MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions

L06, L07 (Fall 2024)

Chapter 1 Functions

1. Functions and their graphs

In the subject of calculus, the central and fundamental objects that we study are functions. Before
formally defining what a function is, let’s start with an informal understanding of the concept.

Remark 1.1 A function can be understood as a “machine”. Every time if we give it an input, the
machine processes the input according to some rules, and then gives us a definite output. As an
example, we consider the following “machine”.

0 0
−5 𝑥 ↦ 𝑥2 25
ξ2 2
−𝜋 𝜋2

Whenever we give it a real number 𝑥 as an input, it returns us the output 𝑥 2 . Such a machine is
going to be represented by a formula
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Here the symbol 𝑓 is the name of the machine, the symbol 𝑥 denotes an input, and the symbol
𝑓(𝑥) denotes the corresponding output. There are also certain characteristics of the machine as in
 what kinds of inputs are allowable (as an example, you cannot input a statement 𝑃 into the
above machine; the “square of a statement” is not a well-defined idea),
 what kinds of outputs are expected (if you input a real number 𝑥, then you expect that the
output 𝑥 2 is also a real number), and
 what kinds of outputs are actually achievable (if you input a real number 𝑥, then you expect
that the output 𝑥 2 can only be non-negative; negative real numbers are not achievable).

Definition 1.2 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. A function (or a map, or a mapping, or a transformation)
𝑓 from 𝑨 to 𝑩, denoted by
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵,
is a relation that connects the elements of 𝐴 and the elements of 𝐵. Given each element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
this relation assigns to it a unique element 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵. In case 𝑦 is assigned to 𝑥 by the function 𝑓,
we may say that “𝑓 sends 𝑥 to 𝑦”, and we write
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
 The set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓 and the set 𝐵 is called the codomain of 𝑓.
 The range (or image) of a function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is the set that contains precisely all the elements
in 𝐵 that are actually assigned to some element in 𝐴. In symbols, the range of 𝑓 is the set
{𝑓(𝑥): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}.
In particular, the range of 𝑓 is part (or possibly all) of the codomain of 𝑓.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Remark 1.3 In the “machine analogy” of functions, each input can only be processed by the
machine to give one and only one output.
 The domain is the set of all “allowable inputs”;
 The codomain describes what kind of objects the “outputs” are; and
 The range is the set of all “achievable outputs”.

Example 1.4 The area 𝐴 of a circular disk is a function of the radius 𝑟 of the disk. This function
is 𝐴: (0, +∞) → ℝ defined by
𝐴(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 2 .

Example 1.5 Suppose that you are buying a fish in a supermarket. Then the price $𝑃 of the fish
is a function of the weight (mass?) 𝑤 kg of the fish. This function is 𝑃: (0, +∞) → ℝ defined by
𝑃(𝑤) = 50𝑤
if the particular kind of fish is being sold at $50 per kg.

Remark 1.6 In the two examples above, note that it is perfectly fine to input a non-positive number
into the formulas 𝐴(𝑟) = 𝜋𝑟 2 or 𝑃(𝑤) = 50𝑤. However, it does not make sense to talk about a
disk with zero or negative radius, or a fish with zero or negative weight; so instead of ℝ, we take
(0, +∞) to be the domain of 𝐴 and of 𝑃.

Example 1.7 Suppose that you are taking the course MATH1013. Then the letter grade 𝑔 you
finally obtain is a function of the total score 𝑥 you get. This function is
𝑔: [0, 100] → {A+, A, A−, B+, B, B−, C+, C, C−, D, F}
whose defining formula 𝑔(𝑥) is currently unknown. (Of course 𝑔(0) = F and 𝑔(100) = A+.,)

Example 1.8 Let 𝑆 be the set of all finite sets (i.e. sets which contains finitely many elements).
We define a function 𝑛: 𝑆 → ℝ by
𝑛(𝐴) = the number of elements in 𝐴.
This function 𝑛 satisfies that
𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) for every finite sets 𝐴 and 𝐵.

In MATH1013 and MATH1014 we usually deal with functions whose domains, codomains and ranges
are sets of real numbers.

Example 1.9 Let 𝑓: {1, 2, 4, 7} → ℝ be the function defined by

𝑓(1) = 1, 𝑓(2) = 3, 𝑓(4) = 1 and 𝑓(7) = −6.
The domain of 𝑓 is {1, 2, 4, 7} . The codomain of 𝑓 is ℝ , while the range of 𝑓 is {1, 3, −6}
(which is indeed part of the codomain of 𝑓).

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.10 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
The domain of 𝑓 is ℝ. Although the codomain ℝ consists of all the real numbers, it can be easily
seen that
 Each real number “input” 𝑥 can only give a non-negative number “output” 𝑥 2 , and
 Each non-negative “output” 𝑦 is indeed “achievable” by some real “input”, namely √𝑦 and
−√𝑦, because
𝑓(√𝑦) = 𝑦 and 𝑓(−√𝑦) = 𝑦.
So the range of 𝑓 is [0, +∞), the set of all non-negative real numbers (which is indeed part of the
codomain of 𝑓).

Remark 1.11 In all the previous examples, the domains of the given functions are already specified.
In case we are given just a defining formula 𝑓(𝑥) without specifying the domain of 𝑓, we usually
take the domain of 𝑓 to be its natural domain, which is the largest possible set of real numbers on
which the formula 𝑓(𝑥) is “valid” (in MATH1013, this “valid” means “well-defined as a real number”).
(i) To find the natural domain of a function 𝑓 with the defining formula 𝑓(𝑥) given, it is often
useful to recall arithmetic facts for real numbers that you have already learnt in high school:
 Any real number divided by zero is undefined.
 The product of two negative numbers is positive.
 The 𝑛th root of a positive number is always positive.
negative if 𝑛 is odd
 The 𝑛th root of a negative number is { .
not a real number if 𝑛 is even
(ii) To find the range of a function 𝑓, we basically try to answer the question
“for what values of 𝑦 does the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) have solution in the domain of 𝑓?”.
There is no general method to obtain an answer to this question, and it depends very much on
the defining formula.

Example 1.12 Find the (natural) domain and the range of each of the following functions:
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = ξ𝑥 + 2
(b) 𝑔(𝑥) = ξ𝑥 2 + 5
𝑥+5
(c) ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑥−2

Solution:
(a) The expression ξ𝑥 + 2 is well-defined if and only if 𝑥 + 2 ≥ 0, i.e. 𝑥 ≥ −2. So the natural
domain of 𝑓 is [−2, +∞).
On the other hand, given any 𝑥 ∈ [−2, +∞), the number 𝑓(𝑥) = ξ𝑥 + 2 can take any value
in [0, +∞). Therefore the range of 𝑓 is [0, +∞).

