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Lecture No.8
Layout and Design of
Irrigation Canals
Engr. M. Shakeel Hassan
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Civil Engineering
(Water Resource Engineering and Management)

Irrigation Engineering and practices 1

Department of Civil Engineering and Technology

 Course: Irrigation Engineering and Practices
 Instructor: Engr. Muhammad Shakeel Hassan
 Lecture No : 08/16
 Week No. 08
 Class: MSc Civil Engineering
 Semester: 2nd.
 Section: A.
 Session: Spring-2021
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Canals/Channels
A canal is defined as an artificial channel
constructed on the ground to carry water from
a river or another canal or a reservoir to the
fields.

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Classification of Canals

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Types of Canals
(BASED ON SOURCE OF SUPPLY)

Permanent • Continuous source of water

supply.
Canal • Also called perennial canals

Inundation • Draws its supplies from a river

only during the high stages of
Canal the river.

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Types of Canals
(BASED ON FUNCTION)
Irrigation • Carries water from its source to
Canal agricultural fields.

Navigation • Used for transport of goods.

Canal
• Used to carry water for
Power Canal generation of hydroelectricity.

Feeder Canal • Feeds two or more canals.

Note, a canal can serve more than one purpose.

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Types of Canals
(BASED ON ALIGNMENT)
Watershed Canal or
Ridge Canal

Contour Canal

Side Slope Canal

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Watershed canal or Ridge canal

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Watershed canal or Ridge canal

The dividing ridge line between the catchment areas of two streams
(drains) is called the watershed or ridge canal.

Thus between two major streams, there is the main watershed

(ridge line), which divides the drainage area of the two streams.

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Watershed canal or Ridge canal

The canal which is aligned along any natural watershed (ridge line) is
called a watershed canal, or a ridge canal. Aligning a canal (main canal
or branch canal or distributary) on the ridge ensures gravity irrigation
on both sides of the canal.

Since the drainage flows away from the ridge, no drainage can
cross a canal aligned on the ridge. Thus, a canal aligned on the
watershed saves the cost of construction of cross-drainage works.

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Watershed canal or Ridge canal

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Contour Canal
Watershed canal along the ridge line are not found economical in
hill areas. In hills, the river flows in the valley well below the
watershed.

In fact, the ridge line (watershed) may be hundred of meters above
the river. It therefore becomes virtually impossible to take the canal on
top of such a higher ridge line. In such conditions, contour canals are
usually constructed.

A contour canal irrigates only on one side because the area on the
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Contour Canal (Contd.)

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Side Slope Canal

A side slope canal is that which is aligned at right angles
to the contours; i.e. along the side slopes.
Since such a canal runs parallel to the natural drainage
flow, it usually does not intercept drainage channels, thus
avoiding the construction of cross-drainage structures.
It is a canal which is aligned roughly at right angle to
contours of the country but not on watershed or valley.

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Side Slope Canal (Contd.)

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Types of Canals
(BASED ON DISCHARGE)

Main Canal
Branch Canal

Major Distributary
Minor Distributary

Water Course
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MAIN CANAL

Main Canal takes off directly from the upstream

side of weir head works or dam.

Usually no direct cultivation is proposed

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The Danube-Black Sea Canal in Romania

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BRANCH CANAL
 All offtakes from main canal with head
discharge of 14-15 cumecs and above are
termed as branch canals.

 Acts as feeder channel for major distributaries

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A BRANCH CANAL IN MADRAS

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MAJOR DISTRIBUTARY
All offtakes from main canal or branch canal with head discharge
from 0.25 to 15 cumecs are termed as major distributaries.

MINOR DISTRIBUTARY
All offtakes taking off from a major distributary carrying
discharge less than 0.25 cumec are termed as minor distributaries

WATER COURSE
Small channels which carry water from the outlets of a major or
minor distributary or a branch canal to the fields to be irrigated.

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Types of Canals
(Based on lining provided or not)
• Bed and banks made up of natural soil.
• Water velocities higher than 0.7 m/s are not
Unlined
 tolerable.
 High seepage and conveyance water losses.
Canal
 Profuse growth of aquatic weeds retards the flow .

