University of Benghazi Faculty of Engineering

General Department

General Physics II
ES112
for engineering students

‫إعدإد‬
‫ل‬
‫ سعاد إمنقوش‬.‫إ‬

2024
University of Benghazi Faculty of Engineering General Department

Chapter (1)
The Electric Field I: Discrete Charge Distributions

1.1 Electric Charge

Like mass, electric charge is a fundamental property of matter and it is associated
with particles that make up the atom.
There are two types of electric charge: positive charge (+) and negative Charge (-).
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C)

The magnitude of an electron's charge is abbreviated as "e", it is the fundamental

unit of charge, because it is the sm allest charge observed in nature.
In neutral atom: number of protons (atomic number Z) = number of electrons
𝑁𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒 , 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑍(−𝑒)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑍𝑒 + 𝑍(−𝑒) = 0 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚)
An object that is neither positively nor negatively charged is said to be electrically
neutral.
Objects become charged by gaining or losing electrons.
For example
- - + +

- +
2
Glass rod is rubbed with silk Rubber rod is rubbed with fur
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properties of electric charge

 Charge quatization: any charge is multiple of the fundamental unit of charge (e)
𝒒 = ±𝑵𝒆 , where 𝑁 = 1,2,3, … (𝑁 is an integer number)
however, for ordinary objects, N is usually very large and charge appears to be
continuous
 Charge conservation: The algebraic sum of all the electric charges (net charge)
in any closed system is constant.

Test Yourself
A charge of magnitude 50nC can be produced in the laboratory by simply rubbing
two objects together. How many electrons must be transferred to produce this
charge ?

Example 1.1 How Many in a Penny?

A copper penny (Z=29) has a mass of 3.10 g. What is the total charge of all the
electrons in the penny? (malar mass for copper is 𝟔𝟑. 𝟓 𝐠/𝐦𝐨𝐥)
Solution:
𝑞 = 𝑁(−𝑒)
𝑁 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 × 𝑍
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Avogadro’s number
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = Avogadro’s number × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
3.10
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 6.023 × 1023 × = 2.94 × 1022 atoms
63.5

𝑞 = 2.94 × 1022 × 29 × (−1.6 × 10−19 ) = −1.37 × 105 C

Methods of Charging

Contact Friction (rubbing)

Induction

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Charging by contact and charging by friction create a net charge through the
movement of charge to or from an object. However, charge can be moved within
the object while keeping its net charge zero as in induction process.
The induction process causes polarization (The electric polarization of an object
involves creating separate and equal amounts of positive and negative charge in
different locations on that object).
Charging an object by induction requires no contact with the object inducing the
charge.
The following figure illustrating the charging by induction
Charging by induction

Induction via grounding

Notes:
 If a conductor is electrically connected to a very large conductor, such as Earth,
It is said to be grounded
 If the object is not grounded, it will remain electrically neutral, it is said to have an
induced charge, which means that some of its positive and negative charges
have been separated due to the presence of a nearby charge.
 Charging an object by induction requires no contact with the object inducing
the charge.
 Only conductors can be charged by induction.

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Classification of material according to ability of charge to move through them:

Conductors are materials through which charge can move rather freely, atoms of
these material contains fee electrons, examples include metals.
Nonconductors also called (insulators) are materials that do not easily gain, lose, or
conduct electric charge (i.e charge cannot move freely through them), because all
the electrons are bound to nearby atoms these materials; examples include rubber,
plastic, glass.

Example 1.2 The Charge is Conserved

Two identical conducting spheres, one that has an initial charge and the other is
initially uncharged, are brought into contact.
(a) What is the new charge on each sphere?
(b) While the spheres are in contact, a negatively charged rod is moved close to
one sphere, causing a redistribution of the charges on the two spheres so the charge
on the sphere closest to the rod has a charge of +2Q What is the charge on the other
sphere?
Solution:
(a)
+Q +Q q1=? q2=?

Because spheres are identical, they are share the total equally q1=q2
The charge is conserved thus, total charge initially = total charge finally
𝑄
𝑄 + 0 = 2𝑞 → q= +2

+2Q q=?
(b)

total charge initially = total charge finally

𝑄 = +2𝑄 + 𝑞 → 𝑞 = −𝑄

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Test Yourself
Two identical conducting spheres are charged by induction and then separated by
a large distance; sphere 1 has charge +Q and sphere 2 has charge –Q. A third
identical sphere is initially uncharged. If sphere 3 is touched to sphere 1 and
separated, then touched to sphere 2 and separated, what is the final charge on
each of the three spheres ?

1.2 Electric Force and Coulomb’s Law

An electric force has the following properties:
1. It is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges, |q1|
and|q2|, and is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance r,
between them
|𝑞1 ||𝑞2 |
𝐹𝛼 2
𝑟12

|𝒒𝟏 ||𝒒𝟐 |
𝑭=𝒌 𝒓𝟐𝟏𝟐
1
where k is a constant called the Coulomb constant 𝑘 = 4𝜋𝜀 = 9 × 109 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶 2
0

permittivity of free space, 𝜀0 = 8.85 × 10 −12 2

𝐶 /𝑁. 𝑚 2

2. It is directed along a line joining the two particles 𝑟̂12

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝒌 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐
𝒓𝟐𝟏𝟐

𝑟
where 𝑟12 = 𝑟2 − 𝑟1 is the vector pointing from q1 to q2 , and 𝑟̂12 = 𝑟12 is a unit
12

vector in the same direction.

The force 𝐹12 is in the direction of the vector 𝑟̂12 if both charges have the same
sign, and in the opposite direction if they have opposite signs.
3. It is attractive if the charges are of opposite sign and repulsive if the charges
have the same sign.
4. Electric forces between unmoving charges are called electrostatic forces.
5. Like other forces, electric forces obey Newton’s third law 𝑭
⃗ 𝟏𝟐 = −𝑭
⃗ 𝟐𝟏

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Electric force and gravitational force

Similarity :
1. Both act at a distance without direct contact.
2. Both are inversely proportional to the distance squared, with the force directed
along a line connecting the two bodies.
3. The mathematical form is the same, with the masses m 1 and m2 in Newton’s law
replaced by q1 and q2 in Coulomb’s law and with Newton’s constant G replaced
by Coulomb’s constant k .
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
⃗𝑭𝒆 = 𝒌 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐 , ⃗𝑭𝒈 = 𝑮 𝒓̂𝟏𝟐
𝒓𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟏𝟐

Differences:
1. Electric forces can be either attractive or repulsive, but gravitational forces are
always attractive,
2. The electric force between charged particles is far stronger than the gravitational
force between the same particles |𝐹𝑒 | ≫ |𝐹𝑔 |

Example 1.3 Ratio of Electric and Gravitational Forces

Compute the ratio of the electric force to the gravitational force exerted by a
proton on an electron in a hydrogen atom.
Solution:
|𝑞1 ||𝑞2 | 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑘 2 , 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺 2
𝑟12 𝑟12

|𝑞1 | = |𝑞2 | = 𝑒
𝐹𝑒 𝑘 𝑒2 9×109 ×(1.6×10−19 )2
= 𝐺𝑚 = 6.67×10−11 ×1.67×10−27 ×9.1×10−31 = 2.27 × 1039
𝐹𝑔 𝑝 𝑚𝑒

Note that the ratio is so large i.e |𝐹𝑒 | ≫ |𝐹𝑔 |

thus the effects of gravity are not considered when discussing atomic or molecular
interactions. Gravitation force plays essentially no role at the atomic level, but it is
the dominant force between large objects such as planets and stars (astronomical
objects).

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Example 1.4 Electric Force on a Charge

Three point charges lie on the x axis; 𝒒𝟏 is at the origin, 𝒒𝟐 is at (𝒙 = 𝟐𝒎) and 𝒒𝟎 is at
(𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝒎), Find the total electric force on 𝒒𝟎 due to 𝒒𝟏 and 𝒒𝟐 if 𝒒𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓𝒏𝑪 ,

𝒒𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎𝒏𝑪 , 𝒒𝟎 = +𝟐𝟎𝒏𝑪
Solution:
|𝑞1 ||𝑞0 | 25×10−9 ×20×10−9
𝐹10 = 𝑘 2 = 9 × 109 × = 0.37 × 10−6 𝑁
𝑟10 3.52

𝐹10 = 0.37 × 10−6 𝑖̂

|𝑞2 ||𝑞0 | 10×10−9 ×20×10−9
𝐹20 = 𝑘 2 = 9 × 109 = 0.8 × 10−6 𝑁
𝑟20 1.52

𝐹20 = − 0.8 × 10−6 𝑖̂

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹10 + 𝐹20 = −(0.43 × 10−6 𝑁) 𝑖̂

Example 1.5 Summing Forces in Two Dimensions

Charge 𝒒𝟏 = 𝟐𝟓𝒏𝑪 is at the origin, charge 𝒒𝟐 = −𝟏𝟎𝒏𝑪 is on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝟐𝒎 and
Charge 𝒒𝟎 = +𝟐𝟎𝒏𝑪 is at the point x=2m , y= 2m . as shown in Figure. Find the
magnitude and direction of the resultant electric force on 𝒒𝟎
Solution:
|𝑞1 ||𝑞0 | 25×10−9 ×20×10−9
𝐹10 = 𝑘 2 = 9 × 109 × = 5.62 × 10−7 𝑁
𝑟10 (2√2)2

|𝑞2 ||𝑞0 | 10×10−9 ×20×10−9

𝐹20 = 𝑘 2 = 9 × 109 × = 6.74 × 10−7 𝑁
𝑟20 (2)2
2
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹10 sin 𝜃 = 5.62 × 10−7 × = 3.97 × 10−7 𝑁
2√2
2
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹10 cos 𝜃 − 𝐹20𝑦 = (5.62 × 10−7 × ) − 6.74 × 10−7 = −2.77 × 10−7 𝑁
2√2

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = √(∑ 𝐹𝑥 )2 + (∑ 𝐹𝑦 )2 = √(3.97 × 10−7 )2 + (−2.77 × 10−7 )2

𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 8.4 × 10−7 𝑁
The resultant force points to the right and downward as shown in Figure, making an
angle θ with the x axis given by:
∑ 𝐹𝑦 −2.77×10−7
𝜃 = tan−1 (∑ 𝐹 ) = tan−1 ( 3.97×10−7 ) = −350
𝑥

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Position of equilibrium
i. If two charges have same sign , the equilibrium Position of third charge is
between two charges and closer to the charge that has small magnitude.
ii. If two charges have opposite sign , the equilibrium Position of third charge is
outside the two charges and closer to the charge has small magnitude.

