PHY102LECTURENOTE:

2019/
20SESSI
ON

ELECTROSTATICS
El
ect
rostat
icsorstaticel
ectri
cit
yisat y
peofelectr
ici
tyt
hatdoesnotmovefr
om 1
onepointt o anot
herint hesubstancein which i
tisproduced.Thest
udyof
el
ect
rostat
icisthestudyofchargesatr
est.

Electr
icCharge
Electr
icchar
gei snotcreat
ed,i
tisjustt
ransferr
edfrom oneobjectt
oanot her
.The
l
aw ofconser vati
onofchargeisoneoft hef undament
allawsofphy si
cs;t henet
chargeofacl osedsyst
em neverchanges.
Thenetchar geofasy stem i
st healgebraicsum-takingcaretoi ncludethe
positi
veandt henegati
vesigns-ofthechargesoft heconsti
tuentpart
iclesinthe
system.

TypesofChar ges
Afterbeingrubbedwi thfur,t
wopl ast
icrodsr epeleachot her.Aft
erbeingr ubbed
withsil
k,twogl assrodsrepeleachot her.Thechar gedplasti
cr odattractsthe
chargedglassr od.Thef uratt
ract
st hechargedpl asticrod,andsi l
kattractsthe
chargedglassr od.
Therearet wot y
pesofchar ge.BenjaminFrankli
n( 1706- 1970)wast hefirsttocal
l
them posit
ive( +)andnegative(-
).Whenapi eceofgl assisrubbedbysi l
k,theglass
acquir
esaposi t
ivechargeandt hesi l
kanegat i
vechar ge;thenetchar geoft he
system ofglassandsi lkdoesnotcharge.
Therearetwot ypesofcharges
 Posi t
ivechar ge

FUWUKARI
 Negat ivechar ge

Theplast
icr
odandt hesil
khav enegati
vechar
ge;theglassrodandthefurhave
posi
ti
vecharge.Anobjectthatiselect
ri
cal
lyneut
ralhasequalamountsoft he

cs,
posi
ti
veandnegati
vechargeandt husanetchargeofzero.Thesyst
em usedfor

si
edPhy
quant
it
yofchargei
sqorQ

i
LawofElectr
ost
ati
cs

eandAppl
 Likeorsimil
archar
gesrepel
eachother
 Unl i
keoropposi
techar
gesattr
acteachot
her

mentofPur
Atomi cSt
ruct ureandStati
cElectri
cit
y
Elect
riccharge,l i
kemass,isoneoft hef undamentalat t
ri
butesoft hepart
icl
esof
whichmat terismade.Thei nt
eracti
onr esponsibl
ef orthestructur
eandpr opert
ies
ofat oms and mol ecul
es are pri
mar i
l
yel ect
ri
ci nter
action between el
ectr
icall
y
t

chargedpar t
icles.
Depar

Thest ruct
ureofatom canbedescr i
bedi
nt ermsoft hreepar
ti
cles;thenegati
vel
y
a:
ool

chargedel ect
ron,t
hepositi
velychar
gedproton,andt heunchargedneutron.The
pr[
tonandneut ronarecombinati
onsofot
herenti
ti
escal l
edquarks.Thechargeson
F.W.Ay

thepr otonandt heelect

ronsareofequalmagni tudebutofopposi t
esign.The

1
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

chargeontheprotoni
sar
bit
rar
il
ychosent
obeposi
ti
ve;t
hatont
heel
ect
roni
s
ther
efor
enegat
ive. 2

Aneut r
alatom hasequalnumber sofpr otonsandel ectrons,abal anceofposi t
ive
andnegativecharge.Togi v
eabodyanexcessnegat i
v echar ge,wemayei t
heradd
negati
vechar gest oaneut ralbodyorr emov epositivechar gesf rom thebody .
Simil
arl
y,wecancr eat
eanexcessposi ti
vechargebyei t
heraddi ngpositi
vechar ge
orremov i
ngnegativecharge.Thisgainingorlosi
ngofel ect r
onsi scall
edionizati
on.
Ifthenumberofel ectr
onsandpr otonsi snotequal,thent heat om iscall
edani on.
Andhasanonzer onetchar ge.Anioni sachar gedpar ticl
e.I ftheionshasmor e
elect
ronsthanpr otons,it
snetchar gei snegative( anion);ifthei onhasf ewer
elect
ronsthanprotons,i
tsnetchargei spositi
ve(cati
on) .

Element
aryCharge
Themagnitudeofchargeontheprotonandelect
ronisthesame.Thatamountof
chargei
scall
edtheelement
arycharge(sy
mbole).int
ermsoftheSIuni
tofchar
ge,
-
19
thecoul
omb( C)
,theval
ueofeis1.602×10 C.

Part
icle Mass El
ectri
cChar
ge
Prot
on 673×10-27Kg
mp=1. qp=+e=+1.602×10-19C
El
ectron 109×10-31Kg
mp=9. qe=-
e=- 602×10-19C
1.
Neutron 675×10-27Kg
mp=1. qn=0

FUWUKARI
Electri
cConduct or sandI nsulators
Somemat erialsper mitelectricchar get omov eeasi l
yf rom oner egionoft he
mat erialtoanot her ,whi leothersdonot .Conduct or sper mitt heeasymov ementof

cs,
charget hrought hem, whileinsul atorsdonot .

