Cambridge IGCSE ®

PHYSICS
O Level Coursebook

Eng. Moustafa Shoukry

Designed by Hana Samir
TABLE OF
CONTENTS

1 GENERAL PHYSICS
Physical Quantities 05
Motion & Graphs 16
Forces & Hooke’s Law 33
Moment & Equilibrium 51
Momentum 64

Energy & Power 75

97
Pressure

2 THERMAL PHYSICS
States Of Matter 104
PVT 112
Heat Transfer 120
Heat Energy Calculations 129

3 WAVES
General Introduction 134
Behavior Of Waves 140
Light Waves 155
Sound Waves 173

2
TABLE OF
CONTENTS

4 ELECTRICITY & MAGNETISM

Charging 180
Circuits 186
Magnetism 210
Force Due To Magnetic Field 220
Electromagnetic Induction 226

Transformers 232
240
Electronics

5 RADIOACTIVE RADIATION 249

6 SPACE PHYSICS 273

7 EXPERIMENTS 281

3
UNIT ONE:

GENERAL
PHYSICS

4
1.1 Physical
Quantities

SI units are a global

Length is in metres standard for expressing
Time is in seconds the magnitudes or
Mass is in kilograms quantities

A FINDING LENGTH Micrometer

Length is measured using Tape Meter
Meter ruler
1.1 Micrometer
We use a micrometer to measure lengths which are too
small to be measured using an actual ruler. Ex: Thickness of
a sheet of paper

How To Read A Micrometer :

There are two scales, horizontal
and vertical.
Each mark on the horizontal is
0 . 5 mm.
The mark on the vertical scale
must be divided by 100.
5
 1.2 Tape Meter
We use a tape meter to measure very large
distances. It is easily carried around.

1.3 Meter Ruler

We use a meter ruler to measure various lengths. A
meter ruler of length 1m is equal to 100 centimeters (cm)

IMPORTANT TECHNIQUES TO KNOW

Measuring thickness of a paper
Measure the thickness of 1000 sheets using a meter ruler,
then divide the reading by 1000 to get the thickness of a
single sheet.

Measuring circumference
To measure the circumference of a cylinder, Get a string
and wrap it around the cylinder. Then use a meter ruler to
measure the length of that string

Diameter of a sphere
Get a ball and place it between two wooden blocks. The
entire system should lie above a meter ruler. Subtract End
point and start point.

Diameter of a small sphere

Get multiple small spheres and place them next to each other
by the aid of two wooden blocks. After getting the diameter
of the multiple balls, divide reading by number of balls.
6
UNIT CONVERSIONS RELATED TO LENGTH
x 1000 x 1000 x 100 x 100

km m mm m cm mm

1000 1000 100 10

B FINDING AREA
L
L
h

w w b
Area of a square = L * W
Area of a rectangle = L * W
Area of a rectangle = 1/2 * b * h
the unit of Area is mm² , cm² , m² , km²
So to find the area of a shape , we find the required
lengths and then use the formulas above.
Don’t forget : when converting units related to area,
we use the following conversion scale :

x(100 )² x(100)²

m² c m² mm ²

(100)² (10 )²
7
C FINDING VOLUME
Volume is the space occupied by the body,
regardless of its mass.
1 2

Box 1 is empty
Box 2 contains books
However, both boxes occupy the same space, therefore
they have the same volume regardless of their different
masses.
To find the volume of a regular shape :
use the formula of L * W * H.
The unit of volume is mm3 , cm3, m 3
So again, we apply this in the conversion scale.
x(100)
3 3
x(100)

3 3
m c m3 mm

3
(100)
3
( 10)
Regular Shapes:

8
 IMPORTANT TECHNIQUES TO KNOW
Finding the Volume of irregularly shaped objects
For instance, if we have a rock or a statue, we use a
measuring cylinder,
1. Pour some water in a measuring cylinder
2. Get reading of water volume ( V1 )
3. Carefully place the stone in the measuring cylinder
4. Get new reading ( V2 )
5. Volume of the stone is [ V2 - V1 ]

NOTES ON MEASURING
The scale of the cylinder is cm 3
Measuring cylinders cannot
measure the volume of large
objects.
Meniscus must be considered
Always use the smallest
possible cylinder
identifying the scale on a graduated cylinder
30 30 30
every mark every mark every mark
is 2cm 3 is 2 . 5cm 3 is 0 . 5cm 3

20 20 20

difference
Formula =
no. of spaces
9
 IMPORTANT TECHNIQUES TO KNOW
Finding the Volume of floating bodies

For instance, if we have a cork or a piece of wood, we

use a sinking metal in order to lower the object into
water.
This is because wood, for instance, has a lower density
than water. Therefore, it will not sink, but rather float.
That’s why, we have to attach a sinking metal to the
piece of wood.