Example 1.6 Position of Equilibrium

A point particle that has a charge of -2.5µC is located at the origin. A second point
particle that has a charge of 6µC is at x=1m , y=0.5 m. find the x and y coordinates of
position at which electron would be in equilibrium.
Solution:
|𝑞1 |𝑒 |𝑞2 |𝑒
𝐹1𝑒 = 𝑘 , 𝐹2𝑒 = 𝑘
𝑟12 𝑟22

At equilibrium ∑ 𝐹 = 0 → 𝐹1𝑒 = 𝐹2𝑒

|𝑞1 |𝑒 |𝑞2 |𝑒
𝑘 =𝑘
𝑟12 𝑟22

𝑟2 |𝑞 |
= √|𝑞2 |
𝑟1 1

𝑟1 = 𝑟2 + √1.25
𝑟2 2.5
=√6 → 𝑟2 = 2.03𝑚
𝑟2 +√1.25

Use the similar triangles in the diagram

𝑦 2.03
= → 𝑦 = 0.9𝑚
0.5 √1.25
𝑥 2.03
= → 𝑥 = 1.82𝑚
1 √1.25

The coordinates of the electron’s position are (-1.82 , -0.9 ) m

1.3 Electric Field

the electric force is action at distance force. This non-contact force can be
explained by the concept of electric field.
q is source charge produces Electric q q0 is test charge (small
field in the surrounding space , this and positive) is located in
field exerts force on any charge 9 electric field
located in it
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The electric field 𝐸⃗ at any point is defined in terms of the electrostatic force that
⃗
⃗ = 𝑭
would be exerted on a positive test charge 𝑞0 placed there: ⃗𝑬
𝒒𝟎

SI unit of electric field: newton/coulomb (N/C)

The direction of electric field is in the direction of the electric force that would be
experienced by a positive charge.
The electric field due to a single point charge can be calculated from Coulomb’s
Law
𝒒 𝒒
𝒌 𝒊 𝟐 𝟎 𝒓̂𝒊𝒑
⃗𝑭𝒊𝟎 𝒓 𝒒𝒊
⃗ 𝒊𝒑 =
𝑬 = 𝒊𝒑
=𝒌 𝒓̂𝒊𝒑
𝒒𝟎 𝒒𝟎 𝒓𝟐𝒊𝒑

From pervious equation we note electric field is depend on the location of point p, it
does not depend on the test charge 𝑞0
Resultant electric field at point P due to distribution of point charges
⃗𝑬𝒑 = ∑𝒊 ⃗𝑬𝒊𝒑 = ⃗𝑬𝟏𝒑 + ⃗𝑬𝟐𝒑 + ⃗𝑬𝟑𝒑 + ⋯

Example 1.7 Direction of Electric Field

A positive point charge 𝒒𝟏 = +𝒒 and a negative point charge 𝒒𝟐 = −𝟐𝒒 of are
located on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝒂 and 𝒙 = −𝒂 respectively, as shown in Figure. Consider
the following regions on the x axis: region I (𝒙 < −𝒂) region II (−𝒂 < 𝒙 < +𝒂) and
region III (𝒙 > 𝒂). In which region, or regions, is there a point at which the resultant
electric field is equal to zero?
Solution:

The resultant electric field is zero at a point in region III, the region in which 𝐸⃗1 and 𝐸⃗2

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are oppositely directed and in which all points are farther from q2 , the charge with
the larger magnitude, than from q1

Example 1.8 Electric Field on a Line through Two Positive Point Charges
A positive point charge 𝒒𝟏 = +𝟖𝒏𝑪 is on the x axis at 𝒙 = −𝟏 𝒎 and a second positive
point charge 𝒒𝟐 = +𝟏𝟐𝒏𝑪 is on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝟑 𝒎 Find the net electric field
(a) at point A on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝟔 𝒎 and (b) at point B on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝟐 𝒎
Solution:

𝑞 8×10−9
(a) 𝐸1 = 𝑘 𝑟 12 = 9 × 109 × = 1.47 𝑁/𝐶 , 𝐸⃗1 = (1.47 𝑁/𝐶) 𝑖̂
1 72

𝑞 12×10−9
𝐸2 = 𝑘 𝑟 22 = 9 × 109 × = 12 𝑁/𝐶 , 𝐸⃗2 = (12 𝑁/𝐶) 𝑖̂
2 32

𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 → 𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (13.47 𝑁/𝐶) 𝑖̂

𝑞 8×10−9
(b) 𝐸1 = 𝑘 𝑟 12 = 9 × 109 × = 8 𝑁/𝐶 , 𝐸⃗1 = (8 𝑁/𝐶) 𝑖̂
1 32

𝑞 12×10−9
𝐸2 = 𝑘 𝑟 22 = 9 × 109 × = 108 𝑁/𝐶 , 𝐸⃗2 = −(108 𝑁/𝐶) 𝑖̂
2 12

𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸⃗1 + 𝐸⃗2 → 𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −(100 𝑁/𝐶) 𝑖̂

Example 1.9 Electric Field Due to Point Charges on the x Axis

A point charge 𝒒𝟏 = +𝟖𝒏𝑪 is at the origin and a second point charge 𝒒𝟐 = +𝟏𝟐𝒏𝑪 is
on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝟒𝒎 . Find the electric field on the y axis at 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒎
Solution:
𝑞 8×10−9
𝐸1 = 𝑘 𝑟 21 = 9 × 109 × = 7.99 𝑁/𝐶
1 32

𝑞 12×10−9
𝐸2 = 𝑘 𝑟 22 = 9 × 109 × = 4.32 𝑁/𝐶
2 52

4
∑ 𝐸𝑥 = −𝐸2 sin 𝜃 → ∑ 𝐸𝑥 = −4.32 ( ) = −3.64 𝑁/𝐶
5

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3
∑ 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 cos 𝜃 → ∑ 𝐸𝑦 = 7.99 + 4.32 ( ) = 10.6 𝑁/𝐶
5

The magnitude of electric field is 𝐸 = √(∑ 𝐸𝑥 )2 + (∑ 𝐸𝑦 )2 → 𝐸 = 11.2 𝑁/𝐶

∑ 𝐸𝑦
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (∑ 𝐸 ) = 1080
𝑥

The resultant electric field make an angle 1080 with the x axis

1.4 Electric field lines

Electric field lines help us visualize the direction and magnitude of electric fields.

1. The direction of electric field vector at any point is tangent to the field line
passing through that point.
2. The magnitude of electric field in any region in space is estimated by density of
these lines ( number of lines per unit area called electric flux)
Thus, closer field lines (denser flux) represent a stronger field, while more spaced
lines (less dense flux) represent weaker field .
3. The electric field lines begin at positive charges and end at negative charges.
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4. The number of electric field lines is proportional to the magnitude of that charge
5. Electric field lines do not cross.

Example 1.10 Field Lines for Two Conducting Spheres

The electric field lines for two conducting spheres are shown in Figure. What is the
sign of the charge on each sphere, and what are the relative magnitudes of the
charges on the spheres.
Solution:

Because 11 electric field lines emanate from the larger sphere and 3 lines terminate
on it, the net number of lines emanating from it is 8.
Because 8 electric field lines emanate from the smaller sphere and no lines
terminate on it, the net number of lines emanating from it is 8.
Because both spheres have more field lines emanating from than terminating on
them, both spheres are positively charged.
Because both spheres have the same net number of lines emanating from them, the
charges on them are equal in magnitude.

1.5 Action of electric field on charges

Electric field exerts force on charged particles anyway static or movement
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗
From Newton's law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑞𝐸⃗
𝑞𝐸⃗ = 𝑚𝑎 → 𝑎= 𝑚

If E is uniform (constant in magnitude and direction) then 𝑎 is constant , thus we can

apply equations of motion under constant acceleration.

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𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
2 2
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 { 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 2𝑎 ∆𝑠
1
∆𝑠 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎 𝑡 2

If 𝑞 is positive then 𝑎 and 𝐸⃗ is in same direction

If 𝑞 is negative then 𝑎 and 𝐸⃗ is in opposite direction.

Example 1.11 Electron Moving Parallel to a Uniform Electric Field

An electron is projected into a uniform electric field ⃗𝑬 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑵/𝑪) 𝒊̂ with an initial
𝒎
velocity 𝒗𝟎 = (𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝒊̂ in the direction of the field. How far does the electron
𝒔

travel before it is brought momentarily to rest?

Solution:
𝑞𝐸⃗ −1.6×10−19 ×1000 𝑖̂ 𝑚
𝑎= → 𝑎= = − (1.76 × 1014 ) 𝑖̂
𝑚 9.1×10−31 𝑠2

𝑣 2 −𝑣02
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥 ∆𝑥 → ∆𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑥

0−(2×106 )2
∆𝑥 = 2×1.76×1014 = 11.4 𝑐𝑚

Example 1.12 Electron Moving Perpendicular to a Uniform Electric Field

An electron enters a uniform electric field 𝑬
⃗ = (−𝟐 𝑲𝑵/𝑪) 𝒋̂ with an initial velocity
𝒎
𝒗𝟎 = (𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 )𝒊̂ perpendicular to the field. (a) Compare the gravitational force
𝒔

acting on the electron to the electric force acting on it.