• Lining of impervious material on its bed and

Lined banks to prevent the seepage of water.
• Different types of lining used e.g. concrete,
Canal brick or burnt clay tile, boulder, etc.

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A PICTURE OFA UNLINED CANAL

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A PICTURE OFA LINED CANAL

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Cross-Section of Irrigation Canal

FSL= Full Supply Level. NSL=Natural Surface Level

This section is partly in cutting and partly in filling and aims in

balancing the quantity of earth work in excavation with that in
filling.
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Introduction
When the NSL is above the top of the bank, the entire
canal section will have to be in cutting, and it shall be called
‘canal in cutting’.
Similarly, when the NSL is lower than the bed level of the
canal, the entire canal section will have to be built in filling,
and it is called ‘canal in filling’.

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Components of canal cross- section

 Side slope
 Berm
 Freeboard
 Bank
 Service road
 Back Berm or Counter Berm
 Spoil Bank
 Borrow Pit
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Side Slope
The side slopes should be such that they are stable,
depending upon the type of the soil.
A comparatively steeper slope can be provided in cutting
rather than in filling, as the soil in the former case shall be
more stable.

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Berm is the horizontal distance left at ground level between

the toe of the bank and the top edge of cutting.

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Berm (contd.)
Purposes of Berms:
They give additional strength to the banks and provide
protection against erosion and breaches.

 They protect the banks from erosion due to wave action.

 They provide a scope for future widening of the canal.

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Freeboard
The margin between FSL and bank level is known as
freeboard. The amount of freeboard depends upon the
discharge of the channel.

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Bank
The primary purpose of banks in to retain water. This can be
used as means of communication and as inspection paths.

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Service Road
Service roads are provided on canals for inspection purposes, and may
simultaneously serve as the means of communication in remote areas.

Dowla: As a measure of safety in driving, dowlas with side slopes of

1.5: 1 to 2:1, are provided along the banks.
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Back Berm or Counter Berm

Even after providing sufficient section for bank embankment, the
saturation gradient line may cut the downstream end of the bank. In
such a case, the saturation line can be kept covered at least by 0.5 m
with the help of counter berms as shown in figure below.

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Spoil Bank
When the earthwork in excavation exceeds earthworks in filling, the
extra earth has to be disposed of economically.
Economical mode of its disposal may be collecting this soil on the
edge of the bank embankment itself.

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Borrow Pit
When earthwork in filling exceeds the earthwork in
excavation, the earth has to be brought from somewhere.
The pits, which are dug for bringing earth, are known as
borrow pits.
If such pits are excavated outside the channel, they are known as
external borrow pits, and if they are excavated somewhere within
the channel, they are known as internal borrow pits.

 Internal borrow pits are more preferred than external one.

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Borrow Pit (Contd.)

The inside borrow pit may be located at the centre of canal. The idea
behind this is that the borrow pits will act as water pockets where
the silt will be deposited and ultimately the canal bed will get
levelled up.

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Example problem 1
Calculate the balancing depth for a channel section having a bed width
equal to 18 m and side slopes of 1:1 in cutting and 2:1 in filling. The
bank embankments are kept 3.0 m higher than the ground level (berm
level) and crest width of banks is kept as 2.0 m.

Solution: Let d be the balancing depth, i.e. the depth for which
excavation and filling becomes equal.

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Example (Contd.)

Area of cutting = (18 + d) d m2

Area of filling = 2(2+14)/2×3 = 48 m2
Equating cutting and filling, we get
(18 + d) d = 48
or, d2 + 18d – 48 = 0
or, d = 2.35 m (neglecting –ve sign)
Balancing depth = 2.35 m
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Cast In-Situ Concrete Lining

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Geometric Properties of Canal Sections

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Geometric Properties of Canal Sections

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Design of Loose Boundary Canals

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Silt Theories

Kennedy’s method

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Kennedy’s Theory (R. G. Kennedy – 1895)

Non-silting non-scouring reaches for 30 years in Upper Bari

Doab Canal (UBDC) system.

Vertical eddies generated from the bed are responsible for

keeping silt in suspension.

