 𝑭 = 𝒎𝐯 2/𝐫
Dimensions of the term on L.H.S Force, F = [M1L1T – 2 ]
Dimensions of the term on R.H.S 𝒎𝐯2/𝐫 = [M1 ][L1T – 1 ]2 / [L]
=[M1L2T – 2 ]/ [L]
=[M1L2 – 1 T – 2 ]
=[M1L1T – 2 ]
The dimensions of the term on the L.H.S are equal to the dimensions of the term on
R.H.S. Therefore, the relation is correct.
𝒕 = 𝟐𝝅√𝒍/𝒈
Here, Dimensions of L.H.S, t = [T1] = [M0 L0 T1 ]

18
Dimensions of the terms on R.H.S Dimensions of (length) = [L1 ]
Dimensions of g (acceleration due to gravity) = [L1 T – 2 ]
2𝜋 being constant have no dimensions.
Hence, the dimensions of terms 2𝜋√𝑙/𝑔 on R.H.S = (L1 /L1 T – 2 ] )1/2
= (L1/2 / L1/2 T – 2 x ½ ) ………………………. Applying the law of indices
= [T1 ]
= [M0 L0 T1 ]
Thus, the dimensions of the terms on both sides of the relation are the same i.e.,
[M0 L0 T1 ].
Therefore, the relation is correct.

dimensional analysis, 𝑉 = √ 𝐸 /d . Here V is the velocity of sound, E is the elasticity

Example 2. Check the correctness of the following equation on the basis of

and d is the density of the medium.

Solution.
Here, Dimensions of the term on L.H.S V =[M0 L1 T – 1 ]
Dimensions of elasticity, E = [M1 L – 1 T – 2 ] and Dimensions of density, d = [M1 L – 3 T0]
Therefore, Dimensions of the terms on R.H.S √ 𝑬 /𝒅 = [M1 L – 1 T – 2 / M1 L – 3 T0]1/2
= [M1 – 1 L – 1 + 3 T – 2 – 0 ]1/2
= [M0 L2 T – 2 ]1/2
= [M0 x ½ L2 x ½ T – 2 x ½ ] ………………………….. applying the law of indices
= [M0 L1 T – 1 ]
Thus, dimensions on both sides are the same, therefore the equation is correct.
Example 3. Using Principle of Homogeneity of dimensions, check the correctness of
equation, h = 2Td /rgCos𝜃.
Solution.
The given formula is, h = 2Td /rgCos𝜃.
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Dimensions of term on L.H.S Height (h) = [M0 L1 T0]
Dimensions of terms on R.H.S , T= surface tension = force/ length =[M1 L0 T – 2 ]
d= density = [M1 L – 3 T 0]
r =radius = [M0 L1 T0]
g= acceleration due to gravity = [M0 L1 T – 2 ]
Cos𝜃 = [M0 L0 T0 ]= no dimension
So, Dimensions of 2Td/rgCos𝜃 = [M1 L0 T – 2 ] x [M1 L – 3 T 0] / [M0 L1 T0] x [M0 L1 T – 2]
= [M2L – 3 T – 2 ]/ [M0 L2 T – 2 ] ……………………………… applying law of indices
= [M2 L – 5 T0 ]
Hence, dimensions of terms on L.H.S are not equal to dimensions on R.H.S. Hence,
formula is not correct.
Example 4. Check the accuracy of the following relations:
E = mgh + ½ mv2 ;
(ii) v3 –u2 = 2as2.
Solution:
E = mgh + ½ mv2
Here, dimensions of the term on L.H.S. Energy, E = [M1 L2 T – 2 ]
Dimensions of the terms on R.H.S, Dimensions of the term, mgh = [M] × [LT – 2 ] × [L]
= [M1 L2 T – 2 ]
Dimensions of the term, ½ mv2 = [M] × [LT – 1 ]2 = [M1 L2 T – 2 ]
Thus, dimensions of all the terms on both sides of the relation are the same,
therefore, the relation is correct.

The given relation is, v3 -u 2= 2as2

Dimensions of the terms on L.H.S V3 = [M0] × [LT – 1 ]3 = [M0 L3 T – 3 ]

20
U2 = [M0 ] × [LT – 1 ]2 =][M0 L2 T – 2
Dimensions of the terms on R.H.S 2as2 = [M0 ] × [LT – 2 ] ×[L]2 = [M0 L3 T – 2 ]
Substituting the dimensions in the relations, v3 – u2 = 2as2
We get, [M0 L3 T – 3 ] - [M0 L2 T – 2 ] = [M0 L3 T – 2 ]
The dimensions of all the terms on both sides are not same; therefore, the relation
is not correct.

Limitations of Dimensional Equation:

The method of dimensions has the following limitations:
1. It does not help us to find the value of dimensionless constants involved in various
physical relations. The values, of such constants have to be determined by some
experiments or mathematical investigations.
2. This method fails to derive formula of a physical quantity which depends upon
more than three factors. Because only three equations are obtained by comparing
the powers of M, L and T.
3. It fails to derive relations of quantities involving exponential and trigonometric
functions.
4. The method cannot be directly applied to derive relations which contain more
than one terms on one side or both sides of the equation, such as v = u + at or s = ut
+ ½ at2 etc. However, such relations can be derived indirectly.
5. A dimensionally correct relation may not be true physical relation because the
dimensional equality is not sufficient for the correctness of a given physical relation.

21
MEASUREMENTS
The length of an object can be measured with the following instruments.
Metre rule
Calipers
Vernier calipers
Micrometer screw guage
Metre rule: This is an instrument used in measuring the length of an object, it is
calibrated in centimetres and millimetres with reading accuracy of 0.1cm or 1mm.
Note: Generally in physics practical, when students handle instruments such as
voltmeter, ammeter, manual stopwatch, metre rule, spring balance e.t.c these
instruments are graduated or calibrated, error known as parallax error can be
committed when taking readings on the instruments. Parallax error is the error in
obtaining reading from a graduated instrument when the eye is wrongly positioned
on the scale. Hence, when using metre rule the eye should be placed vertically
downwards on the scales to avoid parallax error.

22
Caliper: The length of a cylindrical objects can be measured with caliper. The
instrument is not calibrated, readings are obtained when the jaws of the calipers are
adjusted to touch the object which is transferred on a calibrated scale.
Vernier caliper: The instrument has two scales, main scale and vernier scale with
reading accuracy of 0.1mm and 0.01cm. it is used to measure the following, internal
and external diameter of a tube, diameter of a rod, the thickness of metre rule.

Reading SI or Metric Calipers

When measuring with a metric caliper, the final measurement will usually be in
centimetres (cm). There are three steps needed to read these Vernier calipers. Each
step is done independently and then each steps are all added together.

Reading SI or Metric Calipers

23
In this example, the movable scale is on the bottom of the fixed scale. (It can also be
on the top.)
The numbers at the top of the fixed scale are in centimetres. Notice that there are
tick marks on the fixed scale between the numbers. These are in millimetres or
tenths of a centimetre. Therefore, there are 10 ticks between the numbers. There
are also 10 tick marks on the movable scale.
Step 1: Locate the “0” on the movable or sliding scale. Now you need to determine
where the “0” is.
In this example, the zero is between 2 and 3 cm, so we know our reading will be at
least 2 cm. This is our first part of the reading and can be recorded as follows:
2. cm

Our aim is to fill in the two blanks to finish the reading.

Step 2: Now you must determine the next blank, which represents the tenths of a
centimetre. To do this, look carefully at the tick marks between 2 and 3 centimetres
on the fixed scale. You can see that the zero line has gone past the second tick but
has not yet reached the third tick. So we write down a “2” for the next blank. So our
reading now looks like this:
2.2 cm

Step 3: You will use the ticks on the moving scale for the final reading. Notice that
one of the ticks on the moving scale lines up or matches best with a tick mark
directly above it on the fixed scale. In this example, the arrow shows that the third
tick matches up most closely with the line on the fixed scale or coincides. Thus, the
value for the third blank must be a 3, and our reading would be:
2.23 cm

24
Note: It doesn’t matter which line is matched on the fixed scale as we read from the
movable scale.
Micrometer screw guage: The instrument has two scales also ( main scale and
vernier scale ) with the main scale graduated in millimetres. Its reading accuracy is
0.01mm and 0.001cm. it is used to measure smaller lengths such as: thickness of a
piece of paper, diameter of a wire, diameter of small pendulum bob.

Reading SI or Metric Micrometers

When an object is placed in the jaws of a micrometer between the anvil and the
spindle, the thimble is turned in order to make both the anvil and the spindle touch
the object. As the thimble is turned, it moves to the left (in the diagram below) and
the length of the spindle decreases.
To read any length, first look at the top of the spindle reading. This scale is in
millimetres. Simply count from the zero to where the thimble cuts across the
spindle. In this example, the thimble crosses the spindle just past 8 mm.

25
Next read the thimble on the micrometer. The thimble reading is made where the
line from the spindle crosses the thimble. In this diagram, the thimble reads 12.
However, this is NOT 12 mm but 0.12 mm. Now the readings are added together to
get the final reading:
8 mm + 0.12 mm = 8.12 mm

Notice that there are also divisions on the bottom of the scale in the barrel. These
are half- millimetre divisions; they come into play when the thimble is partially
turned between whole millimetre marks, as shown in the micrometer below:
While the top of the scale on the spindle is still showing 8 mm, there is a tick mark
now showing on the bottom of the scale before the thimble. If this is the situation,
you must add 0.5 mm to the top reading before reading the thimble. So this reading
would be:

8 mm + 0.5 mm + 0.12 mm = 8.62 mm

26
When measuring with a Vernier caliper, there might be some room for error
depending on which lines match the best. With the micrometer, however, there is
only one right answer. Therefore, micrometers are much more precise and accurate
than Vernier caliper are as compared.

27
Mass and weight
Mass is defined as the quantity of matter a body contained, while weight is the force
with which the earth attracts a body towards the centre of the earth.
Difference between mass and weight
Mass Weight
Mass is the quantity of matter Weight is he force with which the
contained in a body earth attracts object towards the
centre of the earth
Mass is constant irrespective of Weight varies from place to place
location
Mass is a scalar quantity Weight is a vector quantity
Unit of mass is the kilogram Unit of weight is Newton
W = mg
Mass is measured by lever Weight is measured by spring
balance, beam balance which balance wich operates on hooke’s
operates on the principle of law
moment

Note: weight is greater at the pole and least at the equator.

Conversion in physics
It is necessary in physics to convert from one unit to another.
10mm = 1cm (b) 1000g = 1kg (c) 1000cm3 = 1 litre
100cm = 1m 1 Newton = 100g 1000000cm3 = 1m3
1000m = 1km

(d) 60 seconds = 1 minute

60 minutes = 1 hour
28
 24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week
4 weeks = 1 month

Conversion from kmhr – 1 to ms – 1

= ( y x 1000/3600 ) m/s
Where y = the value in kmhr – 1

Example: convert 30kmhr – 1 to m/s

Solution:
From the formular, y = 30kmhr – 1
= ( y x 1000/3600 )
= ( 30 x 1000/3600 )
= 8.33m/s

Conversion from Celsius to Fahrenheit

F = 9/5 0C + 32
Conversion from fahrenheit to Celsius
C = 5/9 ( F – 32 )

THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS

29
1. The least possible error in using a scale graduated in millimeters is
(a) 0.1mm
(b) 0.5mm
(c) 1.0mm
(d) 2.0mm

2. Which of the following readings gives the correct precision of the length of a rod
using vernier calipers?
(a) 4.1cm
(b) 4.13cm
(c) 4.120cm
(d) 4.125cm

3. Which of the following quantities has the same unit as the kilowatt – hour?
(a) Force x acceleration
(b) Force x velocity
(c) Force x distance
(d) Force x time
4. Which of the following readings gives the correct precision of the length of a rod
using a metre rule?
(a) 75mm
(b) 75.0mm
(c) 75.00mm
(d) 75.01mm

30
5. The unit of momentum is
(a) Js – 1
(b) Ns
(c) Ns – 1
(d) Nms

6. Which of the following instruments is most suitable for measuring the outside
diameter of a narrow pipe a few millimetres in diameter ?
(a) Pair of calipers
(b) Metre rule
(c) Micrometer screw guage
(d) Tape rule

7. The watt is equivalent to

(a) Nms – 1
(b) Js
(c) Kgm2 s – 2
(d) Ns

8. The derived dimension ML2T – 2 is a dimension of

i. Acceleration
ii. Torque
iii. Energy
(a)I only
(b) Iii only
31
 (c)I and ii only
(d) I , ii and iii only

9. [ML – 1 T – 2 ] is the dimensional formula of

(A) Force
(B) Coefficient of friction
(C) Modulus of elasticity
(D) Energy

10. rad / sec is the unit of

(A) Angular displacement
(B) Angular velocity
(C) Angular acceleration
(D) Angular momentum
11. What is the unit for measuring the amplitude of a sound?
(A) Decibel
(B) Coulomb
(C) Hum
(D) Cycles

12. The displacement of particle moving along x-axis with respect to time is x=at+bt 2
- ct3. The dimension of c is
(A) LT – 2
(B) T – 3
(C) LT – 3
32
(D) L – 3

33
What is the readings of the following micrometers?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

34
CHAPTER TWO
MOTION
Motion is the change of position of a body with time.
Types of Motion
Translational motion: This type of motion occurs when a body moves in
a fixed direction without rotating e.g. A car moving in one direction
from one town to another, movement of a man etc. It is also called
rectilinear motion
Rotational or Circular motion: This is the movement of a body in a
circular manner about its axis e.g. the movement of car wheels, electric
fan blade, earth about its axis etc.
Random Motion: This is a type of motion in which a body moves in a
zigzag or disorderly manner with no specific direction e.g. motion to
molecules of gasses, butterflies etc.
Vibratory or Oscillatory Motion: This is a to and fro or up and down
movement of a body about a fixed point e.g. the simple pendulum,
vibration of plucked guitar string, etc.
Relative Motion
If two bodies, A and B are moving on a straight line, the velocity of A
relative to B is found by adding the Velocity of B revered to the velocity
of A. For instance, if a car traveling on a straight road at 200km/hr
passes a bus going in the same direction at 50km/hr., the velocity of the
car relative to the bus is (-50+200) = 150km/hr. If the car and the bus
are traveling in opposite direction with the same velocities of 200km/r
and 50km/hr respectively, the velocity of the car relative to the bus is ( -
(-50) + 200) = (50 +200) = 250 km/hr.