(b) By how much has the electron been deflected after it has
traveled 1 cm in the x direction ?
Solution:
𝐹𝑒 𝑞𝐸 1.6×10−19 ×2000
(a) = 𝑚𝑔 = = 3.6 × 1013
𝐹𝑔 9.1×10−31 ×9.8

Because mg is, by comparison , negligible, the net force on the electron is

equal to the vertically upward electric force.
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(b) ∆𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2

𝑣0𝑦 = 0

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𝑞𝐸⃗ −1.6×10−19 ×2000 𝑗̂ 𝑚

𝑎= = = − (3.5 × 1014 ) 𝑗̂
𝑚 9.1×10−31 𝑠2
𝑚
𝑎𝑦 = 3.5 × 1014 𝑠2
𝑚
The motion in x direction is with constant velocity 𝑣𝑥 = 1 × 106 𝑠
𝑥 𝑥 1×10−2
𝑣𝑥 = → 𝑡=𝑣 = = 10−8 𝑠
𝑡 𝑥 1×106
1 1
∆𝑦 = 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2 = 2 × 3.5 × 1014 × (10−8 )2

∆𝑦 = 1.8 𝑐𝑚
The electron is deflected upward and the path of an electron moving in a uniform
electric field is a parabola.

1.6 Action of electric field on dipoles

A uniform electric field can exert a force on a single charged particle and can exert
both a torque and a net force on an electric dipole.
Molecules can be divided to polar molecules and Nonpolar molecules
polar molecules, such as water and HCl, have permanent dipole
moments due to a nonuniform distribution of charge within the
molecule ( their centers of positive and negative charge do not
coincide).

Nonpolar molecules do not have permanent dipole moments, but they acquire
induced dipole moments in the presence of external electric field and is said to be
polarized.
A dipole is a system of two equal but opposite charges separated by a small
distance.
Dipole moment (𝑝) is vector its direction from negative charge to positive charge
⃗
𝑝 = 𝑞𝐿
Where 𝐿
⃗ is the position of the positive charge relative to the negative charge

A convenient unit for the dipole moment of atoms and molecules is the
fundamental charge "e" multiplied by the distance 1 pm

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A dipole in a uniform electric field experiences equal and opposite forces , thus the
net force on a dipole is zero, but there is a torque (The torque produced by two
equal and opposite forces) that tends to align the dipole in the direction of the field.
⃗ = 𝐹𝐿 sin 𝜃
𝜏 =𝐹×𝐿

𝜏 = 𝑞𝐸𝐿 sin 𝜃

⃗ × ⃗𝑬
⃗ = 𝒑𝑬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒑
𝝉 ⃗

If the dipole rotates through angle 𝑑𝜃 the electric field does work
𝑑𝑊 = −𝜏𝑑𝜃 = −𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
(The minus sign arises because the torque opposes any increase in θ)
negative of this work value equal to the change in potential energy
𝑑𝑈 = −𝑑𝑊 = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑈 = ∫ 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = − 𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃 + 𝑈0
𝑈 = −𝑝. 𝐸⃗ + 𝑈0
If we choose the potential energy U to be zero when 𝜃 = 900 then 𝑈0 = 0 and the
potential energy of the dipole is
⃗
⃗ .𝑬
𝑼 = −𝒑

Example 1.13 Torque and Potential Energy

A polar molecule has a dipole moment of magnitude 20 e.pm that makes an angle
of 200 with a uniform electric field of magnitude 3×103N/C. Find (a) the magnitude
of the torque on the dipole, and (b) the potential energy of the system.
Solution:
𝜏 = 𝑝 × 𝐸⃗ = 𝑝𝐸 sin 𝜃
𝜏 = 20 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10−12 × 3 × 103 sin 200 = 3.3 × 10−27 N. m
𝑈 = −𝑝. 𝐸⃗ = −𝑝𝐸 cos 𝜃
𝑈 = −20 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10−12 × 3 × 103 cos 200 = −9 × 10−27 𝐽
The sign of the potential energy is negative. That is because the reference
orientation of the potential energy is 𝑈0 = 0 for 𝜃 = 900
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Chapter (2)
Electric Field of Continuous Charge Distribution

2.1 Calculating E from Coulomb's law

An element of charge 𝑑𝑞 produces a field 𝑑𝐸⃗ at point P
⃗⃗ = 𝒌 𝒅𝒒𝟐 𝒓̂
𝒅𝑬 𝒓

The total field 𝐸⃗ at P is calculated by integrating this expression

over the entire charge distribution.
⃗𝑬 ⃗⃗ = 𝒌 ∫ 𝒅𝒒𝟐 𝒓̂
⃗ = ∫ 𝒅𝑬
𝒓

Charge density
1- If charge Q is distributed along line or arc of length 𝑙 , the linear charge density λ
𝒅𝒒 𝑸
is defined by 𝝀 = (SI unit of λ is C/m), If distribution is uniform then 𝝀 =
𝒅𝒍 𝒍

2- If charge Q is distributed across surface of area A, the surface charge density σ is

𝒅𝒒 𝑸
defined by 𝝈 = 𝒅𝑨 (SI unit of σ is C/m2), If distribution is uniform then 𝝈 = 𝑨

3- If charge Q is distributed over a volume V, the volume charge density 𝜌 is defined

𝒅𝒒 𝑸
by 𝝆 = 𝒅𝑽 (SI unit of σ is C/m3), If distribution is uniform then 𝝆 = 𝑽

Electric field of important configuration

Example 2.1 Electric Field Due to a Line Charge of Finite Length
Thin rod of length L and charge q is uniformly charged, so it has a linear charge
𝒒
density 𝝀 = 𝒍 . (a) Find the electric field at point P
dEsinθ
dE
Solution:
P
𝑑𝑞 dEcosθ
𝑑𝐸⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ , 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥
r2 y
𝜆 𝑑𝑥 𝜆 𝑑𝑥 r
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃 , 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃 r1
𝑟2 𝑟2
θ1 θ θ2
++++++++++++ O
x

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x, r, θ are variables , we choose one of them and express the other variables in terms
of it. (we choose θ )
𝑦
tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 → 𝑥 = 𝑦 cot 𝜃 , 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑦
sin 𝜃 = → 𝑟 = 𝑦 csc 𝜃
𝑟
𝜆 (−𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃) 𝑘𝜆
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃 = − cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑦 2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑦
𝑘𝜆 𝜃 𝑘𝜆
𝐸𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = − 1
∫𝜃 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 → 𝐸𝑥 = (sin 𝜃2 − sin 𝜃1 ) , 𝑦≠0
𝑦 2 𝑦
1 1
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘𝜆 ( 𝑟 − ) , 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 > 0
2 𝑟1

𝜆 (−𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃) 𝑘𝜆
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑦 2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑦
𝑘𝜆 𝜃 𝑘𝜆
𝐸𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = − 1
∫𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 → 𝐸𝑦 = (cos 𝜃1 − cos 𝜃2 ) , 𝑦≠0
𝑦 2 𝑦
cot 𝜃1 cot 𝜃2
𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘𝜆( − ) , 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 > 0
𝑟1 𝑟2

(b) Find the electric field at point P is located along axis of the rod (i.e y=0)
The electric field in this case is in x direction, thus 𝐸𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 ′2 , 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥 ′ x'
x
++++++++++++
𝑥+𝐿 𝜆 𝑑𝑥 ′ 1 1 P
𝐸𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = ∫𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑘𝜆 (𝑥 − 𝑥+𝐿) L
𝑥 ′2

Approximation: (as point is very far away (𝑥 ≫ 𝐿)

𝐿
We can write the previous result as following 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘𝜆 ( )
𝑥(𝑥+𝐿)

As 𝑥 ≫ 𝐿 then (𝑥 + 𝐿) ≈ 𝑥
𝐿 𝑞
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘𝜆 (𝑥 2 ) , 𝜆= 𝐿
𝑞
∴ 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 (𝑥 2 ) (This is same expression of E of point charge)

(c) Find the electric field at point P is located on plane perpendicular to bisecting the
rod
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ , 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑥

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𝐸𝑥 = 0 (due to symmetry)
dE sinθ
𝜆 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃 dE
𝑟2
𝑦
tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 → 𝑥 = 𝑦 cot 𝜃 , 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 P θ
dE cosθ
𝑦
sin 𝜃 = → 𝑟 = 𝑦 csc 𝜃
𝑟
𝜆 (−𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃) 𝑘𝜆
r y
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑦 2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑦
𝑘𝜆 𝑘𝜆 θ
𝐸𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = − ∫ sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = cos 𝜃 ++++++++++++
𝑦 𝑦
𝑥 𝑥 -L/2 0 +L/2
cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 =
√𝑦 2 +𝑥 2

𝑘𝜆 𝑥 𝐿/2 𝑘𝜆 𝑥 𝐿/2
𝐸𝑦 = [ ]−𝐿/2 or 𝐸𝑦 = 2 [ ]0
𝑦 √𝑦 2 +𝑥 2 𝑦 √𝑦 2 +𝑥 2

𝐿
𝑘𝜆 2 𝑘𝜆 𝐿
𝐸𝑦 = 2 ( 2
)=
𝑦 𝐿 2
√𝑦 2 +(𝐿) 𝑦 √𝑦 2 +( )
2 2

Approximations: (i) as point is very far away (𝒚 ≫ 𝑳)

𝐿 2
𝑦 2 + (2) ≅ 𝑦 2
𝑘𝜆 𝐿 𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝑦 = = (this is same E due to point charge)
𝑦2 𝑦2

(ii) as point is very close (𝒚 ≪ 𝑳)

𝐿 2 𝐿 2
𝑦 2 + (2) ≅ (2)
𝑘𝜆 𝐿 2𝑘𝜆
𝐸𝑦 = 𝐿 = (this is same E due to infinite line charge)
𝑦( ) 𝑦
2

Example 2.2 Electric Field Due to a Line Charge of infinite Length

Find the electric field due to a uniformly charged line that extends to infinity in both
directions and has linear charge density λ.
Solution:
Line charge is considered infinite if distance between the ends of line charge and
field point are much greater than the radial distance between the field point and
the line charge.
𝐸𝑥 = 0 (due to symmetry)
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𝜆 𝑑𝑥 P
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃
𝑟2
𝑦
tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 → 𝑥 = 𝑦 cot 𝜃 , 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
y
𝑦
sin 𝜃 = → 𝑟 = 𝑦 csc 𝜃
𝑟 ++++++++++++++
𝜆 (−𝑦𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃) 𝑘𝜆 −∞ ∞
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃 = − sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑦 2 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑦
𝑘𝜆 0 𝑘𝜆
𝐸𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = − ∫𝜋 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = (cos 0 − cos 𝜋)
𝑦 𝑦
𝟐𝒌𝝀
𝑬𝒚 = ( the magnitude of E decreases inversely with radial distance from line
𝒚

charge.