Critical velocity
Mean velocity which keeps the channel free from silting and scouring.
Vo = 0.55 D0.64
or Vo = C Dn

where, Vo = critical velocity, D = depth of water

C = constant and n = index number
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Later on realizing the channel material (sandy silt in UBDC) he

modified the equation as
Vo = 0.55 m D0.64
where,
V = actual velocity; and
m = C.V.R = critical velocity ratio = V/Vo

m = 1.1 – 1.2 coarser sand

m = 0.7 – 0.9 finer sand
m = 0.75 Sindh canals

Values of C and m for various grades of silt

Type of silt grade C m

Coarser silt 0.70 1.3
Sandy loam silt 0.65 1.2
Coarse light sandy silt 0.59 1.1
Light sandy silt 0.53 1.0
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Rugosity coefficient
Kennedy used Kutters equation for determining the mean velocity of flow in channel

Where (N) depends upon the boundary material

Channel condition N
Very good 0.0225
Good 0.025
Indifferent 0.0275
Poor 0.03

Discharge (cumec) N (in ordinary soil)

14 – 140 0.025
140 – 280 0.0225
> 280 0.02

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Water Surface Slope

No relationship by Kennedy.
Governed by available ground slope.
Different sections for different slopes.
Wood’s normal design table for B/D ratio.

Silt Carrying Capacity of Channel

Qt = K B Vo0.25

Where
Qt = total quantity of silt transported
B = bed width
Vo = critical velocity
K = constant, whose value was not determined by Kennedy
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Design Procedure
Case I : Given Q, N, m and S (from L-section)
1. Assume D
2. Calculate velocity from Kennedy’s equation, VK = 0.55 m D0.64
3. Calculate area, A = Q / VK
4. Calculate B from A = B D + z D2 ; assume side slope 1(V) : ½(H), if not given.
5. Calculate wetted perimeter and hydraulic mean depth from;

6. Determine mean velocity from Chezy’s equation.

7.
Vc =C √(RS)
if Vc = Vk then O.K, otherwise repeat the above procedure with another value
of D until Vc = Vk.

Note:
Increase D if Vk < Vc
Decrease D if Vk > Vc
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Case II : Given Q, N, m and B/D

1. Determine A in terms of D
Let B/D = y, therefore, B = y D

2. Substitute eq. (1) and Kennedy’s equation into continuity equation and solve for D,
i.e.

Q=AV

3. Knowing D, calculate B and R

B = y D,

4. Determine (V) from Kennedy’s equation

V = 0.55 m D0.64

5. Determine slope from Kutter’s equation by trial and error

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Example Problem 1:
Design an irrigation channel for the following data using Kennedy’s theory:
Full Supply Discharge (F.S.Q) = 14.16 cumec
Slope, S = 1/5000
Kutter’s rugosity coefficient, N = 0.0225.
Critical velocity ratio, m =1
Side slope, z = ½

Solution:
1. Assume D = 1.72 m

2. Vk = 0.55 m D0.64 =0.55(1)(1.72)0.64 = 0.778 m

3. A = Q/Vk = 14.16/0.778 = 18.2 m2

4. A = B D + 0.5 D2 for z =1/2 or 0.5

18.2 = 1.72 B + 0.5(1.72)2

B = 9.72 m

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5.

R = A / P = 18.2 / 13.566 = 1.342 m

6.

Vc = 0.771 m
≈ 0.778 m

Result:
B = 9.72 m
D = 1.72 m
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Example Problem 2:
Using Kennedy’s theory design an irrigation channel to carry a discharge
of 56.63 cumec. Assume N = 0.0225, m = 1.03 and B/D = 11.3.

Solution:
1. B/D = 11.3, therefore B = 11.3 D
A = B D + 0.5 D2 =11.3 D2 + 0.5 D2 = 11.8 D2
2. V = 0.55 m D0.64 = 0.55 (1.03) D0.64 = 0.5665 D0.64
3. Q=AV
56.63 = (11.8 D2 ) (0.5665 D0.64 )
D = 2.25 m
4. B = 11.3 (2.25) = 25.43 m
5. R=A/P
A = B D + 0.5 D2 = (25.43)(2.25) + 0.5 (2.25)2 = 59.75 m2
P = B + √5 D = 25.43 + √5 (2.25) = 30.46 m
R = 59.75 / 30.46 = 1.96 m

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6. V = 0.55 m D0.64 = 0.55 (1.03) (2.25)0.64 = 0.95 m/sec

7.