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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(b) The expression ξ𝑥 2 + 5 is well-defined if and only if 𝑥 2 + 5 ≥ 0, which holds for every real
number 𝑥. So the natural domain of 𝑔 is ℝ.
On the other hand, given any real number 𝑥, the number 𝑔(𝑥) = ξ𝑥 2 + 5 can take any value
in [ξ5, +∞) (note that the expression under the square-root is always ≥ 5). Therefore the
range of 𝑔 is [ξ5, +∞).

𝑥+5
(c) The expression is well-defined if and only if 𝑥 − 2 ≠ 0, i.e. 𝑥 ≠ 2. So the natural domain
𝑥−2

of ℎ is ℝ ∖ {2} or (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, +∞).

𝑥+5 7
On the other hand, given any 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∖ {2}, the number ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥−2 = 1 + 𝑥−2 can take any

7
value in ℝ ∖ {1} (note that the expression is always non-zero). Therefore the range of ℎ
𝑥−2

is ℝ ∖ {1} or (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞).

A function can be visually presented using its graph in the Cartesian coordinate plane.

Definition 1.13 Let 𝐴 be a set of real numbers and 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ be a function. The graph of 𝑓 is
the set of points in the coordinate plane defined by
{(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)}.

Remark 1.14 Here are some facts about the graph of a function 𝑓:
(i) (“Vertical line test”) Each vertical line in the coordinate plane must intersect the graph of 𝑓 at
one point at most.
(ii) The domain of 𝑓 consists of all those real numbers 𝑎 such that the vertical line 𝑥 = 𝑎
intersects the graph of 𝑓 at exactly one point.
(iii) The range of 𝑓 consists of all those real numbers 𝑏 such that the horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑏
intersects the graph of 𝑓 at one point at least.

Example 1.15 Determine whether each of the following is the graph of a function. If the answer
is yes, then also identify the domain and the range of the function that it represents:

(3, 5)
(4, 3) (3, 3)
(−3, 1) (−4, 2) (1, 2)

0 1
(2, −1)
(5, −2)
(−3, −3)
(−2, −4)

Graph of a function, whose domain Graph of a function, whose domain Not the graph of a function
is ℝ ∖ {0} and range is ℝ is [−4, 5) and range is [−3, 3]

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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The first and perhaps the easiest kind of functions that we will study are polynomials. Their natural
domain is ℝ.

Definition 1.16 Let 𝑛 be a non-negative integer. A polynomial (in a variable 𝑥) is an algebraic

expression of the form
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ,
where 𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are numbers.
 For each 𝑘 ∈ {0, 1, … , 𝑛}, the number 𝑎𝑘 is called the coefficient of 𝒙𝒌 in the polynomial 𝑓.
 The degree of the polynomial 𝑓 is deg 𝑓 = 𝑛, if the leading coefficient 𝑎𝑛 is non-zero.
 A polynomial of degree 1 (resp. 2, 3) is called a linear (resp. quadratic, cubic) polynomial.
A polynomial 𝑓 can be regarded as a function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ if all its coefficients are real numbers. A
real root of a polynomial 𝑓 is a real number 𝑎 such that 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.

Recall the facts about polynomials and their graphs that you have learnt in high school, including:
 Slope, inclination angle and intercepts of the graph of a linear polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐
 Slopes of parallel lines and perpendicular lines
 Axis of symmetry, intercepts, vertex coordinates and extremum values of a quadratic polynomial
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
 Ranges of polynomials of odd degree and even degree

Example 1.17 Determine the signs of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 in the following graphs of the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
i.e. whether 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are positive or negative or zero.
(a) (b) (c) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

Solution:
Recall that from the graph of the quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
 𝑎 is positive if the parabola opens upward and is negative if the parabola opens downward,
 𝑏 = −2𝑎ℎ where ℎ is the 𝑥-coordinate of the vertex of the parabola, and
 𝑐 is the 𝑦-intercept of the parabola.
So according to the above graphs, we have
(a) 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 < 0 and 𝑐 < 0
(b) 𝑎 < 0 and 𝑏 < 0 and 𝑐 < 0
(c) 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑐 > 0

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.18 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be defined as

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6.
Find the natural domains and the ranges of the following functions.
(a) 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑓 (𝑥)
1
(b) ℎ(𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑥)

Solution:
We first rewrite the quadratic function 𝑓 into various different forms: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 6
= 2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)
= 2(𝑥 − 2)2 − 2,
1 3
so the graph of 𝑓 is a parabola which opens upward and intersects the −2
𝑥-axis at 1 and at 3, and is easily sketched as in the diagram.

(a)  The expression √𝑓(𝑥) is well-defined if and only if 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0, i.e.

2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) ≥ 0.
This holds if and only if 𝑥 ≤ 1 or 𝑥 ≥ 3. So 𝑔 has natural domain (−∞, 1] ∪ [3, +∞).
 According to the graph of 𝑓 , we see that on the domain of 𝑔 , 𝑓 takes every value in
[0, +∞). The range of 𝑔 = √𝑓 is also [0, +∞).

1
(b)  The expression is well defined if and only if 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0, i.e.
𝑓(𝑥)

2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) ≠ 0.
This holds if and only if 𝑥 ≠ 1 and 𝑥 ≠ 3 . So ℎ has natural domain ℝ ∖ {1, 3} , or
equivalently (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞).
 Noting that the minimum value of 𝑓 is −2, we see that on the domain of ℎ, 𝑓 takes
1 1
every value in [−2, 0) ∪ (0, +∞). So the range of ℎ = 𝑓 is (−∞, − 2] ∪ (0, +∞).

The following is an important theorem regarding the roots of a polynomial.

Theorem 1.19 Let 𝑓 be a polynomial of degree 𝑛. Then 𝑓 has at most 𝑛 real roots.

Example 1.20 Since

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 − 1
is a polynomial of degree 3, it has at most 3 real roots.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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2. Operations on functions and graphs

We try to build new functions from old ones that we already know, e.g. polynomials.

Definition 1.21 Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two real-valued functions. Then the sum 𝑓 + 𝑔, the difference
𝑓
𝑓 − 𝑔, the product 𝑓𝑔 and the quotient are defined as follows:
𝑔

 (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) for every 𝑥,

Think: How are the domains
 (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) for every 𝑥, of these new functions related
 (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) for every 𝑥, and to those of 𝑓 and 𝑔?