si
Met alsar emat eri
al sinwhi chsomeoft heel ectronsar eweakl yboundt hatthey

edPhy
arenott i
edt oanyonepar ti
cularnucl eus;theyar ef reetowanderaboutwi t
hint he
met al.Thef reeel ectr onsi nmet alsmaket hem goodconduct or
s.Gl ass,plasti
cs,

i
eandAppl
rubber ,wood, paper ,andmanyot herfami l
i
armat erialsarei nsulators.I
nsulatorsdo
nothav ef r
eeel ect rons; eachel ect r
oni sboundt oapar ti
cularnucleus.
Wat eri susual lyt houghtofasanel ectri
cconduct or.I
tiswi setoassumesoand
takepr ecautionsuchasnothandl i
ngel ectri
cdev i
ceswi thwethands.Si milarl
y,air
i
sagoodi nsulat or,becausemostoft hemol eculesi nai rar eelectri
call
yneut ral
, mentofPur
carryi
ngnochar geast heymov eabout .Howev er,ai rdoescont ainsomei ons;air
mol ecul esarei oni zedbyr adioact i
vedecay sorbycosmi cray s.
Pure semi conduct ors are good i nsulators,butbydopi ng them-addi ng tiny
t
Depar

amountofi mpur iti

esi nacont rolledway -t heirelect ri
calpr operti
escanbef ine-
tuned.
a:
ool

Char
gingInsul
atorsbyRubbi
ng
F.W.Ay

Whendiff
erentinsul
ati
ngobj
ectsarerubbedagai
nstoneanot
her
,bot
helect
rons
andi
ons(chargedatoms)canbetransfer
redf
rom oneobj
ectt
otheot
her
.Ifboth

2
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

object
shadzeronetchargebef
oretheywerer
ubbedtogether
,theynow hav
enet
chargeofequal
magni
tudesandopposit
esi
gns;
sincechar
geisconserved. 3

ChargingaConductorbyContact
Fi
rstrubtwoinsul
atorst
ogethertoseparat
echarge;thentouchoneofthecharged
i
nsulator
stotheconductor
s.Sincethechar
get r
ansferr
edtotheconduct
orspreads
out,theprocesscan ber epeated t
o buil
d up mor eand morechargeon t he
conductor
.

Char
gingaConduct
orbyI
nduct
ion

GroundingaConductor
Togr oundaconduct ormeanst oprovi
deaconducti
ngpat hbetweenitandthe
earth(ort o anot
herchar
ge reser
voir
).A char
ged conduct
orthatisgrounded
dischar
gesbecausethechargespreadsoutbymovi
ngof ftheconduct
orandonto
theearth.

Distr
ibut
ionofChar
gesonConduct or
s
Chargesareusuall
yconcent
rat
edatpl aceswherethesur
faceissharpl
ycur
ved.
Thechar geperuni
tareaofsurfaceorchargedensi
tyi
shighestattheshar
pest
pointoft
heconductor
.

FUWUKARI
ELECTRI CFORCEBETWEENPOI NTCHARGES
Forpoi ntchar ges, chargedbodi est hatarev erysmal lincompar isonwithdistancer
1
betweent hem,Coul ombf oundt hatt heelectricf orceispropor ti
onalto .Thati s,
r

cs,
1

si
whent hedi st
ancerdoubl es,thef orcedecr easest o ofi tsini
tialval
ue;whent he

edPhy
4
distancei shal ved,theforceincr easestofourt imei tsini
ti
alv al
ue.

i
Theel ectricf orcebet weent wopoi ntchar gesal sodependsont hequant i
tyof

eandAppl
char geoneachbody ,whichwedenot ebyqorQ.
The magni tude oft he electricf orce bet ween t wo poi ntchar ges i
s di r
ectl
y
propor ti
onalt ot hepr oductoft hechar gesandi nverselyproportionalt
othesquar e

mentofPur
ofthedi stancebet weent hem.
Coul ombsl aw( inversesquar elaw)statest hatt hemagni t
udeofel ectr
icforce
between t wo pointchar ges,q1 and q2 separ at
ed bya di stance ri s dir
ectl
y
propor tionaltot hepr oductoft hechar gesandi nv erselyproportionalt
othesquar e
t

ofdi st
ancebet weent hechar ges.
Depar

|qq|
a:

F=K 122
ool

r
F.W.Ay

3
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

1 |q1q2|
F= 2 4
4πεo r

10-12C2 2
εo=8.
854× m
.
N

1
=k=8.988×109N.
m2/C2
4πεo
I
fQ andqhav ethesamesi gn,thetwochargesrepeleachot
her
;iftheyhav
e
opposit
esi
gns,theyatt
racteachot her
.WhenFi sinNewton,Q andqarein
Coulombs(
C),ri
sinmetres.

Examples
1)Twopoi ntcharges,q=+25nCandq= - 75nC, areseparatedbyadi stanceof
3.0cm.Findt hemagni tudeanddi recti
onof( a)theel ectri
cforcet hatq1
exert
sofq2, (
b)theforcet hatq2exertsonq1. (Answeri s0. 019N)
2)Twopoi ntchargesarelocat edontheposi ti
v ex-axi
sofaco- ordi
natesy st
em.
Chargeq1=1.0nC i s2. 0cm f r
om theor i
gin,anot herchar geq2=- 3.0nC i
s
4.0cm fr
om theor i
gin.Whati sthetot alforceexer tedbyt hesetwochar ges
onachar geq3=5. 0nClocat edattheor i
gin?( AnswerF=- 28μN)

si
edPhy
i
eandAppl FUWUKARI
cs,
3)Twoequalposit
ivepoi
ntchargesq1=q2=2.
0μCinteractwi
thathir
dpoint
chargeQ=4.0μCasshownbel ow.Fi
ndthemagnit
udeanddirect
ionoft
he
tot
al (
net
)for
ceonQ.(AnswerF=0.46Ni
n+xdirect
ion)

a:
ool
F.W.Ay t
DeparmentofPur

4
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

4)Findthefor
ceofr
epulsi
onbet
weentwopr
ot 6x10-19Ceachi
onsof1. fthe
-
11
dist
ancebet
weent
hem is5.
3x10 m. 5
(k=9.0x109Nm2C-2)
.

