CHAPTER-5

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

A composite material is a material made from two or more constituent materials with
significantly different physical or chemical properties that, when combined, produce a material
with characteristics different from the individual components. The individual components remain
separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for many
reasons: common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter, or less expensive when
compared to traditional materials. More recently, researchers have also begun to actively include
sensing, actuation, computation and communication into composites, which are known
as Robotic Materials.

Typical engineered composite materials include:

 mortars, concrete
 Reinforced plastics, such as fiber-reinforced polymer
 Metal composites
 Ceramic composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges, and structures such as boat hulls,
swimming pool panels, race car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs, storage tanks,
imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops. The most advanced examples
perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments.

The earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to
form bricks for building construction. Ancient brick-making was documented by Egyptian tomb
paintings. Wattle and daub is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000
years old. Concrete is also a composite material, and is used more than any other man-made
material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each
year—more than one cubic metre for every person on Earth.

 Woody plants, both true wood from trees and such plants as palms and bamboo, yield natural
composites that were used prehistorically by mankind and are still used widely in
construction and scaffolding.
 Plywood 3400 BC by the Ancient Mesopotamians; gluing wood at different angles gives
better properties than natural wood
 Car tonnage layers of linen or papyrus soaked in plaster dates to the First Intermediate Period
of Egypt c. 2181–2055 BC and was used for death masks
 Cob (material) Mud Bricks, or Mud Walls, (using mud (clay) with straw or gravel as a
binder) have been used for thousands of years.
 Concrete was described by Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on
Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime
mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana, which were volcanic sands from
the sand like beds of Pozzuoli brownish-yellow-gray in color near Naples and reddish-brown
at Rome. Vitruvius specifies a ratio of 1 part lime to 3 parts pozzolana for cements used in
buildings and a 1:2 ratio of lime to pulvis Puteolanus for underwater work, essentially the
same ratio mixed today for concrete used at sea. Natural cement-stones, after burning,
produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into the 20th century, with some
properties superior to manufactured Portland cement.
 Papier-mâché, a composite of paper and glue, has been used for hundreds of years
 The first artificial fibre reinforced plastic was bakelite which dates to 1907, although natural
polymers such as shellac predate it
 One of the most common and familiar composite is fiberglass, in which small glass fiber are
embedded within a polymeric material (normally an epoxy or polyester). The glass fiber is
relatively strong and stiff (but also brittle), whereas the polymer is ductile (but also weak and
flexible). Thus the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, and ductile.

Materials

Concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose
stones (aggregate) held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is an inexpensive material, and will
not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot
survive tensile loading (i.e., if stretched it will quickly break apart). Therefore, to give concrete
the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often
added to concrete to form reinforced concrete.

Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or CFRP, and glass-

reinforced plastic or GRP. If classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short
fiber thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are
numerous thermoset composites, including paper composite panels. Many advanced systems
usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix.
Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or
fabric reinforcement and shape memory polymer resin as the matrix. Since a shape memory
polymer resin is used as the matrix, these composites have the ability to be easily manipulated
into various configurations when they are heated above their activation temperatures and will
exhibit high strength and stiffness at lower temperatures. They can also be reheated and reshaped
repeatedly without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for applications
such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures; rapid manufacturing; and dynamic
reinforcement.

High strain composites are another type of high-performance composites that are designed to
perform in a high deformation setting and are often used in deployable systems where structural
flexing is advantageous. Although high strain composites exhibit many similarities to shape
memory polymers, their performance is generally dependent on the fiber layout as opposed to the
resin content of the matrix.

Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix
composites (MMC) or ceramic matrix composites(CMC), which
includes bone (hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibres), cermet (ceramic and metal)
and concrete. Ceramic matrix composites are built primarily for fracture toughness, not for
strength.

Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites include asphalt concrete, polymer concrete, mastic
asphalt, mastic roller hybrid, dental composite, syntactic foam and mother of pearl. Chobham
armour is a special type of composite armour used in military applications.

Additionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific metal powders
resulting in materials with a density range from 2 g/cm³ to 11 g/cm³ (same density as lead). The
most common name for this type of material is "high gravity compound" (HGC), although "lead
replacement" is also used. These materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as
aluminium, stainless steel, brass, bronze, copper, lead, and even tungsten in weighting, balancing
(for example, modifying the centre of gravity of a tennis racquet), vibration damping, and
radiation shielding applications. High density composites are an economically viable option
when certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as lead) or when secondary
operations costs (such as machining, finishing, or coating) are a factor.

A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite material that is fabricated by

attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The core material is normally
low strength material, but its higher thickness provides the sandwich composite with
high bending stiffness with overall low density.

Wood is a naturally occurring composite comprising cellulose fibres in a lignin

and hemicellulose matrix. Engineered wood includes a wide variety of different products such as
wood fibre board, plywood, oriented strand board, wood plastic composite (recycled wood fibre
in polyethylene matrix), Pykrete (sawdust in ice matrix), Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper
or textiles, Arborite, Formica (plastic) and Micarta. Other engineered laminate composites, such
as Mallite, use a central core of end grain balsa wood, bonded to surface skins of light alloy or
GRP. These generate low-weight, high rigidity materials.

Tufcot is a composite engineering material manufactured from synthetic fibres and thermosetting
resins. All grades of Tufcot are available with solid lubricant incorporated.[5] The various
grades[6] contain either Graphite, P.T.F.E, Ceramic Powder or Molybdenum Disulphide
dispersed evenly throughout the material, so that the wear of a components surface continually
releases further lubricant. It offers the design engineer an attractive alternative to traditional
materials used throughout industry for bushes, bearings, wear pads, and many more applications.
It’s only 1/6th the weight of steel, is easily machined and has exceptional dimensional stability,
even in wet conditions. Tufcot is a highly recommended composite material for use where other
forms of lubricant are either not desirable, intermittent or non-existent. In addition, in numerous
cases where the maintenance of lubricant films is difficult this type of material has been found to
give improved performance. Special performance or properties such as fire retardance and acid
resistance can be obtained by variations in either resin or fabric reinforcement.
Products

Fiber-reinforced composite materials have gained popularity (despite their generally high cost) in
high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet strong enough to take harsh loading
conditions such as aerospace components (tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat
and scull hulls, bicycle frames and racing car bodies. Other uses includefishing rods, storage
tanks, swimming pool panels, and baseball bats. The new Boeing 787 structure including the
wings and fuselage is composed largely of composites. Composite materials are also becoming
more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery.

Carbon composite is a key material in today's launch vehicles and heat shields for the re-
entry phase of spacecraft. It is widely used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes
of spacecraft. It is also used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch
vehicles. Furthermore, disk brake systems of airplanes and racing cars are
using carbon/carbon material, and the composite material with carbon fibers and silicon
carbide matrix has been introduced in luxury vehicles and sports cars.

In 2006, a fiber-reinforced composite pool panel was introduced for in-ground swimming pools,
residential as well as commercial, as a non-corrosive alternative to galvanized steel.

In 2007, an all-composite military Humvee was introduced by TPI Composites Inc and Armor
Holdings Inc, the first all-composite military vehicle. By using composites the vehicle is lighter,
allowing higher payloads. In 2008, carbon fiber and DuPont Kevlar (five times stronger than
steel) were combined with enhanced thermoset resins to make military transit cases by ECS
Composites creating 30-percent lighter cases with high strength.

Pipes and fittings for various purpose like transportation of potable water, fire-fighting,
irrigation, seawater, desalinated water, chemical and industrial waste, and sewage are now
manufactured in glass reinforced plastics

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials. There are
two main categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion of
each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement materials by
maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart their special mechanical and
physical properties to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties
unavailable from the individual constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and
strengthening materials allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum
combination.

Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix material can be introduced
to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement material is placed into the mould cavity or
onto the mould surface. The matrix material experiences a melding event, after which the part
shape is essentially set. Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can
occur in various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state.

A variety of molding methods can be used according to the end-item design requirements. The
principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the chosen matrix and
reinforcement materials. Another important factor is the gross quantity of material to be
produced. Large quantities can be used to justify high capital expenditures for rapid and
automated manufacturing technology. Small production quantities are accommodated with lower
capital expenditures but higher labour and tooling costs at a correspondingly slower rate.
Many commercially produced composites use a polymer matrix material often called a resin
solution. There are many different polymers available depending upon the starting raw
ingredients. There are several broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most
common are known as polyester, vinyl
ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, PEEK, and others. The
reinforcement materials are often fibres but also commonly ground minerals. The various
methods described below have been developed to reduce the resin content of the final product, or
the fibre content is increased. As a rule of thumb, lay up results in a product containing 60%
resin and 40% fibre, whereas vacuum infusion gives a final product with 40% resin and 60%
fiber content. The strength of the product is greatly dependent on this ratio.

Martin Hubbe and Lucian A Lucia consider wood to be a natural composite of cellulose fibres in
a matrix of lignin.

CONSTUITENTS

Polymers are common matrices (especially used for fiber reinforced plastics). Road surfaces are
often made from asphalt concrete which uses bitumen as a matrix. Mud (wattle and daub) has
seen extensive use. Typically, most common polymer-based composite materials, including
fiberglass, carbon fiber, and Kevlar, include at least two parts, the substrate and the resin.

Polyester resin tends to have yellowish tint, and is suitable for most backyard projects. Its
weaknesses are that it is UV sensitive and can tend to degrade over time, and thus generally is
also coated to help preserve it. It is often used in the making of surfboards and for marine
applications. Its hardener is a peroxide, often MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide). When the
peroxide is mixed with the resin, it decomposes to generate free radicals, which initiate the
curing reaction. Hardeners in these systems are commonly called catalysts, but since they do not
re-appear unchanged at the end of the reaction, they do not fit the strictest chemical definition of
a catalyst.

Vinylester resin tends to have a purplish to bluish to greenish tint. This resin has lower viscosity
than polyester resin, and is more transparent. This resin is often billed as being fuel resistant, but
will melt in contact with gasoline. This resin tends to be more resistant over time to degradation
than polyester resin, and is more flexible. It uses the same hardeners as polyester resin (at a
similar mix ratio) and the cost is approximately the same.Epoxy resin is almost totally
transparent when cured. In the aerospace industry, epoxy is used as a structural matrix material
or as a structural glue.
Shape memory polymer (SMP) resins have varying visual characteristics depending on their
formulation. These resins may be epoxy-based, which can be used for auto body and outdoor
equipment repairs; cyanate-ester-based, which are used in space applications; and acrylate-based,
which can be used in very cold temperature applications, such as for sensors that indicate
whether perishable goods have warmed above a certain maximum temperature. These resins are
unique in that their shape can be repeatedly changed by heating above their glass
transition temperature (Tg). When heated, they become flexible and elastic, allowing for easy
configuration. Once they are cooled, they will maintain their new shape. The resins will return to
their original shapes when they are reheated above their Tg. The advantage of shape memory
polymer resins is that they can be shaped and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material
properties. These resins can be used in fabricating shape memory composites.

Inorganic

Cement (concrete), metals, ceramics and sometimes glass. Unusual matrices such as ice are
sometime proposed as in pykecrete.
Reinforcements
Fiber

Reinforcement usually adds rigidity and greatly impedes crack propagation. Thin fibers can have
very high strength, and provided they are mechanically well attached to the matrix they can
greatly improve the composite's overall properties.