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
 (𝑥) ≔ for every 𝑥 which satisfies 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥)

Applying the quotient operation to polynomials, we obtain a new kind of functions called rational
functions. Because dividing by the number zero is “illegal”, the natural domain of a rational function
is the set of all real numbers except the roots of the polynomial in the denominator.

Definition 1.22 A rational function is a quotient of polynomials, i.e. a function 𝑓 of the form
𝑝(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑞(𝑥)
where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are polynomials and 𝑞 is not the zero polynomial.

Apart from the four usual arithmetic operations, there is a “fifth arithmetic operation” on functions.

Definition 1.23 Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions. Then the composition 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is the function
defined by
Think: How is the domain
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≔ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) for every 𝑥. of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 related to those
of 𝑓 and 𝑔?

Example 1.24 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ and 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ be the functions defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1.
What are the functions 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓? Are they the same as each other?

Solution:
For every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 1) = (𝑥 + 1)2 = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1,
and
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑥 2 + 1.
It is clear that 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 ≠ 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.25 Consider the rational functions

1 𝑥+1
𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) =
𝑥 𝑥−2
defined on their natural domains respectively. Find the functions 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓, 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓.

Solution: [Note that the task includes not only finding the formulas of the three functions, but also
identifying their domains.]

First note that the domain of 𝑓 is ℝ ∖ {0}, and the domain of 𝑔 is ℝ ∖ {2}.
 For each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∖ {0}, we have
1 1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( ) = = 𝑥.
𝑥 1/𝑥
Therefore 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓: ℝ ∖ {0} → ℝ is given by (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥.
 For each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∖ {2}, we have
𝑥+1 1 𝑥−2
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ( )= = except when 𝑥 = −1.
𝑥−2 𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑥−2
𝑥−2
Therefore 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔: ℝ ∖ {−1, 2} → ℝ is given by (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥+1.

 For each 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∖ {0}, we have

1
1 +1 1+𝑥 1
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔 ( ) = 𝑥 = except when 𝑥 = .
𝑥 1 1 − 2𝑥 2
𝑥−2
1 1+𝑥
Therefore 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓: ℝ ∖ {0, 2} → ℝ is given by (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 1−2𝑥.

Remark 1.26 In the above example, we note the following important issue.
 Although the formula of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑓 can be written as (𝑓 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥, its domain is ℝ ∖ {0} instead
of the “natural domain” ℝ. There is a “hidden requirement” that 𝑥 ≠ 0.
𝑥−2
 Although the formula of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 can be written as (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑥+1, its domain is ℝ ∖ {−1, 2}

instead of the “natural domain” ℝ ∖ {−1}. There is a “hidden requirement” that 𝑥 ≠ 2.

1+𝑥 1
 Although the formula of 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 can be written as (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 1−2𝑥, its domain is ℝ ∖ {0, 2}

1
instead of the “natural domain” ℝ ∖ {2}. There is a “hidden requirement” that 𝑥 ≠ 0.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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We may also define a function by giving different rules of assignment to different parts of the domain.
Functions defined in this way are called piecewise-defined functions.

Example 1.27 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function defined by

1−𝑥 if 𝑥 ≤ −1
𝑓(𝑥) = { 2 .
𝑥 if 𝑥 > −1 Solid dot : an end-point that
belongs to the graph;
Evaluate 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(−1) and 𝑓(0), and sketch the graph of 𝑓. Hollow dot : an end-point that
does not belong to the graph.

Solution:
 Since −2 ≤ −1, we have 𝑓(−2) = 1 − (−2) = 3.
 Since −1 ≤ −1, we have 𝑓(−1) = 1 − (−1) = 2.
 Since 0 > −1, we have 𝑓(0) = 02 = 0.
The graph of 𝑓 is sketched on the right.

Example 1.28 Piecewise defined functions are also common in our daily life. Suppose that we are
taking an urban taxi (“red taxi”) in Hong Kong. For the first 2 km traveled, the taxi fare is $29; and
for every subsequent 0.2 km, the taxi fare is $2.1 until the total amount reaches $102.5, and is
$1.4 after the total amount has reached $102.5 . Let’s try to express the total fare $𝑃 as a
function of the total distance 𝑥 km traveled. (The following fare model has been simplified.)

 If 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2, then the total fare is just $29.

 If 𝑥 > 2, then the total fare is $29 plus the fare for the extra distance (𝑥 − 2) km traveled,
𝑥−2
which is $2.1 ⋅ until the total amount reaches $102.5. We observe that the total amount
0.2

𝑥−2
$29 + $2.1 ⋅ reaches $102.5 when 𝑥 = 9, so this formula holds for 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 9.
0.2

 If 𝑥 > 9, i.e. after the total amount has reached $102.5, then the total fare is $102.5 plus the
𝑥−9
fare for the extra distance (𝑥 − 9) km traveled, which is $1.4 ⋅ .
0.2

Therefore the function 𝑃: (0, +∞) → ℝ is defined piecewise by

29 if 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
29 if 0 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
𝑥−2
𝑃(𝑥) = 29 + 2.1 ⋅ 0.2 if 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 9 = {10.5𝑥 + 8 if 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 9.
𝑥−9 7𝑥 + 39.5 if 𝑥 > 9
{102.5 + 1.4 ⋅ if 𝑥 > 9
0.2

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A frequently used piecewise-defined function is the absolute value function.

Definition 1.29 The absolute value function is the function 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by

−𝑥 if 𝑥 < 0
𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥| = { .
𝑥 if 𝑥 ≥ 0

Example 1.30 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2|.
𝑦 = |𝑥|
Rewrite the formula for 𝑓 into the piecewise form.

