UNIT-II

Lift Principles: Airfoil nomenclature - Wing nomenclature[including structural components] - Wing

loading - Weight and Mass - Lift generation - Stagnation point - Centre of pressure - Pitching moment
- Aerodynamic center - Types of fluid flows – Circulation - Magnus effect - Kutta condition [8]
Drag and Speed: Separation- Wake and vortices - Drag and its types – Stall - Aerodynamic
efficiency – Primary control surfaces – Secondary control surfaces - Necessity of high lift devices -
Types of high lift devices. [7]

AEROFOILS AND WINGS

1. PLAN FORMS
If a horizontal wing is cut by a vertical plane parallel to the centre line of the vehicle, the resultant
section is called the aerofoil or aerofoil section. The generated lift and the stall characteristics of the
wing depend strongly on the geometry of the aerofoil sections that make up the wing. Geometric
parameters that have an important effect on the aerodynamic characteristics of an aerofoil section
include
a. the leading-edge radius,
b. the mean camber line,
c. the maximum thickness and the thickness distribution of the profile, and
d. the trailing-edge angle.
The effect of these parameters, which are illustrated, in Figure. will be discussed after a brief
introduction to aerofoil section nomenclature.
2. SECTIONAL FORMS
“The gradual development of wing theory tended to isolate the wing-section problems from the
effects of planform and led to a more systematic experimental approach. The tests made at
Gottingen during World War -I contributed much to the development of modern types of wing
sections. Upto about World War -II, most wing section in common use were derived from more or
less direct extensions of the work at Gottingen. During this period, many families of wing sections
were tested in the laboratories of various countries, but the work of the NACA was outstanding. The
NACA investigations were further systematized by separation of the effects of camber and thickness
distribution, and the experimental work was performed at higher Reynold’s number than were
generally obtained elsewhere”.
As a result, the geometry of many aerofoil sections is uniquely defined by the NACA designation for
the aerofoil. There are a variety of classifications, including NACA6 series wing sections. As an
example, consider the NACA four-digit wing sections. The first integer indicates the maximum value
of the main chamber-line ordinate in percent of the chord.
The second integer indicates the distance from the leading edge to the maximum section thickness
in percent of the chord. Thus, the NACA 0010 is a symmetric air foil section whose maximum
thickness is 10% of the chord. The NACA 4412 airfoil section is a 12% thick airfoil which has 4%
maximum chamber located at 40% of the chord.
A series of “standard” modifications are designated by suffix consisting of a dash followed by two
digits. These modifications consist essentially of (1) changes of the leading edge radius from the
normal value and (2) changes of the position of maximum thickness from the normal position (which
is at 0.3c) Thus,
NACA 0010 - 64
The first integer indicates the relative magnitude of the The second integer of the modification
indicates leading-edge radius (normal leading-edge radius is “6”; the location of the maximum
thickness in tenths sharp leading edge is “0”). of chord.
However, because of the rapid improvements, both in computer hardware and computer software,
and because of the broad use of sophisticated numerical codes, one often encounters airfoil
sections being developed that are not described by the standard NACA geometries.
Leading-Edge Radius
The leading edge of aerofoils used in subsonic applications is rounded, with a radius that is of the
order of 1% of the chord length. The leading-edge radius of the aerofoil section is the radius of a
circle centred on a line tangent to the leading edge camber connecting tangency points of the upper
and the lower surfaces with the leading edge. The magnitude of the leading-edge radius has a
significant effect on the stall (or boundary-layer separation) characteristics of the aerofoil section.
Chord Line
The chord line is defined as the straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges. The centre
of the leading-edge radius is located such that the cambered section projects slightly forward of the
leading-edge point. The geometric angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the
direction of the undisturbed, “free-stream” flow. For many airplanes the chord lines of the aerofoil
sections are inclined relative to the vehicle axis.
Mean Camber Line
The locus of the points midway between the upper surface and the lower surface, as measured
perpendicular to the chord line, defines the mean camber line. The shape of the mean camber line
is very important in determining the
aerodynamic characteristics of an airfoil section. Cambered airfoils in a subsonic flow generate lift
even when the section angle of attack is zero. Thus, an effect of camber is a change in the zero-lift
angle of attack, ox. While the symmetric sections have zero lift at zero lift at zero angle of attack,
zero lift results for sections with positive camber when they are at negative angles of attack.
Furthermore, camber has beneficial effect on the maximum value of the section lift coefficient. If the
maximum lift coefficient is high, the stall speed will be low, all other factors being the same. It should
be noted, however, that the thickness and camber necessary for high maximum values for the
sections lift coefficient produce low critical Mach numbers and high twisting moments at high
speeds. Thus, one needs to consider the trade-offs in selecting a design value for a particular
parameter.
Maximum Thickness and Thickness Distribution
The maximum thickness and the thickness distribution strongly influence the aerodynamic
characteristics of the aerofoil section. The maximum lift coefficient for an aerofoil section increases
as the maximum thickness of the airfoil increases.
In addition, the thicker aerofoils benefit more from the use of high lift devices but have a lower critical
Mach number.
The maximum local velocity to which a fluid particle accelerates as it flows around an aerofoil section
increases as the maximum thickness increases. Thus, the minimum pressure value is smallest for
the thickest aerofoil. As a result, the adverse pressure gradient associated with the deceleration of
the flow from the location of this pressure minimum to the trailing edge is greatest for the thickest
aerofoil. As adverse pressure gradient becomes larger, the boundary layer becomes thicker (and is
more likely to separate producing relatively large values for the form drag). Thus, the beneficial
effects of increasing the maximum thickness are limited.
The thickness distribution for an aerofoil affects the pressure distribution and the character of the
boundary layer. As the location of the maximum thickness moves after the velocity gradient (and
hence the pressure gradient) in the midchord region decreases. The resultant favourable pressure
gradient in the midchord region promotes boundary layer stability and increases the possibility that
the boundary layer remains laminar. Laminar boundary layers produce less skin friction drag than
turbulent boundary layers but are also more likely to separate under the influence of an adverse
pressure gradient.
Trailing-Edge Angle
The trailing edge angle affects the location of the aerodynamic centre. The aerodynamic centre of
this aerofoil sections in a subsonic stream is theoretically located at the quarter chord.
Wing-Geometry Parameters
By placing the aerofoil sections discussed in the preceding section in spanwise combinations, wings,
horizontal tails, vertical tails, canards and or other lifting surfaces are formed. When the parameters
that characterize the wing planform are introduced, attention must be directed to the existence of
flow components in the spanwise direction. In other words, aerofoil section properties relate to the
resultant flow in three dimensions.
In order to fully describe the planform of a wing, several terms are required. The terms that are
pertinent to defining the aerodynamic characteristics of a wing are illustrated in Figure.
1. The wing area, S, is simply the plan surface area of the wing. Although a portion of the area may
be covered by fuselage or nacelles, the pressure carries over on these surfaces allows legitimate
consideration of the entire plan area.
The plan area of the wing including continuation with the fuselage is the ‘gross wing area’ S G. The
plan area of the exposed wing (i.e. excluding the continuation within the fuselage) is the ‘net wing
area’ SN.
2. The wing span, b, is measured tip to tip.
3. The average chord, c is the geometric average. The product of the span and the average chord
is the wing area (b X c = S) .
4. The aspect ratio, AR, is the ratio of the span and the average chord. For a rectangular wing, the
aspect ratio is simply
AR = b/c
For a non-rectangular wing,
AR = b2/c
The aspect ratio is a fineness ratio of the wing and is useful in determining the aerodynamic
characteristics and structural weight. Typical aspect ratios vary from 35 for a high-performance
sailplane to 2 for a supersonic jet fighter.
5. The root chord, cr, is the chord at the wing centre line, and the tip chord, c t, is measured at the
tip.
6. Considering the wing planform to have straight lines for the leading and trailing edges, the taper
ratio, is the ratio of the tip chord to the root chord.

The taper ratio affects the lift distribution and the structural weight of the wing. A rectangular wing
has a taper ratio of 1.0 while the pointed tip delta wing has a taper ratio of 0.0.

7. The sweep angle, ˄ is usually measured as the angle between the line of 25 percent chord and
a perpendicular to the root chord. Sweep angles of the leading edge or of the trailing edge are often
presented with the parameters, since they are of interest for many applications. The sweep of a
wing causes definite changes in the maximum lift, in the stall characteristics, and in the effects of
compressibility.
8. The mean aerodynamic chord, (m.a.c.) is used together with S to non-dimensionalize the pitching
moments. Thus, the mean aerodynamic chord represents an average chord which, when multiplied
by the product of the average chord which, when multiplied by the product of the average section
moment coefficient, the dynamic pressure, and the wing area, gives the moment for the entire wing.
The mean aerodynamic chord is given by

9. The dihedral angle is the angle between a horizontal plane containing the root chord and a plane
midway between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing. If the wing lies below the horizontal
plane, it is termed an anhedral angle. The dihedral angle affects the lateral stability characteristics
of the airplane (Figure).
10. Geometric twist defines the situation where the chord lines for the spanwise distribution of
aerofoil sections do not all lie in the same plane. Thus, there is a spanwise variation in the geometric
angle of incidence for the sections. The chord of the root section of the wing shown in the sketch of
Figure above is inclined 4o relative to the vehicle axis.
The chord of the tip section, however is parallel to the vehicle axis. In this case, were the incidence
of the aerofoil sections relative to the vehicle axis decrease toward the tip, the wing has “wash out”.
The wings of numerous subsonic aircraft have wash out to control the spanwise lift distribution and,
hence, the boundary-layer separation (i.e., stall) characteristics. If the angle of incidence increases
toward the tip, the wing has “wash in”.
LIFTING SURFACES
If air flows past an aerofoil, a flat plate or indeed almost any shape that is inclined to the direction of
flow, we find that the pressure of air on the top surface is reduced while that underneath is increased.
This difference in pressure results in a net force on the plate trying to push it both upwards and
backwards. In the case of a simple flat plate, you might imagine that the net force would act at right
angles to the plate. This is not so, because there is also a tangential force caused by the different
pressures that act on the small leading and trailing edge face areas. This tangential force though
small, is by no means negligible. Rather surprisingly, the pressure at the leading edge is normally
very low, and at small angles of inclination, the tangential force will act in the direction shown in
(Figure below). The reasons for the low pressure at the leading edge will be shown later. Note, that
although the tangential force may be directed towards the front of the plate, the resultant of the
tangential and normal forces must always be tilted back relative to the local flow direction.
LIFT
The resultant or net force on the lifting surface may be conveniently split into two components
relative to the airflow direction as follows -
1. The component at right angles to the direction of the airflow, called LIFT (Fig.4.3).
2. The component parallel to the direction of the airflow, called DRAG (Fig.4.4).
The use of the term ‘lift’ is apt to be misleading, for under certain conditions of flight, such as a
vertical nose dive, it may act horizontally, and cases may even arise where it acts vertically
downwards.
Airflow and pressure over aerofoil
It was soon discovered that a much greater lift, especially when compared with the drag, could be
produced by using a curved surface instead of a flat one, and thus the modern aerofoil was evolved.
The curved surface had the additional advantage that it provided a certain amount of thickness
which was necessary for structural strength.
Experiments have shown that the air flows over an aerofoil (Fig.4.4) much more smoothly than over
a flat plate.
In (Fig.4.4), which shows the flow of air over a typical aerofoil, the following results should be noticed
-
1. There is a slight up flow before reaching the aerofoil.
2. There is a down flow after passing the aerofoil. This down flow should not be confused with the
downwash produced by the trailing vortices as described later.
3. The air does not strike the aerofoil cleanly on the nose, but actually divides at a point just behind
it on the underside.
4. The streamlines are closer together above the aerofoil where the pressure is decreased.