ELECTRI CFI ELD

Theel ectricforceonachar gedbodyi sexer tedbyt heel ectri
cf i
eldcreatedbyot her
char ged bodi es.To f i
nd outexper iment allywhet hert her ei s an electric ata
particularpoi nt,wepl acedachar gedbody ,qo,whi chwecal latestchar ge,att he
point .Ifthet estchargeexper iencesanel ectri
cf or
ce,t hent her
ei sanel ectri
cf i
eld
att hatpoi nt.Thisf i
eldispr oducedbychar gesot hert hanqo.For cei sav ector
quant i
ty,soel ectr
icfi
eldisalsoav ectorquant it
y.
Anel ectri
cf i
eldissaidt oexi statanypoi ntinspacewhenat estchar ge,placed
att hatpoi nt
,exper i
encesanel ect ri
calforce.Thedi rect
ionoft heelectri
cf iel
data
pointi st hesameast hedirecti
onoft heforceexper iencedbyaposi ti
vet estchar ge
placedatt hepoint.
⃗ ⃗
Electricf i
eld E atapoi ntist heel ectri
cf orce F exper iencedbyat estchar geqo
att hepoi ntdividedbyt hechar geqo.Thati s,theel ectri
cf ieldatacer tainpoi ntis
equal totheel ectri
cforceperuni tchar geexper i
encedbyachar geatthatpoi nt.

⃗ ⃗
E= F

FUWUKARI
qo

⃗ ⃗
F = Eq1

cs,
I
f

si
1 |qqo|

edPhy
F= 2
4πεo r

i
eandAppl
1 | q|
E= 2
4πεo r

⃗ 1 | q|̂ mentofPur
E= 2 r
4πεo r
t

Asystem wherewehav emorethant wocharges,t

heelect
ri
cfi
eldatpoi
ntP,i
sthe
Depar

sum oft
heelectr
icf
iel
doftheindi
vidualchar
gessuchthat;
E=E1+E2+E3
a:
ool

(
1 q1 q2 q3
)
F.W.Ay

= 2 +2 +2
4πεo r r r
1p 2p 3p

5
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

Thi
sisthepri
nci
pleofsuper
posit
ion.
Foraconti
nuousdist
ri
but
ionofcharge; 6
1 δq
δE= 2
4πεo r
Si
ncet
hechar
gei
scont
inuousl
ydi
str
ibut
ed;
1 δq
E= δE= ∫∫ 2
4πεo r

1 δq
E= ∫
2
4πεo r

GAUSS’SLAW
Alt
houghCoul ombsl aw canbeusedt ocal cul
atet heel ectr
icfiel
dgener at
edbya
chargedistr
ibut
ion,i
tcannotbeusedatal ltimet osol v
epr oblem.Therei sanot
her
vari
ati
onoft heCoulomb’sl awforobt ai
ningel ectri
cf i
eld,itisrefer
stoasGauss’ s
Law.
Wenot ethat,
i. Electricfi
eldi
salway stangentialtothelineoff orces
i
i. Thenumberofl i
neperuni tcr osssect i
onalar eai spr opor
ti
onalt othe
magni t
udeofE.
Ifwehav eani maginarysurfacer oundachar ge,itispossi blet ocalcul
atethe
quanti
tyofchargeandt hemagni tudeofel ectri
cf i
eldduet othechar gei.e.qandE.

FUWUKARI
theimagi
nar ysurf
aceisreferr
edtoasGaussi anSur face.
̅ ̅ ̅ ̅
∑
φ= E∙δs = E∙ ∫ δs
φi
sthef
luxoft
heencl
osedsur
face.

sics,
φ=| |
E|δs|
cosθ

edPhy
Gauss’
sLawst at
ethatt
heproductofper mit
ti
vi
tyoff
reespace(εo)andt hefl
uxof
t
heelectr
icf
iel
disequal
tot
hechar geenclosedbyanychosenhy
pot het
icalsur
face.

i
eandAppl
εoφ=q

̅ ̅
∫
q=εo E∙δs
mentofPur
Examples
1)Apoi ntchargeq=-8.0nCislocatedattheorigin.Findtheel
ectr
icfi
eldv
ect
or

( )( )
11N 14N
t
Depar

atthepointx=1. 2m andx=- 1.
6m .(Answeri sE= - i+ j
C C
2)Findt hemagni t
udeanddi recti
onoft heel ectr
icf i
eldatpointP dueto
a:

charges1and2l ocatedonthex- axi

s.Thechar gesar eq1= +0.040μCand
ool

q2= +0. 010μC.chargeq1 i

satt heori
gin,char geq2 i
satx=0. 30m,and
F.W.Ay

pointPisatx=1. 50m.

6
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

3)Calcul
atet
heel
ectr
icf
iel
dint
ensi
tyi
nvacuum atadi
stanceof10cm f
rom a
-
4
chargeof5x10 C. 7

El
ectri
cFi el
dLi nes(Electr
icFl
ux)
I
nterpr
et ati
onofEl ectri
cFiel
dLines
1)Thedi r
ect i
onoft heel
ectr
icf
iel
dv ectoratanypointi
st angent
ialt
othef
iel
d
linepassi ngthroughthatpoint
,andi nthedirect
ionindicat
edbyar r
owson
thef i
eldline.
2)Theel ectri
cfieldisstr
ongwher efiel
dlinesareclosedt oget
herandweak
wher et heyarefarapart
.
Rul
esf orSket chingFieldLi
nes
1)El ect
ricfiel
dli
nes