35
NB: When the velocities are not in the same straight line, the
parallelograms law should be used to add this since velocities are
vectors, and their magnitudes and direction must be taken into
consideration.
DISTANCE/DISPLACEMENT, SPEED/VELOCITY, ACCELERATION,
DISTANCE/DISPLACEMENT-TIME GRAPH, SPEED/VELOCITY-TIME
GRAPH
Terminologies used in linear motion:
Distance: This is defined as the total length of path traversed. It is also
the separation between two points. It is denoted as “s” or “x”. It is a
scalar quantity. The SI unit of distance is meters (m)
Displacement: this is distance moved in a specified direction. It is
denoted as “s” or “x”. It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of displacement
is meters (m)
Speed: This is the rate of change of distance with time. It is a scalar
quantity. Its SI unit is meter per seconds (m/s or ms-1)
distance travelled
speed=
time taken
s
v=
t

Uniform speed: This is when the rate of change of distance with time is
constant.
Velocity: This is the rate of change of displacement with time. It is a
vector quantity. Its SI unit is meter per seconds (m/s or ms-1).
distplacement
velocity=
time taken
s
v=
t

36
Uniform velocity: This is when the rate of change of displacement with
time is constant.
Distance/Displacement- Time Graph
Interpreting displacement–time graphs
The gradient of the displacement–time graph is the velocity of the
object. Mathematically this is the equivalent of dividing the y-axis
quantity by the x-axis quantity: in this case displacement divided by
time. Displacement divided by time is rate of change of displacement,
which is velocity.
The area under the graph does not give us any meaningful information.
Mathematically this is the equivalent of multiplying the two quantities,
in this case displacement and time
For a uniform speed/velocity, the time graph is given below:

37
If the velocity is non – uniform, the velocity at a point is the gradient or
slope of the tangent at that point.

t (s)

NOTE: Velocity is often used interchangeably with speed during

calculations
Acceleration: This is the increasing rate of change of velocity with time.
It is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is meter per seconds-square (m/s2 or
ms-2)
c h ange∈velocity
acceleration
c h ange ∈time
∆v
a=
∆t
v−u
a=
t 2−t 1
v=final velocity
u=initial velocity

Uniform acceleration: This is when the increasing rate of change of

velocity with time is constant
Deceleration: This is the decreasing rate of change of velocity with
time. It is a vector quantity. It is commonly referred to as negative
acceleration or retardation.

38
Uniform deceleration: This is when the decreasing rate of change of
velocity with time is constant.
Velocity - Time Graph
The slope of the velocity-time graph gives acceleration
Equation of Uniformly Accelerated motion
V = u + at …………………………………. (i)
V2 = u2 + 2as ………………………………. (ii)
S = ut + ½ at2 ………………………………. (iii)
S = ½ ( v + u ) X t ……………………………..(iv)
Equations (i) to (iv) are called equations of uniformly accelerated
motion and could be used to solve problems associated with uniformly
accelerated motion.

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

An object thrown upward experiences retardation due to the
gravitational attraction of the earth which tend to pull the object
downward. The ball will thus gradually lose speed as it moves upwards
until it comes to rest briefly at the highest point and begins to fall
downwards. As it falls its speed gradually increases because of the
acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.8ms¯²).
As the object is moving upwards its acceleration is – g, because its
motion is in opposite direction to the gravitational attraction on the
body. When the object moves downwards, the acceleration is taken as
+g because motion is in the same direction as the direction of the
gravitational attraction of the earth on the body.
The equations of motion for a body moving vertically upward or
downward (i.e under gravity) are obtained by replacing s and a of

39
equation (I) to (III) by h and g where h is the height of the object above
the ground and g is the acceleration due to gravity. When the body
moves upwards a = – g , when it moves downward, a = g. Thus the
equations of motion under gravity are:
Downward motion
V = u + gt
h = ut + ½gt2
v² = u² + 2gh
Upward motion
V = u ˗ gt
h = ut ˗ ½gt2
v² = u² ˗ 2gh
Where u = initial velocity; v = final velocity; a = acceleration; t = time
taken; g = acceleration due to gravity; h = height; s = distance or
displacement
In summary, when an object is thrown upwards the value of V = 0 at
maximum height and when an object is projected downwards the value
of U = 0
Example 1. A car accelerates at a rate of 10 m s–2 for a time of 4
seconds. It reaches a speed of 52 m s–1. Calculate its initial speed.

solution

Use the no s equation:

40
Example 2. A bullet is at rest. It travels a distance of 0.34 m in a time of
0.0095 seconds. Calculate its acceleration.

solution

Use the no v equation:

Example 3. A falcon is diving at a speed of 30 m s–1. It accelerates at a

rate of 40 m s–2 and reaches a speed of 100 m s–1. Calculate the
distance it travels during its acceleration.

solution

Use the no t equation:

Example 4. A snail is at rest.

It accelerates at a rate of 0.00075 m s–2.
Calculate the time it takes to reach a speed of 0.0135 m s–1.

41
solution

Use the no s equation:

Example 5. A blue shark accelerates at a rate of 16 m s–2 for a time of

0.8 seconds.
During this time it travels a distance of 11.52 m.
Calculate its initial speed.

solution

Use the no v equation:

Example 6. if a car starts from rest and moves with a uniform

acceleration of 10m/s2 for 10s, the distance it covers In the last one
second of motion is? Jamb 1985
Solution.
Starting from rest, u = 0 a= 10m/s2
The distance it covers in the last one second of motion is equivalent to
the distance it covered between time interval of the 9th and 10th second.

42
It is obtained by subtracting the distance in the 10th second from the 9th
second.
Distance, s = s10 – s9.
S10 = ut + ½ at102 and
S9 = ut + ½ at92
So the second equation of motion is to be used, s = ut + ½ at2. The
surgeon trick to use is s = ½ a (t22 – t12), where initial velocity u = 0 and
t2 and t1 are the time intervals.
S = ½ X 10 (102 – 92)
= 5 (100 – 81)
= 5 (19)
= 95m
Example 7. A car moving with a speed of 90km/hr was brought to rest
by the application of the brakes in 10s. How far did the car travel after
the brakes were applied? Jamb 1990
Solution.
Note that the speed is in km/hr and there is need to convert to m/s.
using the surgeon trick of conversion from km/hr to m/s

( y 3600
x 1000
) m/s where y is the value in km/hr
Hence, ( 3600 )
90 x 1000

= 25m/s
Trusting you are getting it? Let’s us continue
U = 25m/s, being brought to rest v = 0 and t = 10s and s =? There is
need to get the acceleration a

43
From v = u + at
0 = 25 + 10a
a = - 2.5m/s2 the negative sign indicated is to show retardation as the
brake was applied, to get how far the car traveled after the application
of brakes we use s = ut + ½ at2.
S = 25 X 10 + ½ (- 2.5) X 102
S= 250 – (1.25 X 100)
S = 250 – 125
= 125m
Example 8. Two points on a velocity time graph have coordinates (5s,
10m/s) and (20s, 20m/s). Calculate the mean acceleration between the
two points jamb 1989
Solution.
Remember that the slope or gradient of velocity- time graph is
acceleration and from mathematical expression
Gradient or slope = ¿
Hence, (5s, 10m/s) corresponds to (x1 , y1) and
(20s, 20m/s) corresponds to (x2 , y2)

a= ( 20−10
20−5 )

a = 10/15
a = 0.67m/s2
Example 9. A body falls freely under gravity (g = 9.8m/s2) from a height
of 40m on to the top of a platform 0.8m above the ground. It’s velocity
on reaching the platform is ? jamb 1981
Solution.

44
The question is from motion under gravity, since the body falls from a
height a = +g. mind you, the total height isn’t 40m because the body
falls on a platform which is 0.8m above the ground. Hence, H = h + h1
where H = 40m is the total height and h1 = 0.8m is the height of the
platform and h is now the height it takes to reach the platform.
H = h + h1
40 = h + 0.8
h = 40 – 0.8
h = 39.2m
since the body falls from a height, u = 0
using v2 = u2 + 2gh
= v2 = 0 + 2 X 9.8 X 39.2
= 768.32
V = √768.32
V = 27.7m/s
Example 10. A mango fruit drops from a branch 10m above the ground.
Just before hitting the ground its velocity is? Jamb 1982
Solution.
Since it falls from a branch above the ground, a = +g and u = 0
Using v2 = u2 + 2gh
V2 = o + 2 X 10 X 10
V2 = 200 take square root of both sides
V = √200
In basic surd form, √200 = √100x 2
= √100 x √2
45
=10 x √2
=10√2 m/s
Example 11. A small metal ball is thrown vertically upwards from the
top of a tower with an initial velocity of 20m/s. if the ball took a total of
6 seconds to reach the ground level, determine the height of the tower.
(g = 10m/s2).
Solution.
As the ball was thrown upwards, a = -g, also u = 20m/s and note that as
the ball got to the maximum height v = 0, then the time it took the ball
to get to that height from the top of the tower is required, hence
V = u – gt
0 = 20 – 10 X t
20 = 10t
Then, t = 2s
Remember that the total height (distance from the top to the ground) is
equal to the height from the top of the tower to the point it attained it
maximum height + the height of the tower.
Therefore, height from the tower to the point it attained it maximum
height is
h = ut – ½ gt2
= 20 X 2 – ½ X 10 X 22
= 40 – 20
= 20m
Time from the point it attained its maximum height to the ground, t = 6
– 2 = 4sec
Height from the top to the ground,

46
h = ut + ½ gt2
= 0 X 4 + ½ X 10 X 42
0 + 80
= 80m
Height of tower = 80 – 20
= 60m
Example 12. Two particles X and Y starting from rest cover the same
distance. The acceleration of X is twice that of Y. the ratio of the time
taken by X to that of Y is? Jamb 1981
Solution.
X Y
At rest u=0 u=0
Equal distance
Acceleration 2a a
Time tx ty
Using sx = utx + ½ atx2 sy = uty + ½ aty2
Sx = 0 + ½ X 2atx2 sy = 0 + ½ X aty2
Since they have equal distance, hence
½ X 2atx2 = ½ X aty2
atx2 = ½ X aty2 divide both sides by a
tx2 = ½ ty2
tx2 : ty2 = 1 : ½
tx2/ty2 = 1/ 1/√2
= 1/ √2

47
Example 13. The diagram above shows a velocity- time graph
representing the motion of a car. Find the total distance covered during
the acceleration and retardation periods of the motion.
Solution:
From the graph above, the part representing acceleration is the first
triangle and the part representing retardation is the last triangle
respectively.
Hence, distance S1 for the acceleration = area of triangle ( ½ base X
height )
S1 = ½ X 10 X10
S1 = 5 X 10
= 50m
Distance S2 for the retardation = area of triangle ( ½ base X height )
S2 = ½ X 5 X 10 ( are you confused about the 5? ) how come!

48
Check on the diagram you would noticed that when the car came to
rest, it was not on 50s. The 50s is not on the reference point, the car
came to rest between 40s and 45s, hence 45s – 40s = 5s. Is that ok, so
let us continue
S2 = 5 X 5
= 25m
Therefore, total distance = s1 + s2 = 50 + 25 = 75m
CIRCULAR MOTION

In circular motion the speed of the object is constant but its velocity
changes. The acceleration is directed towards the centre of the
circular path and this is known as the centripetal acceleration.
a = v2/r ………………………………(i)
where v = uniform speed and r = radius
it should be noted that when a string tied to a stone which is whirled
in a circular path is suddenly cut, the stone flies off tangential to the
circular path.
Centripetal force is the force that keeps an object moving along a
circular path at constant speed.