This last fact is at first puzzling, because, as in the venturi tube, it may lead us to think that the air
above the aerofoil is compressed, and that therefore we should expect an increased pressure. The
explanation is that the air over the top surface acts as though it were passing through a kind of
bottleneck, similar to a venturi tube, and that therefore its velocity must increase at the narrower
portions, i.e. at the highest points of the curved aerofoil.
The increase in kinetic energy due to the increase in velocity is accompanied by a corresponding
decrease in static pressure. This is, in fact, an excellent example of Bernoulli’s Theorem. Another
way of looking at it is to consider the curvature of the streamlines. In order that any particular particle
of air may be deflected on this curved path, a force must act upon it towards the centre of the curve,
so that it follows that the pressure on the outside of the particle must be greater than that on the
inside; in other words, the pressure decreases as we move down towards the top surface of the
aerofoil. This point of view is interesting because it emphasises the importance of curving the
streamlines.
Chord line and angle of attack
It has already been mentioned that the angle of inclination to the airflow is of great importance. On
a curved aerofoil it is not particularly easy to define this angle, since we must first decide on some
straight line in the aerofoil section from which we can ensure the angle to the direction of the airflow.
Unfortunately, owing to the large variety of shapes used as aerofoil sections it is not easy to define
this chord line to suit all aerofoils. Nearly all modern aerofoils have a convex under-surface; and the
chord must be specially defined, although it is usually taken as the line joining the leading edge to
the trailing edge. This is the centre in the particular case of symmetrical aerofoils.
We call the angle between the chord of the aerofoil and the direction of the airflow the angle of attack
α (Fig.4.5).
This angle is often known as the angle of incidence; that term was avoided in early editions of this
book because it was apt to be confused with the riggers’ angle of incidence, i.e. the angle between
the chord of the aerofoil and some fixed datum line in the aeroplane. Now that aircraft is no longer
‘rigged’ (in the old sense) there is no objection to the term angle of incidence; but by the same token
there is no objection either to angle of attack, many pilots and others have become accustomed to
it; it is almost universally used in America, and so we shall continue to use it in this edition.
If we wish to be precise we must be careful in the definition of the term ‘angle of attack’, because,
as has already been noticed, the direction of the airflow is changed by the presence of the aerofoil
itself, so that the direction of the airflow which actually passes over the surface of the aerofoil is not
the same as that of the airflow at a considerable distance from the aerofoil. We shall consider the
direction of the airflow to be that of the air stream at such a distance that it is undisturbed by the
presence of the aerofoil.
Line of zero lift
Now an aerofoil may provide lift even when it is inclined at a slightly negative angle to the airflow.
And one may well ask how an aerofoil which is inclined at a negative angle can produce lift? The
idea seems absurd, but the explanation of the riddle is simply that the aerofoil is not really inclined
at a negative angle. Our curious chord may be at a negative angle, but the curved surfaces of the
aerofoil are inclined at various angles, positive and negative, the net effect being that of a slightly
positive angle, which produces lift.
If we tilt the nose of the aerofoil downwards until it produces no lift, it will be in an exactly similar
position to that of a flat plate placed edgewise to the airflow and producing no lift, and if we now
draw a straight line through the aerofoil parallel to the airflow (Fig.4.6) it will be the inclination of this
line which settles whether the aerofoil provides lift or not.
Such a line is called the line of zero lift or neutral lift line, and would in some senses be a better
definition of the chord line, but it can only be found by wind tunnel experiments for each aerofoil,
and, even when it has been found, it is awkward from the point of view of practical measurements.
Nor is it of much significance in practical flight, except perhaps in a dive when the angle of attack
may approach the no lift condition.

Note that for an aerofoil of symmetrical shape zero lift corresponds to zero angle of attack.
Pressure plotting
As the angle of attack is altered the lift and drag change very rapidly, and experiments show that
this is due to changes in the distribution of pressure over the aerofoil. These experiments are carried
out by the method known as ‘pressure plotting’ (Fig.4.7), in which small holes in the aerofoil surface
(a, b, c, d, etc.) are connected to glass manometer tubes (a, b, c, d, etc.) containing water or other
liquid; where there is a suction on the aerofoil the liquid in the corresponding tubes is sucked up,
where there is an increased pressure the liquid is depressed. Such experiments have been made
both on models in wind tunnels and on aeroplanes in flight, and the results are most interesting and
instructive.

Nowadays, simple glass manometers are seldom used for ‘pressure plotting’ purpose except in
elementary teaching laboratories. For more serious research work, pressure transducers are
employed. These are devices that produce an electrical output that is proportional to the applied
pressure. The output from such transducers may then be fed through an interface to a computer.
The tedious process of reading the pressures and plotting the distribution can then be left to the
computer which may also be used to calculate the resulting lift and pitching moment.
Pressure distribution
Figure 4.8 shows the pressure distribution, obtained in this manner, over an aerofoil at an angle of
attack of 4o. Two points are particularly noticeable, namely -
1. The decrease in pressure on the upper surface is greater than the increase on the lower surface.
2. The pressure is not evenly distributed, both the decreased pressure on the upper surface and the
increased pressure on the lower surface being most marked over the front portion of the aerofoil.
Both these discoveries are of extreme importance.
The first shows that, although both surfaces contribute, it is the upper surface, by means of its
decreased pressure, which provides the greater part of the lift; at some angles as much as four-
fifths.
 Resultant Force

Decreased
Pressures

Increased
Pressures

Fig.4.8. Pressure distribution over an aerofoil

The student is at first startled by this fact, as he feels that it is contrary to his ideas of common sense;
but, as so often happens, once he has learnt the truth, he is inclined to exaggerate it, and to refer to the
area above the aerofoil as a ‘partial vacuum’ or even a ‘vacuum’. Although, by a slight stretch of
imagination, we might allow the term ‘partial vacuum’, the term ‘vacuum’ is hopelessly misleading.
We find that the greatest height to which water in a manometer is sucked up when air flows over an
ordinary aerofoil at the ordinary speeds of flight is about 120 to 150 mm; now, if there were a ‘vacuum’
over the top surface, the water would be sucked up about 10 m, i.e. 10000 mm. Or, looking at it another
way, suppose that there were a ‘vacuum’ over the top surface of an aerofoil and that the pressure
underneath was increased from 100 kN/m2 to 120 kN/m2, then we would have an average upward
pressure on the aerofoil of 120 kN/m2. The actual average lift obtained from an aeroplane wing is from
about 1/2up to 5 kN/m2. Take a piece of cardboard of about 100 cm2, or 1/10th of a square metre, and
place a weight of 100 N on it; lift this up and it will give you some idea of the average lift provided by
one-tenth of a square metre of aeroplane wing, and the type of load that has to be carried by the skin.
You will not want to repeat the experiment with more than 10000 N on the cardboard!

The reason why the pressure distribution diagram has not been completed round the leading edge is
because the changes of pressure are very sudden in this region and cannot conveniently be represented
on a diagram. The increased pressure on the underside continues until we reach a point head-on into
the wind where the air is brought to rest and
1
the increase of pressure is V 2 , or q, as recorded on a pitot tube.
The point at which this happens is called the
2
stagnation point, and its position round the leading edge varies slightly as the angle of attack of the
aerofoil is changed but is always just behind the nose on the underside of positive angles of attack.
After the stagnation point there is a very sudden drop to zero, followed by an equally sudden change
to the decreased pressure of the upper surface, and rather surprisingly on the nose.
LIFT CURVE (C L
-  CURVE)
Let us first see how the lift coefficient changes with the angle of attack (Fig.4.9).

We notice that when the angle of attack has reached 0o there is already a definite lift coefficient and
therefore a definite lift; this is a property of most cambered aerofoils. A flat plate, or a symmetrical
aerofoil, will of course give no lift when there is no angle of attack.
Then between 0o and about 12o the graph is practically a straight line, meaning that as the angle of
attack increases there is a steady increase in the lift; whereas above 12o, although the lift still
increases for a few degrees, the increase is now comparatively small and the graph is curving to form
a top, or maximum point.

At about 15o the lift coefficient reaches a maximum, and above this angle it begins to decrease, the
graph now curving downwards.
 Fig.4.9. Lift curve

STALLINGANGLE: DETAILSOFSTALLING
This last discovery is perhaps the most important factor in the understanding of the why and
wherefore of flight. It means that whereas at small angles any increase in the angle at which the
aerofoil strikes the air will result in an increase in lift, when a certain angle is reached any
further increase of angle will result in a loss of lift.

This angle is called the stalling angle of the aerofoil, and, rather curiously, perhaps, we find that
the shape of the aerofoil makes little difference to the angle at which this stalling takes place,
although it may affect considerably the amount of lift obtained from the aerofoil at that angle.

Now, what is the cause of this comparatively sudden breakdown of lift? The student will be
well advised to take the first available opportunity of watching, or trying for himself, some
simple experiment to see what happens. Although, naturally, the best demonstration can be
given in wind tunnels with proper apparatus for the purpose, perfectly satisfactory
experiments can be made by using paper or wooden model aerofoils and inserting them in any
fairly steady flow of air or water, or moving them through air or water. The movement of the
fluid is emphasised by introducing wool streamers or cigarette smoke in the case of air and
coloured streams in the case of water.