ELECTRICPOTENTI ALENERGY
TheEl ectri
cPotentialEnergycanbedef i
nedast hecapaci t
yf ordoi
ngwor kwhich
ari
sesf r
om positi
onorconf i
gurat
ion.Int heelect r
icalcase,achargewi llexer
ta
forceon anyot herchar geand pot entialenergyar i
sesf r
om anycol lecti
on of
charges.Forexampl e,i
faposi ti
vechar geQi sf ixedatsomepoi ntinspace,any
otherposi t
ivechargewhi chisbroughtcl osetoitwi l
lexperi
encear epul
siveforce
andwi llther
eforehav epotenti
alenergy.Thepot ent i
alenergyofat estchargeqi n

FUWUKARI
thevicini
tyofthi
ssour cechargewi l
lbe:

Toshowt hi
sexpli
cit
ly,consi
deranel ectr
icchar
ge+qf ixedattheori
ginandmov e
anothercharge+Qt oward+qi nsuchamannert hat,ateachinst
ant,theappl
i
ed

cs,
for
ceFexact lybal
ancest heelect
ricforceFeon+QThewor kdonebyt heappl
i
ed

si
edPhy
for
ceFont hecharge+Qchangest hepotenti
alenergyof+Q.Wecal lt
hispot
enti
al
energytheelect
ri
calpotenti
alenergyof+Q.

i
eandAppl
mentofPur

Thework W12donebyt heappl

i
ed for
ceFwhenthepar
ti
clemov
esf
rom P1t
o
P2maybecalcul
atedby
t
Depar

P⃗ ⃗

∫
2

W12= F. dl
a:

P1
ool
F.W.Ay

1 q2q1
W12=-
4πεo r

7
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

8
Weuset
helett
erutodenot
eelect
ri
cpotent
ialenergy
,whichhasuni
tsofjoules(
J).
Whenaconser
vat
ivef
orcedoesnegat
ivewor k,t
hesy st
em gai
nspotent
ialener
gy.
Whenaconser
vat
ivefor
cedoesposit
ivework,thesy st
em l
osespotent
ialener
gy,
∆U=-W.

Foragr
oupofchar
ges;
U= ∑U n

1.A+3nCchar geQi sini

tial
lyatr estadistanceof10cm (r1
)from a+5nCchar ge
qf ixedatt heor igin.Natural
ly,theCoul ombf or
ceaccelerat
esQawayf rom q,
ev entuall
yreaching15cm() r
2
.Wh atisthew or
k donebythee l
ect
ri
c f
iel
db etween
7
r1
andr 2
?(Ansaweri s4.5×10J)
2.Twopoi ntchar gesQ=+6. 0μCand=+5. 0μC,areseparatedby15. 0m.Whati s
theel ectri
cpotent i
alenergy?
3.Findt heelectri
cpot enti
alforthear r
ayofchargesbelow.(
Answeri s57.8J)

si
edPhy
i
eandAppl
mentofPur FUWUKARI
cs,

ELECTRICPOTENTI AL
Theelectr
icfiel
dar oundachar gecanbedescr ibedbythescalarquant i
tyknownas
t
Depar

elect
ri
cpotent i
alV.
Elect
ricpotenti
al(V)atapoi ntisdef
inedast hewor kdoneinbr i
ngi nguni
tpositi
ve
a:

chargef r
om i nfi
nitytot hatpointagainstt heelectr
icalforcesoft hefiel
dor
ool

Elect
ricpotentialV,canal sobedefinedast heelect
ri
cpot entialenergyperunit
F.W.Ay

charge.
Ifapointchargeqo isbroughtclosetoanotherchargeqi nspace, thepotent
ialdue

8
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

t
othepoi
ntchar
gei
sgi
venas;
V=Er 9
1 q
V=
4πεor

Foragr
oupofchar
ges;
V= ∑V n

qn
V= ∑4π1ε r
o n

POTENTI ALDI FFERENCE

Potentialdif
ference(VAB)bet weent wopoi ntsAandBi st
hewor kdonei ntaki
ng
unitposi t
ivechar gef r
om onepoi ntt ot heot herint heelect
ri
cf i
eld.Boththe
potenti
alandpot enti
aldi f
ferencear escalarquant i
ti
eshav i
ngt hedimensionof
work/charge.Theuni tisVolts.
Considertwopoi ntsAandBi nanel ectr
icfi
eld.Ifmorewor kisdoneinbri
ngingunit
positi
vechar gefrom infi
nit
yt oBt hanA, wesayt hatBisathigherpotent
ialt
hanA.
thereisthenapot enti
al di
ff
er ence(p.d)betweenAandB.

FUWUKARI
wor kdone
=VB- VA
q
Thefol
lowingobser v
ationcanbemade;

cs,
i
. I fVBi
sgr eat
erthanVA, workdoneisposi t
ive.

si
edPhy
ii
. I fVBislesserthanVA,workdonei snegative.
i
ii
. I fVB isequalt o VA,workdonei szer o.Sopoi ntA andB ar
esai
dtobe

i
eandAppl
equipotenti
al.
i
v. I fpointAisatinfini
ty,
thenVA iszero;suchthat
WAB
=V
q
mentofPur
WAB =qV (
ifVB =V)

Pot
ent
ial
inaUni
for
m El
ect
ri
cFi
eld
t
Depar

F=qoE
a:

B
WAB =∫F∙δl
ool

A
B
WAB =F∫δl
F.W.Ay

9
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

WAB =qoEd
10
ButW =q0V
WAB
=VB-
VA
qo

WAB =qoEd

Supposet
heEl
ect
ri
cFi
eldi
snotuni
for
m
B
WAB =∫
A
F∙δl
B
̅
q0∫
WAB =- A
E∙
δl