Fiber-reinforced composite materials can be divided into two main categories normally referred
to as short fiber-reinforced materials and continuous fiber-reinforced materials. Continuous
reinforced materials will often constitute a layered or laminated structure. The woven and
continuous fibre styles are typically available in a variety of forms, being pre-impregnated with
the given matrix (resin), dry, uni-directional tapes of various widths, plain weave, harness satins,
braided, and stitched.

The short and long fibers are typically employed in compression moulding and sheet moulding
operations. These come in the form of flakes, chips, and random mate (which can also be made
from a continuous fibre laid in random fashion until the desired thickness of the ply / laminate is
achieved).
Common fibers used for reinforcement include glass fibers, carbon fibers, cellulose (wood/paper
fiber and straw) and high strength polymers for example aramid. Silicon carbide fibers are used
for some high temperature applications.

Other reinforcement

Concrete uses aggregate, and reinforced concrete additionally uses steel bars (rebar) to tension
the concrete. Steel mesh or wires are also used in some glass and plastic products.
Cores

Many composite layup designs also include a co-curing or post-curing of the prepreg with
various other media, such as honeycomb or foam. This is commonly called a sandwich structure.
This is a more common layup for the manufacture of radomes, doors, cowlings, or non-structural
parts.

Open- and closed-cell-

structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane, polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa
wood, syntactic foams, and honeycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-
cell metal foam can also be used as core materials.

Fabrication of composite materials is accomplished by a wide variety of techniques, including:

 Advanced fiber placement (Automated fiber placement)

 Tailored fiber placement
 Fiberglass spray lay-up process
 Filament winding
 Lanxide process
 Tufting
 Z-pinning

Composite fabrication usually involves wetting, mixing or saturating the reinforcement with
the matrix, and then causing the matrix to bind together (with heat or a chemical reaction) into a
rigid structure. The operation is usually[citation needed] done in an open or closed forming mold, but
the order and ways of introducing the ingredients varies considerably.
Mold overview

Within a mold, the reinforcing and matrix materials are combined, compacted, and cured
(processed) to undergo a melding event. After the melding event, the part shape is essentially set,
although it can deform under certain process conditions. For a thermoset polymeric matrix
material, the melding event is a curing reaction that is initiated by the application of additional
heat or chemical reactivity such as an organic peroxide. For a thermoplastic polymeric matrix
material, the melding event is a solidification from the melted state. For a metal matrix material
such as titanium foil, the melding event is a fusing at high pressure and a temperature near the
melting point.

For many moulding methods, it is convenient to refer to one mould piece as a "lower" mould and
another mould piece as an "upper" mould. Lower and upper refer to the different faces of the
moulded panel, not the mould's configuration in space. In this convention, there is always a
lower mould, and sometimes an upper mould. Part construction begins by applying materials to
the lower mould. Lower mould and upper mould are more generalized descriptors than more
common and specific terms such as male side, female side, a-side, b-side, tool side, bowl, hat,
mandrel, etc. Continuous manufacturing uses a different nomenclature.

The moulded product is often referred to as a panel. For certain geometries and material
combinations, it can be referred to as a casting. For certain continuous processes, it can be
referred to as a profile.
Vacuum bag moulding

Vacuum bag moulding uses a flexible film to enclose the part and seal it from outside air.
Vacuum bag material is available in a tube shape or a sheet of material. A vacuum is then drawn
on the vacuum bag and atmospheric pressure compresses the part during the cure. When a tube
shaped bag is used, the entire part can be enclosed within the bag. When using sheet bagging
materials, the edges of the vacuum bag are sealed against the edges of the mould surface to
enclose the part against an air-tight mould. When bagged in this way, the lower mold is a rigid
structure and the upper surface of the part is formed by the flexible membrane vacuum bag. The
flexible membrane can be a reusable silicone material or an extruded polymer film. After sealing
the part inside the vacuum bag, a vacuum is drawn on the part (and held) during cure. This
process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature with ambient atmospheric
pressure acting upon the vacuum bag. A vacuum pump is typically used to draw a vacuum. An
economical method of drawing a vacuum is with a venturi vacuum and air compressor.