Contrary to what might be expected, the relative speed at which the aerofoil moves through
the fluid makes very little difference to the angle at which stalling takes place; in fact, an
aerofoil stalls at a certain angle, not at a certain speed. (It is not correct to talk about the stalling
speed of an aerofoil, but it will be seen in a later chapter why we talk about the stalling speed
 of an aeroplane). Now what happens? While the angle at which the aerofoil strikes the fluid
is comparatively small, the fluid is deflected by the aerofoil, and the flow is of a streamline and
steady nature ; but suddenly, when the critical angle of about 15o is reached, there is a complete
change in the nature of the flow. The airflow breaks away or separates from the top surface
forming vortices similar to those behind a flat plate placed at right angles to the wind; there is
therefore very little lift. Some experiments actually show that the fluid which has flowed beneath
the under- surface doubles back round the trailing edge and proceeds to flow forward over
the upper surface. In short, the streamline flow has broken down and what is called separation
or ‘stalling’ has taken its place, with consequent loss in lift (Fig.4.10).
Anyone who has steered a boat will be familiar with the same kind of phenomenon when the rudder
is put too far over, and yachtsmen also experience ‘stalling’ when their sails are set at too large an
angle to the relative wind. There are, in fact, many examples of stalling in addition to that to the
aerofoil.

Dire
ctio
n of
airfl
ow

Fig.4.10. Stalling of an aerofoil

What happens is made even more clear if we look again at the results of pressure plotting .
We notice that up to the critical angle considerable suction has been built up over the top
surface, especially near the leading edge, whereas when we reach the stalling angle the suction
near the leading edge disappears, and this accounts for the loss in lift, because the pressure on
other parts of the aerofoil remains much the same as before the critical angle.

Some students are apt to think that all the lift disappears after the critical angle; this is not so,
as will easily be seen by reference to either the lift curve or to the pressure plotting diagrams.
The aerofoil will, in fact, give some lift up to an angle of attack of 90o. Modern interceptor
aircraft are sometimes flown at very high angles of attack during violent manoeuvres, so the
upper portion of the graph is nowadays quite important.

The stalling angle, then, is that angle of attack at which the lift coefficient of an aerofoil is a
maximum, and beyond which it begins to decrease owing to the airflow becoming separated
instead of streamlined.

AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENT COEFFICIENTS

I Centre of pressure
The second thing that we learn from the pressure distribution diagram
- namely, that both decreases and increases of pressure
are greatest near the leading edge of the aerofoil - means
that if all the distributed forces due to pressure were
replaced by a single resultant force, this single force
 would act less than halfway back along the chord. The
position on the chord at which this resultant force acts
is called the centre of pressure (Fig.4.11). The idea of a
centre of pressure is very similar to that of a centre of
gravity of a body whose weight is unevently distributed,
and it should therefore present no difficulty to the
student who understands ordinary mechanics.

To sum up; we have, on average, a decreased pressure

above the aerofoil and an increased pressure below. The
decrease of pressure above is greater than the increase
below, and in both cases, the effect is greater near the
leading edge(Fig. 4.8).

All this is important when we consider the structure of

the wing; for instance, we shall realise that the top surface
or ‘skin’ must be held down on to the ribs, while the Fig.4.11. Centre of pressure
bottom skin will simply be pressed up against them.

Total resultant force on an aerofoil

If we add up the distributed forces due to pressure over an aerofoil, and replace it by the total
resultant force acting at the centre of pressure, we find that this force is not at right angles to the
chord line nor at right angles to the flight direction. Near the tips of swept wings it can sometimes
be inclined forward relative to the latter line due to rather complicated three dimensional effects,
but over most of the wing, and on average, it must always be inclined backwards, otherwise we
would have a forwards component, or negative drag, and hence perpetual motion.

Fig.4.12. Inclination of resultant force

Although the force must on average be inclined backwards relative to the flight direction as in
Fig.4.12 it can often be inclined forwards relative to the chord line normal. (Fig.4.12) illustrates the
situation. You will see from this figure that there can be a component of the force that is trying to
bend the wings forward. This may come as a surprise, because you might have expected that the
wings would always be bent rearwards.

Movement of centre of pressure

Pressure plotting experiments also show that as the angle of attack is altered the distribution of
pressure over the aerofoil changes considerably, and in consequence there will be a movement of
the centre of pressure. The position of the center of pressure is usually defined as being a certain
proportion of the chord from the leading edge. (Fig. 4.13) illustrates typical pressure distribution
over an aerofoil at varying angles of attack. In these diagrams only the lift component of the total
pressure has been plotted - the drag component has hardly any effect on the position of the centre of
pressure. It will be noticed that at a negative angle, and even at 0o, the pressure on the upper
surface near the leading edge is increased above normal, and that on the lower surface is decreased;
this causes the loop in the pressure diagram, which means that this portion of the aerofoil is being
pushed downwards, while the rear portion is being pushed upwards, so that the whole aerofoil
tends to turn over nose first.

So, even at the angle of zero lift, when the upward and downward forces are equal, there is a nose-
down pitching movement on the aerofoil; as will be seen later this is a matter of considerable
significance. Putting it another way, at these negative angles the centre of pressure is a long way
back - the only place where we could put one force which would have the same moment or turning
effect as the distributed pressure would be a long way behind the trailing edge, in fact at zero lift it
could not provide a pitching moment at all unless it were an infinite distance back - which is absurd.
Perhaps a more sensible way of putting it is to say that there is a couple acting on the aerofoil, and
a couple has no resultant and has the same moment about any point.

As the angle of attack is increased up to 16o, the centre of pressure gradually moves forward until
it is less than one- third of the chord from the leading edge; above this angle it begins to move
backwards again.

Now during flight, for reasons which we shall see later, the angle of attack is usually between 2o and
8o and is very rarely below 0o or above 16o . So, for the ordinary angles of flight, as the angle of
attack of the aerofoil is increased, the centre of pressure tends to move forward.

Lift a poker at its centre of gravity and it will lie horizontal; move the position at which you lift it
forwards towards the knob and the rear end of the poker will drop: this is because the centre of lift
has moved forwards as compared with the centre of gravity. Therefore if the aerofoil is in balance
or ‘trimmed’ at one angle of attack, so that the resultant force passes through the centre of gravity,
then the forward movement of the centre of pressure on the aerofoil as the angle of attack is
increased will tend to drop still farther the trailing edge of the aerofoil; in other words, the angle
of attack will increase even more, and this will in turn cause the centre of pressure to move farther
forward, and so on. This is called instability, and it is one of the problems of flight.

If we were to take the wing off a model aeroplane and try to make it glide without any fuselage or
tail, we would find that it would either turn over nose first or its nose would go up in the air and
it would turn over on to its back. This is because the wing is unstable, and although we might be
able to weight it so that it would start on its glide correctly, it would very soon meet some
disturbance in the air which would cause it to turn over one way or the other.
Fig.4.13. How the lift distribution changes with angle of attack
Curiously enough, in the case of a flat plate, an increase of the angle of attack over the same
angles causes the centre of pressure to move backwards; this tends to dip the nose of the plate
back again to its original position, and so makes the flat plate stable. For this reason it is
possible to take a flat piece of stiff paper or cardboard, and, after properly weighting it, to
make it glide across the room. If it is not weighted the centre of pressure will always be in front
of the centre of gravity, and this will cause the piece of paper to revolve rapidly.

The unstable movement of the centre of pressure is a disadvantage of the ordinary curved
aerofoil, and in a later chapter we shall consider the steps which are taken to counteract it.
Attempts have been made to devise aerofoil shapes which have not got this unpleasant
characteristic, and it has been found possible to design an aerofoil in which the centre of
pressure remains practically stationary over the angles of attack used in ordinary flight. The
chief feature in such aerofoils is that the under-surface is convex, and that there is sometimes
a reflex curvature towards the trailing edge (see Fig.4.14); nearly all modern aerofoil sections
have in fact got convex camber on the lower surface. Unfortunately, attempts to improve the
stability of the aerofoil may often tend to spoil other important characteristics.

Fig.4.14. Reflex curve near trailing edge

I Pitching Moment of an aerofoil

Now the ultimate object of the aerofoil is to obtain the lift necessary to keep the aeroplane in
the air; in order to obtain this lift it must be propelled through the air at a definite velocity and
it must be set at a definite angle of attack to the flow of air past it. We have already discovered
that we cannot obtain a purely vertical force on the aerofoil; in other words, we can only
obtain lift at the expense of a certain amount of drag. The latter is a necessary evil, and it must
be reduced to the minimum so as to reduce the power required to pull the aerofoil through the
air, or alternatively to increase the velocity which we can obtain from a given engine power.
Our next task, therefore, is to investigate how much lift and how much drag we shall obtain
from different shaped aerofoils at various angles of attack and at various velocities. The task is
one of appalling magnitude; there is no limit to the number of aerofoil shapes which we might
test, and in spite of thousands of experiments carried out in wind tunnels and by full-scale
tests in the air, it is still impossible to say that we have discovered the best-shaped aerofoil for
any particular purpose. However, modern theoretical methods make it possible to predict the
behaviour of aerofoil sections. Such methods can even be used to design aerofoils to give
specified characteristics.

In wind-tunnel work it is the usual practice to measure lift and drag separately, rather than to
measure the total resultant force and then split it up into two components. The aerofoil is set
at various angles of attack to the airflow, and, the lift, drag and pitching moment are measured
on a balance.

The results of the experiments show that within certain limitations the lift, drag and pitching
moment of an aerofoil depend on -
a. The shape of the aerofoil.
b. The plan area of the aerofoil.
c. The square of the velocity.
d. The density of the air.

Notice the dimilarity of these conclusions to those obtained when measuring drag, and in both
cases there are similar limitations to the conclusions arrived at.
The reader should notice that whereas when measuring drag we considered the frontal area
of the body concerned, on aerofoils we take the plan area. This is more convenient because
the main force with which we are concerned, i.e. the lift, is at right angles to the direction of
motion and very nearly at right angles to the aerofoils themselves, and therefore this force
will depend on the plan area rather than the front elevation. The actual plan area will alter as
the angle of attack is changed and therefore it is more convenient to refer results to the maximum
plan area (the area projected on the plane of the chord), so that the area will remain constant
whatever the angle of attack may be. Unfortunately it is customary to use the same symbol S
both for the plan area of a wing and the frontal area of any other body.

In so far as the above conclusions are true, we can express them as formulae in the forms -
1 2
Lift  C . V . S or C . q . S

L L
2

1 2
Drag  C . V . S or C . q . S
D D
2
 1
. V2 . Sc or C
Pitching Moment  CM M .q q . Sc
2

1
Since the pitching moment is a moment, i.e. a force X distance, and since V 2 .
2 S represents a force, it is necessary

to introduce a length into the equation - this is in the form of the chord, c, measured in metres.