Solution:
Note that |𝑥 + 1| and |𝑥 − 2| changes their form near −1 and
(−∞, −1) [−1, 2) [2, +∞)
near 2, so we divide ℝ into the three intervals
−1 2
(−∞, −1), [−1, 2) and [2, +∞).
 If 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1), then 𝑥 + 1 < 0 and 𝑥 − 2 < 0, so
|𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2| = −(𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 2) = −2𝑥 + 1.
 If 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 2), then 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 but 𝑥 − 2 < 0, so
|𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2| = (𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 2) = 3.
 If 𝑥 ∈ [2, +∞), then 𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 and 𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0, so
|𝑥 + 1| + |𝑥 − 2| = (𝑥 + 1) + (𝑥 − 2) = 2𝑥 − 1.
So in summary, we have
−2𝑥 + 1 if 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, −1)
𝑓(𝑥) = { 3 if 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 2) .
2𝑥 − 1 if 𝑥 ∈ [2, +∞)

Apart from operations on functions, we can also apply transformations on the graph of a function to
obtain graphs of related functions. The following are six basic transformations on the graph of a
function {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)}, which correspond to actions on the variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Theorem 1.31 Let 𝑘 > 0, 𝑐 > 1, and the graph of a function 𝑓 be given. Then we can obtain
the graph of each of the following functions by doing the corresponding action on the graph of 𝑓:
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑘 Shift the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) downward by 𝑘 units
 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘) Shift the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to the left by 𝑘 units
1
 𝑦 = 𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) Compress the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) vertically by a factor of 𝑐

 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑐𝑥) Compress the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) horizontally by a factor of 𝑐

 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) Reflect the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) across the 𝒙-axis
 𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) Reflect the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) across the 𝒚-axis

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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These basic transformations can be further composed with each other to produce other more
complicated transformations.

Remark 1.32 Let 𝑘 > 0 and 𝑐 > 1 . To come up with Theorem 1.31 without much hard
memorization, one can think of
 replacing 𝑦 by 𝑦 + 𝑘 as shifting the coordinate plane (NOT the graph) upward by 𝑘 units,
 replacing 𝑥 by 𝑥 + 𝑘 as shifting the coordinate plane to the right by 𝑘 units,
 replacing 𝑦 by 𝑐𝑦 as stretching the coordinate plane vertically by a factor of 𝑐, and so on.

Example 1.33 Given the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥| on the right, sketch the
graph of
𝑦 = |𝑥|
𝑦 = 4 − |3𝑥 + 3|
on the same coordinate plane.

Solution:
We start with the graph of 𝑦 = |𝑥|. A horizontal compression by a factor of 3 gives the graph of
𝑦 = |3𝑥|, and a left translation of 1 unit gives the graph of 𝑦 = |3(𝑥 + 1)| = |3𝑥 + 3|.

𝑦 = |3𝑥| 𝑦 = |3𝑥 + 3|

𝑦 = |𝑥| 𝑦 = |𝑥|

−1

Next, a reflection across the 𝑥-axis gives the graph of 𝑦 = −|3𝑥 + 3|, and an upward translation of
4 units gives the graph of 𝑦 = 4 − |3𝑥 + 3|, which is the graph we want.
(−1, 4)

𝑦 = |𝑥| 𝑦 = |𝑥|
−1
𝑦 = 4 − |3𝑥 + 3|

𝑦 = −|3𝑥 + 3|

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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3. Properties of functions

Some functions have special “symmetry” properties.

Definition 1.34 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be a function.

(i) 𝑓 is an odd function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ;
(ii) 𝑓 is an even function if 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ;
(iii) 𝑓 is a periodic function if there exists 𝑐 > 0 such that 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ .
This positive number 𝑐 is called a period of 𝑓. If there is a smallest such positive number 𝑐,
then it is called the fundamental period of 𝑓.

Remark 1.35 The graph of an odd function is rotationally symmetric about the origin by half a
revolution. The graph of an even function is symmetric across the 𝒚-axis. The graph of a periodic
function is translationally symmetric along the 𝒙-axis.
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is odd 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is even 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is periodic

Example 1.36 The simplest examples of odd and even functions are given by the monomials
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛
where 𝑛 is a non-negative integer. 𝑓 is an odd function if 𝑛 is an odd integer, while 𝑓 is an even
function if 𝑛 is an even integer.

Example 1.37 Let 𝑓, 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ be the functions defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥|𝑥| and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 |𝑥|.
Determine whether each of them is odd, and whether each of them is even.

Solution:
For every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑓(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)|−𝑥| = −𝑥|𝑥| = −𝑓(𝑥)
and
𝑔(−𝑥) = (−𝑥)2 |−𝑥| = 𝑥 2 |𝑥| = 𝑔(𝑥).
So we conclude that 𝑓 is an odd function and 𝑔 is an even function.

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Remark 1.38 Odd functions and even functions are not opposite concepts, unlike the same pair of
terminology for integers. Some functions are both odd and even, while some are neither odd nor
even. Can you construct examples for these situations?

Example 1.39 We will see in the next section of this chapter that the cosine and sine functions
cos, sin: ℝ → ℝ are periodic functions. We have
cos(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = cos 𝑥 and sin(𝑥 + 2𝜋) = sin 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
so 2𝜋 is a period of these two functions. It turns out that 2𝜋 is also their fundamental period.

Some functions have special “trend” properties.

Definition 1.40 Let 𝐴 be a non-empty set of real numbers. A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ is said to be

(monotonic) increasing 𝑓(𝑎) ≥ 𝑓(𝑏)
(monotonic) decreasing 𝑓(𝑎) ≤ 𝑓(𝑏)
{ } on 𝑨 if for every pair of numbers 𝑎 > 𝑏 in 𝐴.
strictly increasing 𝑓(𝑎) > 𝑓(𝑏)
strictly decreasing {𝑓(𝑎) < 𝑓(𝑏)}

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓 is monotonic increasing on ℝ 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on ℝ 𝑓 is not monotone on ℝ

𝑦 = 𝑥2

Example 1.41 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the monomial

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 . 0
Then 𝑓 is strictly increasing on [𝟎, +∞).

𝑦 = 𝑥3
Example 1.42 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the monomial
0
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 .
Then 𝑓 is strictly increasing on ℝ.

Example 1.43 In general, let 𝑛 be a positive integer and let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the monomial
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 .
 If 𝑛 is odd, then 𝑓 is strictly increasing on ℝ.
 If 𝑛 is even, then 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on (−∞, 0] and strictly increasing on [0, +∞).

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Example 1.44 Let 𝑓: ℝ ∖ {0} → ℝ be the function

1
𝑓(𝑥) =
.
𝑥
Then 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on (0, +∞), and 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on (−∞, 0) as well.

Think: Does this imply that 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on ℝ ∖ {0}?

[No! We have 1 > −1 and 𝑓(1) > 𝑓(−1).]

Example 1.45 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the absolute value function

𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|.
Then 𝑓 is strictly decreasing on (−∞, 0] and strictly increasing on [0, +∞).

Some functions have special “boundedness” properties.

Definition 1.46 Let 𝐴 be a set and 𝑓: 𝐴 → ℝ be a function.