49
 2
mv
F= r
…………………………(ii)
angular displacement ∅
Angular velocity(ω) = time
= ,
t unit is rads – 1
That is ω = Ꝋ/ t ………………….(iii)
Relationship between linear velocity and angular velocity
V = rω ………………………….(iv)
Relationship with centripetal force
2
mv
F= r
, and from eqt(iv) V = rω
2
m(rω) mr 2 ω2
F= r
=
r

F = mrω2 ………………………………(v)
It should be noted that 1 revolution, Ꝋ = 3600 = 2π radians
And 2 radii = 1 diameter.
Example 1. A particle in a circular motion performs 30 oscillations in 6
seconds. Its angular velocity is? Jamb 2002
Solution:
If 1 rev or oscillation = 2π
30 oscillations = y
Y = 30 X 2π
Y = 60π
Ꝋ = 60π, t = 6s and ω = ?
ω = Ꝋ/ t
ω = 60π/6s
= 10 π rads – 1

50
Example 2. A car of mass 1500kg goes round a circular curve of radius
50m at a speed of 40ms – 1 . The magnitude of the centripetal force on
the car is? Jamb 2007.
Solution:
M = 1500kg, r = 50m, v = 40ms – 1 , F = ?
The formular to use shows the relationship between centripetal force
and the angular velocity.
F = mrω2 ...........................(v) check eqt v above
But there is need to obtaine ω, since it was not contained in the
question, using
V = rω ………………………….(iv) check eqt iv above
From eqt(iv) ω = V/r
= 40ms – 1 /50m
= 0.8 rads – 1 , now we can substitute into eqt(v) above
F = mrω2 = 1500kg X 50m X (0.8 rads – 1)2
F = 48000 = 4.8 X 104N
Example 3. A gramophone record takes 5s to reach its constant angular
velocity of 4 rads – 1 from rest. Find its constant angular acceleration.
Jamb 2007
Solution:
t = 5s, ω = 4 rads – 1 and a = ?
since angular acceleration α= angular velocity(ω)/ time ………. By
definition
α = ω/t
= 4 rads – 1 /5s

51
= 0.8 rads – 1
Example 4. A force F is required to keep a 5kg mass moving round a
cycle of radius 3.5m at a speed f 7ms – 1 . what is the speed if the force is
tripled? Jamb 2007
Solution:
M = 5kg, r = 3.5m, v = 7ms – 1
At first, centripetal force is given by
2 2
m v 5 x 7 245
F= r
=
3.5
=
3.5
=70 N

Now, when the force is tripled according to the question F = 3 X 70N =

210N
The speed v is to be obtained.
2
mv
F= r
2
5v
210 = 3.5
by cross multiplication

210 X 3.3 = 5v2

5v2 = 735 divide both sides by 5
V2 = 735/5
V2 = 147 take square root of both sides
V = √147
V = 12.1ms – 1

THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A palm fruit is dropped to the ground from the top of tree 45m
tall. How long does it take to reach the ground? [ g = 10m/s2 ]
(a)9s
52
 (b) 4.5s
(c)6s
(d) 7.5s
(e)3s
2. In a free fall, a body of mass 1kg drops from a height of 125m
from rest in 5s. how long will it take another body of mass 2kg to
fall from rest from the same height? [ g = 10m/s2]
(a)5s
(b) 10s
(c)12s
(d) 15s
3. A motor vehicle is brought to rest from a speed of 15ms – 1 in 20s.
calculate the retardation.
(a)0.75ms – 2
(b) 1.33ms – 2
(c)5.00ms – 2
(d) 7.20ms – 2
4. An air force jet flying with a speed of 335m/s went past an
antiaircraft gun. How far s the aircraft 5s later when the gun was
fired?
(a)838m
(b) 3350m
(c)670m
(d) 1675m
(e)67m
5. A train has an initial velocity of 44m/s and an acceleration of –
4m/s2. Its velocity after 10s is?
(a)2m/s
(b) 4m/s
(c)8m/s
(d) 12m/s
(e)16m/s

53
 6. A body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration of
6m/s2. What distance does it cover in the third second?
(a)15m
(b) 18m
(c)27m
(d) 30m
7. If a wheel 1.2m in diameter rotates at one revolution per second,
calculate the velocity of the wheel.
(a)S3.6ms – 1
(b) 3.8ms – 1
(c)4.0ms – 1
(d) 7.5ms – 1
8. A particle of mass 10 – 2 kg is fixed to the tip of a fan blade which
rotates with angular velocity of 100 rads – 1 . if the radius of the
blade is 0.2m, the centripetal force is?
(a)2N
(b) 20N
(c)200N
(d) 400N

CHAPTER THREE
CONCEPTS OF WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
WORK

54
Work is defined as the product of force and distance in the direction of
the force. It is a scalar quantity and measured in Joules.
Mathematically,
Work (w) = force X distance
W=FXs or
W = mgs
Where; m = mass of body in kg, g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s 2
and s = distance in metre (m)
It should be noted that a work is said to be done when a force moves its
point of application a distance in the direction of the force. Hence, if a
force is applied on a body and it does not move a distance, the work
done is zero and no work is done.
Also, if a force applied is at an angle Ꝋ as shown below, work done can
be obtained which is dependent on the direction the body moves.

Work done along vertical direction:

W = F sin Ꝋ X s
W = mgsin Ꝋ X s

55
Work done along horizontal direction:
W = F cos Ꝋ X s
W = mgcos Ꝋ X s
Work done on vertical height

Suppose an object rolls down an inclined plane or hill of height h and

length l, the work done is w = mgh and not w = mgl because it is the
vertical height of the inclined plane or hill that is used in calculation and
not the length of the inclined plane. Is that understood?
Work done on force – displacement graphs

56
From the graph above, the work done is equal to the area of the
rectangle
Hence, W = length ( force ) X breadth ( displacement )

Work done from the graph above is the area of the triangle
W = ½ base (displacement) X height(force)

57
The work done from the graph above is the area of a semi – circle
W = ½ πr2
Where, r = radius in metre
Note: r = diameter/2
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work, it has the same unit as work which is
in joule. There are many forms of energy, examples: mechanical energy,
heat or thermal energy, chemical energy, atomic energy, electrical
energy, solar energy, and light energy. Though, mechanical energy is
classified into potential energy ( energy possessed at rest or at a
particular height ) and kinetic energy ( energy possessed by an object
in motion).
KE = ½ mv2
Where, m = mass of an object in kg and v = velocity in m/s

58
PE = mgh
Where, m = mass of an object in kg, g = acceleration due to gravity in
m/s2 and h = height of the object in metre (m)
POWER
Power is the rate of doing work. Unit is the watt (W) or J/s
work done
Power = time
force X distance s
= time
=F X
t
s
Since V = t

P = FV …………….. (i)
Another formula for power can be derived thus:
1 2
mv
Power = 2 …………………………. (ii)
t
mg h
Power = t ………………………… (iii)
power output
Efficiency, E = power input X 100 ……………………(iv)
The surgeon consultant advises you to learn the above formula, it is
widely used in jamb and waec.
Example 1. A man whose mass is 80kg climbs a staircase in 20s and
expends a power of 120W. find the height of the staircase [ g = 10m/s2 ]
jamb 1998
Solution:
M = 80kg, t = 20s and power = 120W, h = ?
The question is from power and the formula that fits into the
parameters is eqt(iii)

59
 mg h
Power = t
80 X 10 X h
120 = 20 by cross multiplication
120 X 20 = 800h
2400 = 800h divide both sides by 800
h = 2400/800
=3m
Example 2. An electric water pump rated 1.5kW lifts 200kg of water
through a vertical height of 6m in 10s. what is the efficiency of the
pump? Jamb 1997
Solution:
Power = 1.5kW, convert to watt = 1.5 X 1000 = 1500W
Mass = 200kg, h = 6m and t = 10s , efficiency =?
Formula to use is eqt(iv) from above
power output
E= power input X 100
From the question, power input is already 1.5kW = 1500W. so, we only
need to calculate power output, using eqt(iii)
mg h
Power = t
200 X 10 X 6
Poutput = 10

Poutput = 1200W
power output
E= power input X 100
1200
E= 1500
X 10 0

E = 0.8 X 100

60
E = 80%
Example 3. A man weighing 800N climbs up a flight of stairs to a height
of 15m in 12.5s. what is the man’s average power output? Jamb 1992
Solution:
Weight of the man = 800N
Remember that weight = mass X acceleration due to gravity
W = mg ……………………(i)
So, it is necessary to get the mass of the man
From eqt(i) above, 800 = m X 10
M = 800/10
M = 80kg
h = 15m, t = 12.5s
mg h
Power = t
80 X 10 X 15
Power = 12.5
1200
Power = 12.5

= 960W
Example 4. If a water pump at Kanji dam is capable of lifting 1000kg of
water through a vertical height of 10m in 10s, the power of the pump
is? [ g = 10m/s2 ] jamb 1984
Solution:
Mass = 1000kg, h = 10m and t = 10s
mg h
Power = t
1000 X 10 X 10
Power = 10

61
=10000W
= 10kW
Example 5. A 500kg car which was initially at rest traveled with an
acceleration of 5m/s2, its kinetic energy after 4s was? Jamb 1979
Solution:
Mass = 500kg, at rest u = 0, a= 5m/s2 and t = 4
Since KE = ½ mv2 ………………..eqt(i)
It is necessary to get V and can be obtained from equation of motion
V = u + at
V = 0 + 5X4
V = 20m/s
From eqt(i) above
KE = ½ X 500 X 202
= 250 X 400
= 100000J
= 105J
Example 6. An object of mass 100g projected vertically upwards from
the ground level has a velocity of 20ms – 1 at a height of 10m. calculate
its initial kinetic energy at the ground level. [g=10m/s2, neglecting air
resistance] jamb 1997
Solution:
Mass = 100g, to be converted to kilogram
= 100/ 1000 = 0.1kg
This is motion under gravity, as the object projected upwards a = - g .
using
62
V2 = u2 – 2gh
202 = u2 – 2 X 10 X 10
400 = u2 – 200
U2 = 400 + 200
U2 = 600
Initial kinetic energy = ½ mu2
= ½ X 0.1 X 600
= 30J

Example 7. A body is under the action of a force F such that the force –
displacement graph of the body is semicircle as shown above. The work
done on the body by the force in moving through 24metres is? Jamb
1991
Solution:
Diameter of the semicircle = 24m
Hence, r = d/2
r = 24/2
r= 12m
63
since the force – displacement graph is a semicircle, work done is the
area of a semicircle.
W = ½ πr2 ……………………………… read text above
W = ½ π X 122
= 72 πJ

Example 8. A force varying linearly with the distance acts on a body as

shown above. The work done on the body by the force during the first
10metres of motion is? Jamb 1984
Solution:

64
As the force varies linearly with the distance, the work done on the
body during the first 10m of motion is the area of the rectangle.
W = force (10N) X distance (10m)
= 100J
Example 9. A body rolls down a slope from a height of 100m. Its
velocity at the foot of the slope is 20m/s. what percentage of its
potential energy is converted into kinetic energy? [g=10m/s2] jamb
1987
Solution:
h = 100m, v = 20m/s and g=10m/s2
potential energy due to the height,
PE = mgh
= m X 10 X 100
= 1000mJ ……………………………eqt(i)
Kinetic energy at the foot of the slope,
KE = ½ mv2
= ½ X m X 202
= 200mJ ………………………….eqt(ii)
KE
Percentage of PE converted to KE = PE
X 100

200 mJ
= 1000 mJ
X 100

= 20%
Example 10. A ball of mass 0.1kg is thrown vertically upwards with a
speed of 10m/s from the top of a tower 10m high. Neglecting air
resistance, its total energy just before hitting the ground is? [g= 10m/s 2]
jamb 1999
65
Solution:
Mass of ball = 0.1kg, u = 10m/s, height of tower = 10m.

The problem is related to motion under gravity, as the ball was

projected upward it gets to a height where V = 0, since u = 10m/s the
height above the tower can be obtained. Using
V2 = u2 – 2gh ………………….. third equation of motion
At maximum height V = 0
0 = 102 – 2 X 10 X h
100 = 20h
h = 100/20
h = 5m
the height of the tower is already 10m, the total height above the foot
of the tower = (10 + 5) = 15m

66
since total energy is always constant, potential energy at a height is
equal to the kinetic energy
PE = mgh
= 0.1kg X 10ms – 2 X 15m
= 15kgm2s – 2 which is same as 15J
Example 11. If a body of mass 5kg is thrown vertically upwards with
velocity u, at what height will the potential energy equal to the kinetic
energy? Jamb 2008
Solution:
If the potential energy equal to kinetic energy, then mathematically:
PE = KE …………………………eqt(i)
Mgh = ½ mv2 ……………… make h the subject of formula
2mgh = mv2
2
mv
h= 2mg
2
v
h= 2g

67
THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. If a cage containing a truck of coal weighing 750kg is raised to a
height of 90m in 1minute, what is the total power expended?
(a)11.50kW
(b) 12.60kW
(c)11.25kW
(d) 12.10kW
2. A car of mass 800kg attains a speed of 25ms – 1 in 20 seconds. The
power developed in the engine is?
(a)1.50 X 104W
(b) 2.50 X 104W
(c)1.25 X 106W
(d) 2.50 X 106W
3. A body of mass 4kg is acted on by a constant force of 12N for 3
seconds. The kinetic energy gained by the body at the end of the
time is?
(a)162J
(b) 144J
(c)72J
(d) 81J
4. A boy drags a bag of rice along a smooth horizontal floor with a
force of 2N applied at an angle of 600 to the floor. The work done
after a distance of 3m is?
(a)6J
(b) 3J
(c)4J
(d) 5J
5. A constant force of 40N acting on a body initially at rest gives an
acceleration of 0.1m/s2 for 4s. Calculate the work done by the
force.
(a)8J
68
 (b) 10J
(c)32J
(d) 160J
6. How long will it take a 60kg man to climb a height of 22m if he
expended energy at the rate of 0.25kW? [g=10ms – 2 ]
(a)5.3s
(b) 34.5s
(c)41.6s
(d) 52.8s

69
 CHAPTER FOUR
FRICTION
Friction (Fr) is defined as an opposing force which acts at the surface of
two objects or bodies in contact. It is simply force of opposition. We
have two types of friction:
(a) Static or limiting friction
(b) Dynamic or kinetic friction
NOTE: static or limiting friction is greater than kinetic or dynamic
friction for object at rest while kinetic or dynamic friction is greater
than static or limiting friction for object in motion.
LAWS OF SOLID FRICTION
1. Friction opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact
2. It is independent of the area of the surface of contact
3. It depends on the nature of the surface
4. It is proportional to normal reaction (R)
Mathematically F α R
F = µR ……………………………..(i)
Where µ is known as the coefficient of friction and R is the normal
reaction
5. It is independent of relative velocity between the surfaces
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
1. It makes walking and running possible
2. It enables gripping of belt in machines possible
3. It enables nails to stay in the wall when driven
4. It stops tyre from slipping
5. Enable cars to stop when breaks are applied
6. Enables human to use mouse in surfing web

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

70
1. It causes wear and tear
2. It reduces the efficiency of the machines
3. It causes a lot of energy to be consumed by the machine
4. It causes loss of resources

METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION

1. Lubricating surfaces with grease, oil etc.
2. Using ball or roller on wheels
3. Smoothing or polishing the surface
4. Streamlining bodies

From the above diagram, the normal reaction R is equal to the weight,
W and W = mg. which shows that R = W = mg
For an object sliding down an inclined plane

71
From the inclined plane, to obtain the coefficient of static friction, µ,
the angle of inclination Ꝋ, is increased until the object begins to slide
down the plane. This is when the parallel component Wsin Ꝋ acting
downwards is equal to the limiting frictional force acting upwards F =
µR
Hence,
WsinꝊ = F ……………………………….. (ii)
Since F = µR, the equation above becomes
WsinꝊ = µR
On the inclined plane, you will notice that the normal reaction R is no
longer equal to the weight W, but to the perpendicular component of
the weight WcosꝊ.