The pitching moment is positive when it tends to push the nose upwards, negative when the nose tends to go
downwards - as at zero lift.

The symbols CL, CD and CM are called the lift coefficient, drag coefficient and pitching moment coefficient of the aerofoil
respectively; they depend on the shape of the aerofoil, and they alter with changes in the angle of attack. The air density
is represented by  in kilograms per cubic metre, S is the plan area of the wing in square metres, V is the air speed, in
1
metres per second, c the chord of the aerofoil in metres; the method of writing the formulae in terms of V ,
2

2 or q,

Aerofoil characteristics
The easiest way of setting out the results of experiments on aerofoil sections is to draw
curves showing how -

a. the lift coefficient,

b. the drag coefficient,
c. the ratio of lift to drag, and
d. the position of the centre of pressure, or the pitching moment coefficient, alter as the
angle of attack is increased over the ordinary angle of flight.

It is much more satisfactory to plot the coefficients of lift, drag and pitching moment rather
than the total lift, drag and pitching moment, because the coefficients are practically
independent of the air density, the scale of the aerofoil and the velocity used in the experiment,
whereas the total lift, drag and moment depend on the actual conditions at the time of the
experiment. In other words, suppose we take a particular aerofoil section and test it on different
scales at different velocities in various wind tunnels throughout the world, and also full-scale in
actual flight, we should in each case obtain the same curves showing how the coefficients
change with angle of attack.
It must be admitted that, in practice, the curves obtained from these various experiments do
not exactly coincide; this is because the theories which have led us to adopt the formula lift =C
. 1 V2 . S are not exactly true for very much the
L 2
same reasons as those we mentioned when dealing with drag - for instance, scale effect and
the interference of wind- tunnel walls. As a result of the large number of experiments which
have been performed, it is possible to make allowances for these errors and so obtain good
accuracy whatever the conditions of the experiment.

Now let us look at the curves to see what they mean, for a graph which is properly understood
can convey a great deal of information in a compact and practical form.

The Drag Curve

Now for the drag coefficient curve (Fig.4.15). Here we find much what we might expect. The
drag is least at about 0o, or even a small negative angle, and increases on both sides of this
angle; up to about 6o, however, the increase in drag is not very rapid, then it gradually
becomes more and more rapid, especially after the stalling angle when the airflow separates.

The Lift/Drag ratio curve

Next we come to a very interesting curve (Fig.4.16), that which shows the relation between
the lift and drag at various angles of attack.

In a former paragraph we came to the conclusion that we want as much lift, but as little
drag, as it is possible to obtain from the aerofoil. Now from the lift curve we find that we
shall get most lift at about 15o, from the drag curve least drag at about 0o, but both of these
are at the extreme range of possible angles, and at neither of them do we really get the
best conditions for flight, i.e. the best lift in comparison to drag, the best lift/ drag ratio.

If the reader has available the lift curve and the drag curve for any aerofoil, he can easily
plot the lift/drag curve for himself by reading CL off the lift curve at each angle and
dividing it by the CD at the same angle. It should be noted that it makes no difference
whether we plot L/D or CL/CD, as both will give the same
 Fig.4.15. Drag curve.

Fig.4.16. Lift/drag curve.

 1
 V2 S .
1
numerical value, since L  CL  V2 S D  CD
2 2
We find that the lift/drag ratio increases very rapidly up to about 3o or 4o, at which
angles the lift is nearly 24 times the drag (some aerofoils give an even greater maximum
ratio of lift to drag); the ratio then gradually falls off because, although the lift is still
increasing, the drag is increasing even more rapidly, until at the stalling angle the lift
may be only 10 or 12 times as great as the drag, and after the stalling angle the ratio
falls still further until it reaches 0 at 90o.

The chief point of interest about the lift/drag curve is the fact that this ratio is greatest at an
angle of attack of about 3o or 4o; in other words, it is at this angle that the
aerofoil gives its best all-around results - i.e. it is most able to do what we chiefly require
of it, namely to give as much lift as possible consistent with a small drag.

The centre of pressure and moment coefficient

Lastly, let us examine the curves (Fig.4.17) which show how the centre of pressure moves,
and what happens to the pitching moment coefficient, as the angle of attack is increased.

Fig.4.17. Centre of pressure and moment coefficient curves.

The centre of pressure curve merely confirms what we have already learnt about the
movement of the centre of pressure on an ordinary aerofoil. After having been a long way
back at negative angles, at 0o it is about
0.70 of the chord from the leading edge, at 4o it is 0.40 of the chord back, and at 12 o
0.30 of the chord; in other words, the centre of pressure gradually moves forward as the
angle is increased over the ordinary angles of flight; and this tends towards instability.
After 12o it begins to move back again, but this is not of great importance since these angles
are not often used in flight.

It is easy to understand the effect of the movement of the centre of pressure, and for that
reason it has perhaps been given more emphasis in this book than it would be in more
advanced books on the subject.
 It is important to remember that the pitching moment, and its coefficient, depend not only on
the lift (or more correctly on the resultant force) and on the position of the centre of pressure,
but also on the point about which we are considering the moment - which we shall call the
reference point. There is, of course, no moment about the centre of pressure itself - that, after
all, is the meaning of centre of pressure - but, as we have seen, the centre of pressure is
not a fixed point. If we take as our point of reference some fixed point on the chord we
shall find that the pitching moment - which was already slightly nose-down (i.e. slightly
negative) at the angle of zero lift -increases or decreases as near as matters in proportion to
the angle of attack, i.e. the graph is a straight line, like that of the lift coefficient,
over the ordinary angles of flight. About the leading edge, for instance, it becomes more
and more nose-down as the angle is increased; but about a point near the trailing edge,
although starting at the same slightly nose-down moment at zero lift, it becomes less nose-
down, and finally nose-up, with increase of angle (Fig.4.18).

Fig.4.18. Moment coefficient about different reference points.

The reader may be surprised at the increasing nose-down moment about the leading edge,
because is not the centre of pressure moving forward? Yes, but the movement is small
and the increasing lift has more effect on the pitching moment. The intelligent reader may
be even more surprised to hear that an increasing nose- down tendency is a requirement
for the pitching stability of the aircraft, for have we not said that the movement of the
centre of pressure was an unstable one? Yes, this is a surprising subject, but the answer to the
apparent paradox emphasises once again the importance of the point of reference; in
considering the stability of the whole aircraft our point of reference must be the centre of
gravity, and the centre of gravity is always, or nearly always, behind the leading edge of the
wing, so the change of pitching moment with angle of attack is more like that about the
trailing edge - which is definitely unstable.

Aerodynamic Centre
But something else of considerable importance arises from the differing effects of different
reference points. For if about the leading edge there is a steady increase, and about a point
near the trailing edge a steady decrease in the nose-down pitching moment, there must be
some point on the chord about which there is no change in the pitching moment as the angle
of attack is increased, about which the moment remains at the small negative nose-down
value that it had at the zero lift angle (Figs.4.17 and 4.18).
 This point is called the aerodynamic centre of the wing.

So we have two possible ways of thinking about the effects of increase of angle of attack
on the pitching moment of an aerofoil, or later of the whole aeroplane; one is to think of the
lift changing, and its point of application (centre of pressure) changing; the other is to think
of the point of application (aerodynamic centre) being fixed, and only the lift changing
(Fig.4.19). Both are sound theoretically; the conception of a moving centre of pressure
may sound easier at first, but for the aircraft as a whole it is simpler to consider the
lift as always acting at the aerodynamic centre. In both methods we really ought to consider
the total force rather than just the lift, but the drag is small in comparison and, for most
purposes, it is sufficiently accurate to consider the lift alone.

Fig.4.19. Centre of pressure and aerodynamic centre.

At subsonic speeds the aerodynamic centre is usually about one-quarter of the chord from the
leading edge, and theoretical considerations confirm this. In practice, however, it differs slightly
according to the aerofoil section, usually being ahead of the quarter-chord point in older type
sections, and slightly aft in more modern low drag types.

The graph in Fig.4.18 (it can hardly be called a curve) shows how nearly the moment coefficient,
about the aerodynamic centre, remains constant on our aerofoil at its small zero-lift negative
value of about -0.09. This is further confirm ed by the figures of CM given in
Appendix 1 for a variety of aerofoil shapes.

The graphs tell us all we want to know about a particular wing section; they give us the
‘characteristics’ of the section, and from them we can work out the effectiveness of a wing on
which this section is used.

For example, to find the lift, drag and pitching moment per unit span (about the aerodynamic
centre) of an aerofoil of this section, of chord 2 metres at 6o angle of attack, and flying at 100
knots at standard sea-level conditions.

From Figs.4.9, 4.15 and 4.17, we find that at 6o- CL = 0.6

CD = 0.028

CM = -0.09 about aerodynamic centre 100 knots = 51.6 m/s

1
V2 (or q) is common to the lift, drag and moment formulae, we can first work out its value -
Since 2
 1 1
q  V2  1.225  51.6  51.6  1631 N / m2
2 2

So lift = CL  q S  0.6 1631 2  1957 N

drag = CD  q S  0.028 1631 2  91.3 N

pitching moment =
CM  q Sc  0.09 1631 20  2
 5872 N - m

But where is the aerodynamic centre on this aerofoil?

At zero lift there is only a pure moment, or couple, acting on the aerofoil, and since the
moment of a couple is the same about any point, this moment, and its coefficient,
must be equal to that about the aerodynamic
centre, which we shall call CM  AC (sometimes written as CMO), and
this by definition will remain the same

whatever the angle of attack.

For all practical purposes we can assume that the aerodynamic centre is on the chord line, though
it may be very slightly above or below. So let us suppose that it is on the chord line, and at
distance x from the leading edge, and that the angle of attack is o (Fig.4.20).

Fig.4.20. To find aerodynamic centre.