Simplifying, we get;
67.44 S3/2 – 0.93 S + 1.55x10-3 S1/2 = 1.68x105

Solving by trial and error, we get

S = 1 in 5720
Results:
B = 25.43 m
D = 2.25 m
S = 1 / 5720
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Example Problem 3:
Design a section by Kennedy’s theory, given B/D = 5.7, S = 1/5000 and N =
0.0225. Also determine the discharge carried by the channel.
Solution:
B/D = 5.7, B = 5.7 D
Assuming z = ½

Since V = 0.55 m D0.64

Assuming m =1
V = 0.55 D0.64 ---------- (1)

Also

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Equating equation (1) and (2)

0.55 D1.14 – 0.939 D + 0.43 D0.64 = 0

By trial and error
D = 2.1 m
B = 5.7 x 2.1 = 11.97 m
A = B D + z D2 = (11.97 x 2.1) + 0.5 (2.1)2 = 14.175 m2
V = 0.55 (2.1)0.64 = 0.884 m/sec
Q = A V = (14,175)(0.884) = 12.53 m3/sec.

Results:
B = 11.97 m
D = 2.1 m
Q = 12.53 cumec

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Example Problem 4:
Design a section by Kennedy’s theory, given B/D = 5.7, S = 1/5000 and
N = 0.0225. Also determine the discharge carried by the channel.
Solution:
B/D = 5.7, B = 5.7 D
Assuming z = ½

Since V = 0.55 m D0.64

Assuming m =1
V = 0.55 D0.64 ---------- (1)

Also

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Equating equation (1) and (2)

0.55 D1.14 – 0.939 D + 0.43 D0.64 = 0

By trial and error
D = 2.1 m
B = 5.7 x 2.1 = 11.97 m
A = B D + z D2 = (11.97 x 2.1) + 0.5 (2.1)2 = 14.175 m2
V = 0.55 (2.1)0.64 = 0.884 m/sec
Q = A V = (14,175)(0.884) = 12.53 m3/sec.

Results:
B = 11.97 m
D = 2.1 m
Q = 12.53 cumec

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Shortcomings of Kennedy’s theory

1. The method involves trial and error.

2. Shape of section i.e. B/D is not known in advance.

3. Kutter’s equation is used instead of Manning’s equation.

Therefore limitations of Kutter’s formula are also
incorporated in Kennedy’s theory. Moreover it involves more
computations.

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Lacey’s Regime Theory (Gerald Lacey – 1930)

Lacey followed Lindley’s hypothesis:

“dimensions and slope of a channel to carry a given discharge and
silt load in easily erodible soil are uniquely determined by nature”.

According to Lacey:
“Silt is kept in suspension by the vertical component of eddies
generated at all points of forces normal to the wetted perimeter”.

Regime Channel
“A channel is said to in regime, if there is neither silting nor
scouring”.

According to Lacey there may be three regime conditions:

(i) True regime;
(ii) Initial regime; and
(iii) Final regime.
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True regime
A channel shall be in 'true regime' if the following conditions are satisfied:

(i) Discharge is constant;

(ii) Flow is uniform;
(iii) Silt charge is constant; i.e. the amount of silt is constant;
(iv) Silt grade is constant; i.e., the type and size of silt is always the same; and
(v) Channel is flowing through a material which can be scoured as easily as it
can be deposited (such soil is known as incoherent alluvium), and is of the
same grade as is transported.

But in practice, all these conditions can never be satisfied. And, therefore,
artificial channels can never be in 'true regime’; they can either be in initial
regime or final regime.
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(ii) Initial regime

 Bed slope of a channel varies
 Cross-section or wetted perimeter remains unaffected

(iii) Final regime

 All the variables such as perimeter, depth, slope, etc. are equally free to
vary and achieve permanent stability, called Final Regime.
In such a channel,
 The coarser the silt, the flatter is the semi-ellipse.
 The finer the silt, the more nearly the section attains a semi-circle.