72
Hence,
R = WcosꝊ …………………………………(iii)
F Wsin ∅
Coefficient of friction, µ = =
R Wcos∅

Therefore, µ = tanꝊ …………………………….(iv)

Force required to make an object to move up the plane

From the diagram above, for the object to move up the plane,
therefore, it must overcome the opposing limiting frictional force, F and
the parallel component of the weight, WsinꝊ
P = parallel component + limiting frictional force
P = WsinꝊ + F

73
P = WsinꝊ + µR since F = µR
P = WsinꝊ + µWcosꝊ since R = WcosꝊ
P = WsinꝊ + µWcosꝊ ………………………………(v)
Force that will keep the object at rest on the inclined plane

The force required to keep the object at rest is the difference between
the sloping force wsinꝊ and the upward frictional force µwcos Ꝋ
Mathematically, let the force be P
Hence, P = WsinꝊ - µWcosꝊ ……………………..(vi)

74
Example 1. A 100kg box is pushed along a road with a force of 500N. if
the box moves with a uniform velocity, the coefficient of friction
between the box and the road is? Jamb 2004
Solution:
M = 100kg, F = 500N, µ = ?
Remember that F = µR (check laws of solid friction number 4 from text
above) and R = W = mg
Therefore, R = mg
R = 100kg X 10ms – 2
R = 1000kgms – 2 or 1000N
From F = µR, make µ the subject of formula
µ = F/R
µ = 500N/1000N
µ = 0.5
Example 2. The coefficient of static friction between a 40kg crate and a
concrete surface is 0.25. find the magnitude of the minimum force
needed to keep the crate stationary on the concrete base inclined at
450 to the horizontal [g=10ms – 2 ] jamb 1987
Solution:

75
Stationary as used in the question mean ‘ at rest ‘ and m = 40kg, Ꝋ =
450, µ = 0.25.
The force required to keep the object stationary or at rest can be
obtained using eqt(vi) from above, please check text
Hence , P = WsinꝊ - µWcosꝊ recall W = mg
P = mgsinꝊ - µmgcosꝊ
P = 40 X 10 sin450 – (0.25 X 40 X 10 cos450)
Force P = 212N
Example 3. When a box of mass 45kg is given an initial speed of 5m/s, it
slides along a horizontal floor a distance of 3m before coming to rest.

76
What is the coefficient of the kinetic friction between the box and the
floor? Jamb 1986
Solution:
Mass of the box = 45kg, u = 5m/s , S = 3m, µ = ?
Without wasting much time here, the assumption to consider here is
that the box move or cover a distance, hence, work is done
Using ½ mu2 = work done
½ mu2 = Force X distance
½ mu2 = F X S
½ X 45kg X (5ms – 1 )2 = F X 3m
= 562.5kgm2s – 2 = F X 3m divide both sides by 3m
F = 187.5kgms – 2 or 187.5N
Recall F = µR, where R = mg = 45 X 10 = 450N
µ = F/R
= 187.5N/450N
= 0.417 or 5/12
Example 4. A force, 10N drags a mass 10kg on a horizontal table with
an acceleration of 0.2ms – 2 . if the acceleration due to gravity is 10ms – 2 ,
the coefficient of friction between the moving mass and the table is ?
jamb 1988
Solution:
F = 10N, m = 10kg, a = 0.2ms – 2 , g = 10ms – 2 , µ = ?
Recall F = ma
= 10kg X 0.2ms – 2
= 2kgms – 2 or 2N
77
Friction opposes motion, hence, net force, F = 10N – 2N = 8N
Recall, F = µR where R = mg = 10kg X 10ms – 2 = 100kgms – 2 or 100N
µ = F/R
= 8N/100N
= 0.08
Example 5. An object of mass 80kg is pulled on a horizontal rough
ground by a force of 500N. find the coefficient of static friction [g=10ms
–2
] jamb 2009
Solution:
M = 80kg, F = 500N, µ = ?, g = 10ms – 2
Recall F = µR where R = mg = 80kg X 10 = 800kgms – 2 or 800N
µ = F/R
= 500N/800N
= 0.6
Example 6. A bead traveling on a straight wire is brought to rest at
0.2m by friction. If the mass of the bead is 0.01kg and the coefficient of
friction between the bead and the wire is 0.1, determine the work done
by the friction [g=10ms – 2 ] jamb 2003
Solution:
S = 0.2m, m = 0.01kg, µ = 0.1
Recall that work done = force X distance
W=FXS
Since, F = µR where R = mg
W = µRs
W = 0.1 X 0.01kg X10ms – 2 X 0.2m
78
W = 2 X 10 – 3 kgm2s – 2 or 2 X 10 – 3J
Motion of objects connected due to friction

From the diagram above, the acceleration of the system can be

obtained by following the principles below;
Due to friction (rough surface),
T - µR = m1a ………………………… (i)
Also,
W – T = m2a recall W = mg
mg – T = m2a ……………………….(ii)

79
motion of connected frictionless objects

When the connected objects are frictionless, the acceleration can be

computed following the procedure of the equations below respectively:
T = m1a ……………………………(i)
Also,
W – T = m2a recall W = mg
mg – T = m2a ……………………….(ii)

80
Example 1.

A mass of 2kg on a surface (µ = ½ ) is connected to a second mass of

4kg over a frictionless pulley as shown above. If the acceleration due to
gravity is 9.8ms – 2 , the masses will? Jamb 1981
Solution:
From the question above, the coefficient of friction µ = ½ which showed
that mass 2kg is due to friction. The equation that best fit to this
question is motion of objects connected due to friction, please check
text.
Due to friction (rough surface),
T - µR = m1a ………………………… (i) recall R = mg
For mass 2kg
T – ½ X 2 X 9.8 = 2 X a
T – 9.8 = 2a ……………………….(ii)
Also,
W – T = m2a recall W = mg

81
For mass 4kg
mg – T = m2a ……………………….(iii)
4 X 9.8 – T = 4 X a
39.2 – T = 4a ……………………….(iv)
From eqt(ii), make T the subject of formula
T = 2a + 9.8 and substitute in eqt(iv)
39.2 – (2a + 9.8) = 4a
39.2 – 2a – 9.8 = 4a
39.2 – 9.8 = 4a + 2a
6a = 29.4
a = 29.4/6
a = 4.9ms – 2
Example 2.

Two blocks of masses 3kg and 6kg are connected by light inextensible
string which passes over a smooth pulley as shown above in the

82
diagram. Assuming the 6kg mass is sitting on a smooth surface, the
bodies will accelerate at?
Solution:
The above question spelt it out that assuming 6kg mass is sitting on a
smooth surface i.e frictionless. The formula to use is motion of
frictionless connected objects. Please check text.
T = m1a ……………………………(i)
For mass 6kg (frictionless)
T = 6a ……………………………..(ii)
Also,
W – T = m2a recall W = mg
mg – T = m2a ……………………….(iii)
3 X 10 – T = 3 X a
30 – T = 3a …………………………..(iv)
From eqt(ii) T = 6a already, then substitute into eqt (iv)
Therefore, 30 – 6a = 3a
30 = 3a + 6a
9a = 30
a = 30/9
a = 3.3ms – 2
Example 3.

83
A 2kg mass on a smooth inclined plane is connected over a smooth
pulley to a 3kg mass as shown in the diagram above. The acceleration
of the system is?
Solution:

From the above diagram, for the mass of 2kg

84
T - mgsinꝊ = ma
T – 2gsin300 = 2a
T – g = 2a …………………….(i)
For mass 3kg
W – T = ma
mg – T = ma
3g – T = 3a ………………….(ii)
From eqt(i) T = 2a + g, substitute T into eqt(ii)
3g – (2a + g) = 3a
3g – 2a – g = 3a
3g – g = 3a + 2a
5a = 2g
a = 2g/5
Example 4.

85
A body of mass 20kg slides down on a plane inclined at 30 0 to the
horizontal as shown above. If a constant resisting force of 40N acts on
the body, its acceleration down the plane is?
Solution:
Component parallel to the plane as the body slides down is mgsin Ꝋ.
The resisting force acting against it is 40N. Therefore the net force on
the mass is mgsinꝊ - 40N
Hence, F = mgsinꝊ - 40N
F = 20 X 10sin300 – 40N
F = 100N – 40
F= 60N
Recall F = ma
a = F/m
a = 60/20

86
a = 3ms – 2

87
THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.

The acceleration of the system shown above is?

(a)2ms – 2
(b) 4ms – 2
(c)6ms – 2
(d) 8ms – 2
2.

A body of mass 10kg on a smooth inclined plane is connected over a

smooth pulley to a mass of 15kg as shown above, the acceleration of
the system is?
88
(a)¼ g
(b) 8g/25
(c)½ g
(d) g
(e)3g/4
3. A body of mass 10kg rests on a rough inclined plane whose angle
of tilt Ꝋ is variable. Ꝋ is gradually increased until the body starts
to slide down the plane at 300. The coefficient of limiting friction
between the body and the plane is?
(a)0.30
(b) 0.50
(c)0.58
(d) 0.87
4. The acceleration of a body which slides down freely on a smooth
plane inclined at 600 to the horizontal is?
(a)5.00ms – 2
(b) 7.50ms – 2
(c)8.66ms – 2
(d) 10.00ms – 2
5. A motorcycle of mass 100kg moves round in a circle of radius 10m
with a velocity of 5ms – 1 . find the coefficient of friction between
the road and the tyres [g=10ms – 2 ]
(a)25.00
(b) 2.50
(c)0.50
(d) 0.25

89
CHAPTER FIVE
ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Elasticity
This is the tendency of a material to regain its original size or shape
after deformation or after it has been compressed or extended.
Hooke’s Law
It states that provided the elastic limit is not exceeded, the extension in
an elastic material is proportional to the force applied i.e. Fαe
F = Ke…………………………………………(i)
Where K = F/e is force constant, stiffness or elastic constant in Nm – 1
And e = extension or compression of material in m.
Young modulus
Young modulus, ϒ is defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile
strain.
tensile stress
ϒ¿ tensile strain its unit is Nm – 2
Stress = Force/ area
extension e
Strain = original lengt h = l
∧¿ h as no unit

Work done in springs and Elastic strings

Work done W = ½ Fe or ½ Ke2 since F = Ke
Unit is joules, J.

90
Example 1. A string of length 4m is extended by 0.02m when a load of
0.4kg is suspended at its end. What will be the length of the string
when the applied force is 15N? jamb 2007
Solution:

From the above illustration, the original length is 4m, when a load
of 0.4kg was applied, its extension was 0.02m.
Recall F = mg
Hence, F = 0.4 X 10 = 4N
Since force is proportional to extension, therefore, F1 = 4N, e1 =
0.02m, F2 = 15N, e2 = ?
F 1 e1
Using =
F 2 e2
4 0.02
=
15 e2
4 e2 = 0.3
e 2 = 0.3/4 = 0.075m
The length of the string = original length + e2

91
= (4 + 0.075)m
= 4.08m

Example 2. A spring of force constant 500Nm – 1 is compressed

such that its length shortens by 5cm. The energy stored in the
spring is? Jamb 2008
Solution:
K = 500Nm – 1 , e = 5cm, convert to metre = 5/100 = 0.05m
Energy stored = ½ Ke2
= ½ X 500 X 0.052
= 0.625J

Example 3. Calculate the work done to stretch an elastic string by

50cm, if a force of 12.5N produces an extension of 5cm in it.
Neco 2007
Solution:
Length = 50cm , convert to metre = 50/100 = 0.5m, F = 12.5N, e =
5cm, convert to metre = 5/100 = 0.05m
Work done = ½ Fe
= ½ X 12.5 X 0.05
= 0.3125J

Example 4. A spring of length 25cm is extended to 30cm by a load

of 150N attached to one of its ends. What is the energy stored in
the spring? Jamb 1994
Solution:

92
L1 = 25cm, L2 = 30cm, extension, e = L2 – L1 = 30cm – 25cm = 5cm
Convert to metre = 5/100 = 0.05m
Work done = ½ Fe
= ½ X 150 X 0.05
= 3.75J
Example 4. If a force of 50N stretches a wire from 20m to 20.01m,
what is the amount of force required to stretch the same material
from 20m to 20.05m jamb 2004
Solution:

93
F1 = 50N, L1 = 20m, L2 = 20.01m, e1 = L2 – L1 = 20.01 – 20 = 0.01m
Also, L3 = 20.05m, e2 = L3 – L1 = 20.05m – 20m = 0.05m
F 1 e1 50 0.01
= = =
F 2 e2 F2 0.05

F2 X 0.01 = 50 X 0.05
F2 = 2.5/0.01
F2 = 250N

Example 5. If the stress on a wire is 107Nm – 2 and the wire is stretched

from its original length of 10.0cm to 10.05cm. the young’s modulus of
the wire is? Jamb 1999
Solution:
Stress = 107Nm – 2 , L1 = 10.0cm, L2 = 10.05cm, e = L2 – L1 = 10.05 – 10.0 =
0.05cm by converting to metre 0.05/100 = 0.0005m
And L1 = 10.0cm to metre = 10/100 = 0.1m

94
 tensile stress
ϒ¿ ten sile strain
Strain = e/l
0.0005
Strain = 0.1
=0.005

7
10
ϒ¿ =2 X 10 Nm – 2
9
0.0005

Example 6. A spiral spring balance is 25.0cm long when 5N hangs on it

and 30.0cm when the weight is 10N. what is the length of the spring if
the weight is 2N, assuming Hooke’s law is obeyed?
Solution:

For 5N force, extension = 25 – L, for 10N force, extension = 30 – L and

since force is proportional to extension, then,

95
F 1 e1
=
F 2 e2
5 25−L
=
10 30−L
cross multiply

5(30 – L) = 10(25 – L)
150 – 5L = 250 – 10L
10L – 5L = 250 – 150
5L = 100
L =100/5 = 20cm
From the diagram above, when F = 10N, e = 30 – L and when F = 2N, e =
? then
F 1 e1
=
F 2 e2
10 30−L
2
=
e
cross multiply