The moment about the aerodynamic centre, i.e. CM  AC . q . Sc , will be equal to the moment about the

Leading edge (which we call CM  LE . q . Sc ) plus the moments of L and D about the aerodynamic centre;
the leverage being x cos  and x sin 
respectively. So
CM. AC . q . Sc  CM. LE . q . Sc  CL . q . S. x . cos   CD . q .S. x . sin 
and, dividing all through by q.S,
CM . AC . c  CM . LE . c  CL . x . cos   CD . x . sin 

 x  c . (CM . AC - CM . LE ) /(CLcos   CDsin )

 or, expressed as a fraction of the chord,
x/c  (CM . AC - CM . LE ) /(CLcos   CDsin )

But the moment coefficient about the leading edge for this aerofoil at 6o is -0.22 (see
M.Ac Fig.4.18),
and C is
-0.09 (Fig.4.17),
CL = 0.6, cos 6o = 0.994, C = 0.028, sin 6o = 0.10
So
x / c  (-0.09  0.22)/(0.6  0.994  0.028 1.10)
= 0.13/(0.60+0.003)
= 0.216
which means that the aerodynamic centre is 0.216 of the chord, or 0.432 metres, behind the
leading edge, and so in this instance is forward of the quarter-chord (0.25) point.

Notice that at small angles, such as 6o, cos  is approx 1, sin  is nearly 0, so we can approximate
by forgetting about the drag and saying that x/c = (CM.AC - CM.LE)/CL approx.

About the centre of pressure there is no moment, so

(Distance of C.P. from L.E.)/c = -CM.LE /(CL Dcos   C sin )
= -CM.LE /CL approx.
= + 0.22/0.60 = 0.37
thus confirming the position of the C.P. as shown in Fig.4.17.
All this has been explained rather fully at this stage; its real significance in regard to the stability
of the aircraft will be revealed later.

AIRCRAFT CONTROLSURFACES

PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACES

The primary control surfaces of an airplane include the ailerons, rudder, and elevator.
Secondary control surfaces include tabs, flaps, spoilers, and slats. The construction of the
control surfaces is similar to that of the stabilizers ; however, the movable surfaces usually
are somewhat lighter in construction. They often have a spar at the forward edge to provide
rigidity and to this spar are attached the ribs and the covering. Hinges for attachment are also
secured to the spar. Where it is necessary to attach tabs to the trailing edges of control surfaces,
additional structure is added to provide for transmission of the tab loads to the surface.

Control surfaces may be constructed of any combination of materials, with the more common
combination being a sheet- metal structure (usually an aluminium alloy) covered with metal
skin or fabric, a steel structure covered with fabric, or a wood structure covered with plywood
or fabric. Each of these types of construction is treated by some method to inhibit the
deterioration of the structure and the covering and includes drain holes to prevent water from
becoming trapped inside the structure and causing the control surfaces to be thrown out of
balance. Methods of joining the components may include metal fasteners as well as adhesives
and bonding agents.
Some aircraft are using composite and bonded structures which include the use of honeycomb
internal components. These structures are often sealed from the atmosphere and therefore do
not include drainage openings in their design.

(i)Aileron
Ailerons are primary flight control surfaces utilized to provide lateral (roll) control of aircraft;
that is they control aircraft movement about the longitudinal axis. They are usually mounted
on the trailing edge of the wing near the wing tip. Large jet aircraft often employ two sets of
ailerons, one set being approximately midwing or immediately outboard of the inboard flaps,
and the other set being in the conventional location near the wing tips. The outboard ailerons
become active whenever the flaps are extended beyond a fixed setting. As the flaps are
retracted, the outboard aileron control system is “locked out” and fairs with the basic wing
shape. Thus, during cruising operations at comparatively high speeds, only the inboard
ailerons are used for control. The outboard ailerons are active during landing or other slow
flight operations. (Fig.5.1) shows a transport aircraft wing with this aileron configuration.

Ailerons for light aircraft are usually

constructed with a single spar to which ribs
are attached. The majority of
currentlymanufactured aircraft are ofall-metal
construction with aluminium alloy skin riveted
or bonded to the internal structure.

Aileron control systems operated by the pilot

through mechanical connections require the
use of balancing mechanisms so that the pilot
can overcome the air loads imposed on the
ailerons during flight. Balancing of the
ailerons can be achieved by extending part of
the aileron structure ahead of the hinge line
and shaping this area so that the airstream
strikes the extension and helps to move the
surface. This is known as aerodynamic
balancing. Another method which may be
used is to place a weight ahead of the hinge
line to counteract the flight loads. This is
known as static balancing. Some aircraft may
use a combination of these techniques.

Aircraft such as jet transports use

hydraulically operated ailerons and may not
employ these forms of balancing. If the
transport control system is designed to allow
the pilot to operate the ailerons without
hydraulic assistance, then some method of
balancing or control by control tabs is used.

The geometry of the control system for the

ailerons affects the amount that the ailerons
move above or below the neutral setting.
(The neutral setting fairs the ailerons with the
wing contour). Some aircraft have their Fig.5.1. The L-1011, uses two ailerons on each wing
ailerons operating symmetrically; that is,
they move up the same
amount that they move down. Other aircraft have the ailerons operating asymmetrically; that
is, the upward-moving aileron moves further than the downward moving aileron. This
asymmetrical operation is used in some aircraft designs to reduce the amount of rudder
pressure required when making turns. This reduces what is know as “adverse aileron yaw”,
which is caused by the downward-moving aileron creating an increase in aerodynamic drag,
and results in the airplane yawing away from the direction of the desired turn. Aircraft having
this arrangement are sometimes said to have differential ailerons.

Elevators
(ii)
Elevators are the control surfaces which govern the movement (pitch) of the aircraft around
the lateral axis. They are normally attached to hinges on the rear spar of the horizontal
stabilizer. The construction of an elevator is similary to that of other control surfaces, and the
design of the elevator may be unbalanced or balanced aerodynamically and/or statically.
Typical elevator installations for light aircraft and transports are shown in (Fig.5.2 and 5.3).

Fig.5.2. The elevator of a light aircraft

Fig.5.3. The elevator of a DC-9

 Rudder
(iii)
The rudder is the flight control surface that controls the aircraft movement about its vertical
axis. The rudder is constructed very much like other flight control surfaces with spars, ribs
and skin.

Rudders are usually balanced both statically and aerodynamically to provide for greater ease
of operation and to eliminate the possibility of flutter. It should be noted that some light-
aircraft rudders do not use any balancing method. Different rudders for light aircraft are shown
in (Fig.5.4) below.

Fig.5.4. Different rudder configuration

Rudders for transport aircraft vary in basic structural and operational design. Some are single
structural units operated by one or more control systems. Others are designed with two
operational segments which are controlled by different operating systems and provide a
desired level of redundancy.

A single-unit rudder is capable of being operated by three different hydraulic systems in the
aircraft. A rudder with an upper and a lower segment of which each segment can be operated
by a different hydraulic systems.

The rudder with of two segments consists of upper and lower, and each segment consists of a
forward and aft section. The forward rudder sections are attached to hinge brackets mounted
on the rear spar of the vertical stabilizer. The aft rudder sections are supported by hinge
brackets attached to the rear spar of the forward sections. The aft rudder sections are hinged
to the forward sections and connected by pushrods to the vertical stabilizer structure. This
provides aft-section displacement proportional to forward-section displacement, thus
increasing the aerodynamic efficiency of the rudders. Trim and control tabs are not required
with this type of rudder design because their functions are performed by the aft sections of the
rudder.
 SECONDARY CONTROL SURFACES
Because aircraft often are capable of operating over a wide speed range and with different
weight distributions, secondary flight controls, also called auxiliary flight controls, have been
developed. Some of these surfaces called tabs, allow the flight controls. Other surfaces fall in
a group termed high-lift devices which includes flaps, slats and slots. These allow the lift and
drag characteristics of the aircraft wing to be changed to allow-slow speed flight for takeoff
and landing and high-speed flight for cruising. Still a third group of surfaces are used to reduce
lift and generate drag. This group includes spoilers and speed brakes.

The number and complexity of the secondary control surfaces on a particular aircraft depends
on the type of operation and flight speeds for which the aircraft is designed. (Fig.5.5) below
shows the secondary flight control surfaces found on a typical jet transport aircraft.

Fig.5.5. The location of secondary flight controls on a Boeing 727

Tabs

Fig.5.6. Trim tabs must be adjusted opposite to the desired movement of the surface being
controlled
Tabs are small secondary flight control surfaces set into the trailing edges of the primary
surfaces. These are used to reduce the pilot’s work load required to hold the aircraft in some
constant attitude by “loading” the control surface in a position to maintain the desired attitude.
They may also be used to aid the pilot in returning a control surface to a neutral or trimmed
center position (Fig.5.6).

(i)Trim Tabs
The term trim tabs describes small secondary flight-control surfaces set into the trailing edges
of the primary control surfaces. Tabs are used to reduce the work load required to hold the
aircraft in some constant attitude by “loading” the control surface to a neutral or trimmed-
center position. (Fig.5.7) demonstrates the tab action. Tabs can be fixed or variable, and the
variable tabs can be designed to operate in several different manners.

Fixed Trim Tabs

A fixed trim tab, such as is shown in (Fig.5.7), is normally a piece of sheet metal attached to the
trailing edge of a control surface. This fixed tab is adjusted on the ground by bending it in the
appropriate direction to eliminate cabin flight control forces for a specific flight condition. The
fixed tab is normally adjusted for zero control forces while in cruising flight. Adjustment of
the tab is a trial and error process where the aircraft must be flown and the trim tab adjusted
based on the pilot’s report. The aircraft must then again be flown to see if further adjustment is
necessary. Fixed tabs are normally found on light aircraft and are used to adjust rudders and
ailerons.

Controllable Trim Tabs

A controllable trim tab is illustrated in (Fig.5.7) Controllable tabs are adjusted by means of
control wheels, knobs, or cranks in the cockpit, and an indicator is supplied to denote the
position of the tab.

Controllable trim tabs are found on most aircraft with at least the elevator tab being controlled.
These tabs are normally operated mechanically, electrically or hydraulically. When the trim-
control system is activated, the trim tab is deflected in direction opposite to the desired
movement of the control surface. When the trim tab is deflected into the airstream the air tries
to push the tab back flush with the control surface. Since the control mechanism prevents the
tab from being pushed back flush, the whole control surface is moved.

(ii)Servo Tabs
The servo tabs, sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, are used primarily on the large main
control surfaces. A servo tab is one that is directly operated by the primary controls of the
airplane. In response to movement of the cockpit control, only the servo tab moves. The force
of the airflow on the servo tab then moves the primary control surface. The servo tab,
illustrated in (Fig.5.7) , is used to reduce the effort required to move the controls on a
large airplane.

(iii) Balance Tabs

A balance tab is linked to the airplane in such a manner that a movement of the main control
surface will give an opposite
Fig.5.7. Various types of trim tabs
movement to the tab. Thus, the balance tab will assist in moving the main control surface.
Balance tabs are particularly useful in reducing the effort required to move the control surfaces
of a large airplane. A balance tab is illustrated in Fig. 5.7.