A vacuum bag is a bag made of strong rubber-coated fabric or a polymer film used to compress
the part during cure or hardening. In some applications the bag encloses the entire material, or in
other applications a mold is used to form one face of the laminate with the bag being a single
layer to seal to the outer edge of the mold face. When using a tube shaped bag, the ends of the
bag are sealed and the air is drawn out of the bag through a nipple using a vacuum pump. As a
result, uniform pressure approaching oneatmosphere is applied to the surfaces of the object
inside the bag, holding parts together while the adhesive cures. The entire bag may be placed in a
temperature-controlled oven, oil bath or water bath and gently heated to accelerate curing.

Vacuum bagging is widely used in the composites industry as well. Carbon fiber fabric
and fiberglass, along with resins and epoxies are common materials laminated together with a
vacuum bag operation.

Woodworking applications

In commercial woodworking facilities, vacuum bags are used to laminate curved and irregular
shaped workpieces.

Typically, polyurethane or vinyl materials are used to make the bag. A tube shaped bag is open
at both ends. The piece, or pieces to be glued are placed into the bag and the ends sealed. One
method of sealing the open ends of the bag is by placing a clamp on each end of the bag. A
plastic rod is laid across the end of the bag, the bag is then folded over the rod. A plastic sleeve
with an opening in it, is then snapped over the rod. This procedure forms a seal at both ends of
the bag, when the vacuum is ready to be drawn.

A "platen" is sometimes used inside the bag for the piece being glued to lie on. The platen has a
series of small slots cut into it, to allow the air under it to be evacuated. The platen must have
rounded edges and corners to prevent the vacuum from tearing the bag.

When a curved part is to be glued in a vacuum bag, it is important that the pieces being glued be
placed over a solidly built form, or have an air bladder placed under the form. This air bladder
has access to "free air" outside the bag. It is used to create an equal pressure under the form,
preventing it from being crushed.[9]
Pressure bag molding

This process is related to vacuum bag molding in exactly the same way as it sounds. A solid
female mold is used along with a flexible male mold. The reinforcement is placed inside the
female mold with just enough resin to allow the fabric to stick in place (wet lay up). A measured
amount of resin is then liberally brushed indiscriminately into the mold and the mold is then
clamped to a machine that contains the male flexible mold. The flexible male membrane is then
inflated with heated compressed air or possibly steam. The female mold can also be heated.
Excess resin is forced out along with trapped air. This process is extensively used in the
production of composite helmets due to the lower cost of unskilled labor. Cycle times for a
helmet bag moulding machine vary from 20 to 45 minutes, but the finished shells require no
further curing if the molds are heated.
Autoclave moulding

A process using a two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. On the lower side is
a rigid mould and on the upper side is a flexible membrane made from silicone or an extruded
polymer film such as nylon. Reinforcement materials can be placed manually or robotically.
They include continuous fibre forms fashioned into textile constructions. Most often, they are
pre-impregnated with the resin in the form of prepreg fabrics or unidirectional tapes. In some
instances, a resin film is placed upon the lower mould and dry reinforcement is placed above.
The upper mould is installed and vacuum is applied to the mould cavity. The assembly is placed
into an autoclave. This process is generally performed at both elevated pressure and elevated
temperature. The use of elevated pressure facilitates a high fibre volume fraction and low void
content for maximum structural efficiency.
Resin transfer moulding (RTM)

RTM is a process using a rigid two-sided mould set that forms both surfaces of the panel. The
mould is typically constructed from aluminum or steel, but composite molds are sometimes used.
The two sides fit together to produce a mould cavity. The distinguishing feature of resin transfer
moulding is that the reinforcement materials are placed into this cavity and the mould set is
closed prior to the introduction of matrix material. Resin transfer moulding includes numerous
varieties which differ in the mechanics of how the resin is introduced to the reinforcement in the
mould cavity. These variations include everything from the RTM methods used in out of
autoclave composite manufacturing for high-tech aerospace components to vacuum infusion (for
resin infusion see also boat building) to vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM). This
process can be performed at either ambient or elevated temperature.
Other fabrication methods