(i) If there exists a real number 𝑀 such that
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
then 𝑓 is said to be bounded from above on 𝑨 and 𝑀 is called an upper bound of 𝑓 on 𝐴.
(ii) If there exists a real number 𝑚 such that
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑚 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
then 𝑓 is said to be bounded from below on 𝑨 and 𝑚 is called a lower bound of 𝑓 on 𝐴.
(iii) If 𝑓 is both bounded from above and from below on 𝐴, then 𝑓 is said to be bounded on 𝑨.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑀 𝑀

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚
𝑚

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is bounded from above 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is bounded from below 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is bounded

Example 1.47 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Then 𝑓 is not bounded from above, but is bounded from below by 0 . Note that 𝑓 is also
bounded from below by every negative number.

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Example 1.48 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

1
𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥2
+ 2𝑥 + 2
Note that we can rewrite the denominator to obtain
1
𝑓(𝑥) = .
(𝑥 + 1)2 + 1
Since (𝑥 + 1)2 + 1 ≥ 1 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, it follows that
0 < 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 1 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.
So 𝑓 is bounded from above by 1 and bounded from below by 0 . In other words, 𝑓 is a
bounded function.

Some functions have special “mapping” properties.

Definition 1.49 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets and 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 be a function. 𝑓 is said to be one-to-one

(or injective) if for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑎≠𝑏 implies 𝑓(𝑎) ≠ 𝑓(𝑏),
i.e. different elements in 𝐴 take different values in 𝐵. Note that this is the same as requiring that
for every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) implies 𝑎 = 𝑏.

Example 1.50 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1.
For every 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, if we assume that 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏), then
⇒ 2𝑎 + 1 = 2𝑏 + 1
⇒ 2𝑎 = 2𝑏
⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏.
This shows that 𝑓 is one-to-one.

Remark 1.51 (“Horizontal line test”) A function 𝑓 is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line
in the coordinate plane intersects the graph of 𝑓 at no more than one point.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is one-to-one 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is not one-to-one 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ is one-to-one

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Example 1.52 Every strictly increasing function is one-to-one. Every strictly decreasing function is
also one-to-one.

Example 1.53 For each of the following functions, determine whether it is one-to-one.
(a) 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ defined by 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
(b) 𝑔: [0, +∞) → ℝ defined by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

Solution:
(a) Since 1 and −1 are two different real numbers with
𝑓(1) = 1 = 𝑓(−1),
we see that 𝑓 is not one-to-one.

(b) Suppose that 𝑎 and 𝑏 are non-negative real numbers such that 𝑔(𝑎) = 𝑔(𝑏). Then
𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 .
Taking positive square roots on both sides, we get 𝑎 = 𝑏; so 𝑔 is one-to-one.

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑦 = 𝑔(𝑥) Why does the same reasoning

(taking positive square roots)
fail for the function 𝑓 in (a)?

Remark 1.54 From Example 1.53, we observe that whether a function is one-to-one or not depends
very much on its domain. If a function is not one-to-one, it is sometimes possible to make it one-
to-one by modifying its domain to a smaller set.

One-to-one functions are important because they have inverses. An inverse can be understood as
a “reverse machine” which undoes everything the given function does.

Theorem 1.55 Let 𝑓 be a one-to-one function whose domain is 𝐴 and whose range is 𝐵. Then
there exists a unique function 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 such that
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑦) = 𝑦 for every 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 and (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.

Sloppy proof. Since 𝐵 is the range of the one-to-one function 𝑓, for each 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, the equation
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
has one and only one solution 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. Now we define the function 𝑔: 𝐵 → 𝐴 by
𝑔(𝑦) ≔ 𝑥.
Then this 𝑔 is the only function satisfying the required properties. ∎

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Definition 1.56 Let 𝑓 be a one-to-one function. Then the function 𝑔 constructed as in Theorem
1.55 is called the inverse of 𝑓, and we denote it as 𝑓 −1 . 1
Note that 𝑓 −1 does NOT mean .
𝑓

Example 1.50 Let 𝑓: ℝ → ℝ be the function

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1.
We have already seen that 𝑓 is one-to-one. Now we note that the range of 𝑓 is the whole ℝ,
and let 𝑔: ℝ → ℝ be the function
𝑥−1
𝑔(𝑥) = .
2
Then for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, we have
𝑥−1 𝑥−1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓 ( ) = 2( ) + 1 = 𝑥, and
2 2
(2𝑥 + 1) − 1
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 1) = = 𝑥.
2
So 𝑔 is the inverse of 𝑓, i.e. 𝑓 −1 : ℝ → ℝ is given by
𝑥−1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = .
2

Remark 1.57 Given a one-to-one function 𝑓, Theorem 1.55 implies that

 the domain of 𝑓 −1 is the range of 𝑓, and
 the range of 𝑓 −1 is the domain of 𝑓.
We also have
 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑦)) = 𝑦 for every 𝑦 in the range of 𝑓, and
 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓.

Example 1.58 Which of the following shows the graph of a function that has an inverse throughout
its domain?

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Solution:
We look for the graph of a one-to-one function. Such a graph must intersect each vertical line and
each horizontal line in the coordinate plane at one point at most. Only (d) satisfies this requirement.

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Remark 1.59 To find the inverse of a given one-to-one function 𝑓, we do the following three steps:
(i) For each 𝑦 in the range of 𝑓, we write 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
(ii) Find a solution 𝑥 (in the domain of 𝑓) to this equation in terms of 𝑦. This is 𝑓 −1 (𝑦).
(iii) Rename the input as 𝑥 instead of 𝑦.

Example 1.60 Let 𝑓: (−∞, 0] → ℝ be the function defined by

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 .
Find the inverse of 𝑓 and sketch the graphs of 𝑓 and of 𝑓 −1 on the same coordinate plane.

Solution:
The range of 𝑓 is [0, +∞). Writing 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) with 𝑦 ∈ [0, +∞), our aim is to find a solution for
𝑥 in the domain (−∞, 𝟎] of 𝒇:
𝑦 = 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥 = −√𝑦.
Therefore we get
𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = −√𝑦.
We usually prefer to use the symbol 𝑥 (instead of 𝑦) to denote the input of a function, so the inverse
𝑓 −1 : [0, +∞) → ℝ is given by
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = −ξ𝑥.
The graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 are shown below.

𝑦=𝑥

Remark 1.61 Suppose that the graph of a one-to-one function 𝑓 is given. Then the graph of 𝑓 −1
is obtained by reflecting the graph of 𝑓 across the line with slope 1 that passes through the origin.