The magnitude of the electric field is plotted versus distance for line charge, a point
charge, and an infinite line charge

Example 2.3 𝑬
⃗⃗ on the Axis of a Charged Ring

A thin ring (a circle) of radius a is uniformly charged with total charge q.

(a)Find the electric field due to this charge at all points on the axis perpendicular to
the plane and through the center of the ring.
(b) Find the point on the axis of the ring where electric field is maximum.
Solution:

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𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂

𝐸𝑦 = 0 (due to symmetry)
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑥
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 cos 𝜃 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 ( 𝑟 )
𝑘𝑥 𝑘𝑥𝑞 𝑘𝑥𝑞
𝐸𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = → 𝐸𝑥 = (𝑥 2 +𝑎2 )3⁄2
𝑟3 𝑟3

This result shows that the field is zero at x = 0 (center of ring), also we can conclude
that by symmetry

Approximation: as point is very far away 𝑥 ≫ 𝑎

𝑘𝑞
𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ≅ 𝑥 2 → 𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥2

The ring acts like a point charge for locations far away from the ring.
𝑑𝐸𝑥
(b) =0 where 𝐸𝑥 is maximum
𝑑𝑥
−3
( 2 ) 𝑘𝑥𝑞(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )−5⁄2 (2𝑥) + 𝑘𝑞(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )−3⁄2 = 0

3𝑘𝑥 2 𝑞(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )−5⁄2 = 𝑘𝑞(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )−3⁄2

Dividing by (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )−5⁄2 we get
3𝑥 2 = (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )
𝑎
2𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 → 𝑥=±
√2

Example 2.4 𝑬
⃗⃗ At Center of Half Ring

Half ring of radius R is uniformly charged with total charge q. Find the electric field at
its center.
Solution:
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𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑅2 , 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜆 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜆 𝑅 𝑑𝜃 ,

𝐸𝑥 = 0 due to symmetry 𝑑𝑙
dθ
𝜆 𝑅 𝑑𝜃 R
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑑𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 → 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃
𝑅2
𝑘𝜆 𝜋 𝑘𝜆
𝐸𝑦 = ∫0 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 → 𝐸𝑦 = 2
𝑅 𝑅
𝑘𝜆
𝐸⃗ = −2 𝑅 𝑗̂

Example 2.5 ⃗𝑬
⃗ on the Axis of a Charged Disk

Consider a uniformly charged thin disk of radius R and surface charge density σ
(a) Find the electric field at all points on the axis of the disk.
(b) Show that for points on the axis and far from the disk, the electric field
approaches that of a point charge at the origin with the same charge as the disk.
(c) Show that for a uniformly charged disk of infinite radius, the electric field is
uniform throughout the region on either side of the disk.
Solution:
𝑑𝑞
𝑑𝐸⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟 ′2 𝑟̂ , 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎 𝑑𝐴

𝐸𝑦 = 0 (due to symmetry)
𝜎 𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 cos 𝜃
𝑟 ′2
𝑥
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟 , cos 𝜃 = 𝑟 ′
𝜎 𝑥 (2𝜋𝑟 𝑑𝑟)
𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑟 ′3

𝑟 ′ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2
𝑅 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋 𝑘 𝜎 𝑥 ∫0 (𝑥 2 +𝑟 2 )3/2
1 1 1
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋 𝑘 𝜎 𝑥[𝑥 − √𝑥 2 ] → 𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋 𝑘 𝜎 [1 −
+𝑅 2 √1+( )2
𝑅
𝑥

(b) As point is far from disk (𝑥 ≫ 𝑅)

by using binomial expansion (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≅ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 ( for |𝑥| ≪ 1 )
𝑅 1 𝑅
(1 + (𝑥 )2 )−1/2 ≅ 1 − 2 (𝑥 )2

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1 𝑅
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋 𝑘 𝜎 [1-1 + 2 (𝑥 )2 ]
𝜋 𝑘 𝜎 𝑅2 𝑞
𝐸𝑥 = , 𝜎 = 𝜋𝑅2
𝑥2
𝑘𝑞
𝐸𝑥 = 𝑥 2 (This is same expression of E of point charge)

(c) The electric field due to disk of infinite radius ( 𝑅 → ∞) ( infinite plane)
1
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋 𝑘 𝜎 [1 − ] = 2𝜋 𝑘 𝜎
√1+∞
1 𝜎
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋 (4𝜋𝜀 ) 𝜎 → 𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜀
0 0

This electric field is uniform and perpendicular with plane Ex

+ + + +
+ + + + 𝜎
+ + + + 2𝜀0
+ + + + x
+ + + + 𝜎
−
2𝜀0

𝜎
𝑖̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>0
2𝜀0
⃗𝑬 = { 𝜎
− 2𝜀 𝑖̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥<0
0

Example 2.6 Electric Field Due to Two Infinite Planes

In Figure, an infinite plane of surface charge density 𝝈 = +𝟒. 𝟓 𝒏𝑪/𝒎𝟐 lies in the x=0
plane, and a second infinite plane of surface charge density 𝝈 = −𝟒. 𝟓 𝒏𝑪/𝒎𝟐 lies in
the x=2m plane. Find the electric field at (a) x=1.8 m and (b) x=5m
Solution:
each plane produces electric field its magnitude is
|𝜎| 4.5×10−9
𝐸 = 2𝜀 = 2×8.85×10−12 = 254 𝑁/𝐶
0

(a) At 𝑥 = 1.8 𝑚 : 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2

𝑁
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 254 + 254 = 508 𝑁/𝐶 , 𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (508 𝐶 ) 𝑖̂
𝑁
Note that 𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (508 𝐶 ) 𝑖̂ not just at x=1.8 m but at any point in the region between

the charged planes.

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(b) at 𝑥 = 5 𝑚 : 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 0
𝐸⃗𝑛𝑒𝑡 is equal to zero except between the planes.

Example 2.7 Electric Field Due to Two Infinite Planes with angle between them
An infinite thin sheet in y=0 the plane has a uniform surface charge density σ1=
+65nC/m2 . A second infinite thin sheet has a uniform charge density σ1= +45nC/m2
and intersects the plane y=0 at the z axis and makes an angle of 300 with the xz
plane, as shown in Figure. Find the electric field at (a) x = 6 m, y = 2 m
and (b) x = 6 m, y = 5 m.
y
Solution:

y
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 → 𝑦 = 6 tan 300 = 3.46 𝑚 0
30

6m x

y E2 E1
y
P2 E1

P1
0
30 0 E2
30
6m x 6m x

(a) The point (6 , 2 )m is located between two planes

𝜎
∑ 𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸2 sin 300 → ∑ 𝐸𝑥 = 2 sin 300 = 1.3𝐾𝑁/𝐶
2𝜀 0
𝜎1 𝜎
∑ 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 cos 300 → ∑ 𝐸𝑦 = − 2𝜀2 cos 300 = 1.5 𝐾𝑁/𝐶
2𝜀 0 0

𝐸⃗ = (1.3 𝑖̂ + 1.5 𝑗̂) 𝐾𝑁/𝐶

(b) The point (6 , 5 )m is located outside two planes
𝜎
∑ 𝐸𝑥 = −𝐸2 sin 300 → ∑ 𝐸𝑥 = − 2 sin 300 = −1.3𝐾𝑁/𝐶
2𝜀 0
𝜎1 𝜎
∑ 𝐸𝑦 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 cos 300 → ∑ 𝐸𝑦 = + 2𝜀2 cos 300 = 5.9 𝐾𝑁/𝐶
2𝜀 0 0

𝐸⃗ = (−1.3 𝑖̂ + 5.9 𝑗̂) 𝐾𝑁/𝐶

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2.2 Electric Flux and Gauss’s Law

Electric flux is a measure of the “flow” of electric field through a surface. (number of
electric field lines passing through a perpendicular area)
∅ = ⃗𝑬. 𝒏
̂ 𝑨 = 𝑬𝒏 𝑨 = 𝑬𝑨𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Where 𝐸𝑛 = 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ is the component of 𝐸⃗ normal to the surface.
SI units of Electric flux is (N . m2/C )

In figure : the electric flux through the surface (1) is ∅ = 𝐸𝐴1

the electric flux through the surface (2 ) is ∅ = 𝐸𝐴2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
the electric flux through the surface (3) is ∅=0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ )
For a curved surface over which may vary 𝐸⃗ , the surface divided into a large
number of small elements, area of each element is ∆𝐴𝑖 it can be modeled as a
plane and the variation of the electric field across the element can be neglected.
The flux of the electric field through this element is

∆∅𝑖 = 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝑛̂𝑖 ∆𝐴𝑖

where: 𝑛̂𝑖 is the unit vector perpendicular to the surface element

and 𝐸⃗𝑖 is the electric field on the surface element.
the total flux through the surface ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑ 𝐸⃗𝑖 . 𝑛̂𝑖 ∆𝐴𝑖
If the area of each element approaches zero, the number of elements approaches
infinity and the sum is replaced by an integral. Therefore, the general definition of
electric flux is

∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦∆𝑨𝒊 →𝟎 ∑ ⃗𝑬
⃗ 𝒊. 𝒏
̂ 𝒊 ∆𝑨𝒊 = ∮𝒔 ⃗𝑬. 𝒏
̂ 𝒅𝑨

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The net flux ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 through the closed surface is positive or negative, depending on
whether 𝐸⃗ is predominantly outward or inward at the surface.

