Institutions

I American constitution composed of seven articles and adopted in 1787 effective in 1789 27
amendments from 1791 to 1992
Origins, basic principles; separation of powers 3 branches legislative, executive,judicial;
checks and balances and the contents: seven articles and 27 amendments (10 firsts bill of
rights)
II The legislative branch: the congress: composition (the speaker)powers of the congress; the
law making process
III The executive branch: the president and the vice-president
Election of the president: the primaries; the natonal conventions; the popular vote; the
electoral vote
The role of the president, how the executive works: the vice president; the cabinet; the
executive office; the federal agencies
IV The judicial branch: the supreme court: how the supreme court operates (judicial review)
Some milestones of the supreme court ( just one line) 1857 Dred Scott v Stanford
1869 Plessy v Ferguson, 1962 engle v vitale , &çè” roe v wade 2015 obergefell v hodges
V The two party system: democratic party and republican party (GOP)
VI federalism and state governments

The institutions of the United States, particularly those outlined in the Constitution, are the
foundation of the nation's government and legal system. This essay provides an overview of
the key aspects of the American Constitution, the legislative, executive, and judicial branches,
the two-party system, and the concept of federalism.
I. The American Constitution
The United States Constitution, composed of seven articles, was drafted in 1787 and came
into effect in 1789. It has been amended 27 times between 1791 and 1992. The Constitution
is the supreme law of the land and establishes the framework for the U.S. government, its
functions, and the rights of its citizens.
Origins and Basic Principles:
The Constitution was drafted during the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, with figures
like George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton playing pivotal roles. It was
created to replace the Articles of Confederation, which had proven inadequate in governing
the newly independent nation. The Constitution is based on principles like popular
sovereignty, limited government, the rule of law, and federalism.
Separation of Powers:
The Constitution divides the federal government into three branches: legislative, executive,
and judicial. Each branch has distinct powers and responsibilities to prevent any single branch
from becoming too powerful.
Checks and Balances:
To ensure that no branch of government can dominate, the Constitution includes a system of
checks and balances. For instance, the president can veto legislation, Congress can override
vetoes and impeach the president, and the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional.
The Seven Articles:
1. Article I: Establishes the legislative branch (Congress).
2. Article II: Establishes the executive branch (the presidency).
3. Article III: Establishes the judicial branch (the Supreme Court and lower courts).
4. Article IV: Addresses the states and their relationships with the federal government.
5. Article V: Describes the process of amending the Constitution.
6. Article VI: Establishes the Constitution as the supreme law of the land.
7. Article VII: Describes the ratification process.
The 27 Amendments:
The first ten amendments, known as the Bill of Rights, were adopted in 1791 and guarantee
fundamental rights such as freedom of speech, religion, and the press. Subsequent
amendments have addressed issues such as civil rights, voting rights, and presidential terms.
II. The Legislative Branch: Congress
Composition of Congress:
Congress is a bicameral legislature, consisting of two chambers: the House of Representatives
and the Senate. The Speaker of the House, elected by the representatives, presides over the
House, while the Vice President of the United States serves as the President of the Senate,
though day-to-day operations are often handled by the Senate Majority Leader.
Powers of Congress:
Congress holds significant powers, including the ability to make laws, levy taxes, regulate
commerce, declare war, and control the budget. It also has the authority to impeach and
remove federal officials, including the president.
The Lawmaking Process:
A bill must pass both the House and Senate and be signed by the president to become law. If
the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds majority in both
chambers.
III. The Executive Branch: The President and Vice President
Election of the President:
The president is elected every four years through a complex process involving primaries,
national conventions, the popular vote, and the Electoral College. The primaries and caucuses
determine each party's candidate, who is then officially nominated at the national
conventions. The general election is determined by the popular vote, but the president is
ultimately elected by the Electoral College.
The Role of the President:
The president serves as the head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of
the armed forces. The president has the power to sign or veto legislation, issue executive
orders, appoint federal judges, and conduct foreign policy.
The Executive Structure:
The executive branch includes the vice president, who succeeds the president if necessary
and presides over the Senate. The president's cabinet consists of heads of federal
departments, such as the Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense, who advise the
president. The Executive Office of the President and various federal agencies also play key
roles in implementing policies.
IV. The Judicial Branch: The Supreme Court
How the Supreme Court Operates:
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the United States and has the power of judicial
review, established by the landmark case Marbury v. Madison (1803). Judicial review allows
the Court to strike down laws or executive actions that are unconstitutional.
Milestones of the Supreme Court:
 1857: Dred Scott v. Sandford: Denied citizenship to African Americans.
 1896: Plessy v. Ferguson: Upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal"
doctrine.
 1962: Engel v. Vitale: Prohibited state-sponsored prayer in public schools.
 1973: Roe v. Wade: Legalized abortion nationwide.
 2015: Obergefell v. Hodges: Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.
V. The Two-Party System
The United States operates under a two-party system, dominated by the Democratic Party
and the Republican Party (GOP). While other parties exist, the Democrats and Republicans
have been the primary political forces since the mid-19th century.
The Democratic Party:
Founded in 1828, the Democratic Party generally supports social liberalism, environmental
protection, and government intervention in the economy to promote social welfare.
The Republican Party:
Founded in 1854, the Republican Party, also known as the GOP (Grand Old Party), typically
advocates for limited government, free-market capitalism, and conservative social policies.
VI. Federalism and State Governments
Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a national (federal)
government and various state governments. The Constitution outlines the powers of the
federal government while reserving other powers for the states. Each state has its own
constitution, government, and laws, but they must not conflict with the U.S. Constitution. This
division of power allows for a balance between national unity and regional diversity.
In conclusion, the institutions of the United States are structured to ensure a balance of power
and protect the rights of citizens. The Constitution, with its amendments, and the three
branches of government create a framework that has endured for over two centuries. The
two-party system and federalism further contribute to the complexity and adaptability of the
American political system.