D FINDING MASS Spring balance

Mass is measured using Top pan balance
Beam balance
Mass is the amount of matter in a body.
Mass Units : Kg or g
The difference between mass and weight is that
mass is the amount of matter (kg , g)
weight is a gravitational force (N)

u r e ad on
t yo ale is
Wha g s c
e w eighin your
th u all y
ct
not a b u t your
t,
weigh ce it is in
n
A SS, he
M
o g ra ms!
kil
10
4.1 Spring Balance
1. Hang the body on the hook
2. Divide the reading by 9.8 to go from
weight to mass
That’s because the spring balance measures
weight (N), but we’re looking for mass (Kg).
Weight = Mass * 9.8

4.2 Top Pan Balance

1. Place the empty measuring cylinder on the
scale and take the reading
2. Fill the cylinder with the desired liquid
3. Subtract the mass of the cylinder from the final
reading to obtain the mass of liquid only

4.3 Beam Balance

This is used to compare the mass of
objects with known masses.

x 100
Units conversion:
kg g

100

11
E DENSITY kg/
Density is the mass per unit volume m3
Density = mass g/m
3
volume
Density is the comparison between mass and
volume
Density is showing how much matter is in an
occupied space
Density is a property, it remains constant
regardless of amount
Density and mass are directly proportional,
meaning if one goes up, so does the other one.
Density and volume are inversely proportional.

m m
D= D=
v v
er is
i ty of w
a t
3 USES OF DENSITY
s / m
Den kg cts Sometimes we use density to identify
1000 er, obje y
in wat de nsit substances.
so r
a lowe d those For instance, the density of gold is
with oat, an ll sink
fl wi known, so we calculate the mass and
will e r
h high
w it volume of our object, then compare it
to the density of gold!

12
 HOW TO MEASURE DENSITY

Use a balance to get mass

ar shape gular sha

gul irre pe
re

Use meter ruler to Use measuring

get lengths for cylinder to get
volume volume

mass
Density =
volume

The method used to obtain density is the same,

but what changes is the method used to obtain
volume . This depends on the nature of the shape.

13
F FINDING TIME
Time is measured using a stopwatch
The time taken for a pendulum to swing
Because a pendulum is too fast, we must use a certain
technique in order to achieve the highest level of
accuracy!
1. Check zero stopwatch
2. Start stopwatch
3. Let it swing 50 times
4. Record the duration
5. Stop Stopwatch
6. Divide the reading by 50 to obtain the
time taken for a single swing

x 60 x 60
Watch out!
hr min sec

When converting
60 60
from hours to
seconds, never do
*120. . . instead, do
*60 then *60 again.
14
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class

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15
1.2
Motion & Graphs
PHYSI
CAL
QUAN
TITIE
S

SCALAR
VECT
OR
Scalar quantities are those that have
magnitude only, such as mass, speed, energy,
volume, area, temperature.
Vector quantities, however, are those that have
magnitude and direction, such as force, acceleration,
velocity, moment, momentum, displacement.

distance distance
speed = velocity =
time time
unit is m/s or km/h
6 m/s
A body moving with constant
speed in a circle,
circle doesn’t have
constant velocity, as direction is 6 m/s
constantly changing. Remember,
6 m/s
velocity is a vector quantity. This
6 m/s
means that this body is
accelerating
16
 velocity

These two cars have the same

+100 km/h
speed, but they have different
velocities because they are
moving in different directions
-100 km/h

Average = total distance

velocity total time

Worked Example :
A car moves 100km from school to a gas station.
After that, it drives another 90 km to a
supermarket. Finally, it makes its final stop after
driving 120 km. Find the average velocity of this car.

Average total distance

=
velocity total time

= 100 + 90 +120
2
= 155 km/h

17
 acceleration

acceleration is, in simple change in velocity

(that is
terms, the change of velocity
final speed - initial
per unit time. speed)
its unit is m/s²

v2 - v1
acceleration = time

Acceleration

+ve value zero -ve value

This means that constant This means that
the speed is speed the speed is
increasing decreasing

Remember the units for acceleration

are metres per second squared,
m/s2. In other words, acceleration
measures how much the velocity (in
m/s) changes every second, m/s/s.
18
Example 1:
V1 = 20 m/s V2 = 50 m/s t = 10 seconds
so acceleration is (50-20) = + 3 m/s²
10
Notice that acceleration is positive, so speed is increasing

Example 2:
V1 = 80 m/s V2 = 30 m/s t = 20 seconds
so acceleration is (30-80) = - 2 . 5 m/s²
20
Notice that acceleration is negative, so speed is decreasing

Example 3:
V1 = 50 m/s V2 = 50 m/s t = 10 seconds
so acceleration is (50-50) = 0 m/s²
10
Notice that acceleration is ZERO, so speed is constant

19
 sequence example 1

V1 = 0 m/s V2 = 10 m/s V3 = 30 m/s V4 = 70 m/s

t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds

acc = 10 - 0 acc = 30 - 10 acc = 70 - 30

10 10 10
acc = 1 m/s² acc = 2 m/s² acc = 4 m/s²

Speed is increasing (positive acceleration)