Gauss’s Law
Consider a point charge q surrounded by a spherical surface of radius (r) centered
on the charge as in Figure.
The electric field due to charge q is

𝑘𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 𝑟 2 𝑟̂

Note that the electric field is perpendicular to the spherical surface at all

points on the surface. The electric flux through the surface is ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴
𝑘𝑞
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮𝑠 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴
𝑟2
𝑘𝑞 𝑘𝑞 𝑞inside
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮𝑠 𝑑𝐴 = (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) =
𝑟2 𝑟2 𝜀0

This leads to the following general result, known as Gauss’ law

𝒒
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝒔 ⃗𝑬
⃗ .𝒏
̂ 𝒅𝑨 = 𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞
𝜺𝟎

where : 𝒒𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 is the algebraic sum of all charges enclosed by surface

Gauss’s law is mathematical formula to descript electric field lines.
The net number of lines out of any surface enclosing the charges is proportional to
the net charge enclosed by the surface.
The electric flux ∅𝐧𝐞𝐭 through any closed surface is equal to the net charge inside the
surface, q inside, divided by ε0 .

Figure (a) Figure (b)

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In figure (a) dipole is enclosed by closed surface

Number of electric lines entering the surface = Number of electric lines leaving the
surface
Thus, the net number of lines through surface = zero
𝒒𝐢𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐝𝐞 = 𝟎 → ∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 0
in figure (b) the net number of lines through surface is same as that for a single
charge of +q charge enclosed by the surface.

Notes:
1. Whether there is a net outward or inward electric flux through a closed surface
depends on the sign of the enclosed charge.
2. Charges outside the surface do not give a net electric flux through the surface.
3. The net electric flux is directly proportional to the algebraic sum of all charges
enclosed by surface.
4. The net electric flux is independent of the size and shape of the closed surface.
5. The net number of electric field lines passing through an imaginary closed surface
is proportional to the amount of net charge enclosed within that surface.
6. Gauss’s law is valid for any distribution of charges and for any closed surface.
7. Gauss’ law can be used to calculate the electric field of a system of charges or a
continuous distribution of charge. It is useful in cases in which there is a high
degree of symmetry, such as spheres, cylinders, or planes.
8. In electrostatic Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s law are equivalent, but in
electrodynamics only Gauss’s law is valid.

Example 2.8 Flux through a Piecewise-Continuous Closed Surface

An electric field is given by ⃗𝑬 ̂ throughout the region 𝒁 > 𝟎 and by
⃗ = +(𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪 ) 𝑲
̂ throughout the region 𝒁 < 𝟎 , cylindrical surface that has a length
⃗ = −(𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪 ) 𝑲
𝑬
equal to 20 cm and a radius equal to has its center at the origin and its axis along
the axis, so that one end is at and the other is at Figure.

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(a) What is the net outward flux through the closed surface?
(b) What is the net charge inside the closed surface?
Solution:
∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐸⃗𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 . 𝑛̂𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐴
̂. 𝐾
= +200 𝐾 ̂ (𝜋𝑅 2 )
= +200 (3.14 × 5 × 10−2 ) = 1.57 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 = 𝐸⃗𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 . 𝑛̂𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝐴
̂ . (−𝐾
= −200 𝐾 ̂ )(𝜋𝑅 2 )
= 200 (3.14 × 5 × 10−2 ) = 1.57 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 𝐸⃗𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 . 𝑛̂𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝐴
∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 = 0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ everywhere on the curved piece) 𝐾
̂ . 𝑗̂ = 0
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 + ∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 1.57 + 1.57 + 0 = 3.14 𝑁. 𝑚2 /𝐶
Note: The net flux does not depend on the length of the cylinder. This result is
expected for an electric field that does not vary with distance from the plane.
𝑞inside
(b) ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜀0

𝑞inside = ∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 × 𝜀0
𝑞inside = 3.14 × 8.85 × 10−12 = 2.78 × 10−11 𝐶
= 27.8 𝑝𝐶

2.3 Using symmetry to calculate E with Gauss's law

Calculate 𝐸⃗ of highly symmetrical charge distribution is more easily by using Gauss’
law than Coulomb’s law
Thera are three classes of symmetry
1. A charge configuration has cylindrical (or line) symmetry if the charge density
depends only on the distance from a line.
The Gaussian surface for this configuration is a cylinder coaxial with the symmetry
line

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2. plane symmetry if the charge density depends only on the distance from a
plane, the Gaussian surface for this configuration is a cylinder bisected by the
symmetry plane and with its symmetry axis normal to the symmetry plane.
3. spherical (or point) symmetry if the charge density depends only on the distance
from a point. the Gaussian surface for this configuration is a sphere centered on
the symmetry point.

Example 2.9 𝐄
⃗ Due to a Uniformly Charged Slab

A very large (infinite), uniformly charged slab of plastic of thickness 2a occupies the
region between the z=-a plane and the z=a plane. Find the electric field everywhere
due this charge configuration. The charge per unit volume of the plastic is 𝝆.
Solution:
charge configuration has plane symmetry , so Gaussian surface is chosen to be a
cylinder bisected by the symmetry plane and with its symmetry axis normal to the
symmetry plane.

𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0

∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∫ 𝐸𝑛 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑛 𝐴

∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ everywhere on the curved piece)

∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸𝑛 𝐴 + 𝐸𝑛 𝐴 + 0
𝑞inside
2𝐸𝑛 𝐴 = 𝜀0

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𝑞inside
𝐸𝑛 = 2𝐴𝜀0

𝜌𝐴2𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≤𝑎

𝑞inside = 𝜌 𝑉 = { }
𝜌𝐴2𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≥𝑎
𝜌𝐴2𝑧 𝜌𝑧
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≤𝑎
2𝐴𝜀0 𝜀0
𝑞inside
𝐸𝑛 = =
2𝐴𝜀0
𝜌𝐴2𝑎 𝜌𝑎
{ 2𝐴𝜀0 = 𝜀0
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≥𝑎

𝐸𝑛 is magnitude of 𝐸⃗ in z direction
𝜌𝑎
− 𝜀 𝑘̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≤𝑎
0
𝜌𝑧
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 −𝑎 ≤ 𝑧 ≤𝑎
𝜀0
𝜌𝑎
𝑘̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧≥𝑎
{ 𝜀0

Example 2.10 𝐄
⃗ Due to a Thin Spherical Shell of Charge

Find the electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell of radius R and
total charge Q.
Solution:

charge configuration has spherical symmetry , so Gaussian surface is chosen to be

sphere of radius (r)
𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0

𝑞inside
∮𝑠 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0
𝑞inside 𝑞
𝐸𝑟 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = →𝐸𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀
inside
𝜀0 𝑟2 0

0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅
𝑞inside = {
𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟>𝑅
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 𝑄
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟>𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

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Outside the charged shell, the electric field is the same as that of a point charge Q
at the shell’s center. the electric field is discontinuous at r=R

Example 2.11 Electric Field Due to a Point Charge and a Charged Spherical Shell
A spherical shell of radius R=3 m has its center at the origin and has a surface charge
density σ=3nC/m2 of A point charge q=250nC is on the y axis at y=2m. Find the
electric field on the axis at (a) x=2m and (b) x=4m
Solution:
Point x=2m is located inside the shell so 𝐸⃗ at this point due to point charge only
𝑞
𝐸⃗1 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂1
1

250×10 −9 q
𝐸⃗1 = 9 × 109 × (2√2)2 𝑟̂1 = (281𝑁/𝐶 ) 𝑟̂1 r1
2m
𝐸⃗1 = (281 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 281 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶 2m
2 2
= 218 ( ) 𝑖̂ − 218 ( ) 𝑗̂ 𝑁/𝐶 E1
2√2 2√2

𝐸⃗1 = (199 𝑖̂ − 199 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶

Point (x=4m) is located outside the shell so 𝐸⃗ at this point due to point charge (𝐸⃗𝑝 )

and charged shell (𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 )

𝐸⃗2 = 𝐸⃗𝑝 + 𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑞 q
𝐸⃗𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂2 r2
2
2m Eshell
250×10−9
𝐸⃗𝑃 = 9 × 10 × 9
𝑟̂2 = (112 𝑁/𝐶 ) 𝑟̂2 ← 4m →
20
Epoint charge
𝐸⃗𝑃 = (112 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ − 112 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶
4 2
= 112 ( ) 𝑖̂ − 112 ( ) 𝑗̂ 𝑁/𝐶
√20 √20

𝐸⃗𝑃 = (100 𝑖̂ − 50 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶

𝑄
𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 4𝜋𝜀 𝑟2 𝑖̂
0

𝜎 (4𝜋𝑅 2 ) 3×10−9 × 32
= 𝑖̂ = 8.85×10−12 ×42 𝑖̂
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

𝐸⃗𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 = (190𝑁/𝐶 )𝑖̂

𝐸⃗2 = (100 𝑖̂ − 50 𝑗̂ ) + (190 )𝑖̂ → 𝐸⃗2 = (290 𝑖̂ − 50 𝑗̂ ) 𝑁/𝐶
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Example 2.12 𝐄
⃗ Due to a Uniformly Charged Solid Sphere

Find the electric field everywhere for a uniformly charged solid sphere that has a
radius R and a total charge Q that is uniformly distributed throughout the volume of
the sphere
Solution:
The charge configuration has spherical symmetry. We choose a spherical Gaussian
surface of radius (r)
𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0

𝑞inside
∮𝑠 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝜀0
𝑞inside 𝑞
𝐸𝑟 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) = → inside
𝐸𝑟 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝜀0 𝑟2
0

We find 𝑞inside Gaussian surface in case 𝑟 ≤ 𝑅 as following

𝑄 𝑞inside
𝜌=𝑉 =𝑉
𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛

4
𝑉𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝜋𝑟 3 𝑟3
𝑞inside = 𝑄 → 𝑞inside = 𝑄 3
4 = 𝑄 𝑅3
𝑉𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝜋𝑅 3
3

𝑟3
𝑄 𝑅3 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅
𝑞inside = {
𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅
𝑟3
𝑄 3 𝑄𝑟
𝑅
= 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3
𝑄
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2

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Example 2.13 Electric Field Due to Infinite Line Charge

Use Gauss’s law to find the electric field everywhere due to an infinitely long line
charge of uniform charge density λ.
Solution:
we know the magnitude of the field depends only on the radial distance from the
line charge. We therefore choose a cylindrical Gaussian surface coaxial with the line
charge has a length (L) and a radius (r).
𝑞
∅𝒏𝒆𝒕 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0

∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

∅𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∅𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 0 (because 𝐸⃗ ⊥ 𝑛̂ )

∅𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = ∮𝑠 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ . 𝑟̂ 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸𝑟 (2𝜋𝑟𝐿)

𝑞inside
𝐸𝑟 (2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = 𝜀0

𝑞inside = 𝜆 𝐿
𝜆𝐿 𝜆
𝐸𝑟 (2𝜋𝑟𝐿) = → 𝐸𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜀
𝜀0 0𝑟

2.4 Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium

1- The electric field is zero inside a charged conductor.