10e = 2(30 – L) since L = 20cm

10e = 2(30 – 20)
10e = 20
e = 20/10 = 2cm
Example 7. A catapult used to hold a stone of mass 500g is extended by
20cm with an applied force F. if the stone leaves with a velocity of 40ms
–1
, the value of F is? Jamb 2000
Solution:
Mass = 500g, convert to kilogram = 500/1000 = 0.5kg and extension, e =
20cm, convert to metre = 20/100 = 0.2m
Notice that work is done in stretching the catapult and the stone moves
with a velocity which is equal to the kinetic energy. Hence,

96
Work done = kinetic energy ……………………….(i)
Mathematically,
½ Fe = ½ mv2
½ X F X 0.2 = ½ X 0.5 X 402
0.1F = 400
F = 400/0.1 = 4 X 103N
Example 8. A wire of length 5.0m and diameter 2.0mm extends by
0.25mm when a force of 50N was used to stretch it from its end.
Calculate the stress and strain on the wire (π = 22/7) waec 2007
Solution:
L = 5.0m, e = 0.25mm and convert to m = 0.25/1000 = 2.5 X 10 – 4 m, F =
50N
Recall 2r = diameter, hence, r = d/2 and r = 2.0mm/2 = 1mm, convert to
m
Then, r = 1/1000 = 1 X 10 – 3 m.
Stress = force/ area ; but area = πr2
6
50 50 50 X 10
=
Stress = 22
X (1 X 10−3 )2 = 22
X 10
−6 22
7 7 7

Stress = 50000000/3.142
= 1.59 X 107Nm – 2
Also,
Strain = extension/ length
−4
2.5 X 10 2.5
= 5
=
5
−4
X 10 =5 X 10
−5

97
THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. On top of a spiral spring of force constant 500Nm – 1 is placed a
mass of 5 X 10 – 3 kg. if the spring is compressed downwards by a
length of 0.02m and then released, calculate the height to which
the mass is projected. [g=10ms – 2 ]
(a)8m
(b) 4m
(c)2m
(d) 1m
2. A load of 5N gives an extension of 0.56cm in a wire which obeys
Hooke’s law. What is the extension caused by a load of 20N?
(a)1.12cm
(b) 2.14cm
(c)2.24cm
(d) 2.52cm
3. A spring of force constant 1500Nm – 1 is acted upon by a constant
force of 75N. calculate the potential energy stored in the spring
(a)1.9J
(b) 3.2J
(c)3.8J
(d) 5.0J
4. The tendon in a man’s leg is 0.01m long. If a force of 5N stretches
the tendon by 2.0 X 10 – 5 m, calculate the strain on the muscle.
(a)5 X 106
(b) 5 X 102
(c)2 X 10 – 3
(d) 2 X 10 – 7

98
5. A force of 15N stretches a spring to a total length of 30cm. an
additional force of 10N stretches the spring 5cm further. Find the
natural length of the spring.
(a)25.0cm
(b) 22.5cm
(c)20.0cm
(d) 15.0cm
6. A load of 20N on a wire of cross – sectional area 8 X 10 – 7 m2,
produces an extension of 10 – 4 m. calculate Young’s Modulus for
the material of the wire if its length is 3m.
(a)7.0 X 1011Nm – 2
(b) 7.5 X 1011Nm – 2
(c)8.5 X 1011Nm – 2
(d) 9.0 X 1011Nm – 2

99
 CHAPTER SIX
HEAT ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE
Heat and Temperature
Heat deals with the study of relative motion of fluid (liquid and gas)
from one body to another. It is a form of energy that can be
transferred from one body due to temperature differences. It has
same unit as energy in Joules (J)
Effect of Heat
The following happens when heat is applied to a body;
1. Expansion: when heat is applied, volumes increases while
density decreases. Please note, it’s a jamb question
2. Change in temperature: When heat is added on a body, the
temperature increases
3. Change of state: melting, freezing, condensation, evaporation
occur when heat is applied
4. Thermion emission : Heat on metal may result in the emission
of electrons from the surface of the metal
Photo electric emission: The emission of electron when sufficient
light of high frequency is illuminated on a metal surface e.g. zinc
plate.
Temperature expansion
Temperature is the degree of hotness and coldness of a body or an
object. It is a scalar quantity, measured in Kelvin. Heat and
Temperature are similar but not the same
Differences between Heat and Temperature

100
1. Heat is a measure of the total internal energy of a body while
temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of the body.
2. Heat takes place due to temperature difference while
temperature occurs due to slight change of substance.
3. Heat is measured in joules while temperature is measured in
Kelvin / Celsius.

THERMOMETER
Thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature.
Thermometric substances are substances which changes in
proportion to temperature
Types of thermometer
S/ TYPE OF THERMOMETRIC PHYSICAL
N THERMOMETER SUBSTANCE PROPERTY
1. Liquid in glass Mercury or alcohol Change in
volume with
temperature
2. Constant Gas Change in
volume gas pressure with
thermometer temperature
3. Thermoelectric Two different Change in
thermometer metal (iron and potential
copper) difference due
to
temperature
difference
4. Resistant Resistant wire Change in
thermometer resistant with
temperature
101
 5. Bimetallic Two dissimilar Differential
thermometer metal (bras and expansion of
iron) two metals of
the bimetallic
stripes

ADVANTAGES OF MERCURY AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE

1. Mercury does not wet glass
2. Mercury response quickly to slight change in temperature
3. It does not vaporize easily
4. It is opaque, therefore it can easily be seen
5. It has a regular or uniform expansion.
DISADVANTAGES OF MERCURY AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE
1. Mercury is costly
2. Mercury cannot be used to measure very low temperature
because its freezing point is 39˚C
ADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE
1. Alcohol is less expensive than mercury
2. It has larger expansion on heating than mercury (it expands 6
times more than mercury).
3. It can be used to measure very low temperature.
DISADVANTAGES OF ALCOHOL AS A THERMOMETRIC SUBSTANCE
1. It is not opaque and so must be coloured
2. It vaporizes easily
3. It wets glass, because of its concave meniscus clinging to the
wall stem of the thermomter
4. It has an irregular expansion
5. It has low boiling point of 78˚C

ADVANTAGES OF CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER

102
 1. It gives more accurate measurement of temperature than any
other thermometer
2. It is very sensitive and can measure wider range of
temperature
DISADVANTAGES OF CONSTANT VOLUME GAS THERMOMETER
1. It is very expensive and so require handling with special care
2. It is very cumbersome
WHY WATER IS NOT USED AS A THERMOMETRIC
1. Water wet glass
2. They are colourless
3. It does not expand uniformly
4. It has small range of expansion (0˚C to 100˚C)
LIQUID – IN – GLASS THERMOMETERS
For high sensitivity, liquid – in – glass thermometers should have the
following characteristics:
(1)Liquid with high expansivity
(2)Narrow capillary tube with uniform bore
CLINICAL THERMOMETER
It is used for measuring the temperature of human body. The body
temperature ranges from (35˚C to 45˚C). It is not advisable to
sterilize a clinical thermometer in boiling water because a short
range of 35˚C to 43˚C which shall result to
i. Cracking or breaking of thermometer due to excessive
expansion of the mercury.
ii. Malfunction of the thermometer due to over expansion of
the capillary tube and the mercury inside the bulb.
Evaporation and Boiling
Evaporation is the process where a liquid turns into vapour below its
boiling point. Evaporation takes place at all temperature.
Factors affecting evaporation
103
(a)Area of liquid, the greater the surface area of liquid exposed, the
faster the evaporation
(b) Wind and dryness of air, the drier the air the faster the
evaporation
(c)Nature of liquid, it has been noticed that liquids with low boiling
points evaporate more rapidly than those with higher boiling
points
(d) Temperature is directly proportional to the rate of
evaporation, that is , the greater the temperature ,the greater the
rate of evaporation and vice versa.
(e)Pressure is inversely proportional to the rate of evaporation, that
is, the greater the pressure, the slower the rate of evaporation,
conversely, the slower the pressure, the greater the rate of
evaporation.
Boiling is the change from liquid to vapour at the boiling point. It
occurs throughout the entire volume of the liquid. Wind has no
effect on boiling, pressure is directly proportional to boiling point
i.e an increase in pressure raises the boiling point of a liquid, which
is why food cooked using pressure cooker is much faster because
the increased pressure raises the boiling point of the liquid inside
the cooker ( please note, jamb and waec question).

104
FIXED POINT OF THERMOMETER
Fixed temperature/points are two reference temperature (usually
upper and lower fix point) chosen, when preparing a scale for
reading temperatures.
Upper Fixed Point: is the temperature of steam from pure water at
the normal atmospheric pressure. It is determined by an instrument
called hypsometer (jamb 2022)
Lower Fixed Point: is the temperature of mixture of pure ice and
water at normal pressure.
Fundamental Intervals: is the interval between the upper and lower
fixed point.

105
 2120F 1000C 373K

320F 00C 273K

Fahrenheit scale Celsius scale Kelvin
scale
Example 1. The ice and steam points of a mercury – in – glass
thermometer of centigrade scale and of uniform bore correspond
respectively to 3cm and 19cm lengths of the mercury thread. When the
length is 12cm, what will the temperature be? Jamb 1981
Solution:

By taking proportions;
X−0 12−3
=
100−X 19−12
X−0 9
=
100−X 7
by cross multiplication

106
7(X – 0) = 9(100 – X)
7X – 0 = 900 – 9X
7X + 9X = 900
16X = 900
X = 900/16
X = 560C
Example 2. What is the equivalent of a temperature of 200C in
degree Fahrenheit? Jamb 1978
Solution:
This question can be solved in two ways, using the scales interval
and formula method.
Case 1. Scale interval method

By taking proportions;
20−0 X−32
100−20
= 212−X
20 X−32
=
80 212−X
by cross multiplication

107
20(212 – X) = 80(X – 32)
4240 – 20X = 80X – 2560
4240 + 2560 = 80X +20X
100X = 6800
X = 6800/100
X = 680F
Case 2 . formula method
Conversion from centigrade to Fahrenheit, use
F = 1.80C + 32
Since 0C = 20, hence
F = 1.8(20) + 32
F = 36 +32
F = 680F
Should anytime you want to convert from Fahrenheit to centigrade,
use
5
C = 9 (F−32) ………… this question was asked during my post utme
exam in university of Ibadan
Example 3. A thermometer with an arbitrary scale, S, of equal
division registers -300S at the ice point and +900S at the steam point.
Calculate the Celsius temperature corresponding to 600S jamb 1991
Solution:

108
By taking proportion;
X−0 60−(−30)
=
100−X 90−60
X−0 90
=
100−X 30
by cross multiplication
30(X – 0) = 90(100 – X)
30X – 0 = 9000 – 90X
90X + 30X = 9000
120X = 9000
X = 9000/120
X = 750C
Example 4. A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of
4Ω at 00c and 10Ω at 1000C. Assuming the resistance changes
uniformly with temperature, calculate the resistance of the
thermometer when the temperature is 450C waec 2003
Solution:

109
by proportions;
45−0 X −4
=
100−45 10−X
45 X−4
=
55 10− X

45(10 – X) = 55(X – 4)
450 – 45X = 55X – 220
450 + 220 = 55X + 45X
100X = 670
X = 670/100
X = 6.7Ω

CONCEPTS OF EXPANSI0N
Expansion of solids
1. When hot water is poured in a glass tumbler, it cracks due to
the uneven expansion of the inner wall of the tumbler.

110
 2. The cracking noise of zinc roof during the day and night
3. Thermal expansion of solid is used in the construction of
bridges in which one side is fixed and the other is placed on
rollers to allow for expansion
4. The stopper of a bottle can be removed by heating with
flame the neck of the bottle
5. In the construction of concrete pavement, little spaces are
left within the concrete to allow for expansion
6. Gaps are left in the construction of railway tracks to allow
for expansion
7. Bimetallic stripes are use in thermostat ( iron) for controlling
or regulating the flow of electric current.

Effects and application

Advantages of Thermal Expansion of Solid
1.Fire alarm e.g. electric bell
2.The fittings of wheels in rims
3.Bimetallic thermometer
4.Red hot rivet in ship building
5.Bimetallic stripes used in thermometer e.g. electric cooker
etc
Disadvantages/effects of Thermal Expansion of Solid
1. Cracking of glass tumbler when hot liquid poured inside
2. If the balance wheel of a watch expands the time will be
fast and if the balance wheel of a watch contrasts the time
will be slow
3. Expansion of metal of concrete bridges
4. Sagging of overhead wire due to contraction in winter
season
5. Expansion of railway tracks thereby forming distant railway
tracks.
111
 6. Bursting of water metal pipes.