Spring Tabs
(iv)
The spring tabs, like some servo tabs, are usually found on large aircraft that require
considerable force to move a control surface. The purpose of the spring tab is to provide a
boost, thereby aiding in the movement of a control surface. On the spring tab, illustrated in
Figure 5.7, the control horn is connected to the control surface by springs.

AUXILIARY CONTROL SURFACES

(i)Slots
How do multi-element aerofoils greatly augment lift without suffering the adverse effects of
boundary-layer separation? Hitherto the conventional explanation was that, since the slot
connects the high-pressure region on the lower surface of a wing to the relatively low-pressure
region on the top surface, it therefore acts as a blowing type of boundary-layer control. This
explanation is to be found in a large number of technical reports and textbooks, and as such is
one of the most widespread misconceptions in aerodynamics. It can be traced back to no less
an authority than Prandtl who wrote:

“The air coming out of a slot blows into the boundary layer on the top of the wing and imparts
fresh momentum to the particles in it, which have been slowed down by the action of
viscosity. Owing to this help the particles are able to reach the sharp rear edge without
breaking away.”

(ii)Flaps
The history of flaps is longer, and just as varied, as that of slots. The plain or camber flap works
on the same principle as an aileron or other control surface; it is truly a ‘variable camber’. Such
flaps were used as early as the 1914-1918 war, and the original idea was the same as with slots,
to decrease landing speed with flaps down, and retain maximum speed with flaps up. Their
early use was almost exclusively for deck-landing purposes. It seemed at first as though the
invention of slots, which followed a few years after that war, might sound the death-knell of
flaps. Far from it - if anything it has been the other way round, for flaps have become a
necessity on modern aircraft. Flaps, like slots, can increase lift - honours are about even in
this respect so far as the plain (or camber) flap, or split flap is concerned. But these flaps can
also increase drag - not, like slots, at high speed when it is not wanted, but at low speed when
it is wanted. But the main difference between the effects of flaps and slots is shown in Fig.5.8;
from this it will be seen that whereas slots merely prolong the lift curve to higher values of the
maximum lift coefficient, when the angle of attack of the main portion of the aerofoil is beyond
the normal stalling angle, the high-lift type of flap increases the lift coefficient available
throughout the whole range of angles of attack.

However it is no longer appropriate to compare the relative merits of slots and flaps because in
modern aircraft it is usual to combine the two in some form or other; and in this way to get the
best of both devices (Fig.5.9). There are a large number of possible combinations, but Fig.5.10
is an attempt to sum up the main varieties, and to describe the effect they have on the
maximum lift coefficient, on the angle of the main aerofoil when maximum lift is obtained,
why they improve the lift, what effects they have on the drag, how they affect the pitching
moment, and so on.

From this figure it will be seen that the simpler flaps such as the camber flap, split flap and
single slotted flap give a good increase in maximum lift coefficient at a reasonable angle of
attack of the main aerofoil, and therefore a reasonable attitude of the aeroplane for landing;
they also increase drag which is an advantage in the approach and landing.

The more complicated types such as the Zap and Fowler flap, and the double-or treble-slotted
flap, give an even greater increase in maximum lift coefficient, but still at a reasonable angle
of attack; while the even more complicated combinations of slots and flaps give yet greater
maximum lift coefficients, but usually at larger angles of attack, and of course at the expense
of considerable complication (Fig.5.11).

Blown and jet flaps are in a class of their own since they depend on power to produce the
blowing, and this may be a serious disadvantage in the event of power failure. The true jet
flap isn’t a flap at all, but simply an efflux of air, or a jet stream in the form of a sheet of air
ejected under pressure at or near the trailing edge of the aerofoil. This helps to control the
boundary layer, and if the sheet of air can be deflected the reaction of the jet will also contribute
directly to the lift.

The Krueger and other types of nose flap are used mainly for increasing lift for landing and
take-off on otherwise high- speed aerofoils.

Spoilers, air brakes, dive brakes, lift dumpers and suchlike are a special category in that their
main purpose is to increase drag, or to destroy lift, or both; moreover, they need not necessarily
be associated with the aerofoils (Fig.5.12). They are used for various purposes on different
types of aircraft; to spoil the L/D ratio and so steepen the gliding angle on high-performance
sailplanes and other ‘clean’ aircraft; to check the speed before turning or manoeuvring; to assist
both lateral and longitudinal control; to ‘kill’ the lift and provide a quick pull-up after landing;
and on really high-speed aircraft to prevent the speed from reaching some critical value as in a
dive. They will be considered later as appropriate to their various functions

Fig.5.8. Effect of flaps and slots on maximum lift coefficient and stalling angle
 Fig.5.9. Flaps and slats (opposite)
Double-slotted flaps and leading edge slats are used on the Tornado.
Because the flaps extend across the entire span, there is no room for
ailerons, instead, the slab tailplane surfaces can move differentially as
well as collectively, and this ‘taileron’ serves both for roll and pitch
control.
 Fig.5.10. High lift devices
Note: Since the effects of these devices depend upon the shape of the basic aerofoil, and the exact
design of the devices themselves, the values given can only be considered as approximations. To
simplify the diagram the aerofoils and the flaps have been set at small angles, and not at the angles
giving maximum lift.
 Fig.5.11. Multi-element slotted flaps
Three-element slotted Fowler-type flaps extend rearwards and down as this Boeing 737 prepares
to land.

Fig.5.12. Speed brakes

Speed brakes on the wings of the last Vulcan bomber (now sadly retired). The cables of a
braking parachute can also just be seen trailing from the rear
(iii)Spoiler
Spoilers, also called “lift dumpers” are control surfaces which are used to reduce or “spoil” the
lift on a wing. Spoilers are located on the upper surface of wings and are one of two basic
configurations. The more common configuration on jet transports, is to have a flat panel
spoiler laying flush with the surface of the wing and hinged at the forward edge. When the
spoilers are deployed, the surface rises up and reduces the lift. The other configuration shown
in Fig.5.13 is common among sailplanes and has the spoiler located inside the wing structure.
When the spoilers are deployed they rise vertically form the wing and spoil the lift.

Flight spoilers are used in flight to reduce the amount of lift that the wing is generating to
allow controlled descents without gaining excessiver air speed. Depending on the aircraft
design, the spoilers may also be operated by the pilot’s control wheel or stick. When the pilot
moves the control left or right for a roll movement, the spoilers on the wing toward the center of
the turn (upward-moving aileron) move upward and aid in rolling the aircraft into the turn. In
some aircraft designs, the spoilers are the primary flight control for roll.

Fig.5.13. Some aircraft, such as sailplanes, have the spoilers

arranged so that they rise vertically out of the wing

Ground spoilers are only used when the aircraft is on the ground and are used along with the
flight spoilers to greatly reduce the wing’s lift upon landing. They also increase the
aerodynamic drag of the aircraft’s after landing to aid in slowing the aircraft.

Spoilers can be controlled by the pilot through a manual control lever, by an automatic flight
control system, or by an automatic system activated upon landing. The typical relative location
of flight and ground spoilers is shown in Fig.5.14.
 Fig.5.14. Flight spoilers are normally located outboard of ground spoilers

(iv)Speed Brakes
Speed brakes, also called dive brakes, are large drag panels used to aid in control of the speed
of an aircraft. They may be located on the fuselage or on the wings. If on the fuselage, a speed
brake is located on the top or the bottom of the structure. If speed brakes are deployed as a
pair, one is on each side of the fuselage. If located on the wings, speed brakes are deployed
symmetrically from the top and the bottom of the wing surface to control the speed of the
aircraft as well as to act as spoilers to decrease the lift of the wings. (See Fig.5.15).
On some aircraft designs, particularly gliders and sailplanes there may not be any clear
distinction between a spoiler and a divebrake because one control surface may serve the
purpose of both actions, i.e., to decrease lift and increase drag.

TYPES OF SLOTS
Although there is a large variety of high-lift devices nearly all of them can be classed as slots.
Slots may be subdivided into -
i. Fixed slots
ii. Controlled slots
iii. Automatic slots
iv. Blown slots

We can also classify the effects of both slots and flaps on the characteristics of an aerofoil by
saying that their use may cause one or more of the following -
a. Increase of Lift
b. Increase of Drag
c. Change of Stalling Angle
d. Decrease of Lift
e. Change of Trim

If a small auxiliary aerofoil, called a slat, is placed in front of the main aerofoil, with a suitable
gap or slot in between the two (Fig.5.16), the maximum lift coefficient of the aerofoil may be
increased by as much as 60 per cent (Fig.5.8). Moreover the stalling angle may be increased
from 150 to 220 or more, not always an advantage as we shall discover when we consider the
problems of landing. An alternative to the separate slat, simpler but not so effective, is to cut
one or more slots in the basic aerofoil itself, forming as it were a slotted wing.

Fig.5.16. Leading edge slat and slot

(By courtesy of Fiat Aviazione, Torino, Italy)
The reason behind these results is clearly shown in Fig.5.17. Stalling is caused by the breakdown
of the steady streamline airflow. On a slotted wing the air flows through the gap in such a way as to
keep the airflow smooth, following the contour

Fig.5.17. Effect of slot on airflow over an aerofoil at large angle of attack

of the surface of the aerofoil, and continuing to provide lift until a much greater angle is reached.
Numerous experiments confirm this conclusion. It is, in effect, a form of boundary layer
control as described earlier.

The extra lift enables us to obtain a lower landing or stalling speed, and this was the original
idea. If the slots are permanently open, i.e. fixed slots, the extra drag at high speed is a
disadvantage, so most slots in commercial use are controlled slots, that is to say, the slat is
moved backwards and forwards by a control mechanism; and so can be closed for high-speed
flight and opened for low speeds. In the early days experiments were made which revealed
that, if left to itself, the slat would move forward of its own accord. So automatic slots came
into their own; in these the slat is moved by the action of air pressure, i.e. by making use of that
forward and upward suction near the leading edge. Fig.5.18
 Fig.5.18. Direction of force on slat at varying angles of attack
shows how the force on the slat inclines forward as the stalling angle is reached. The opening
of the slot may be delayed or hastened by ‘vents’ at the trailing or leading edge of the slat
respectively (Fig.5.19), and there may be some kind of spring or tensioning device to prevent
juddering, which may be otherwise likely to occur.