2- Any excess charge on an isolated conductor resides entirely on the surface of the
conductor.
3- The electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is perpendicular to the
surface and has a magnitude σ/ε0 .

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4- Excess charge tends to accumulate at sharp points, or locations of highest

curvature, on charged conductors. As a result, the electric field is greatest at
such locations.
these properties can be prove by using Gauss's law

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Chapter (3)
Electric Potential
3.1 Potential Difference
When a charged particle moves in an electric field, the field exerts a force that can
do work on the particle.
The work done by any force to move particle displacement (𝑑𝑙 ) is given by
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍
𝒅𝒘 = 𝑭
If force is conservative force (such as gravitation force, electric force) then the
work done by this force is independent of path of motion depends only on the
endpoints of the path.

(a) The work done by the gravitational field 𝑔 on a mass is equal to the decrease in
the gravitational potential energy.
(b) ) The work done by the electric field 𝐸⃗ on a charge is equal to the decrease in
the electric potential energy.
Thus work done by electric force can be represented by difference in electric
potential energy
𝒅𝒘 = −𝒅𝑼
𝒅𝒘 = ⃗𝑭. 𝒅𝒍 = 𝒒𝟎 ⃗𝑬
⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 → 𝒅𝑼 = −𝒒𝟎 ⃗𝑬. 𝒅𝒍

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The electric potential difference (voltage) 𝐝𝐕 between points is the change in

electric potential energy 𝑑𝑈 per unit charge

𝒅𝑼
𝐝𝐕 = ⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍
= −𝑬
𝒒𝟎
q0
𝒃
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍
𝑽𝒃 − 𝑽𝒂 = − ∫𝒂 𝑬

Notes:
 SI unit of electric potential energy is joule
 useful unit of energy is called electron volt, defined as the change in potential
energy of an electron as it moves through a potential difference of 1 V.
1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
The electron volt is a unit of energy, NOT of potential.
 SI unit of potential and potential difference is joule per coulomb, or volt (J/C, or
V)
 The unit of the electric field is (N/C , or V/m)
 Electric potential energy and electric potential are scalar quantities.

 The charge accelerates toward a region where its electric potential energy is less.
 The electric field points in the direction in which the potential decreases most
rapidly.
 A positive charge accelerates in the direction of decreasing potential and a
negative charge accelerates in the direction of increasing potential.

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Example 3.1 Find V for Uniform 𝐄

⃗

A uniform electrostatic field points in the +x direction and has a magnitude of

𝑬 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑵⁄𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎 𝑽⁄𝒎 . Find the potential as a function x of assuming that 𝑽 = 𝟎 at
𝒙=𝟎
Solution:
𝑏
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = − ∫𝑎 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙

𝐸⃗ = (10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚)𝑖̂ , 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = (10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚)𝑑𝑥
Let point (a) is the reference point (any point in the plane 𝑥 = 0) where (𝑉𝑎 = 0)
𝑥
𝑉𝑏 − 0 = − ∫0 (10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚)𝑑𝑥
𝑉 = −(10 𝑉 ⁄𝑚) 𝑥

3.2 Potential due to point charge

The electric potential a distance (r) from a point charge at the origin can be
calculated as following
𝑏
𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎 = − ∫𝑎 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝑞
𝐸⃗ = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ , 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂

Let point (a) is the reference point,

point (b) is an arbitrary field point (p)
𝑟 𝑞
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑃 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ . 𝑑𝑟 𝑟̂
𝑟𝑒𝑓

𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = −𝑘𝑞 ∫𝑟 𝑃
𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑟2
1 1
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑘𝑞[𝑟 − 𝑟 ]
𝑃 𝑟𝑒𝑓

We are free to choose the location of the reference point, so we choose it to give
the potential the simplest algebraic form. Choosing the reference point infinitely far
from the point charge. (so 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 at 𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 → ∞ )
1 1
𝑉𝑃 − 0 = 𝑘𝑞 [𝑟 − ∞]
𝑃

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𝒌𝒒
Thus, electric potential a distance (r) from a point charge(q) is given by 𝑽 =
𝒓

Notes:
 The electric potential is positive or negative depending on whether q is positive or
negative.
 Electric potential increases when moving nearer to positive charges or farther
from negative charges
 The electric potential at point P due to several point charges is the algebraic sum
of the electric potentials due to the individual charges.
𝒌𝒒𝒊
𝑽=∑
𝒓𝒊

 The potential at a field point is the work per unit charge to bring a test charge
from a reference point (where the potential is zero) to the field point.

Example 3.2 Potential Due to Two Point Charges

Two +𝟓 𝒏𝑪 point charges are on the x axis, one at the origin and the other at
𝒙 = 𝟖 𝒄𝒎. Find the potential at
(a) point P1 on the x axis at 𝒙 = 𝟒 𝒄𝒎
(b) point P2 on the y axis at 𝒚 = 𝟔𝒄𝒎 .
The reference point (where 𝑽 = 𝟎 ) is at infinity.
Solution:
𝑘𝑞𝑖 𝑘𝑞1 𝑘𝑞2
𝑉=∑ = +
𝑟𝑖 𝑟1 𝑟2

𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = +5 𝑛𝐶
(a) for point p1 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 4 𝑐𝑚
9×109 ×5×10−9
𝑉 =2× = 2.2 𝐾𝑉
4×10−2

Note that the 𝐸⃗ = 0 at the point midway between the charges but 𝑉 ≠ 0
(b) For point P2 𝑟1 = 6 𝑐𝑚 , 𝑟2 = 10𝑐𝑚
9×109 ×5×10−9 9×109 ×5×10−9
𝑉= + = 1.2 𝐾𝑉
6×10−2 10×10−2

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3.3 The electric potential energy

When charge q1 is placed at a distance r from the point charge q2 it will acquire
electric potential energy is given by 𝑼 = 𝒒𝟏 𝑽𝟏
𝑞
where: 𝑉1 = 𝑘 𝑟 is electric potential due to charge q2 at the location of charge q1
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑼=𝒌 (This is the electric potential energy of the two-charge system relative to
𝒓

𝑈 = 0 at infinite separation)
The electrostatic potential energy of a system of point charges is the work needed to
bring the charges from an infinite separation to their final positions.

 for unlike charges the electric potential energy is negative (the charges are
bounded), and for like charges the value is positive. So if the two charges are of
the same sign, when released, they will move apart, gaining kinetic energy as
they lose potential energy. Conversely, it would take positive work to increase the
separation of two opposite charges
 like charges have more potential energy if they are close together, and unlike
charges have more potential energy if they are far apart.
 If the system consists of more than two charged particles, we can obtain the total
potential energy of the system by calculating U for every pair of charges and
summing the terms algebraically. For example, the total potential energy of the
system of three charges shown in Figure
U = U12 + U13 + U23
q q2 q1 q3 q2 q3
U = k( r1 + + )
12 r13 r23

 The electric potential energy of the system n of charges can be written as

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𝒏
𝟏
𝐔 = ∑ 𝒒𝒊 𝑽𝒊
𝟐
𝒊=𝟏

where 𝑉𝑖 is the potential at the location of the charge𝑞𝑖 due to the presence of all
the other charges in the system.

Example 3.3 Work Required to Move Point Charges

Four identical positive point charges, each having charge are initially at rest at
infinite separation.
(a) Calculate the total work required to move the point charges to the four corners of
the square of edge length by separately calculating the work required to
sequentially move each charge to its final position.
Solution:
𝑊total = U
q q2 q1 q3 q 1 q4 q2 q3 q2 q4 q3 q4
U = k( r1 + + + + + )
12 r13 r14 r23 r24 r34

𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2 𝑞2
U = k(𝑎 + + + + + )
𝑎 √2 𝑎 𝑎 √2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑞2
U = (4 + √2) k 𝑎

(b) How much additional work is required to bring a fifth positive charge from infinity
to the center of the square?
Solution:
𝑊 = 𝑈5
q q1 q5 q2 q5 q3 q5 q4
𝑊 = k ( r5 + + + )
51 r52 r53 r54

4𝑞 2 𝑞2
𝑊 = k (√2 ) = 4√2 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎
2

(c) What is the total work required to assemble the five-charge system?
𝑊total = work is required to bring four charges + work is required to bring a fifth
𝑞2 𝑞2
U = (4 + √2) k + 4√2 𝑘
𝑎 𝑎
𝑞2
U = (4 + 5√2)𝑘 𝑎

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3.4 Computing the electric field from the potential

From equation (𝐝𝐕 = −𝑬
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍 ) , we can use potential function to calculate Electric

field.
If the displacement 𝒅𝒍 is perpendicular to ⃗𝑬
⃗ then 𝐝𝐕 = 0 (the potential does not

change).
The maximum increase in V occurs when the displacement 𝒅𝒍 is in the opposite
direction as ⃗𝑬
⃗ .
𝐝𝐕 = −𝑬 𝒅𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = −𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝒅𝒍
𝐝𝐕
𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 = − 𝒅𝒍

where : 𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 is tangential component of 𝑬