Linear Expansivity
Linear expansivity of a solid can be defined as an increase in length
per unit length, per unit degree rise in temperature. It is denoted by
(α) and measure in per Kelvin or per degree Celsius.
Mathematically,
increase∈lengt h
linear expansivity=
original lengt h× c h ange∈temperature
L2−L1
α=
L1 (Ө2−Ө1)

L1=t h e original lengt h

Ө1=t h e origi n allengt h
L2=t h efinal lengt h
Ө2=final temperature
ΔL=L2 – L1=c h ange∈lengt h
∆ θ=θ2−θ 1=c h ange∈temperature
ΔL
α=
L1 ΔӨ
L2−L1
α= by cross multiplication∧make L2 t h e subject
L1 ΔӨ
L2=L1 +α L1 ∆ θ
L2=L1 (1+αΔθ)

Area Expansivity

112
The area/superficial expansivity is the increase in area of per unit area
per degree rise in temperature. It is donated by (β) and measured in
per Kelvin and per 0C
A 2−A 1
β=
A 1 ( θ2−θ1 )

Recall
L2=L1 +α L1 ∆ θ
L2=L1 (1+αΔθ)

Similarly
b 2=b1 +α b1 ∆ θ
b 2=b1 (1+ αΔθ)
A2=L1 (1+ αΔθ)× b1 (1+αΔθ)
A2=L1 b1 (1+ αΔθ)(1+ αΔθ)
A 2= A 1 ¿

Where: (αΔθ)2 isneglible ∧β=2 α

A2= A 1 (1+2 αΔθ)
A2= A 1 (1+ βΔθ)

Volume Expansivity
It is denoted by (γ). It is the increase in volume per unit volume per
degree rise in temperature
V 2−V 1
γ=
V 1 ( θ2−θ1 )
∆V
γ=
V 1 (∆ Ꝋ )

γ =3 α

113
Relationship between α: β: γ: = 1: 2: 3.
Expansion in Liquid
If the temperature of a liquid increases the volume of liquid is affected,
when liquid in a flask is heated the level of the liquid in the flask is
reduced because the flask first expand and the level rises steadily as the
liquid expand to assume the change in expansion of the glass.
University of Ibadan post utme question
Real and apparent
Real or absolute cubic expansivity (γ r): The real / absolute of the liquid is
the increase in volume by unit volume per degree rise in temperature
Apparent Cubic Expansivity (γ a)
The apparent cubic expansivity is the increase in volume per unit rise
when heated in an expansible vessel.
(γ r )=(γ a )+ ɣ

Where,
apparent increase∈ volume
γ a=
original volume X rise∈temperature

Also,
mass of liquid expelled
γ a=
mass of liquid remaining X rise ∈temperature

Or
volume of liquid expelled
γ a=
volume of liquid remaining X rise∈temperature

Anomalous expansion of water

Most liquid except water expand when heated. This abnormal
behaviour of water is what is referred to as anomalous expansion of
water. When water is heated from 00C, it contracts until it reaches 40C

114
and beyond this point, water expands normally. The anomalous
expansion of water takes place between 00C and 40C.
Water has it maximum density at 40C and least volume at 00C.
University of Ibadan post utme question
Example 1. A wire 20m long is heated from a temperature of 50C to
550C, if the change in length is 0.020m, calculate the linear expansivity
of the wire.
Solution:
L1 = 20m, Ꝋ1 = 50C, Ꝋ2 = 550C, ∆L = 0.020m, and Ꝋ = Ꝋ2 - Ꝋ1 = 55 – 5 =
500C α = ?
ΔL
Since α=
L1 ΔӨ
0.020
α= 20 X (55−5 )
0.020
α= 20 X (50 )

α = 2.0 X 10 – 5 K – 1
Example 2. On a fairy cool rainy day when the temperature is 200C, the
length of a steel rail road track is 20m. What will be its length on a hot
dry day when the temperature is 400C [α = 11 X 10 – 6 K – 1 ]? jamb 2003
Solution:
Ꝋ1 = 200C, Ꝋ2 = 400C, L1 = 20m, L2 = ? and α = 11 X 10 – 6 K – 1
L2−L1
α=
L1 ΔӨ
L2=L1 (1+αΔθ)

Where Ꝋ = Ꝋ2 - Ꝋ1 = 40 – 20 = 200C
L2 = 20 (1 + 11 X 10 – 6 X 20)
L2 = 20 (1.00022)

115
L2 = 20.004m
Example 3. The ratio of the linear expansivity of copper to that of
iron is approximately 1.5. A specimen of iron and a specimen of
copper expand by the same amount per unit rise in temperature.
The ratio of their length is? Jamb 1980
Solution:
From the above question αcopper : αiron = 1.5, i.e
α co pper 1.5
= by cross multilication
α iron 1

αcopper = 1.5 αiron ………………………….(i)

∆L and ∆Ꝋ = constant from the question, hence, equation becomes
1
For copper, αcopper = Lcopper

αcopper Lcopper ……………………………………(ii)

1
for iron, αiron = Liron

αiron Liron……………………………………………………..(iii)
by equating eqt(ii) and (iii)
αcopper Lcopper=¿αiron Liron…………………………………(iv)
since αcopper = 1.5 αiron in eqt(i), substitute into eqt(iv)
1.5 αiron Lcopper=¿αiron Liron
Lcopper α iron
=
Liron 1.5 α iron
Lcopper 1
=
Liron 1.5

Lcopper : Liron = 0.67

116
 Example 4. A solid material of volume 100cm3 is heated through a
temperature difference of 400C . calculate the increase in the volume
of the material if its lnear expansivity is 2 X 10 – 6 K – 1
Solution:
V 2−V 1
γ=
V 1 ( θ2−θ1 )
∆V
γ=
V 1 (∆ Ꝋ )

α = 2 X 10 – 6 K – 1
∆V = ?, ∆Ꝋ = 400C, V1 = 100cm3
γ =3 α

γ = 3(2 X 10 – 6 K – 1 )
γ = 6 X10 – 6 K – 1
∆V = γ X V1∆Ꝋ
∆V = 6 X10 – 6 X 100 X 40
∆V = 2.4 X 10 – 2 cm3
Example 5. The linear expansivity of brass is 2 X 10 – 5 0C – 1 . if the
volume of a piece of brass is 10cm3 at 100C, what will be its volume
at 1000C? jamb 1983
Solution:
V1 = 10cm3, α = 2 X 10 – 5 0C – 1, Ꝋ1 = 100C, Ꝋ2 = 1000C, V2 = ?
V 2−V 1
γ=
V 1 ( θ2−θ1 )

γ = 3α
γ = 3(2 X 10 – 5 0C – 1)
γ = 6 X 10 – 5 0C – 1

117
v2 = γ V1Ꝋ + V1
v2 = 6 X 10 – 5 X 10 X 100 + 10
= 0.06 + 10
10.06cm3
Example 6. The length of a side of a metallic cube at 200C is 5.0cm.
Given that the linear expansivity of the metal is 4.0 X 10 – 5 K – 1 , find the
volume of the cube at 1200C jamb 1987
Solution:
One length of the cube = 5.0cm
Volume, V1 = L X L X L = L3 = 53 = 125cm3
Ꝋ1 =200C, Ꝋ2 = 1200C, Ꝋ = 120 – 20 = 1000C
γ = 3α
since, α = 4.0 X 10 – 5 K – 1
γ = 3(4.0 X 10 – 5 K – 1) = 1.2 X 10 – 4 K – 1
V 2−V 1
γ=
V 1 ( θ2−θ1 )

v2 = γ V1Ꝋ + V1
v2 = 1.2 X 10 – 4 X 125 X 100 + 125
v2 = 1.5 + 125
= 126.5cm3
Example 6. A cube made of metal of linear expansivity α is heated
through a temperature Ꝋ. If the initial volume of the cube is V0, the
correct expression for the increase in volume of the cube is? Waec
2007
Solution:

118
V1 = V0, ∆V = ? and γ = 3α
∆V
γ=
V 1 (∆ Ꝋ )

∆V = γ X V1∆Ꝋ
∆V = 3α X V0 X Ꝋ
= 3αV0Ꝋ
Example 7. The ratio of the coefficient of linear expansion of two
α1
metals α2
is 3:4. If, when heated through the same temperature
l1
change, the ratio of the increase in lengths of the two metals, l2
is 1:2,
L1
the ratio of the original lengths L2
is? Jamb 2007 and university of
Ibadan post utme exam, 2019
Solution:
Parameters
Ist metal 2nd metal
Linear expansivity α1 = 3 α2 = 4
Constant temperature ∆Ꝋ = Ꝋ ∆Ꝋ = Ꝋ
Increase in length ∆l1 = 1 ∆l2 = 2
∆l ∆L ∆L
From α = l1 ( ∆ Ꝋ ) L1 = α∆θ L2 = α∆θ
1 2
L1 = 3θ L2 = 4θ

()
1
L1 3θ 1 2 1 4θ
Hence, L2
= 2 = 3θ
÷
4θ = 3θ
X
2
4θ

= 2/3

119
Example 7. A brass rod is 2m long at a certain temperature. What will
be the length for a temperature rise of 100K , if the linear expansivity of
brass 18 x10-6K-1
Solution:
L1=2 m, L2=? , ∆ θ=100 K , α = 18x10-6k-1
L2=L1 (1+αΔθ)

L2=2 ( 1+ ( 18 ×10 ×100 ) )

−6

L2=2(1+ 0.00018)
L2=2(1.00018)

L2=2.0036 m

HEAT TRANSFER
Heat can be transferred by conduction, convection or radiation
Conduction
This is the process of transfer of heat through a material by vibration of
the molecules fixed in position.
NOTE. Metals that allow heat to pass through them are said to be good
conductors of heat. Though all metals are classified as good conductors
(low resistance), they differ in an ability to conduct heat. Non-metal
(wood / plastic) is a bad conductor or insulator (high resistance) that
does not allow heat to pass through it. Thermal conductivity is simply
the ability of a metal to conduct heat.
PRACTICAL CONDUCTION OF HEAT
120
1. Kettle, pans and other utensils made of metals are provided with
wooden or ebonite utensils so that heat from to utensils is not
conducted
2. household source pans are made of metals because metals are
good conductors of heat and electricity
3. Thick brick walls are used in the construction of storage rooms.
Bricks are bad conductors of heat, so it will not allow heat to
enter the storage room.
4. A stone floor feels cold to the feet than a rug or a carpet on the
same floor feels warm
Convection
Convection is the process by which heat energy is transferred in a
fluid (liquid or gas) by actual movement of the heated fluid. The
direction of the motion of a filter paper indicates the circulation of
heated water. Circulation of a liquid is called CONVECTION
CURRENT.
Radiation
Radiation is the process by which heat is transferred or conveyed
from one place / point to another without heating the interview
medium. In radiation molecules are not involved, it differs from
another method because it does not require a medium for heat to
be transferred. Heat from the sun reaches us by this method ( jamb
question). The energy given out as radiant heat is known as
RADIANT ENERGY. This energy displaces electrical and magnetic
properties and it said to be electromagnetic radiation and the name
is INFARED.
RADIATION CAN BE DETECTED BY
1. Radiometer
121
 2. Thermo pile
3. Leslie cube
Dark surface are good absorber of heat and poor emitter of
radiation. Highly polished surface are good emitter of radiation
and poor emitter of heat (jamb question).
APPLICATION OFRADIATION
1. It is not advisable to wear a dark shirt in the tropical sun
2. Roofs of factories are coated with aluminum paint.
3. Shinning roofs and outside walls are painted with light colour in
hot climate to keep the house cool.
Cooking utensils are darkening at the bottom and polished in the
upper surface.

Applications - sea breeze, thermo flask

Land and sea breeze
Heat energy from the sun is absorbed by the land and sea equally in
the daytime. The air close to the surface of the land is warmed by
the land because the land conducts better than the sea water. The
warmed air becomes less dense, rises and move towards the sea.
Cold hair from the sea moves towards the land to replace the rising
warm air. This circulation of hot and cold air continues.
The cold breeze from the sea towards the land is called sea breeze.
Thermos Flask
A thermos flask is used to keep the temperature of its content
constant. The essential features of a thermos flask are as follows:

122
 1. Cork stopper – Prevent heat loss by conduction, conduction and
Evaporation
2. Vacuum in the double wall – Reduce heat loss or gain by
conduction and convection
3. Silvered wall surface – Minimise heat loss by radiation
4. Cork support – Prevent heat loss by conduction
Thermos flask is also known as vacuum flask.

THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. The length of mercury thread when it is at 00C, 1000C and an
unknown temperature Ꝋ is 25mm, 225mm and 175mm
respectively. What is the value of Ꝋ.
(a)85.00C
(b) 80.00C
123
 (c)75.00C
(d) 70.00C
2. The pressure on the gas of constant gas thermometer at the ice
point is 325mm of mercury and at the steam point 875mm of
mercury. Find the temperature when the pressure of the gas is
490mm of mercury.
(a)30K
(b) 243K
(c)300K
(d) 303K
3. The distance between the fixed points of a centigrade
thermometer is 20cm. what is the temperature when the mercury
level is 45cm above the lower mark?
(a)22.50C
(b) 29.00C
(c)90.00C
(d) 100.00C
4. The temperature of 450C is the same as
(a)250F
(b) 570F
(c)810F
(d) 1130F
5. A metal cube of volume V and linear expansivity α is heated
through a temperature rise of T. the increase in volume of the
cube is
(a)3αVT
(b) 2αVT
(c)αVT
(d) αVT/3
6. A blacksmith heated a metal whose cubic expansivity is 6.3 X 10 – 6
K – 1 . The area expansivity is
(a)4.2 X 10 – 6 K – 1
(b) 2.0 X 10 – 6 K – 1
124
 (c)6.3 X 10 – 6 K – 1
(d) 2.1 X 10 – 6 K – 1
7. A thin aluminium plate has a surface area of 1.500m2 at 200C.
what will be its surface area when it is cooled to – 200C [Take the
linear expansivity of aluminium to be 2.5 X 10 – 5 K – 1 ]
(a)1.503m3
(b) 1.500 m3
(c)1.498 m3
(d) 1.497 m3
(e)1.490 m3

CHAPTER SEVEN
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge, Q, along a conductor. Unit
is the Ampere (A)

125
 Q
I = t , where Q = quantity of charge in Coulomb, C, unit for current can
also be Cs – 1 (waec question)
The ammeter is an instrument that measure or read current.
Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through a metallic conductor
is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends,
provided temperature and other physical conditions are kept constant.
Mathematically,
VαI
V V
Therefore, V = IR, I = R and R = I

From above, v= potential difference in Volts, V

I = current in Amperes, A
R = resistance in ohm, Ω

ARRANGEMENT OF RESISTORS AND CELLS

Series arrangement

126
in series arrangement of resistors, the following are to be noted:
1. Equivalent resistance, R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ……… + Rn
2. The same amount of current passes through each resistor, I = I1 =
I2 = I3
3. The potential difference, across each resistor is a function of the
value of its resistance, i.e the higher the value of the resistance,
the higher the potential difference.
4. Equivalent potential difference, V = V1 + V2 + V3 + ……… Vn

Parallel arrangement.