Theorem 1.62 Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be one-to-one functions. Then 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is also one-to-one and
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 = 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 .

Sloppy proof. Recall that (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)). Now given an output 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), in order to undo
the process done by 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, we first apply 𝑓 −1 to it so as to get 𝑔(𝑥), and then further apply 𝑔−1
to it so as to recover the original input 𝑥. Symbolically we have

(𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 )((𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)) = 𝑔−1 (𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)))) = 𝑔−1 (𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑥.

This means that (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)−1 = 𝑔−1 ∘ 𝑓 −1 . ∎

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4. Elementary functions

Apart from polynomials and rational functions which have been introduced in the previous sections,
there are still many other types of elementary functions which are useful in our daily lives.

𝑦 = 𝑥2 𝑦 = 𝑥1
1
Definition 1.63 Let 𝑎 be a real number. Then the function 𝑦 = 𝑥2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 is called a power function. 1

Some important special cases of power functions include

1
 monomials (when 𝑎 is a non-negative integer),
 the 𝑛 th root function (when 𝑎 = 1/𝑛 and 𝑛 is a positive 𝑦 = 𝑥 −2
integer), and
 the reciprocal (when 𝑎 = −1). 1
1 𝑦 = 𝑥 −2
𝑦 = 𝑥 −1
Think: What are the domain and the range of a power function? 1

Definition 1.64 Let 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 . The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is called the exponential
function with base 𝒂. (When 𝑎 = 1 this is just a boring constant function.)

Let’s compare the graphs of the various exponential functions for 0 < 𝑎 < 1 and for 𝑎 > 1:
1 𝑥
𝑦 = 5𝑥 𝑦=( )
1 𝑥 5
𝑦 = 3𝑥 𝑦=( )
3

Horizontal 1 𝑥
Horizontal
asymptote 𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑦=( )
2 asymptote

1 1
Function values are
always positive:
Range is (0, +∞)

Lemma 1.65 For each 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 , the exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is a one-to-one
function with domain ℝ and range (0, +∞).

Remark 1.66 Do not mix up the power functions and the exponential functions! The input 𝑥 in
a power function 𝑥 𝑎 is located at the base, while in an exponential function 𝑎 𝑥 it is located at the
exponent.

Definition 1.67 In calculus we will often encounter a special base 𝑒 ≈ 2.71828 , which is an
irrational number. The particular exponential function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 with base 𝑒 is called the
natural exponential function and is sometimes denoted also as 𝑓(𝑥) = exp 𝑥.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.68 Find the natural domain and the range of the function
1
𝑓(𝑥) = .
ξ1 − 𝑒 𝑥

Solution:
1
The expression is well-defined if and only if 1 − 𝑒 𝑥 > 0, which holds if and only if 𝑥 < 0; so
ξ1−𝑒 𝑥

1
the natural domain of 𝑓 is (−∞, 0). On the other hand, setting 𝑦 = for 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0):
ξ1−𝑒 𝑥

 We obviously have 𝑦 > 0; 𝑦=

1
ξ1−𝑒 𝑥
 Rearranging the equation we also get
1
𝑒𝑥 = 1 − ,
𝑦2 1

1
which implies that 1 − 𝑦 2 > 0, i.e. 𝑦 > 1 or 𝑦 < −1.

Combining these two requirements we have 𝑦 > 1, so the range of 𝑓 is (1, +∞).

Definition 1.69 Let 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1. The inverse of the exponential function with base 𝑎 is
called the logarithmic function with base 𝒂 and is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥.

As expected, we can obtain the graph of the logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 by reflecting the graph
of the corresponding exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

𝑦 = log 2 𝑥
𝑦 = log 3 𝑥 Vertical
asymptote
𝑦 = log 5 𝑥
1

Defined for positive 𝑦 = log 1 𝑥

Vertical 1 5
asymptote numbers only:
Domain is (0, +∞) 𝑦 = log 1 𝑥
3
𝑦 = log 1 𝑥
2

Lemma 1.70 For each 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1, the logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥 is a one-to-one
function with domain (0, +∞) and range ℝ.

Definition 1.71 The logarithmic function 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑒 𝑥 with the special base 𝑒 ≈ 2.71828 is
called the natural logarithmic function and is commonly denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Since there is an inverse relation between the exponential and logarithmic functions (with the same
base), we obtain the following relations from Theorem 1.55.

Proposition 1.72 Let 𝑎 be a positive number with 𝑎 ≠ 1. Then

log𝑎 𝑥
(i) 𝑎 = 𝑥 and in particular 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 > 0,
(ii) log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 and in particular ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

Remark 1.73 Do remember the laws of indices and the laws of logarithms in your computations.
Laws of indices Laws of logarithms
𝑎0 = 1 log 𝑎 1 = 0
𝑎1 = 𝑎 log 𝑎 𝑎 = 1
𝑎 𝑥+𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦
𝑎𝑥 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥−𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎
𝑎𝑦 𝑦
𝑎 𝑥𝑦 = (𝑎 𝑥 )𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑦 log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑥 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑥 log 𝑐 𝑏
These formulas hold log 𝑎 𝑏 =
𝑎𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 whenever both sides log 𝑐 𝑎
= ( ) are well-defined.
𝑏𝑥 𝑏

Example 1.74 To provide land for housing, the government of city A now decides to develop 5%
of its country park into land for housing every two years in the future. How long does it take to
diminish half of the country park in city A?

Solution:
Let the current area of the country park in city A be 𝐶. The area 𝐴(𝑡) of country park remaining
after 𝑡 years is given by
𝑡 𝑡
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐶(1 − 5%)2 = 𝐶(0.95)2 .
When half of the country park is diminished, we have
1
𝐴(𝑡) = 𝐶,
2
so solving the equation
1 𝑡
𝐶 = 𝐶(0.95)2
2
we obtain
ln 0.5
𝑡 = 2⋅ ≈ 27.027.
ln 0.95
Therefore it takes about 27.027 years for half of the country park to diminish.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.75 Find all the real numbers 𝑥 which satisfies the equation
log 2𝑥 (2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12) = 2.

Solution:
Our first aim is to equate the bases of logarithm on both sides, so we write
2 = 2 log 2𝑥 2𝑥 = log 2𝑥 (2𝑥)2 .
Then the given equation becomes
log 2𝑥 (2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12) = log 2𝑥 (2𝑥)2
⇒ 2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12 = (2𝑥)2
⇒ −2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 12 = 0
⇒ −2(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 + 2) = 0
So 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −2. However, since 2𝑥 was the base of a logarithm, we must require 2𝑥 > 0.
Therefore 𝑥 = −2 is not a solution to the equation, and the only valid solution is
𝑥 = 3.