⃗⃗ ( the component of 𝑬
⃗ in the direction

of 𝒅𝒍).
A vector that points in the direction of the greatest change in a scalar function and
that has a magnitude equal to the derivative of that function with respect to the
distance in that direction is called the gradient of the function.
Thus, the electric field is negative gradient of the potential ⃗𝑬 = −𝛁
⃗𝑽

where: del operator (𝛁 ⃗ = 𝜕 𝑖̂ + 𝜕 𝑗̂ + 𝜕 𝑘̂

⃗⃗ ) In Cartesian coordinates is given by 𝛁
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

⃗⃗ 𝑽 = −(𝝏𝑽 𝒊̂ + 𝝏𝑽 𝒋̂ + 𝝏𝑽 𝒌
⃗𝑬 = −𝛁 ̂)
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒛
𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽 𝝏𝑽
𝑬𝒙 = − 𝝏𝒙 , 𝑬𝒚 = − 𝝏𝒚 , 𝑬𝒛 = − 𝝏𝒛

If the potential V depends only on x , there will be no change in V for displacements

in the y or z direction; thus 𝑬𝒚 = 𝟎 and 𝑬𝒛 = 𝟎
For a spherically symmetric charge distribution centered at the origin, the potential
can be a function only of the radial coordinate (r), so the electric field must be
radial.
𝒅𝑽(𝒓)
𝑬𝒓 = − 𝒅𝒓

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Test Yourself
 In what direction can you move relative to an electric field so that the electric
potential does not change?
In a direction perpendicular to the direction of electric field.
 In what direction can you move relative to an electric field so that the electric
potential increases at the greatest rate?
In the direction opposite to the direction of an electric field.

Example 3.4 𝐄
⃗ for a Potential that Varies with x

Find the electric field for the electric potential function given by
𝑽 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝑽 − (𝟐𝟓 𝑽⁄𝒎)𝒙
Solution:
This potential function depends only on x only
𝑑𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥 = 25 𝑉 ⁄𝑚 , 𝐸𝑦 = 0 and 𝐸𝑧 = 0 (Because the potential does not vary with y

and z)
This electric field is uniform and in the direction x (the direction of decreasing
potential).

3.5 Calculation of V for continuous charge distributions

The electric potential dV at point P due to the charge element dq is
𝒅𝒒
𝒅𝑽 = 𝒌 𝒓

By integration we obtained the total potential at point P

𝒅𝒒
𝑉 = ∫𝒌 𝒓

This equation assumes that 𝑉 = 0 at an infinite distance from the charges, so we

cannot use it for any charge distributions of infinite extent, as is the case an infinite
line charge or an infinite plane charge.
For charge distributions that extend to infinity, we cannot choose 𝑉 = 0 at a point at
an infinite distance from the charges. Instead, we first find the electric field 𝐄
⃗ (by

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direct integration or from Gauss’s law) and then calculate the potential function V
from its defining relation 𝐝𝐕 = −𝑬
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍

Example 3.5 Electric Potential on the axis of a Charged Ring

Find the electric potential at point located on the axis of a uniformly charged ring of
radius a and charge Q in the plane z=0 and centered at the origin
Solution:
𝑑𝑞
𝑉 = ∫𝑘 𝑟

The distance 𝒓 is the same for all elements of charge on the ring
𝑘 𝑄
𝑉 = 𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = 𝑘 𝑟
𝑄
𝑉 = 𝑘 √𝑎2
+𝑧 2

Approximation: when |𝑧| ≫ 𝑎 (point is far from the ring)

𝑸
𝑉≈𝒌 (same as the potential due to a point charge Q at the origin)
𝒛

Example 3.6 A Ring and a Particle

A ring of radius 4cm is in the plane z=0 and has its center at the origin. The ring has a
uniform charge of 8nC. A small particle that has a mass equal to 6mg and a charge
equal to 5nC is placed on the axis at z=3 cm and released. Find the speed of the
particle when it is a great distance from the ring. Assume effects due to gravity are
negligible.
Solution:
From conservation of mechanical energy of particle
(𝐾 + 𝑈)𝑖 = (𝐾 + 𝑈)𝑓
1
Kinetic energy is given by 𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

Potential energy is given by 𝑈 = 𝑞𝑉

At initial 𝑘𝑖 = 0 (because 𝑣𝑖 = 0)
At final 𝑈𝑓 = 0 (because 𝑉 = 0 at great distance from ring (𝑧 = ∞)
𝑈𝑖 = 𝑘𝑓
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1 2𝑞𝑉
𝑞𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 → 𝑣=√ 𝑚

The potential V due to charged ring is given by

𝑄 8×10−9
𝑉 = 𝑘 √𝑎2 = 9 × 109 = 1440 𝑉
+𝑧 2 √(4×10−2 )2 +(3×10−2 )2

2𝑞𝑉 2×8×10−9 ×1440

𝑣=√ =√ = 1.6 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 8×10−6

Example 3.7 Find V for a Charged Disk

Find the potential on the axis of a disk of radius R that carries a total charge q
distributed uniformly on its surface.
Solution:
𝑑𝑞
𝑉 = ∫𝑘 𝑟̀

𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎𝑑𝐴 → 𝑑𝑞 = 𝜎(𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)
𝜎(𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)
𝑉 = ∫𝑘 𝑟̀

𝑟̀ = √𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2
𝑅 𝜎(𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟) 𝑅
𝑉 = ∫0 𝑘 √𝑥 2 → 𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 ∫0 𝑟 (𝑥 2 + 𝑟 2 )−1/2 𝑑𝑟
+𝑟 2

𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎(√𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 − √𝑥 2 )
𝑅2
𝑉 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 |𝑥| (√1 + 𝑥 2 − 1)

Approximation: as |𝑥| ≫ 𝑅
By using binomial expansion (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 ≈ 1 + 𝑛𝑥 for |𝑥| ≤ 1
𝑅2 1 1 𝑅2
(1 + 𝑥 2 )2 ≈ 1 + 2 (𝑥 2 )
1 𝑅2 𝜋𝑘𝜎𝑅 2
𝑉 ≈ 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 |𝑥| (1 + 2 (𝑥 2 ) − 1) ≈ |𝑥|
𝑞
𝜎 = 𝜋𝑅2
𝑞
𝜋𝑘 ( )𝑅2 𝑞
𝜋𝑅2
𝑉≈ |𝑥|
= 𝑘 |𝑥| (same as the potential due to a point charge q at the origin)

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Example 3.8 Find 𝐄

⃗ Given V

Calculate the electric field on the axis of a uniformly charged disk that has a charge
q and a radius R using the potential function given by 𝑽 = 𝟐𝝅𝒌𝝈(√𝒙𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 − |𝒙|)
Solution:
𝑑𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − 𝑑𝑥
1
1 𝑑|𝑥|
𝐸𝑥 = −2𝜋𝑘𝜎[2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑅 2 )−2 (2𝑥) − ]
𝑑𝑥

−1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥<0
𝑑|𝑥|
= 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑥) = { 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑥
+1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>0
𝑥
𝐸𝑥 = 2𝜋𝑘𝜎 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑥) − 1 )
(𝑥 2 +𝑅2 )2

Example 3.9 V due to an infinite plane of charge

Find the electric potential due to an infinite plane of uniform charge of density 𝝈 in
the plane 𝒙 = 𝟎
Solution:
For an infinite plane of uniform charge of density 𝜎 in the plane 𝑥 = 0, the electric
field in the region is given by
𝜎
𝜎
𝑖̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>0 2𝜀0
2𝜀0
⃗⃗ = {
𝑬 𝜎
− 2𝜀 𝑖̂ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥<0 x
0

𝜎
dV = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 −
2𝜀0
𝜎
For positive x : dV = −(2𝜀 𝑖̂). (𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂)
0
𝜎
dV = − 2𝜀 𝑑𝑥
0 𝑉

By Integrating both sides of this equation, we obtain

𝜎 𝑉0
V = − 2𝜀 𝑥 + 𝑉0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥>0
0 𝜎 𝜎
𝑥 + 𝑉0 − 𝑥 + 𝑉0
2𝜀0 2𝜀0
where: integration constant 𝑉0 is the potential at 𝑥 = 0
x
The reference point where 𝑉 = 𝑉0 is at the origin.
𝜎
For negative x : dV = −(− 2𝜀 𝑖̂). (𝑑𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑑𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑑𝑧 𝑘̂)
0

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𝜎
dV = 2𝜀 𝑑𝑥
0

By Integrating both sides of this equation, we obtain

𝜎
V = 2𝜀 𝑥 + 𝑉0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥<0
0

For either positive or negative 𝑥 the potential V can be written

𝜎
V = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + 𝑉0
0

The potential decreases with distance from the charged plane and approaches −∞
as x approaches ±∞

Example 3.10 A Sheet of Charge and a Point Charge

An infinite flat sheet that has a uniform charge density 𝝈lies in the plane 𝒙 = 𝟎, and a
point charge q is on the axis x at 𝒙 = 𝒂 . Find the potential at some point p a distance
(r) from the point charge. Consider 𝑽 = 𝟎 at the origin. z

Solution:
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 + 𝑉𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝜎 P
𝑉𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + 𝑉0
0 (x,y,z)
𝑞
r
𝑉𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 = 𝑘 𝑟
q
X
𝑟 = √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2 + (𝑧 − 0)2
(a,0,0)
𝑟 = √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
y
𝜎 𝑞
𝑉 = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + 𝑉0 + 𝑘
0 √(𝑥−𝑎)2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

By set 𝑉 = 0 at origin (0,0,0) we obtain the value of 𝑉0

𝑞 𝑞
0 = 𝑉0 + 𝑘 𝑎 → 𝑉0 = −𝑘 𝑎
𝜎 𝑞 𝑞
∴ 𝑉 = − 2𝜀 |𝑥| + −𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑘
0 √(𝑥−𝑎)2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

Example 3.11 V due to an infinite line charge

calculate the potential due to an infinitely long line charge of uniform charge density
λ.
Solution:
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𝒅𝒒
we cannot calculate the potential by direct integration of 𝒌 . Instead, we find the
𝒓

potential by integrating the electric field directly.