Fig.5.19. Effect of vents on opening of automatic slots

Before leaving the subject of slots - for the time being, at any rate - there are a couple of
interesting points which may be worth mentioning. Firstly, the value of the slot in maintaining
a smooth airflow over the top surface of the wing can be materially enhanced by blowing air
through the gap between slat and wing; this may be called ablown slot. Secondly, what might
be called the ‘slot idea’ may be extended to other parts of the aircraft. Specially shaped
cowlings can be used to smooth the airflow over an engine, and fillets may be used at exposed
joints, and other awkward places, to prevent the airflow from becoming turbulent.

TYPES OF FLAPS
A wing flap is defined as hinged, pivoted, or sliding airfoil, usually attached near the trailing
edge of the wing. The purpose of wing flaps is to change the camber of the wing and in some
cases to increase the area of the wing, thus permitting the aircraft to operate at lower flight
speeds for landing and takeoff. The flaps effectively increase the lift of the wings and, in some
cases, greatly increase the drag, particularly when fully extended. Various configurations for
wing flaps are shown in Fig.5.20.

I Leadingedge flaps
While flaps are generally located on the trailing edge of a wing, they can also be placed on the
leading edge. Leading- edge flaps are normally used only on large transport-category aircraft
that need large amounts of additional lift for landing. A leading-edge flap is a high-lift device
which reduces the severity of the pressure peak above the wing at high angles of attack. This
enables the wing to operate at higher angles of attack than would be possible without the flap.

a. Krueger flap
Another method for providing a leading-edge flap is to design an extendable surface known
as the Krueger flap that ordinarily fits smoothly into the lower part of the leading edge. When
the flap is required, the surface extends forward and downward, as shown in the second
drawing of Figure.5.21.

b.Droop snoot
One method for providing a wing flap is to design the wing with a leading edge that can be
drooped, as shown in the top drawing of Figure.5.21.

I Trailing edge flaps

The trailing edge flap is simply a small auxiliary aerofoil, located near the rear of a main aerofoil,
and which can be deflected about a given line, where it is hinged. This deflection causes a
change in the geometry of the aerofoil, and hence in its aerodynamic characteristics. In the
case of a flap designed as a high-lift device, usually only downward deflection is possible,
though the amount of deflection is variable. In the case of a flap designed as a control surface,
deflection in both senses is possible, though the range of deflection is usually much less. The
main types of trailing edge flap are described in principle in the following paragraphs.

a.Camber flap or Plain flap

The camber flap, in effect, acts as if the trailing edge of the wing were deflected downward to
change the camber of the wing. Thus increasing both lift and drag. If the flap is moved
downward sufficiently, it becomes an effective air brake. The plain flap may be hinged to the
wing at the lower side, or it may have the hinge line midway between the lower and upper
surfaces.

b.Split flap
The split flap, when retracted, forms the lower surface of the wing trailing edge. When
extended, the flap moves downward and provides an effect similar to that of the pain flap.
Plain flaps and split flaps may be attached to wing with three or more separate hinges, or they
may be attached at the lower surface with a continuous piano hinge.

Fig.5.20. Configuration for wing flaps

 Fig.5.21. Types of leading-edge flaps

a. Fowlerflap
The fowler flap and others with similar operation are designed to increase substantially the wing
area as the flap is extended, the flap forms the trailing edge of the wing. As this type of flap is
extended, it is moved rearward, often by means of a worm gear, and is supported in the correct
position by means of curved tracks. The effect of the Flower flap, when extended is to greatly
reduce the stalling speed of the aircraft by the increase in wing area and change in wing chamber.

b.Zapflap
Zap flap is a combination both Split flap and Fowler flap.

c. Slotted flap
A slotted flap is similar to a plain flap except that as the flap is extended, a gap develops between
the wing and the flap. The leading edge of the flap is designed so that air entering this gap flows
smoothly through the gap and aids in holding the airflow on the surface. This increases the lift of
the wing with the flap extended.
d. Jet flap
The jet flap consists of a very high speed jet of
air blown out through a narrow slit in the
trailing edge of the wing. The jet, deflected
slightly downwards, divides the upper surface
flow from the lower surface flow, and produces
an effect on the flow over the wing just like that
which would be produced by a very large
physical trailing edge flap. There is an
additional increment due to the downward
component of the momentum of the jet.
Experiments with such a device have produced
very high lift coefficients.

Some aircraft designs incorporate

combinations of the fowler and slotted flaps to
greatly increase the lift and drag of the wing.
When the flap is initially extended, it moves aft
on its track. Once past a certain point on the
track, further aft movement is accompanied by
a downward deflection which opens up the slot
between the flap and the wing. Many jet
transport aircraft use this basic design with
several slot openings being used to improve
the airflow over the wing and flap surfaces.
Fig.5.22 illustrates this type of flap
combination.
A fewaircraft, particularlysailplanes, incorporate
a negative flap capability into the flap control
design so that the flap can be raised above its
neutral position. This changes the airfoil shape
and allows the aircraft to fly at a higher speed Fig.5.22. The retracted and extended position of the flap
segment in a typical flap system
with reduced drag.

BOUNDARY LAYER SUCTION

While blowing energizes the boundary layer in order to prevent separation, the principle of
suction is the removal of the slowly moving air in the boundary layer, so that there in no layer
to separate. Small holes, flush with the surface, are made in the surface of the aerofoil upstream
of the separation point, and the air in the boundary layer is sucked into the wing through these
holes. However, from this point onwards the boundary layer will re-form and thicken, and
separation may still occur at some point downstream. To prevent this a series of suction holes
must be made at various chord wise positions, as indicated in Fig.5.23. The logical extension
of this idea is the use of a porous wing surface, with suction applied every- where on the
surface.

Fig.5.23.

In addition to preventing separation, suction may also be used to prevent transition, and hence
to keep drag low. Such a device would appear to be of particular interest in conjunction with
the use of low drag wing sections. The principle behind the design of a low drag section is the
maintenance of laminar flow. The disadvantage inherent in such designs is that separation
 occurs very readily when the incidence is increased by even a fairly small amount above the
design value. Suction could be helpful both in maintaining laminar flow and in preventing
separation.

BOUNDARY LAYER BLOWING

The principle of boundary layer blowing is similar to that of the leading edge slot. Highspeed air is
blown into the boundary layer through a narrow slit in the upper surface of the aerofoil, where it re-
energizes the boundary layer and prevents separation. Since the velocity of the air fed in this way is
so much higher than the speed of the air passing through a leading edge slot, or a slotted flap, blowing
will generally prove much more effective. The stall can be delayed almost indefinitely by this means.
In addition, The jet of air has the effect almost indefinitely by this means. In addition, the jet of air had
the effect of increasing the circulation round the wing, thus giving a direct lift increment at all
incidence

The slot may be near the nose of the aerofoil, so that the blowing affect the whole of the upper
surface, as in Fig.5.24. Alternatively, the slot maybe situated just upstream of the nose of a plain
flap. In this position, the upstream of the slot will be affected to some extent by induction, but the
main object is to prevent separation of the flow over the upper surface of the flap. Thus device
is known as the blown flap, and is illustrated in Fig.5.25.

Fig.5.24. Fig.5.25.

The circulation effect is still present, though less important. There is some advantage in this device
compared with that of slot placed further forward in that, in the latter case, the effect of blowing
may be lessened by the time the flow reaches the rear of the aerofoil, where separation is most
likely.

VORTEX GENERATORS
Many devices are used by the designer to control the separation or breakaway of the airflow from
the surface of the wing - all these devices, in one way or another, over one part of the wing or
another, have this in common, that they are intended to prevent or delay this breakaway. How?

Well, that depends to some extent on the device, and we will consider vortex generators first
(Fig.5.26).
Fig.5.26. Vortex generators
The fundamental reason for the breakaway is that the boundary layer becomes sluggish over the
rear part of the wing section, flowing as it is against the pressure gradient. The formation of a
shock wave makes matters worse; the speed in the boundary layer is still subsonic which means
that pressure can be transmitted up stream, causing the boundary layer to thicken and, if the
pressure rise is too steep, to break away from the surface. Now vortex generators are small plates
or wedges, projecting an inch or so from the top surface of the wing, i.e. three or four times the
thickness of the boundary layer. Their purpose is to put new life into a sluggish boundary layer;
this they do by shedding small lively vortices which act as scavengers, making the boundary layer
turbulent and causing it to mix with and acquire extra energy from the surrounding faster air, thus
helping it to go farther along the surface before being slowed up and separating from the surface.
In this way the small drag which they create is far more than compensated by the considerable
boundary layer drag which they save, and in fact they may also weaken the shock waves and so
reduce shock drag also; and the vorticity which they generate can actually serve to prevent
buffeting of the aircraft as a whole - a clever idea indeed,

Fig.5.27. Vortex generators: bent-tin type.

and so simple. The net effect is very much the same as blowing or sucking the boundary layer,
but the device is so much lighter in weight and simpler. The greater the value of the
thickness/chord ratio the more necessary does some such device become.

There are various types of vortex generator; Fig.5.27 illustrates the bent-tin type, which may be
co-rotating or contra- rotating. The plates are inclined at about 15o to the airflow, and on a wing
are usually situated on the upper surface fairly near the leading edge.

DRAG
INTRODUCTION
Whenever a body is moved though air, or other viscous fluid, there is produced a definite
resistance to its motion. In aeronautical work this resistance is usually referred to as drag.

And efforts must be made to reduce the resistance of every part of an aeroplane to a minimum,
provided strength and other essential factors can be maintained. For this reason many thousands
of experiments have been carried out to investigate the problems of air resistance; in fact, in this,
as in almost every branch of this subject, our knowledge is founded mainly on the mean results
of accumulated experimental data.

Experiments on air resistance have performed in two ways-

1. By study of the nature of the flow of air and other fluids past solid bodies.
2. By measuring the actual forces produced on the bodies by the passage of the fluid.

The data produced by these two methods show that there is a direct connection between the two,
and generally speaking, it can be said that the greater the formation of eddies, or turbulence the
greater is the resistance too the passage of aircraft through air.
In experimental work it is usual to allow the fluid to flow past the body rather than to move
the body through the fluid. The former method has the great advantage that the body is at
rest, and consequently the measurement of any forces upon it is comparatively simple.
Furthermore, since we are only concerned with the relative motion of the body and the fluid,
the true facts of the case are fully reproduced provided we can obtain a flow of the fluid which
would be as steady as the corresponding motion of the body through the fluid.

TYPES OF DRAG
Lines which show the direction of the flow of the fluid at any particular moment are called
streamlines, and a body so shaped as to produce the least possible eddy or vortex motion is
said to be of streamline shape.