127
 in parallel arrangement, the following are to be noted:
1 1 1 1 1
1. Equivalent resistance is given by = +
R R1 R2 + R 3 + … … … . Rn
2. Different amount of current passes through each resistor, hence,
total current I = I1 + I2 + I3
3. The potential difference across each resistor is the same, V = V1 =
V2 = V3
4. The effective resistance is always less than the least individual
resistance i.e R < R1 or R2 or R3

Arrangement of cells in series

When cells, E of E1, E2, E3 and internal resistance , r of r1, r2 and r3 are
arranged in series.
Equivalent e.m.f, E = E1 + E2 + E3
Equivalent internal resistance, r = r1 + r2 + r3
Arrangement of cells in parallel
128
When cells, E of E1, E2, E3 and internal resistance , r of r1, r2 and r3 are
arranged in parallel.
Equivalent e.m.f, E is one of the e.m.f, and
1 1 1 1
Equivalent internal resistance, r = = +
r r1 r 2 + r3

Please note the above rules about arrangement of cells in series and
in parallel. Very useful in jamb and waec/neco
1. The Electromotive force (e.m.f), E of a cell is the total work done
in moving a unit charge of electricity round a circuit.
work done
Mathematically, E = c h arge
W
E= Q
The unit of electromotive force is Volts, V. Hence,
W
V= Q
W = QV …………………(i)
2. Internal resistance, r, is the opposition to the flow of current
offered by the cell when it is discharging current to a circuit.
3. Terminal potential difference, V, is the pd between the terminals
of a cell when it is delivering current to the external resistance, R.
4. The lost volt, v is the p.d across the internal resistance, r, of a cell
E = V + v ………………….. (ii)
Also,
E
I= R +r ………………………..(iii)

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

129
From eqt(i) above, it can be inferred that W = QV, which mean that
Work = quantity of charge X potential difference
Hence, W = QV …………………….(iv)
Q
From I = t , by cross multiplication
Q = It
Substitute Q in eqt(iv) above
W = ItV …………………………(v)
From Ohm’s law, V = IR
Replace V in eqt(v) above
W = I2Rt ……………………….(vi)
V
From V = IR, make I the subject, I = R and substitute in eqt(vi)
2
V t
W= R
………………………..(vii)

Also note that electrical energy = electrical power X time

…………………(viii)
ELECTRICAL POWER
W
P= t ………………………………….(ix)
Where W = electrical energy in joule
t = time in second
since, W = QV and Q = It, hence eqt(ix) becomes
P = IV ……………………………………(x)
From Ohm ’s law, V = IR. Substitute V in eqt(x) above
P = I2R …………………………………….(xi)

130
 V
From V = IR, make I the subject, I = R and substitute in eqt(x) above
2
V
P= R
……………………………….(xii)

Electrical heat energy, H = I2Rt …………………………………..(xiii)

R
Efficiency = R +r X 100 ………………………………..(xiv)
BUYING AND SELLING OF ELECTRICITY

Cost = ( power1000X time ) X amount ………………(xv)

Where the electric power consumed is in kW/h
Also,

Cost = ( 1000
IVt
) X amount ………………………….(xvi)
Note: The fuse is a thin strip of wire with low melting point an alloy
of lead and in and it is usually connected to the live wire of an
electric circuit.
The resistance of a wire is directly proportional to its length L and is
inversely proportional to its cross – sectional area A.
ρl
Mathematically, R = A

Where ρ is a constant called resistivity in Ωm.

The resisitance of a conductor generally increase with increase with
temperature. Consider the resistance R0 at 00C and R at temperature
T, therefore,
R = R0 (1 + αT) where α is the temperature coefficient of resistance
It should be noted also that the reciprocal of resistivity is
conductivity
ẟ= 1/ ρ and unit is Ωm – 1

131
A REVIEW ON OHM’S LAW
A review on Ohm’s law V = IR to solve for voltage, current and
resistance. The method is called voltage divided method.
The voltage divided method formula is:

Vx = Vtotal ( )
Rx
Rtotal

Where;
Vx = voltage drop across a particular resistor x
Vtotal = total voltage of the circuit supplied by the battery or source
Rx = resistor of a particular resistor
Rtotal = total or combined sum of resistances

Example 1. Find the effective resistance in the diagram below. Jamb

2008

Solution:
From the diagram above, all the 4Ω resistors are connected in series.

132
 Recall, for series connection:
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …………. Rn
R = 4Ω + 4Ω + 4Ω + 4Ω + 4Ω + 4Ω
R = 24Ω
Example 2.

The effective resistance of the circuit shown above is? Neco 2006
Solution:
Considering the circuit above, the two 2Ω resistors are in parallel
connection:
Effective resistance for parallel connection is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2 +R +……….
Rn
3

1 1 1
= +
R 2 2

R = 1Ω
The circuit can now be re-drawn as below

133
The three 1Ω resistors are now in series connection.
For series connection,
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …………. Rn
R = 1Ω + 1Ω + 1Ω
R = 3Ω
Example 3. Using the data on the diagram below. Calculate the p.d
across the 20Ω resistor. (Neglecting the internal resistance of the cell).
Waec 1999

Solution:
134
In the circuit above, 5Ω and 10Ω resistors are in parallel connection
and the current of 2A is being shared between the two resistors. It
should also be noted that in parallel connection, the p.d across each
resistor is the same or equal. Hence,
p.d across 5Ω is equal to the p.d across 10Ω resistor
V5Ω = IR
V5Ω = 2 X 5 = 10V
Therefore, V10Ω = 10V is that understood?
It should be noted also that the current flowing through 5Ω and 10Ω
are different. Since, it is a parallel connection.
V 10
I5Ω = R = 5
=2 A

Also,
10
I10Ω = 10 = 1A
Total current, I = I5Ω + I10Ω
I = 2A + 1A = 3A
Therefore, a current of 3A flow to 20Ω resistor
p.d across 20Ω resistor is given by
V = IR
V = 3 X 20
V = 60V
Example 4. A battery of e.m.f E and negligible internal resistance
supplies a current I to the combination of two resistances R1 and R2
as shown below. Calculate the current through R2. Waec 1994

135
Solution:
From the circuit above, R1 and R2 are in parallel combination. Therefore,
effective resistance is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2 +R +……….
Rn
3

1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2

1 R 1+ R 2
=
R R1 R 2
R1 R 2
R=
R1 + R2

Recall that in parallel connection, the p.d across each resistor is

equal, hence,
V = IR ……………………….(i)
R1 R 2
Since, R= R + R , substitute R, into eqt(i) above
1 2

V=I ( R 1 R2
R1 + R2 )v
136
 Therefore, the current flowing through R2 is given by:
V
I2 = R2 ……………………..(ii)

Since, V = I ( R 1 R2
R1 + R2 )v , substitute v, into eqt(ii) above
I2 =
I
( R1 R 2
R1 + R2 )
R2

(
I2 = I
R 1 R2
R1 + R2
X
)
1
R2

I = I( )
R1
2 R1 + R2

Example 5. What is the potential difference between X and Y in the

diagram below if the battery is of negligible internal resistance?
Calculate the current in the 3Ω resistor. Waec 1997

2v

Solution:
From the circuit above, E = 5V
Recall, E = V + v …………… please check text

137
By substitution into the equation
5=2+v
Potential difference, V = 5 – 2 = 3v
Current in the 3Ω, is given by:
I30Ω = V/R = 3/3 = 1A
Example 6. In the circuit shown below, the cell P has an e.m.f 1.5V
and an unknown internal resistance r while the cell Q has an e.m.f
2.0V and an internal resistance 1Ω. If the ammeter reads 50mA, then
r is equal to?

Solution:
Study the circuit diagram very well, you will observe that the two
cells P and Q are connected in series, negative to negative, hence,
e.m.f = 2V – 1.5V = 0.5V
total internal resistance, r = (1 + r)Ω
external resistance, R = 7Ω
current, I = 50mA, by conversion = 50/1000 = 0.05A
E
recall, I = R +r

E = I (R + r)
0.5 = 0.05(7 + 1 + r)
138
0.5 = 0.4 + 0.05r
0.5 – 0.4 = 0.05r
0.1 = 0.05r
r = 0.1/0.05
r = 2Ω
Example 7.

The internal resistance of each of the cells E1 and E2 shown in the

diagram above is 2Ω. Calculate the total current in the circuit. Jamb
1991
Solution:
Considering the circuit above, the two cells E1 and E2 are in parallel
connection, therefore, the effective e.m.f is one of the e.m.f (please
check the arrangement of cells in parallel) and the effective internal
resistance is given by:
1 1 1
= +
r r1 r 2
1 1 1
= +
r 2 2

r = 1Ω

139
 external resistance, R = 4Ω
E
I= R +r
2 2
I= =
4+ 1 5

I = 0.4A
Example 7.

In the circuit above, the ammeter reads a current of 5.0A when R = 8Ω

and reads 7.0A when R = 5Ω. The value of the unknown resistance X is?
Jamb 1999
Solution:
The two resistors R and X are connected in series, hence, the equivalent
resistance is given by:
R = R 1 + R2
R = (R + X)Ω
E
From I = R +r

E = I (R + r), where r is altered to X

But R = (R + X), eqt(i) becomes

140
E = I (R + X) …………………..(i)
When I = 5.0A and R = 8Ω. Substitute into eqt(i) above
E = 5 (8 + X) open the bracket
E = 40 + 5X ……………………………(ii)
When I = 7.0A and R = 5Ω. Substitute into eqt(i) above
E = 7 (5 + X)
E = 35 + 7X ……………………….(iii)
Combine eqt(ii) and eqt(iii)
E = 40 + 5X ……………………………(ii)
E = 35 + 7X ……………………….(iii)
Substracting eqt(iii) from (ii)
0 = -5 + 2X
2X = 5
X = 5/2 = 2.5Ω
Example 8.

141
In the circuit diagram above, the ammeter reads a current of 3A,
when R is 5Ω and 6A when R is 2Ω. Determine the value of X jamb
2001
Solution:
From the circuit diagram, resistor R and X are connected in parallel,
equivalent resistance is given by:
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
= +
R R X
1 R+ X
=
R RX
RX
R= R +X
RX
from Ohm’s law V = IR and equivalent resistance, R = R +X

equation becomes,

V=I ( R+RXX ) ……………………..(i)

When I = 3A, R = 5Ω, substitute into eqt(i) above

V=3 ( 5+5 XX ) open the bracket

15 X
V= 5+ X ………………………….(ii)
When I = 6A, R = 2Ω, substitute into eqt(i) above

V=6 ( 2+2 XX ) open the bracket

12 X
V= 2+ X ………………………(iii)
By equating eqt(ii) and (iii)

142
15 X 12 X
5+ X
= 2+ X
by cross multiplication

15X (2 + X) = 12X (5 + X)
30X + 15X2 = 60X + 12x2
15x2 – 12X2 = 60X – 30X
3X2 = 30X divide both sides by X
3X = 30
X = 30/3 = 10Ω
Example 9. A 24V potential difference is applied across a parallel
combination of four 6 resistors. The current in each resistor is? Jamb
1983
Solution:
p.d = 24V
effective resistance for the four 6Ω is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2 +R +……….
Rn
3

1 1 1 1 1
= +
R 6 6
+6+ 6
6 3
R= =
4 2 Ω
V
From V = IR, then I = R

()
24 2
=24 x =8 X 2
I= 3 3
2

I = 16A
Example 9. Three resistors, with resistances 250Ω, 500Ω and 1kΩ are
connected in series. A 6V battery is connected to either end of the

143
combination. Calculate the potential difference between the ends of
the 250Ω resistor. Jamb 1989
Solution:

The question has been diagrammatically explained, 1kΩ can be

converted to 1000Ω. Hence, the effective resistance can be given as;
R = R 1 + R2 + R3
R = 250 + 500 + 1000
R = 1750Ω
The p.d to be calculated is the V1 across or connected across 250Ω.
The formula to use is called voltage divider method ( please check
text, under the review of Ohm’s law)

Vx = Vtotal ( )
Rx
Rtotal

V1 = 6 ( 1750
250
)= 1500
1750
=0.86 Ω

Example 10. A resistance R is connected across the terminal of an

electric cell of internal resistance 2Ω and the voltage was reduced to
3/5 of its nominal value. The value of R is? Jamb 2001
144
Solution:
Recall, E = V + v ………………… please check text above
Nominal p.d = E and terminal p.d = V = IR and v = Ir
From the question above,
3 3
Voltage, V, reduced to 5
E i.e V = 5
E and r = 2Ω
From, E = V +v and substitute respectively our parameters
3
E= 5
E +v
3
E -- 5
E =v
2 3 5
5
E =v since v = Ir, and if V = 5
E, then E = 3
V, by substitution

( )
2 5
5 3
V =Ir opening bracket
10
15
V =Ir Note: V = IR, and r = 2Ω, by substitution
10
15
IR=2 I divide both sides by I, and cross multiply

10R = 30
R = 30/10
R = 3Ω
Example 11. A cell of internal resistance 1Ω supplies current to an
external resistor of 3Ω. The efficiency of the cell is? Jamb 2000
Solution:
R = 3Ω and r = 1Ω
By using the formula,
R
Efficiency = R +r X 100

145
 3
Efficiency = 3+1 X 100
3
Efficiency = 4 X 100
Eff = 0.75 X 100
Eff = 75%
Example 12. A cell whose internal resistance is 0.5Ω delivers a
current of 4A to an external resistor. The lost voltage of the cell is?
Jamb 2004
Solution:
Recall, E = V + v
Where, v = lost volt i.e, the p.d across the internal resistor ( please
check text above)
From this question, r = 0.5Ω
v = Ir
v = 4 X 0.5
v = 2V
Example 13. An electric lamp marked 240V, 60W is left to operate
for an hour. How much energy is generated by the filament? Jamb
2009
Solution:
V = 240V, power, P = 60W, t = 1hour = 1 X 60 X 60 = 3600s
Energy generated = power X time (check text, eqt(viii) )
Energy generated = 60 X 60 X 60
= 2.16 X 105J