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Lacey’s Equations:
Fundamental Equations:

Derived Equations:

(Lacey’s Non-regime flow equation)

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Lacey’s Channel Design Procedure

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Lacey’s Channel Design Procedure

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Example Problem 1:
Design an irrigation channel in alluvial soil from following data using Lacey’s
theory:
Discharge = 15.0 cumec; Lacey’s silt factor = 1.0; Side slope = ½ : 1
Solution:

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Example Problem 2:
The slope of an irrigation channel is 0.2 per thousand. Lacey’s silt factor = 1.0,
channel side slope = ½ : 1. Find the full supply discharge and dimensions of
the channel.
Data:
S = 0.2/1000 = (0.2 x 5) / (1000 x 5) = 1/5000
Solution:

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Example Problem 3:
Design an earthen channel of 10 cumec capacity. The value of Lacey’s silt factor
in the neighboring canal system is 0.9. General grade of the country is 1 in
8000.
Data:
Q = 10 cumec; f = 0.9; Sn=1/8000; B = ?; D = ?; Sreq= ?.
Solution:

Which is steeper than the natural grade of the country (i.e. 1 in 8000),
therefore not feasible. 70
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Now putting S = 1/8000 in the relationship

Hence silt factor will be reduced to 0.7454 by not allowing coarser silt to enter the
canal system by providing silt ejectors and silt excluders.

i.e. silt having mean diameter > 0.179 mm will not be allowed to enter the canal
system.

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Tractive Force Method

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Developments in regime theory

a) Lacey shock theory
b) Blench contribution (refer to text book Ch-4, pg 118,119)
c) Simon and Albertson modifications (refer to text book Ch-4, pg 119-122)

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Lacey's Shock Theory

Lacey considered absolute rugosity coefficient Na as;
 Constant and
 Independent of channel dimensions.

In practice Na varies because;

 V-S and y-f relationships are logarithmic,
 Due to irregularities or mounds in the sides and bed of the channel
(ripples), pressure on front is more than the pressure on the rear.

The resistance to flow due to this difference of pressure on the two sides of the
mound is called form resistance.

Lacey termed this loss as shock loss, which is different from frictional resistance or
tangential drag.

Shock loss = f (size, shape and spacing)

Total resistance = frictional resistance + shock loss

(due to bed) (due to irregularities)

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Lacey suggestions in Shock Theory

Na should remain constant
Slope should be splitted to overcome friction and to meet shock loss
i.e.

where, s = slope required to withstand shock losses.

According to Lacey
Na = 0.025 with shock loss
Na = 0.0225 without shock loss

Therefore, s = 0.19 S

i.e. for a channel in good condition

19 % slope for shock loss
and 81 % slope for friction
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Complications in Design of canals

Due to lack of explicit relationships between the various
parameters like slope, cross sectional area, shape and
sediment transport capacity, no generalized comprehensive
and well defined procedure is available for design based on
various theoretical approaches.

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Rational Approach for Canal Design

 The design of unlined channel by rational method is basically a
situation of sediment transport
 Any canal section will be stable if the velocities, slope and cross
section ensure complete sediments flushed from the channel
and maintain non scouring condition of the cross section.
 Sediment transport phenomenon is highly complex which may
not be entirely agreeable to rational analysis
 Flow conditions are assumed to be steady and uniform but in
actual practice they are often highly unsteady and non uniform
since the bed is flexible and the water surface changes
continuously.
 A generalized sediment transport function, straight forward
solution to the design of unlined canals has not yet been
devised.

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Sediment transport in unlined canals

 Sediment transport is a phenomenon of moving soil particles
and is crucial for design of stable earthen canals.
 Theoretically it is important in unlined canals, to evaluate the
movement of sediment quantitatively in terms of discharge and
sediment properties such as gravity , size, grade etc.
 The sediment load has been divided into bed load and
suspended load for which separate functions have been given
by various people like Duboy, Einstein etc.
Bed Load moves along the bottom of the channel and transmits
its weight to the static grains below and moves forward by sliding
or small leaps.
Suspended load is that part of the load which does not move in
contact with the bottom though there may be some interchange
of grains to and from the bed. It is supported by vertical
interchange of turbulent eddies.
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Bed Load Functions

Various bed load Functions/ empirical equations for the
estimation of bed load have been given as below.
 Du Bouy Formula (1879)
 Shields Formula (1936)
 Meyer-Peter Formula(1948)
 Einstein Bed Load function(1950)

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