WAB B̅
∫
=- E∙
δl=VB-
VA
qo A

I
fpoi
ntAi
sati
nfi
nit
y;
B̅

∫
VB =V=- E∙
∞
δl

Example
1.Fourpoi ntchargesar eplacedatt
hefourcorner
sofasquar eofside30cm

FUWUKARI
each.Fi ndthepot enti
alatt
hecent
reofthesquare(
a)ifthefourchargesare
2×10-6C each.( b)i ftwo ofthechar
gesar e2×10-6C and t
heot hersare
-6 5
-2×10 C.( 4×10Vand0)
3.
2.Forthesy st
em bel ow,whatisthepot
enti
alatpointP,i ft
helengthoft he

cs,
dipol
ei s2a

a:
ool
F.W.Ay t
Depar i
eandAppl
mentofPur si
edPhy

1
0
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

11

CURRENTELECTRI CI TY
Inelectrost
ati
cswestudi
edt heinter
actionofelect
ri
cchargesatr est;
nowwear er
eady
tost udychargesinmoti
on.Anel ectr
iccurr
entconsistsofchargesinmot i
onf r
om one
regiontoanot her
.Whenthi
smot i
ont akesplacewithinaconductingpat
ht hatfor
msa
closedloop,thepathi
scall
edanel ectri
ccir
cuit.

FUWUKARI
ElectricCur rent(I)
Electriccur rentcanbet houghtofasaf l
ow ofchar gedpar ti
cles.I nthenor malcase,
whenchar gesf lowt hr oughwi rest hesepar ticl
esar eelectrons.Howev er,whencur r
ent

cs,
fl
owsi nav acuum, asol uti
onoramel t
,thechar gecar ri
ersarei ons.Insemi -conductors

si
thechar gecar ri
er sar ecal l
edhol es.

edPhy
Electriccur renti sdef ined ast her ateoff l
ow ofel ectricchar get hrough acr oss
sectionalar ea.Suppose∆Qi st heamountofchar gethatf l
owst hroughanar eaAi na

i
eandAppl
ti
mei nter val ∆tandt hatt hedi rect i
onoff lowi sper pendi
culartot hear ea.Then,
∆Q
Iav= / ∆t
TheSIuni tisCoul ombs/ seconds( C/S),ortheAmper e(A).theAmper eisdefinedast he
currentt hatpassesanar bitraryf ixedpoi ntwhenachar geof1coul ombf l
owsi n1

mentofPur
second.
Thei nst ant aneouscur rentIi st hel i
mi toftheav eragecurrentast het i
mei ntervalgoes
tozer o.
I=l im∆t→0I av=lim∆t→0∆Q/∆t
t
Depar

Whent hecur rentisst eady ,theav erageandi nstantaneouscur rentar ethesame.

Byconv ent ion,t hedi rect i
onofcur rentisconsi deredtobet hedi recti
onoff l
ow of
positivechar ge.
a:
ool
F.W.Ay

1
1
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

Fi
gur
e1:
Dir
ect
ionofconv
ent
ional
cur
rent
12
Relati
onshi pbet weenCur rentandDr i
ftVelocity
Considerident icall
ychar gedpar t
icl
esmov i
ngi naconduct orofcrosssectionalareaA.
thev ol
umeofanel ementofl engt
h∆xoft heconduct orisA∆x.I fnr epresentsthe
numberofmobi lechar gecar ri
ersperuni tvol
ume,t henumberofcar r
ierinthev olume
elementisnA∆x.
Themobi l
echar ge∆Qi nt hisel
ementi stherefore
∆Q=numberofcar ri
ersxchar gepercarri
er
=(nA∆x) q
Wher e,qist hechar gepereachcar r
ier.
Ifthecarri
ermov ewi t
haconst antaveragespeedcal l
edt hedri
ftspeedVd,thedistance
mov eintimei nterval ∆tis
∆x=Vd∆t
∆Q=( nAVd∆t )
q
Therefore,
∆Q
∆t→0 / ∆t=n qAVd=I

Resistiv
ity
Thecur rentdensityJ in aconduct ordependson t heelectri
cf iel
d E and on the
properti
esoft hemat eri
al.Thisrelat
ionshi
p,cal
ledOhm’ sl
aw,wasdi scoveredi
n1826
bytheGer manphy si
ci
stGeor geSimonOhms( 1787-1854).

FUWUKARI
Ther esisti
vi
tyρofamat eri
alistheratioofthemagni tudesofelectri
cf i
eldandcur
rent
density.
E
=ρ
J

cs,
Theuni tofρi s( Ω.m).Aper fectconductorwoul dhav ezer
or esist
ivi
ty,andaperfect

si
i
nsulatorwoul dhav eani nf
init
er esi
sti
vit
y.Ther eci
procalofresisti
vit
yisconducti
vity
.

edPhy
-
1
I
tsuni s(
ti Ω.m)

i
eandAppl
Fourf
actor
saf f
ectther esi
stanceofaconduct or.Theseare
1.Length ofconduct or:t he resistance ofa conductorofuni form cross-
secti
onalareai sdir
ect l
ypr oporti
onal t
oitslengt
h.

mentofPur
R∝l
2.Area of conduct or:t he r esistance of a conducti
ng wirei si nv
ersely
proport
ional t
oitsarea.
1
R∝
A
t
Depar

3.Temper at
ur e:t he resistance of a conduct or var
ies di
rectl
y withi ts
temperature.
a:

R∝T
ool

4.Natureofthemat er
ial
F.W.Ay

Experi
mentshow t hatt her esistanceR,ofawi r
eoramet al
li
cconduct or
maintai
nedataconst antt emper atureisrel
atedtoit
slengt
h(l
) ,
anditscross-
secti
onalarea( A)byt heexpr ession
1
2
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

l
R∝
A 13
ρl
R=
A
Where,ρisaconst
antofpr
oporti
onali
tyknownasresi
sti
vi
ty.Resi
sti
vi
tyi
s
dependentont
henatur
eoft hemat er
ial
.Itthusdi
ff
ersfrom materi
alt
o
materi
al.