By introducing smoke into the airflow in wing tunnels, and coloured jets into water tank
experiments. The results of these experiments show that we may divide the resistance of a
body passing through a fluid into two parts i.e. Form Drag and skin friction.

These two between then form a large part of the total drag of an aeroplane in the high subsonic
range, the major part. The sum of the two is sometimes called profile Drag but this term will
be avoided since it is apt to give an impression of being another name for Form drag, whereas
it really includes skin friction.

The total drag of an aeroplane is sometimes divided in another way in which the drag of the
wings or lifting surfaces, wing drag, is separated from the drag of those parts which do not
contribute towards the lift, the drag of the latter being called parasite drag.
i Profile drag
This is the portion of the resistance which is due to the fact that when a viscous fluid flows past
a solid object, vortices are formed, and we no longer get a smooth streamline flow. The extreme
example of this type of resistance is a flat plate placed at right angles to the wind. The resistance
is very large and is almost entirely due to the formation of vortices, the skin fiction being
negligible in comparison.

Experiments show that not only is the pressure in front of the plate greater than the
atmospheric pressure, but that the pressure behind is less than that of the atmosphere,
causing a kind of “sucking” effect on the plate (Fig.6.1).

This is ‘the drag arising from the resolved components or the tangential stresses on the surface
of the body.

At all points on the surface of a body past which a viscous fluid is flowing there is a traction
along the surface in the direction of flow. This traction is due directly to viscosity. The
traction at each point has a component acting in the direction of the undisturbed stream (or in
the direction opposite to the direction of the opposite to the direction of flight). The total effect
of these components, taken over the whole of the exposed surface of the body, is the surface
friction drag (skin-friction drag).

Surface friction drag cannot exist in an inviscid fluid.

 Fig.6.1.

ii Induce Drag
The trailing vortices which are shed from near the tips of a finite wing contain energy
associated with the rotational velocities. This energy is abstracted from the airflow, so that some
power must equal the rate of flow of energy associated with the trailing vortices. This is
equivalent to saying that there is now a further drag force on the wing, to be added to its
profile drag. This is known as induced drag, and it forms a very important part of the total
drag of a finite wing. Boundary Layer Drag (Profile Drag)- the boundary layer drag is the sum
of the surface friction drag and the boundary layer normal-pressure drag (form drag).

iiiInterference Drag
In general, with any aircraft configuration, there is, in addition to the drag of the drag of the
various components, an extra amount of drag due to interference between these components.
Principally between wing and the fuselage. This is especially important at high speeds.
Experiment shows that a large part of the transonic drag rise for a complete aircraft is due to
interference. It also shows that interference drag at transonic speeds may be minimized by
ensuring that the distribution along the length of the aircraft axis of its total cross-sectional
area follows a certain smooth pattern.

With some early high-speed aircraft designs this was not the case. The area increase rapidly
in the region of the wing, and again in the vicinity of the tail, and decrease elsewhere, giving
an area distribution something like the one sketched in Fig.6.2(a). On later aircraft, the
fuselage was wasted, i.e., the area reduced in the region of the wing and again near the tail,
so that there was no-hump in the area distribution, giving a distribution like that of Fig.6.2(b).
There is an optimum area distribution, and the minimization of transonic interference drag
requires that the aircraft should be designed to fit this distribution as closely as possible. This
requirement is known as the transonic area rule. In practice, of course, no aircraft has this
optimum distribution, but any reasonably smooth area distribution helps to keep down the
transonic drag rise.

iv Wave Drag
The sudden extra drag which is such a marked feature of the shock stall has two main
components. First the energy dissipated in the shock wave itself is reflected in additional drag
(wave drag) on the aerofoil. Secondly, the shock wave may be accompanied by separation, or
at any rate a thickening of and increase in turbulence level in the boundary layer. Either of these
will modify both the pressure on the surface and the skin friction behind the shock wave.

So this shock drag may be considered as being made up of two parts, i.e. the wave- making
resistance, or wave drag, and the drag caused by the thick turbulent layer or region of
separation which we will call boundary layer drag.
 As the shock wave and the thickened turbulent boundary layer or separation are like the
chicken and the egg-we do not know which comes first; what we do know is that when one
comes so does the other. That is not to say tat they are by any means the same thing, or
that they have the same effects, or that a device which reduces one will necessarily reduce
the other.

ANOTHER WAY OF CLASSIFICATION OF DRAG

i. Parasite drag
The other components of the aircraft, e.g., the fuselage, engine nacelles, tail unit, etc.,
contribute an additional amount of drag. Since these components are ‘non-lifting’, i.e., they do
not contribute significantly to the useful lift of the aircraft, this drag is called “parasite drag”.
The parasite drag coefficient is often assumed to be constant.
C 2 the induced drag factor and the profile drag coefficient is not constant, but is more correctly
represented by
CD = C +b’C 2, C + bL' C 2 + (K/A) C 2 - (1)
L
CD = DZ L
o Dz L
2
C D = a + b CL (
2
)
where a and b are constants. The
relation between CD and CL2 is

still linear, but the slope of the

line will now be greater than k/
A- in fact, it will be b' + k/A,
However, b' is usually small in
comparison with k/A, and the
induced drag factor is generally
estimated, with reasonable
accu-
racy, from this curve.
Fig.6.2.
If a complete aircraft is consid-
ered, the drag relation for the
wing, as given in equation 2 may change again. The other components of the aircraft, e.g., the
fuselage, engine nacelles, tail unit, etc., contribute an additional amount of drag. Since these
components are ‘non-lifting’, i.e., they do not contribute significantly to the useful lift of the
aircraft, this drag is called parasite drag. The parasite drag coefficient is often assumed to be
constant. Term in equation. In fact, however, it also increase with the square of the lift coefficient,
so that there is also some increase in the second term. The relationship remains of the form
CD = a + bCL 2 ,
but the following points should be noted:
(a) The constant ‘a’ does not now consist only of the profile drag coefficient of the wing, but will be
much increased. In fact, the parasite drag may be a good deal more than the profile drag.
However, ‘a’ may still be referred to as the drag coefficient at zero lift.
(b)
(c) The CD ~generally
will now C curve will still be linear over a considerable range. The slope, still given by b,
L
2
be appreciably larger than that due to the induced drag of the wing alone. However, this slope
may still be used,
as before to determine what is often called the induced drag factor of the complete aircraft.
Typical values for this will be much greater than those quoted above for a conventional wing.
Values of 2 or 3 are often obtained.

COEFFICIENT OF DRAG VS ANGLE OF ATTACK

Now for the drag coefficient curve (Fig.6.3 ). Here we find much what we might expect. The
drag is least at about 0o, or even a small negative angle, and increases on both sides of this
angle; up to about 6o, however, the increase in drag is not very rapid, then it gradually becomes
 more and more rapid, especially after the stalling angle when the airflow separates.

PROFILE DRAG DETAILS

i Form drag reduction by stream lining
Form drag is kept to a minimum by preventing boundary-layer separation and in this respect has
already been discussed in the previous sections. Streamlining is vitally important for reducing
form drag. It is worth noting that at high Reynolds numbers a circular cylinder has roughly the
same overall drag as a streamlined aerofoil with a chord length equal to 100 cylinder radii.
Form drag is overwhelmingly the main contribution to the overall drag for bluff bodies like the
cylinder, whereas the predominant contribution in the case of the streamlined body is skin-
friction drag, form drag being less than ten per cent of the overall drag. For bluff bodies even
minimal streamlining can be very effective.

ii Skin friction drag reduction by smoothening the surface

In broad terms skin-friction drag can be reduced in one of two ways. Either laminar flow is
maintained by postponing transition, this is the so-called laminar-flow technology, or ways are
found to reduce the surface shear stress generated by the turbulent boundary layer.

Fig.6.3. Drag curve

The laminar-flow technology has already been discussed briefly in Section 6.3. Laminar flow
can be maintained passively by prolonging the favourable or constant-pressure region over the
wing surface. Active control of transition requires the use of suction, either distributed or
through discrete spanwise slots (in a similar way as discussed in the previous section for the
prevention of separation). Often the suction is used in conjunction with favourable pressure
distributions. The basic principles of maintaining laminar flow by means of suction have been
known for at least the past thirty-five to forty years. However, problems with practical
implementation on aircraft, either real or perceptual, have prevented the wide-spread use of
the technology. It seems increasingly likely, however, that the considerable gains in
efficiency which would result from the use of laminar-flow technology, will ensure that it will
be much more widely exploited on commercial aircraft in the near future. Other methods for
maintaining laminar flow have been developed but, as yet, have not been seriously
considered for practical application in aviation.
 INDUCED DRAG (VORTEX DRAG) DETAILS
i. To reduce induced drag: Saw tooth or dog tooth leading edge
There it was shown that, in accordance with the classic wing theory, induced drag
falls as the aspect ration of the wing is increased. It was also shown that for a given
aspect ratio elliptic-shaped wings have the lowest induced drag. Over the past
fifteen years the winglet has been developed as a device for reducing induced drag
without increasing aspect ratio. A typical example is illustrated in Fig. Winglets of
this type have now been fitted to many types of commercial aircraft.

Fig.6.4 Saw tooth

The physical principle behind the winglet is illustrated in Fig.8.19b and 8.19c. On all subsonic wings
there is a tendency for a secondary flow to develop from the high-pressure region below the wing
round the wing tip to the relatively low- pressure region on the upper surface (Fig.8.19b). This is part
of the process of forming the trailing vortices. If a winglet of the appropriate design and orientation
is fitted to the wing-tip, the secondary flow causes the winglet to be at an effective angle of
incidence, giving rise to lift and drag components LW and DW have components in the direction
of
the drag of the aircraft as a whole. LW provides a component counter to the aircraft drag, while DW
provides a component
which augments the aircraft drag. For a well-designed winglet the contribution of LW predominates,
resulting in a net reduction in overall drag, or a thrust, equal to  (Fig.8.19c).
i. Wing let and Wing fence
Ideally, air would always flow chordwise over a wing; however, as has been discussed, air will
tend to flow spanwise toward the tip. Spanwise flow is particularly a problem on swept wings.
This spanwise flow of air may be partially controlled by the use of a wing (flow) fence, such as
is illustrated in Figure _. A wing fence is a stationary vane, projecting from the upper surface of
an airfoil, which is used to prevent the spanwise flow of air. Flow fences are often located in
alignment with trailing-edge control surfaces, such as ailerons, to improve the chordwise flow
and thereby the effectiveness of the control surfaces.

Fig.6.5. Wing let Fig.6.6. Wing fence

iii Wing tip fence

Fig.6.7. Wing tip fence