146
Example 14. Find the work done in moving a 2C charge between two
point X and Y in an electric field if the potential difference is 100Vlts.
Jamb 1998
Solution:
Q = 2C, V = 100v
W
Recall, V = Q

W = QV
W = 2 X 100
W = 200J
Example 15. Two resistors, R1 = 4Ω and R2 = 5Ω are connected in
parallel across a potential difference. If P1 and P2 represent the
power dissipated in R1 and R2 respectively, then the ratio P1:P2 is?
Jamb 1994
Solution:
2
V
Recall, P = R

Power dissipated in 4Ω is given by;

2
V
P1 = 4

Power dissipated in 5Ω is given by;

2
V
P2 = 5

()
2
V
P1 4 V
2
5 5
Hence, in ratio, = 2 = X 2
P2 V 4 V
= 4
5

P1 : P2 = 5 : 4

147
Example 16. An electric current of 2 amperes flows in a heating coil
of resistance 50 ohms for 3 minutes 20 seconds. Determine the heat
produced. Jamb 1995
Solution:
I = 2A, R = 50Ω, t = 3m,20s = ( 3 X 60) + 20 = 200s
H = I2Rt
H = 22 X 50 x 200
H = 40000 or 40kJ
Example 17. In the diagram below, if each of the resistors can
dissipate a maximum of 18W without becoming excessively heated,
what is the maximum power that circuit can dissipate? Jamb 2003

Solution:

From the question above, if each of the resistor can dissipate a

maximum of P = 18W, then,
P = I2R, the current in the 2Ω resistor is given by;
P
I2 = R = 18/2 = 9
I = √9 = 3A
The first 2Ω’s are in parallel connection,
1 1 1
Effective resistance, = +
R R1 R2

148
1 1 1
= +
R 2 2

R = 1Ω
The 1Ω is now in series with 2Ω, then, the effective resistance is
given by;
R = R 1 + R2
R=1+2
R = 3Ω
Recall, P = I2R
P = 32 x 3
P = 27W
Example 18. What is the cost of running five 50W lamps and four
100W lamps for 10 hours if electrical energy costs 2 kobo per kWh?
Jamb 1984
Solution:
Total power = 5(50W) + 4(100W) = 650W, t = 10 hours, amount = 2k,
cost = ?
Recall,

Cost = ( power1000X time ) X amount please check text

Cost = ( 1000 ) X 2
650 X 10

Cost = ( 1000 )=13 k converting to naira

13000

Cost = 13/100 = N0.13

149
Example 19. The resistivity of a given wire of cross sectional area
0.7mm2 is 4.9 X 10 – 4 Ωmm. calculate the resistance of a 2m length of
the wire. Waec 1994
Solution:
Area = 0.7mm2 convert to metre = 7 X 10 – 7 m
ρ = 4.9 X 10 – 4 Ωmm. convert to metre = 4.9 X 10 – 7 Ωm
Length, l = 2m
ρl
R= A check text
4.9 X 10 – 7 X 2
R= ¿ 7 X 10 – 7

R = 1.4Ω
Example 20. A wire of length 100cm and cross sectional area 2.0 X
10 – 3 cm2 has a resistance of 0.10Ω. calculate its electrical
conductivity. Waec 1996
Solution:
Length = 100cm
Area = 2.0 X 10 – 3 cm2, R = 0.10Ω
The resistivity is to be calculated first, before conductivity
ρl AR
R= A, therefore ρ= l
−3
AR 2.0 X 10 X 0.10
ρ= =
l 100

ρ=2 X 10
−6
Ωm
1 1
h ence , σ= =
ρ 2 X 10−6
= 5 X 105Ω - 1 cm – 1

150
Example 21. A piece of resistance wire of diameter 0.2mm and
resistance 7Ω has resistivity of 8.8 X 10 – 7 Ωm, calculate the length of
the wire (π = 22/7) waec 2002
Solution:
Diameter = 0.2mm, note that 2 radii = diameter
Radius = 0.2mm/2 = 0.1mm, to metre = 1 X 10 – 4 m
22
Area of the wire = πr2 = 7 x (1 X 10−4 )2= 3.142 X 10 – 8 m2
−7
ρ=8.8 X 10
−8
AR 3.142 X 10 X 7
l=
ρ = 8.8 X 10
−7
=2.5X 10 – 1 m

THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. An electric generator has an e.m.f of 240V and an internal
resistance of 1Ω. If the current supplied by the generator is 20A
when the terminal voltage is 220V, find the ratio of the power
supplied to the power dissipated.
(a)11 : 1
(b) 1 : 11
(c)12 : 11
(d) 11 : 12
2. A generator is on daily use and in the process ten 60W and five
40W tungsten bulbs are on for the same time interval. The energy
consumed daily is?
(a)0.9kWh
(b) 1.92kWh
(c)9.60kWh
(d) 19.20kWh

151
3. A current of 0.5A flows through a resistor when connected to a
40V battery. How much energy is dissipated in 2 minutes?
(a)1200J
(b) 1500J
(c)2400J
(d) 96000J
4. A household refrigerator is rated 200 watts. If electricity cost 5k
per kWh, what is the cost of operating it for 20 days?
(a)N4.80
(b) N48.00
(c)N480.00
(d) N4800.00
5. If NEPA charges 5k per kWh, what is the cost of operating 24
hours a lamp requiring 1A on a 200V line?
(a)24k
(b) 55k
(c)40k
(d) 26k
(e)32k
6. The cost of running five 60W lamps and four 100W lamps for 20
hours if electrical energy cost N10.00 per kWh is
(a)N280.00
(b) N160.00
(c)120.00
(d) 140.00
5. A 3000W electric cooker is to be used on a 200V mains circuit.
Which of the fuses below can be used safely with the cooker?
(a)2A
(b) 5A
(c)10A
(d) 20A

152
6. An electric generator with a power output of 3.0kW at a voltage
of 1.5kV distributes power along cables of total resistance 20.0Ω.
the power loss in the cable is?
(a)0.1W
(b) 10.0W
(c)40.0W
(d) 80.0W
7. A radio is operated by eight cells each of e.m.f 2.0V connected in
series. If two of the cells are wrongly connected, the net e.m.f of
the radio is?
(a)16V
(b) 12V
(c)10V
(d) 8V
8. A cell gives a current of 0.15A through a resistance of 8Ω and 0.3A
when the resistance is changed to 3Ω the internal resistance of
the cell is?
(a)0.05Ω
(b) 1.00Ω
(c)1.50Ω
(d) 2.00Ω
(e)2.50Ω
9. Three electric cells each of e.m.f 1.5V and internal resistance 1.0Ω
2
are connected in parallel across an external resistance of 3 Ω.
Calculcate the value of the current in the resistor.
(a)0.5A
(b) 0.9A
(c)1.5A
(d) 4.5A
10. A cell of internal resistance 2Ω supplies current to a 6Ω
resistor. The efficiency of the cell is?
(a)12.0%

153
 (b) 25.0%
(c)33.3%
(d) 75.0%
11. A 0.4Ω resistor is made from a wire of length 5m and
resistivity 2 X 10 – 6 Ωm. the cross sectional area of the wire is?
(a)1.6 X 10 – 7 m2
(b) 1.6 X 10 – 6 m2
(c)4.0 X 10 – 6 m2
(d) 2.5 X 10 – 5m2
12. 60mC of electricity passes through a conductor for 2
minutes. The current through the conductor is?
(a)7.2A
(b) 120.0mA
(c)30.0mA
(d) 0.5mA
13. When a resistor of resistance R is connected across a cell,
the terminal potential difference of the cell is reduced to the
three-quarter of its e.m.f. the cell’s internal resistance in terms of
R is?
R
(a) 4
R
(b) 3
R
(c) 2
2R
(d) 3
(e)R

154
 CHAPTER EIGHT
ELECTRIC CHARGES PRODUCTION
Electric charges
If a plastic pen is rub vigorously on the hair or on a coat and it is hold
near a very small piece of paper, the paper will be attracted by the pen.
Some substances are found to poses the ability to attract light objects
once they are rubbed. The light object as well as the rubbed material
are said to be charged or electrified with static electricity.
Types of charges
There are two types of charges- positive and negative charges. An
ebonite rod rubbed with fur has a negative charge, but a glass rod
rubbed with silk has a positive charge.
The fundamental law of static electricity or electrostatic states that like
charges repel will unlike charges attract.
Distribution of charges

155
Charges are unusually concentrated at places where the surface is
sharply curved (point A, from the diagram above). The charge density
i.e. charge per unit area is highest at the sharpest point of the
conductor. It should be noted that the charge reside only on the
outside surface of a conductor and not inside.
Storage of charges
The electrophorus is a device for transferring and storing charges. It
produces electric charges by electrostatic induction. Another device for
the storage of electric charges is the capacitor.

Gold leaf electroscope

An electroscope is a device which can detect electric charges. The
casing is earthed so as to screen the leaf from outside interference of
influence. The leaf is the sensitive or moving part of the instrument.
Uses of Gold leaf electroscope
1. It is used to test whether a material is a conductor or an
insulator. The material is made to touch the cap. Rapid collapse

156
 means that the charges escape easily and hence the material
concerned is a good conductor. A slow collapse means that it is
a poor conductor. No collapse means that it is an insulator.
2. Use to test charges weather the charge is positive or negative.
The gold leaf electroscope to test the sign of the charge of an
object. If an unknown charge is brought near to a charged
electroscope and the leaf diverges more, the unknown charge
is similar to the charge on the electroscope.
Charge on Charge brought Effect on leaf
electroscope near the cap of
electroscope
Negative Negative body Divergence
increases
Negative Positive body Divergence
decreases
Positive Positive body Divergence
increases
Positive Negative body Divergence
decreases
Positive Unchanged body Divergence
decreases
Negative Unchanged body Divergence
decreases

Lightning and Lightning Conductors

The atmosphere is known to contain ions or charged particles, which
have been produced by radiation from the sun and by what is known as
cosmic radiation, which enters the atmosphere from outer space.

157
Lightning is a sudden discharge or neutralizing of electric charges, and it
occurs when charges build up in a cloud.
A lightning conductor is used to protect a building from lighting
damage.

CHAPTER NINE
FIELD
Concept of field
Field can be defined as the region or space under the influence of some
physical agency such as gravitational, electricity and magnetism.
Types of field
Fields are of various types namely: gravitational, magnetic and electric
field.
1. Gravitational Field

Gravitational field is any region or space around a mass in which the

gravitational force of the mass is felt. Gravitational field always point
inwards to the mass producing it.
Acceleration due to gravity
The magnitude of acceleration due to gravity is approximately 10m/s 2.
Ancient Greek thought bigger masses fell faster than smaller masses
158
when dropped from the same height at the same time. This was first
proven wrong by Galileo Galilei and later by Isaac Newton. It was
concluded that if objects of different masses are dropped in a vacuum
from same height and at the same time, they will land at the same
time on the ground. Thus, the non-landing at the same time is
observed to have been caused by air resistance.

THE SURGEON MCQ PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. A charged ball is placed in contact with the inner wall of a hollow
conducting sphere. The resulting electric field is
(a)Inside the sphere
(b) Outside the sphere
(c)Inside and outside the sphere
(d) On the surface of the ball
2. The magnitudes of charges on two bodies are to be compared.
Which of the following instruments would be most suitable?
(a)Gold leaf electroscope
(b) Capacitor
(c)The electrophorus
(d) Ebonite rod
3. An electric charge can be transmitted through
(a)Rubber, wood and stone
(b) Clay, paper and plastic
(c)The human body, water and metals
(d) Acid, cloth and glass

159
 CHAPTER TEN
SURFACE TENSION – DEFINITION, EFFECTS, APPLICATION AND
REDUCTION
SURFACE TENSION
- It is the property of a liquid to make its surface behave as though
it is covered by an elastic skin.
- It is the force per unit length acting at right angles on one side of a
line drawn in the surface, T= F/L
- It is the force acting parallel to the surface of the liquid
- Its unit is Nm – 1
EFFECTS OF SURFACE TENSION
1. Soap bubbles are spherical in shape
2. Water skaters are able to walk on the surface of water
3. Razor blade or needle gently placed on the surface of water floats
4. Spilled mercury on glass surface form spherical droplets
APPLICATION OF SURFACE TENSION
160
 1. Use in the manufacturing of rain proof or water proof
2. Absorption of ink with blotting paper
3. Rising of oil in lamp wicks
4. Movement of melted wax into the neck of a burning candle

REDUCTION OF SURFACE TENSION

1. Adding impurities such as detergent/soap, alcohol, oil, camphor,
kerosene, grease
2. By heating the liquid or increasing the temperature of the liquid

CAPILLARITY – ADHESION, COHESION AND APPLICATION

Capillarity is defined as the tendency of liquids to rise or fall in narrow
capillary tubes. On clean water, the narrower the tube, the higher the
level of rise of liquid. In mercury, the wider the tube, the higher the
level of rise of mercury. The meniscus of water in a capillary tube is
concave, while mercury is convex.
Force of cohesion is the force of attraction between molecules of the
same substance. The cohesion of mercury is greater than its adhesion
to glass
Force of adhesion is the force of attraction between molecules of
different substance or it refers to the force which makes molecules of
different substance to attract. Adhesion of water to glass is stronger
than the cohesion of water, the reason why water wets a glass.
VISCOSITY- FRICTION IN FLUID
Viscosity is the internal friction between layers of a liquid or gas in
motion. When water or any liquid flows through a pipe, the velocities
are not the same. The velocity is greatest at the centre and least at
the surface in contact with the pipe, due to friction. Example of
viscous liquids are engine oil, honey, glycerine etc.

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TERMINAL VELOCITY
A ball bearing falling through a viscous liquid s acted upon by three
forces.
1. Weight, W = mg
2. Viscous force, V, which opposes motion
3. Upthrust, U, due to liquid displaced

Equation of motion of the ball- bearing is as follow:

W – V – U = ma
As the ball-bearing accelerates, the speed increases and also the
viscous force V, until a point reached where the viscous drag equals
the downward force. At this stage, a = 0. Hence,
V = mg – U

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