Resistivi
tyandTemper atur
e
The r esi
sti
vit
y ofa met allic conductornear l
y alway sincreases withi ncreasi
ng
temper at
ure.Ast hetemper atur
ei ncreases,t
hei onsoft heconduct orsvibratewi t
h
greateramplit
ude,makingi tmor elikelythatamov ingelect
ronwi l
lcoll
i
dewi thani ons;
thi
si mpedest hedri
ftofelect r
onst hroughtheconductorandhencet hecurr
ent .Overa
0
smal ltemperaturerange ( up to 100C orso) ,t he resi
sti
vi
tyofa met alcan be
representedapproxi
mat el
ybyt heequat i
on
ρ(T)=ρo(1+∝(T-To)
)

TypesofCurr
ents
 Dir
ectCurrent
Dir
ectcurr
entdoesnotv arywithti
meandi ti
salwaysinonedi r
ecti
on.Onaplotof
poweragai
nstti
me, DCisahorizont
all
i
ne.Theareaunderthepl
otgiv
esthewor
kdone

FUWUKARI
orener
gyused.Dir
ectcurr
entcanbeproducedbybat
ter
ies.

sics,
Di
rectcur
rentgr
aph

edPhy
 Alter
nati
ngCurrent

i
eandAppl
Al
ter
nat
ingcurr
entvari
eswithti
meandi t
sdi
rect
ionv
ari
est
oo.Al
ter
nat
ingcur
rentcan
bepr
oducedbygenerat
ororalt
ernat
or.

Al
ter
nat
ingcur
rentgr
aph a: t
DeparmentofPur

Potent
ialDi
ffer
ence
ool

Theenergyofauni tchar
geatapoi nti
ntheci
rcui
tiscall
edthepot
entialatt
hatpoint
F.W.Ay

andthediff
erenceinener
gybetweenonepointandanotheri
sthepotenti
aldi
ffer
ence.
Thepotenti
aldif
fer
encebetweentwopoint
sisdefi
nedastheworkdoneperunitchar
ge
i
nmov ingfr
om oneplacetoanother
.
1
3
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

Vol
t=j
oul
es/
coul
ombs
14
El
ectromot i
veFor ceandI tsSour ces
Thee.m. f
.ofacel listhemaxi mum pot enti
aldif
ferencethatthecel l
canpr oduceacr oss
i
tsterminals,oropenci r
cui tpot entialdiff
erence,sinceinthatcondi t
ionsnoener gywill
belostwithinit.Thev ol
tagepr oducedbycel lisknownasel ectr
omot iveforce,andt hi
s
producesav oltagedr opcr osst hecel landacr osstheext er
nalresist
or.
Thegener atororcel l(orbat tery)ser vesast hesour ceofpot entialdiff
erencet hat
makesi tpossiblef orcur renttof l
ow.Thegener atororcell(orbatt
ery)issaidt ohavean
el
ectromotiveforcewheni t
sabl etomai nt
ainacur rentofelect
ri
citythroughaci rcui
t.
El
ectri
ccur r
entcanbegener atedf rom
 Chemi cal energye. g.cel l
 Heatener gye. g.t hermocoupl e
 Mechani cal energye. g.gener at
orordy namo
 Sol arener gye. g.solarcel lorphot oelectri
ccell

CellandBat t
ery
Acell i
sadev i
ceforconverti
ngchemi calenergyi
ntoel
ect
ricalenergy.Therear
esever
al
dif
ferenttypesofcell
swhi charegener all
yusedinthelaboratoryincl
udingtheDani
el
cel
l,Leclanchecell,l
ead-acid accumulatorand NiFecell.A group ofsi mil
arcel
ls
arr
angedi nseri
esorinparall
eli
scal l
edbat t
ery.

FUWUKARI
Sy
mbol
sofCel
landBat
ter
y

sics,
Cell
sinSeri
es

edPhy
Asimplecellhasane.
m.f
.ofabout0.
89V.Whenap.d.great
erthent
hisisr
equi
red,a
seri
esarr
angementofcel
lsisused.I
nsuchanarrangementtheposi
ti
veter
minalof

i
eandAppl
eachcel
lisconnect
edt
othenegat
ivet
ermi
nal
ofthenextcel
l.

mentofPur
Cel
l
sinser
ies

Ifthee.m.f.andi nt
ernalresi
stanceofeachcel sEv
li tandrohm r
ol espect
ivel
yand
therearencellsinseri
eswehav e
t
Depar

emfofbatt
ery=nEVolts
internal
resi
stance=nrOhms
a:

Exampl e:Fouridenti
caleachhav i
nge.m.f
.1.5Vareconnect
edi
nseri
es.Whatisthe
ool

effect
ivee.m.fofthecell
s?
F.W.Ay

Cel
lsi
nPar al
lel
I
nparal
lelarr
ayofcel
l
s,al
ltheposi
ti
vet
ermi
nal
sar
ejoi
nedt
oonepoi
nt,A,andal
lthe
1
4
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

negat
ivet
ermi
nal
sar
ejoi
nedt
oanot
herpoi
ntB.
15

Cell
sinpar
all
el
I
nthi
scase,
emfoft
hebatter
y=EVolt
r
i
nter
nalr
esi
stance= Ohm
n
Example:Threecell
s,eachofe.m.
f2Vwer econnect
edi
npar
all
el.Whati
sthet
otal
e.
m.f.ofthecel
ls?