Now we define the six trigonometric functions.

Definition 1.76 The cosine function 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 and the sine
function 𝑔(𝑥) = sin 𝑥 are defined on ℝ as follows. For each real
(cos 𝑥 , sin 𝑥)
number 𝑥 , we let 𝑃 be the point of intersection of the unit circle 1
centered at the origin and the ray emanating from the origin making 𝑥

an angle of 𝑥 radians from the positive horizontal axis measured

counterclockwise. Then cos 𝑥 is defined to be the first coordinate
of 𝑃 and sin 𝑥 is defined to be the second coordinate of 𝑃.

Remark 1.77 Always use “radians” and never use “degrees” as the unit of the size of an angle in
this course. This will help avoid troubles in calculus computations. Bearing in mind that the unit
circle has circumference 2𝜋, we can convert between the degree measure and the radian measure
of an angle using the formulas
2𝜋 𝜋𝑥 360° 180𝑥
𝑥° = 𝑥° = and 𝑥= 𝑥=( ) °.
360° 180 2𝜋 𝜋

Definition 1.78 The tangent function is defined to be the quotient of the sine by the cosine, i.e.
sin 𝑥
tan 𝑥 ≔ .
cos 𝑥
We also define the cotangent, the secant and the cosecant functions respectively by
cos 𝑥 1 1
cot 𝑥 ≔ , sec 𝑥 ≔ and csc 𝑥 ≔ .
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Remark 1.79 The following are the graphs of the three basic trigonometric functions and some
important facts. Try to sketch the graphs of cot, sec and csc on your own.

𝑦 = sin 𝑥 1 𝑦 = cos 𝑥
1

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

−1 −1 𝑦 = tan 𝑥

1
Domain: ℝ Domain: ℝ Domain: ℝ ∖ {(𝑛 + ) 𝜋: 𝑛 ∈ ℤ}
2

Range: [−𝟏, 𝟏] Range: [−𝟏, 𝟏] Range: ℝ

Fundamental period: 2𝜋 Fundamental period: 2𝜋 Fundamental period: 𝜋

Parity: Odd Parity: Even Parity: Odd

Special values: Special values: Special values:

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 0 6 4 3 2
𝑥 0 6 4 3 2
𝑥 0 6 4 3 2
1 1 ξ3 ξ3 1 1 1
sin 𝑥 0 2 ξ2
1 cos 𝑥 1 ξ2 2
0 tan 𝑥 0 ξ3
1 ξ3 undef.
2 2
ξ0 ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 ξ4 ξ4 ξ3 ξ2 ξ1 ξ0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Remark 1.80 The following are some important formulas in trigonometry. Please make yourself
familiar with all these results which you should have learnt from high school already.

Right-angled triangle
𝑎 𝑜 ℎ
cos 𝑥 = tan 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 =
ℎ 𝑎 𝑎 ℎ
𝑜
𝑜 𝑎 ℎ 𝑥
sin 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 = csc 𝑥 =
ℎ 𝑜 𝑜 𝑎

Pythagorean identities
cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1
Divide both sides by cos2 𝑥 Divide both sides by sin2 𝑥

1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 cot 2 𝑥 + 1 = csc 2 𝑥

Phase-shift identities Use the A-S-T-C diagram, for example: Switch the “co-”

sin(𝜋 − 𝑥) = sin 𝑥 sec(−𝑥) = sec 𝑥

Sine +ve All +ve
Don’t switch
3𝜋 5𝜋 the “co-”
cos ( − 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 csc ( − 𝑥) = sec 𝑥
2 2
Tangent +ve Cosine +ve
𝜋 3𝜋
tan ( + 𝑥) = − cot 𝑥 cot ( + 𝑥) = − tan 𝑥
2 2
“All Students Take Calculus”
and so on.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Addition of angles (a.k.a. Compound angle formulae)

sin(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦
cos(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ∓ sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦
sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
cos 2𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 = 2 cos2 𝑥 − 1

Oscillatory motion
Let 𝑟 > 0, 𝜔 ≠ 0 and 𝜃 ∈ ℝ be constants. The function
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑟 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
describes the position at time 𝑡 of a moving particle performing an oscillatory motion along a line.
|𝜔| 2𝜋
This oscillation has amplitude 𝑟, frequency and fundamental period |𝜔|
.
2𝜋

Addition of sinusoids (a.k.a. Subsidiary angle form)

Any sum of constant multiples of sin 𝜔𝑡 and cos 𝜔𝑡 can be written in the form 𝑟 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) or
𝑟 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃):

𝑎 𝑏
𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 cos 𝜔𝑡 = √
⏟𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 (sin 𝜔𝑡 ⋅ + cos 𝜔𝑡 ⋅ )
𝑟 ξ𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
⏟ ξ𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
⏟
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= 𝑟 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) ,
𝑎
where 𝑟 = ξ𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 and cos 𝜃 = ξ𝑎2 .
+𝑏 2

Sum-to-product / Product-to-sum formulae

𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
sin 𝑥 + sin 𝑦 = 2 sin cos sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) + sin(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2 2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
sin 𝑥 − sin 𝑦 = 2 cos sin cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = [sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) − sin(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2 2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
cos 𝑥 + cos 𝑦 = 2 cos cos cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 = [cos(𝑥 + 𝑦) + cos(𝑥 − 𝑦)]
2 2 2
𝑥+𝑦 𝑥−𝑦 1
cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑦 = −2 sin sin sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = [cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) − cos(𝑥 + 𝑦)]
2 2 2

Cosine Law and Sine Law

𝐴
In a triangle Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 lying in a plane, let the lengths of the edges 𝐵𝐶,
𝑏
𝐴𝐶 and 𝐴𝐵 be 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 respectively. Then 𝑐
(i) (Cosine Law) 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 − 2𝑎𝑏 cos 𝐶, and 𝐶

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑎
(ii) (Sine Law) = sin 𝐵 = sin 𝐶. 𝐵
sin 𝐴

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Example 1.81 Prove the following identities:

3𝜋 𝜋
(a) sin2 (𝑥 − ) + cos 2 ( + 𝑥) + tan2 (𝑥 − 2𝜋) = sec 2 𝑥
2 2
1
(b) cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 = (1 + cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥)
4

Proof:
(a) Whenever each term is well-defined, we have
3𝜋 𝜋
sin2 (𝑥 − ) + cos 2 ( + 𝑥) + tan2 (𝑥 − 2𝜋) = cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥
2 2
= 1 + tan2 𝑥
= sec 2 𝑥.