Other types of fabrication include press moulding, transfer

moulding, pultrusion moulding, filament winding, casting, centrifugal casting, continuous
casting and slip forming. There are also forming capabilities including CNC filament winding,
vacuum infusion, wet lay-up, compression moulding, and thermoplastic moulding, to name a
few. The use of curing ovens and paint booths is also needed for some projects.
Finishing methods

The finishing of the composite parts is also critical in the final design. Many of these finishes
will include rain-erosion coatings or polyurethane coatings.
Tooling

The mold and mold inserts are referred to as "tooling." The mold/tooling can be constructed from
a variety of materials. Tooling materials include invar, steel, aluminium, reinforced silicone
rubber, nickel, and carbon fiber. Selection of the tooling material is typically based on, but not
limited to, the coefficient of thermal expansion, expected number of cycles, end item tolerance,
desired or required surface condition, method of cure, glass transition temperature of the material
being moulded, moulding method, matrix, cost and a variety of other considerations.

The physical properties of composite materials are generally not isotropic (independent of
direction of applied force) in nature, but rather are typically anisotropic (different depending on
the direction of the applied force or load). For instance, the stiffness of a composite panel will
often depend upon the orientation of the applied forces and/or moments. Panel stiffness is also
dependent on the design of the panel. For instance, the fibre reinforcement and matrix used, the
method of panel build, thermoset versus thermoplastic, type of weave, and orientation of fibre
axis to the primary force.

In contrast, isotropic materials (for example, aluminium or steel), in standard wrought forms,
typically have the same stiffness regardless of the directional orientation of the applied forces
and/or moments.

The relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures for an isotropic material can be
described with the following material properties: Young's Modulus, the shear Modulus and
the Poisson's ratio, in relatively simple mathematical relationships. For the anisotropic material,
it requires the mathematics of a second order tensor and up to 21 material property constants. For
the special case of orthogonal isotropy, there are three different material property constants for
each of Young's Modulus, Shear Modulus and Poisson's ratio—a total of 9 constants to describe
the relationship between forces/moments and strains/curvatures.

Techniques that take advantage of the anisotropic properties of the materials include mortise and
tenon joints (in natural composites such as wood) and Pi Joints in synthetic composites.
Failure

Shock, impact, or repeated cyclic stresses can cause the laminate to separate at the interface
between two layers, a condition known as delamination. Individual fibres can separate from the
matrix e.g. fibre pull-out.

Composites can fail on the microscopic or macroscopic scale. Compression failures can occur at
both the macro scale or at each individual reinforcing fiber in compression buckling. Tension
failures can be net section failures of the part or degradation of the composite at a microscopic
scale where one or more of the layers in the composite fail in tension of the matrix or failure of
the bond between the matrix and fibers.

Some composites are brittle and have little reserve strength beyond the initial onset of failure
while others may have large deformations and have reserve energy absorbing capacity past the
onset of damage. The variations in fibers and matrices that are available and the mixtures that
can be made with blends leave a very broad range of properties that can be designed into a
composite structure. The best known failure of a brittle ceramic matrix composite occurred when
the carbon-carbon composite tile on the leading edge of the wing of the Space Shuttle
Columbia fractured when impacted during take-off. It led to catastrophic break-up of the vehicle
when it re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 1 February 2003. Compared to metals, composites
have relatively poor bearing strength.
Testing

To aid in predicting and preventing failures, composites are tested before and after construction.
Pre-construction testing may use finite element analysis (FEA) for ply-by-ply analysis of curved
surfaces and predicting wrinkling, crimping and dimpling of composites. Materials may be tested
during manufacturing and after construction through several nondestructive methods including
ultrasonics, thermography, shearography and X-ray radiography, and laser bond inspection for
NDT of relative bond strength integrity in a localized area.