Electr
icCircuit
Anel ectr
iccircui
tisthecomplet
epathprov
idedf
orthefl
ow ofel
ect
riccur
rent
.The
ci
r cui
tusuallyconsi
stsoft
hesourceofel
ect
ri
cener
gy,aswit
chorkey
,anammet er
,a
voltmeterandal oadorr
esi
stor
.

Ty
pesofEl
ectr
icCircuit
 Al
ternat
ingCur r
entCi
rcui
t
 Di
rectCurrentCir
cui
t

FUWUKARI
Component
sofDi
rectCur
rentCi
rcui
t
i. Cell

i
i
. Bat
ter
y

si
edPhy cs,
i
i
i. Resi
stor

i
eandAppl
i
v. Var
iabl
eresi
stor

v
. Swi
tch

mentofPur
v
i. Fuse
t

v
ii
. Vol
tmet
er
a:Depar

v
ii
i. Ammet
er
ool
F.W.Ay

i
x. Gal
vanomet
er

1
5
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

x. Bul
bet
c
16
Ammet er
s
A current-measur ing inst r
umenti s usual ly called an ammet er( ormi ll
iammet er
,
microammet er).Anammet eralwaysmeasur est hecur r
entpassi ngt hroughi t.Anideal
ammet erwoul dhav ezer or esi
stance,soi ncludingi tinbr anchofaci rcuitwouldnot
aff
ectthecur r
entint hatbr anch.Theammet ermustbeconnect edi naci rcuitinsucha
wayt hatthecur r
enti tmeasur esf l
owsdi rectlyt hroughi t.Theammet erissai dtobe
connectedinser i
esint hecircuitanditi
sconst r
uct edt ohav eal owr esistance.
Wecanadaptanymet ert omeasur ecurrent sthatar elargerthani tsfull-scalereading
byconnect i
ngar esistorinpar all
elwit
hi tsot hatsomeoft hecur rentby passest he
metercoil.t
hepar al
lelresistori
scal l
edashunt .
Supposewewantt omakeamet erwithfullscal ecur rentIm
andcoi lresistanceRm into
anammet erwithfullscalereading(I
).Todet erminet heshuntr esistanceRshneeded;
I R =(
m m
I
-I )R
m sh

FUWUKARI
Exampl
e
Whatshuntresi
stance i
srequi
red t
o make t
he 1.
00mA,20.
0Ω met
eri
nto an

cs,
ammeterwi
tharangeof0.0mAto50.0mA?

i
eandAppl si
edPhy
Voltmet er
Av oltagemeasur i
ngdev iceiscalledav oltmeter( ormi ll
i
voltmeter,etc,dependi
ngon
therange) .Av ol
tmeteral waysmeasur est hepot entialdiff
erencebet weent wopoints,
andi tmustbeconnect edacr ossori npar all
elwi tht heset wopoints.Vol t
metersare

mentofPur
construct edtohav elargeel ectri
calresistancecompar edtot heresistanceacrossthe
point
st heyareconnect ed.
Wecanadaptanymet ert omeasur ev olt
aget hatisl argerthani t
sfull-scal
ereadingby
connect ingar esi
storinser i
es.Theser iesresistoriscal l
edaMul t
pli
er.
t
Depar

Forav oltmeterwit
hf ull
-scalereadingVv, weneedaser iesresstorRssucht hat
Vv=I (R +Rse)
a:

f m
ool
F.W.Ay

1
6
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

17

Example
How canwemakeagal v
anometerwi
th Rc=20.
0ΩandI
f
s
=0.
001Ai
ntoav
olt
met
er
wit
hamaximum r
angeof10.
0V.

Ohm’ sLaw
Ohm’ sLaw st atesthatthecur rentflowingt hr
oughamet all
i
cconduct ori sdir
ectl
y
proportionaltot hepotenti
aldiff
erenceacr ossit
sends,pr ovi
dedthatt emper at
ureand
otherphy sicalcondit
ionsoftheconduct orarekeptconstant.
V
=const ant
I
V

FUWUKARI
=R
I
V =I R
Ther ati
ooft hepotenti
aldiff
erenceVbet weent hesepointstothecurrentflowingIisa
constant .Thisconstantrati
oi stheref
oreachar acter
ist
icoft heconductor,termedthe

cs,
resi
stanceRoft heconductor.

si
edPhy
Int
ernalResist
anceofaCel l
Thei nter
nalresi
stance,r,ofacellistheopposi
ti
ont ocurr
entflow of
fer
edbyt he

i
eandAppl
chemi cal
s between the pol
es ofthe cel
l
.The i
nternalr
esist
ance det
ermines t
he
maximum cur r
entthatcanbesuppli
edbyacell
ofagivenemf.
ByOhmsLaw,
I
max= E/ r

a: t
DeparmentofPur

Di
agr
am showi ngint
ernalresi
stanceofacel
l
ool

From abov
e,thecellofe.
m.f.E,suppli
esacur r
entI( A)t
oanexternalr
esi
stanceR,
then
F.W.Ay

thep.
d.acrossR,knownast erminalpdisgivenby
V=E-v
Or E=V+v
1
7
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

Wherevi sthepdacr ossthei

nternal
resist
ance,
r. 18
Usi
ngOhm’ slaw
E=I R +I r
=I (
R +r )
E
Or I=
R+r
ThetermI ri
scalledthelostvol
tageandisequaltov
V =E–v=E–I r
Ter
mi nalp.d.isdefi
nedast hep.d.betweentheter
mi nal
sofacellwheni
tsdeli
ver
ing
cur
rentt oanexternalanexternalci
rcui
t.Termi
nalp.d.Visl
essthanthee.
m.f.bythe
l
ostvoltagev.