(b) For every real number 𝑥, we have

1
cos 𝑥 cos 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 = (cos 3𝑥 + cos 𝑥) cos 3𝑥
2
1 1
= cos 2 3𝑥 + cos 𝑥 cos 3𝑥
2 2
1 1 + cos 6𝑥 1
= ( ) + (cos 4𝑥 + cos 2𝑥)
2 2 4
1 1 1 1
= + cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥
4 4 4 4
1
= (1 + cos 2𝑥 + cos 4𝑥 + cos 6𝑥).
4

Example 1.82 Find all the real numbers 𝑥 which satisfy the equation
cos 𝑥 − ξ3 sin 𝑥 = 1.

Solution:
cos 𝑥 − ξ3 sin 𝑥 = 1
𝜋 𝜋
⇒ 2 (cos 𝑥 cos − sin 𝑥 sin ) = 1
3 3
𝜋 1
⇒ cos (𝑥 + ) =
3 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
This gives 𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑛𝜋 + 3 or 𝑥 + 3 = 2𝑛𝜋 − 3 , where 𝑛 is an integer. Thus the solutions are

2𝜋
𝑥 = 2𝑛𝜋 or 𝑥 = 2𝑛𝜋 − ,
3
where 𝑛 is an integer.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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5𝜋
Example 1.83 The exact value of sin is given by
12

5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin = sin ( + ) = sin cos + cos sin
12 4 6 4 6 4 6
1 ξ3 1 1 ξ6 + ξ2
= ( )( ) + ( )( ) = .
ξ2 2 ξ2 2 4

Example 1.84 The position of an oscillating particle at time 𝑡 is given by

𝑥(𝑡) = 3 cos 2𝑡 − 4 sin 2𝑡 .
Find the amplitude and the fundamental period of this oscillatory motion.

Solution:
The position function can be rewritten as
3 4
𝑥(𝑡) = 3 cos 2𝑡 − 4 sin 2𝑡 = √32 + 42 (cos 2𝑡 ⋅ − sin 2𝑡 ⋅ )
ξ32 + 42 ξ32 + 42
= 5 cos(2𝑡 + 𝜃) ,
3 4
where 𝜃 is some real number such that cos 𝜃 = 5 and sin 𝜃 = 5 . The amplitude of this

2𝜋
oscillatory motion is 5, and the fundamental period is = 𝜋.
2

The trigonometric functions are not one-to-one functions on their natural domains, so in order to
define their inverses, we need to restrict their domains so that they become one-to-one. We want
to choose domains that are large enough so that the ranges of these functions are not affected.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Conventionally we choose the domains [− 2 , 2 ] for sin, [0, 𝜋] for cos, and (− 2 , 2 ) for tan.

Definition 1.85 The inverse trigonometric functions are defined as follows.

 The cosine function is one-to-one when its domain is restricted to [0, 𝜋] , and its inverse is
denoted by arccos: [−1, 1] → [0, 𝜋].
𝜋 𝜋
 The sine function is one-to-one when its domain is restricted to [− 2 , 2 ] , and its inverse is

𝜋 𝜋
denoted by arcsin: [−1, 1] → [− 2 , 2 ].

𝜋 𝜋
 The tangent function is one-to-one when its domain is restricted to (− 2 , 2 ), and its inverse is

𝜋 𝜋
denoted by arctan: ℝ → (− 2 , 2 ).

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
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Remark 1.86 In some textbooks, the inverse trigonometric functions are denoted as cos−1 , sin−1
and tan−1. Although these notations are also used commonly, they may lead to confusions. For
instance we have sin2 𝑥 ≡ (sin 𝑥)2 , sin3 𝑥 ≡ (sin 𝑥)3 but
sin−1 𝑥 ≢ (sin 𝑥)−1
because the left-hand side means arcsin 𝑥 but the right-hand side means csc 𝑥.

The graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions can be obtained by reflecting the chosen portion
of the graph of the corresponding trigonometric function across the line 𝑦 = 𝑥:

𝜋 𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 𝑦 = arctan 𝑥
2 2
−1
1 −1 1
𝜋 𝜋
− −
2 𝑦 = arccos 𝑥 2

Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: [−1, 1] Domain: ℝ

𝝅 𝝅 𝝅 𝝅
Range: [− , ] Range: [𝟎, 𝝅] Range: (− , )
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

Proposition 1.87 We have the following inverse relations:

𝜋 𝜋
(i) arcsin(sin 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [− 2 , 2 ], and sin(arcsin 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1].

(ii) arccos(cos 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [0, 𝜋], and cos(arccos 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ [−1, 1].
𝜋 𝜋
(iii) arctan(tan 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ (− 2 , 2 ), and tan(arctan 𝑥) = 𝑥 for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ.

Example 1.88 Without using a calculator, we can find that

5𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
arcsin (sin ) = arcsin [sin (𝜋 − )] = arcsin [sin (− )] = − .
4 4 4 4

All the functions that we are going to study in this course will basically come from this catalog of
elementary functions in Section 1.4, as well as all those functions that we can construct from them
using the methods introduced in Section 1.2.

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MATH1013 Calculus IB Chapter 1 Functions
L06, L07 (Fall 2024)

Summary of Chapter 1

The following are what you need to know in this chapter in order to get a pass (a distinction) in this
course:

 Basic notions about functions: Domain, codomain, range

 The graph of a function, “vertical line test”

 Arithmetic operations on functions

 +, −, ×, ÷
 Composition ∘
 Piecewise defined functions
 The absolute value function
 Transformations of graphs of functions
 Vertical and horizontal translation
 Vertical and horizontal compression / stretch
 Reflection across the 𝑥- / 𝑦-axis

 Properties of functions
 Odd functions / Even functions
 Periodic functions
 (Strictly) increasing functions / (Strictly) decreasing functions
 Bounded functions
 One-to-one functions, “horizontal line test”
 The inverse of a one-to-one function and its graph

 Graphs and properties of elementary functions:

 Polynomials: 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
 Rational functions: Quotients of polynomials
 Power functions: 𝑥 𝑎
 Exponential functions: 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑥
 Logarithmic functions: log 𝑎 𝑥, ln 𝑥
 Trigonometric functions: sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, tan 𝑥, cot 𝑥, sec 𝑥, csc 𝑥
 Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin 𝑥, arccos 𝑥, arctan 𝑥, etc.

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