Previously we calculated the electric field of a uniformly charged infinite line by
𝜆
Coloumb's law and also by Gauss's law. It is given by 𝐸𝑟 = 2𝜋𝜀
0𝑟

dV = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
𝜆
dV = − 2𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
0

𝑅 𝜆
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑅 𝑝 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

𝜆 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 2𝜋𝜀 ln( )
0 𝑅𝑝

we choose the potential to equal zero at the reference point 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0

We cannot choose 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 0 because ln(0) = −∞, and we cannot choose 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞
because ln(∞) = ∞, any other choice in the interval 0 < 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑓 < ∞ is acceptable.

Example 3.12 V inside and outside charged spherical shell

Find the potential due to a thin spherical shell that has a radius R and a charge Q
uniformly distributed on its surface.
Solution:
Because the electric field for this charge distribution is easily obtained from Gauss’s
law, we will calculate the potential from the known electric field.
Previously we found the electric field inside and outside charged spherical shell by
using Gauss's law
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = {𝑘 𝑄
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝑟2

dV = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑝 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓

The potential 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is chosen to be zero at infinity (𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞)

𝒓
𝑉𝑃 = ∫∞𝒑 −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟

 The potential in region outside shell (𝒓𝒑 ≥ 𝑹)

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𝒓 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − ∫∞𝒑 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝒌 𝒓
𝒑

 The potential in region inside shell (𝒓𝒑 < 𝑹)

𝑅 𝑄 𝑟 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = −[∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑅 𝑝(0) 𝑑𝑟] = 𝑘 𝑅

The result in terms of 𝑟 where (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑝 )

𝑄
𝑘𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
∴𝑉={ 𝑄
𝑘𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)

Inside the shell there is no electric field this implies that the potential Inside the shell
has the constant value so it takes no work to move the test charge around inside the
shell. To move test charge from an infinite distance to the shell, the work per charge
𝑄
we must do is 𝑘 𝑅

Outside the shell, the potential is the same as that due to a point charge Q at the
center of the sphere.

Example 3.13 Find V for a Uniformly Charged Sphere

In one model, a proton is considered to be a uniformly charged solid sphere that has
⃗ = 𝒌 𝑸𝟑 𝒓.
a radius R and a charge Q The electric field inside the sphere is given by 𝑬 𝑹

Find the potential both inside and outside the sphere.

Solution:
Previously we found the electric field inside and outside charged solid sphere by
using Gauss's law
𝑄
𝑘 𝑅3 𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟<𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 𝑄
𝑘 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)

dV = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑝 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓

The potential 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is chosen to be zero at infinity (𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞)

𝒓
𝑉𝑃 = ∫∞𝒑 −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟

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 The potential in region outside sphere (𝒓𝒑 ≥ 𝑹)

𝒓 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − ∫∞𝒑 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝒌 𝒓
𝒑

 The potential in region inside sphere (𝒓𝒑 < 𝑹)

𝑅 𝑄 𝑟 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = −[∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑅 𝑝 𝑘 𝑅3 𝑟 𝑑𝑟] = 𝑘 𝑅 − 𝑘 2𝑅3 (𝑟𝑝 2 − 𝑅 2 )
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 3𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑅 − 𝑘 2𝑅3 𝑟𝑝 2 + 𝑘 2𝑅 → 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 2𝑅 − 𝑘 2𝑅3 𝑟𝑝 2
𝑄 𝑟𝑝 2
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 (3 − )
2𝑅 𝑅2

The result in terms of 𝑟 where (𝑟 = 𝑟𝑝 )

𝑄 𝑟2
𝑘 (3 − ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
𝑅2
𝑉(𝑟) = { 𝑄 2𝑅
𝑘𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)

Note that both 𝐸⃗ and 𝑉 are continuous everywhere.

Test Yourself
Find the potential function if the reference point where 𝑽 = 𝟎 is at 𝒓 = 𝑹 (instead of
at 𝒓 = ∞ ).
𝑄 𝑟2
𝑘 2𝑅 (1 − 𝑅2 ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑅 (𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)
Answer: 𝑉(𝑟) = { 𝑄 𝑄
𝑘𝑟 −𝑘𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑅 (𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙)

3.6 Equipotential surfaces

Because there is no electric field inside the material of a conductor that is in static
equilibrium, the value of the potential is constant everywhere inside a conductor
and equal to that same value at the surface. In electrostatic equilibrium the surface
of a conductor is an equipotential surface.
Equipotential surfaces are those surfaces on which all the points have the same
value for electric potential.
−𝑊𝐴→𝐵
From relation 𝑑𝑉 = we conclude that no work is required to move a charge
𝑞0

between two points on the surface of a charged conductor or inside the conductor.
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The electric field lines are perpendicular to Equipotential surfaces.

Equipotential surfaces that have a fixed potential difference between them are
more closely spaced where the electric field strength E is greater.

Figures shown equipotential surfaces near a spherical conductor and a nonspherical

conductor

Example 3.14 A Hollow Spherical Shell

A hollow, uncharged spherical conducting shell has an inner radius a and an outer
radius b. A positive point charge +q is located at the center of the shell.
(a) Find the charge on each surface of the conductor.
(b) Find the potential V(r) everywhere, assuming that at 𝐕 = 𝟎 at 𝐫 = ∞
Solution:
(a) By Appling Gauss’s law to the Gaussian surface has radius r ( 𝑎 < 𝑟 < 𝑏)
𝑞
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑛̂ 𝑑𝐴 = inside
𝜀 0

Since 𝐸⃗ inside conductor must be zero → 𝑞inside = 0

𝑞inside = 𝑞 + 𝑄𝑎
so the charge on inner surface of shell is 𝑄𝑎 = −𝑞
where 𝑄𝑎 is the charge on inner surface
since the shell is uncharged (neutral) → 𝑄𝑎 + 𝑄𝑏 = 0
so the charge on outer surface of shell is 𝑄𝑏 = −𝑄𝑎 = 𝑞
(b) The electric field 𝐸⃗ everywhere by using Gauss's law is given by
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𝑞
𝑘 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑎
𝐸⃗ = 𝐸𝑟 𝑟̂ = { 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎≤𝑟≤𝑏
𝑞
𝑘 𝑟2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑏

dV = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟
𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 = − ∫𝑟 𝑝 𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑒𝑓

The potential 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is chosen to be zero at infinity (𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑓 = ∞)

𝑟
𝑉𝑃 = ∫∞𝑝 −𝐸𝑟 𝑑𝑟

 The potential in region (𝑟𝑝 ≥ 𝑏)

𝑟 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − ∫∞𝑝 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑘 𝑟
𝑝

 The potential in region (𝑎 ≤ 𝑟𝑝 ≤ 𝑏)

𝑏 𝑄 𝑟 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − [∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑏 𝑝(0)𝑑𝑟] = 𝑘 𝑏

 The potential in region (𝑟𝑝 ≤ 𝑎)

𝑏 𝑄 𝑎 𝑟 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = − [∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑏 (0)𝑑𝑟 + ∫𝑎 𝑝 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟]
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑏 − 𝑘 𝑎 + 𝑘 𝑟
𝑝

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑘𝑏−𝑘𝑎+𝑘𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≤𝑎
𝑄
𝑉(𝑟) = 𝑘𝑏 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎≤𝑟≤𝑏
𝑞
𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑟≥𝑏
{ 𝑟
Inside the conducting material, where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑏 the potential has the constant value
𝑄
𝑉 =𝑘𝑏

Outside the shell, the potential is the same as that of a point charge at the center of
the shell.
Note that 𝑉(𝑟) is continuous everywhere. The electric field is discontinuous at the
conductor surfaces, as reflected in the discontinuous slope of 𝑉(𝑟) at 𝑟 = 𝑎 and 𝑟 = 𝑏

Example 3.15 Two Charged Spherical Conductors

Two uncharged spherical conductors of radius R1=6 cm and R2=2cm and separated
by a distance much greater than 6cm are connected by a long, very thin
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conducting wire. A total charge 𝑸 = +𝟖𝟎𝒏𝑪 is placed on one of the spheres and the
system is allowed to reach electrostatic equilibrium.
(a) What is the charge on each sphere?
(b) What is the electric field strength at the surface of each sphere?
(c) What is the electric potential of each sphere? (Assume that the charge on the
connecting wire is negligible.)
Solution:

(a) The total charge will be distributed with on sphere 1 and on sphere 2 so that the
spheres will be at the same potential.
From conservation of charge 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 (1)
𝑄 𝑄
Since 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 → 𝑘 𝑅1 = 𝑘 𝑅2
1 2

𝑅
𝑄2 = 𝑄1 𝑅2
1

By substituting in equation (1)

𝑅 𝑅1
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄1 𝑅2 → 𝑄1 = 𝑄(𝑅 )
1 1 +𝑅2

6
𝑄1 = 80 (6+8) = 60𝑛𝐶

𝑄2 = 𝑄 − 𝑄1 = 80 − 60 = 20𝑛𝐶
𝑄1 𝑅
Note: = 𝑅1
𝑄2 2

𝑄 9×109 ×60×10−9
(b) 𝐸1 = 𝑘 𝑅12 = = 150 𝑉/𝑚
1 (6×10−2 )2

𝑄 9×109 ×20×10−9
𝐸2 = 𝑘 𝑅22 = = 450 𝑉/𝑚
2 (2×10−2 )2

𝐸1 𝑄 𝑅2 𝑅 𝑅2 𝑅
Note: = 𝑄1 𝑅22 = 𝑅1 × 𝑅22 = 𝑅2
𝐸2 2 1 2 1 1

𝑄 9×109 ×60×10−9
(c) 𝑉1 = 𝑘 𝑅1 = = 9 𝑘𝑉
1 6×10−2

𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 9 𝑘𝑉

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