Resist
or
Ar esi
stori
sacomponentofel ectricalcircuitwhichi sspecial
lydesignt oprovi
dea
knownamountofr esi
stanceinaci rcui t
.Ther esi
stance( R)ofawireorot herobj
ecti
sa
measureofpotenti
aldi
ffer
ence( V)t hatmustbei mpr essedacrossthewi reorobj
ectto
causeacurrentofoneamper etoflow.Ther esi
stanceof f
eredbyaresistorismeasured
i
nOhms( Ω)
.Therearestandardresist orsandv ari
ableresistor
s.

FUWUKARI
Sy
mbol
sofr
esi
stor

ResistorsArrays
 Resi storsi
nseries

cs,
Whenr esi
storsar econnectedendtoend,thecur
rentpassi
ngthr
ougheachresist
ori s

si
thesame,butt hep.d.acrosseachresi
storisdi
ffer
ent.Thecombinedorequivalent

edPhy
resi
stance( R)ofanumberofr esi
stor
sinseriesi
sequaltothesum ofthei
rindi
vidual
resi
stances.

i
eandAppl
mentofPur
Resi
stor
sinser
ies
Fr
om
V =I R
t
Depar

Totalp.
d.acr
osst
hecombi nedresist
anceis(V)
V = V1 + V2+ V3 + ……..+ Vn3
a:

IR =IR1 + I
R2+ IR3 + ………+ I Rn
ool

El
iminati
ngI
F.W.Ay

R = R1+ R2 + R3 + ………. .+ Rn
Foranynumberofresi
stor
sinseriestheargumentholds.

1
8
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

Example:Fourr
esi
stor
sofr esi
stance5Ω,4Ω,3Ω and2.
5Ω ar
econnect
edi
nser
ies.
Calcul
atet
heeff
ect
iver
esi
stanceoftheresi
stor
s. 19

ResistorsinParal
lel
Whenr esi
stor
sar earr
angedsi debysi desucht hattheircorr
espondi
ngendsjoin
togetherattwocommonj uncti
onPandQ, t
hep.d.acrosstheresi
stor
sisthesamebut
thecurrentthr
ougheachresi
storisdi
ff
erent
.

Resi
stor
sinpar
all
el
Fr
om
I=V/ R
I=I+ I+ I+ ……….+ I
V/ R =V/R1+ V/R2+ V/R3+ …….+ V/Rn
El
iminat
ingVfr
om above
1/R =1/R1+ 1/R2+ 1/R3+ …….+ 1/
Rn
Foranynumberofr
esistor
sinparal
l
elt
heargumenthol
ds.

FUWUKARI
Example:Thr
eeresi
stor
sofresi
stanceofr
esi
stance2Ω,3Ωand4Ωar
econnect
edi
n
paral
l
el.Whati
stheeff
ecti
ver
esi
stance?

cs,
TheWheat st
onebr i
dge

si
Themostconv eni
entandaccuratewayofmeasur ingresist
ancesofwi del
ydi ff
erent

edPhy
valuesisbymeansofaWheat stonebri
dge.Itconsistsoffourresist
ancesR1,R2,R3,R4
connectedasshownbel ow.Thecurrentfr
om t hebat ter
ydi v
idesbetweent het wo

i
eandAppl
branchesABCandADC.Byv ar
yingsomeoral loftheresist
ances, abal
anceisreached
wher enocur
rentfl
owsfrom BtoD,i.
e.thr
oughthegal vanometer.Then

a:
ool
F.W.Ay t
DeparmentofPur

1
9
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

R1 R
= 3
R2 R4 20

Themet r
ebr i
dge
Themet r
ebr i
dgei sonepracti
calarrangementoft heWheatstonebr i
dge.Onebranch
ADCconsistsofawi reofuni
form cross-
secti
on,lengt
h100cm, str
etchedalongametre
rul
e.ThepointDi slocat
edbyasl idi
ngcontact.Theunknownr esi
stanceXi spl
acedin
thelef
tarm whil
etheknownr esi
stanceRi spl
acedi nt
heremainingarm.Forabalance

FUWUKARI
cs,
R σl
=

si
S σ(100-
l)

edPhy
Wher
eσi
sther
esi
stanceperuni
tlengt
hofwir
e.Therefor
e
X l
=

i
R ( 100-
l)

eandAppl
Thepotenti
ometer
Thepotent
iometerconsist
sofauni f
ormresist
ancewireAB,about100cm l
ong,
thr
ough

mentofPur
whichasteadycurrentIismaint
ainedbyasour ceofconst
ante.m.f.
.Si
ncethewir
eis
ofunif
orm cr
osssection,t
heresi
stanceperuni
tlengt
hisconstant
.Thati
s
Rαl
Theref
ore,
foraconstantcurr
entI
t

V=I R=kl
a:
ool
F.W.Ay Depar

2
0
 PHY102LECTURENOTE:
2019/
20SESSI
ON

21

Aser
iesofexper
imentscanbeper f
or medwi t
htheai
dofpot
ent
iomet
er,
incl
udi
ng
 Compar isonofemf’
softwocel l
s
 Compar isonoftworesi
stances
 Measur ementofint
ernalresi
stanceofacel
l

Ki
rchhof
f’
sLaws

Fir
stlaw
Thesum oft hecur r
entsenter
inganode/juncti
onequal
sthesum ofthecurrentl
eav
ing.
Thiscanalsobeexpr essedasthealgebr
aicsum:∑I=0

FUWUKARI
Secondl aw
Aroundanycl osedloopi nacir
cuit
,theal
gebrai
csum oft
heindi
vidualpd’
siszero
Or
Aroundanycl osedloopi nacircui
t,thesum oftheemf’sequalthesum oft hepd’s

cs,
acrossresi
stiveelement s

a:
ool
F.W.Ay t
Depar i
eandAppl
mentofPur si
edPhy

2
1