Acceleration is increasing

sequence example 2

V1 = 0 m/s V2 = 20 m/s V3 = 30 m/s V4 = 35 m/s

t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds

acc = 20 - 0 acc = 30 - 20 acc = 35 - 30

10 10 10
acc = 2 m/s² acc = 1 m/s² acc = 0.5 m/s²

Speed is increasing (positive acceleration)

Acceleration is decreasing

sequence example 3

V1 = 0 m/s V2 = 20 m/s V3 = 40 m/s V4 = 60 m/s

t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds

acc = 20 - 0 acc = 40 - 20 acc = 60 - 40

10 10 10
acc = 2 m/s² acc = 2 m/s² acc = 2 m/s²

Speed is increasing (positive acceleration)

Acceleration is constant

20
sequence example 4

V1 = 80 m/s V2 = 60 m/s V3 = 40 m/s

t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds

acc = 60 - 80 acc = 40 - 60
10 10
acc = - 2 m/s² acc = - 2 m/s²
Speed is decreasing (negative acceleration)
Acceleration is constant [deceleration]

sequence example 5

V1 = 80 m/s V2 = 50 m/s V3 = 40 m/s V4 = 35 m/s

t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds

acc = 50 - 80 acc = 40 - 50 acc = 35 - 40

10 10 10
acc = -3 m/s² acc = -1 m/s² acc = -0.5 m/s²

Speed is decreasing (negative acceleration)

Acceleration is decreasing [deceleration]

sequence example 6

V1 = 80 m/s V2 = 70 m/s V3 = 50 m/s V4 = 20 m/s

t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds t = 10 seconds

acc = 70 - 80 acc = 50 - 70 acc = 20 - 50

10 10 10
acc = -1 m/s² acc = -2 m/s² acc = -3 m/s²

Speed is decreasing (negative acceleration)

Acceleration is increasing [deceleration]
21
 graphs
1. Any straight line has a constant slope

2. Any line parallel to the x-axis: slope = 0

3. If the graph leans towards being parallel to the

y-axis, then the slope is increasing

4. If the graph leans towards being parallel to the

x-axis, then the slope is decreasing

22
1. DISTANCE-TIME GRAPHS
slope = distance = speed
time
When we describe slope on a Distance-Time graph, we
are talking about the speed.
When calculating speed we do not use equations, but
rather calculate the slope.
When calculating the average speed, just use:
total distance
total time

constant speed speed = zero

constant slope slope = zero

decreasing speed increasing speed

decreasing slope increasing slope

SLOPE = y2 - y1
x2 - x1

23
2. SPEED-TIME GRAPHS
v-u
slope = speed = acceleration a =
t
time

When we describe slope on a Speed-Time graph, we

are talking about the acceleration.
When calculating speed we eyeball it. (what you see)

Speed
Speed

increasing speed (look) constant speed (look)

constant slope (straight line) zero slope (parallel to x-axis)
constant acceleration zero acceleration
Speed

Speed

increasing speed (look) increasing speed (look)

decreasing slope increasing slope
decreasing acceleration (parallel to y-axis)
increasing acceleration

24
 Speed
Speed

decreasing speed (look) decreasing speed (look)

constant slope increasing slope
constant acceleration increasing acceleration
(deceleration)
Speed

decreasing speed (look)

decreasing slope
decreasing acceleration

To calculate the acceleration or deceleration, we use the

equation, or find the slope
acceleration = final speed - initial speed
time
slope = y2 - y1
x2 - x1

When calculating distance we find the area under the

graph.
25
APPLICATION ON : Area under the graph

60 D

B C
40

A
20

10 50 55

AB : Constant acceleration, increasing speed

BC : Zero acceleration, increasing speed

CD : Constant acceleration, increasing speed

Calculate the acceleration at AB

To do this, we find the slope:
( 0 , 20 ) 40 - 20 20
= = 2 m/s²
( 10 , 40 ) 10 - 0 10
Calculate the distance AB
To do this, we find the area under the graph.
Rectangle + Triangle = ( 10 * 20 ) + ( 1/2 * 20 * 10 )
= 300
26
APPLICATION ON : Area under the graph

60
D

40
C
B AB : Constant acceleration, increasing speed
20

BC : Zero acceleration, constant speed

A
CD : Constant acceleration, increasing speed
10 50 55

Calculate the acceleration at AB

To do this, we can use the acceleration rule:
v2 - v1 100 - 0
= = 5 m/s²
t 20
Alternatively, we can use the slope:
(0,0) 100 - 0
= 5 m/s²
( 20 , 100 ) 20 - 0 tion of
Accelera
is g re ater than
Calculate the acceleration at CD AB
D be ca use it is
C
To do this, we can use the acceleration rule: steeper
v2 - v1 250 - 100
= = 3.75 m/s²
t 40
Alternatively, we can use the slope:
( 50 , 100 ) 250 - 100
= 3.75 m/s²
( 90 , 250 ) 90 - 50

27
APPLICATION ON : Area under the graph

60
D

40
C
B
20

10 50 55

Calculate the distance travelled in CD

To do this, we can consider a trapezium :

(b1 - b2) h (100 + 250)*40

= = 7000 m
2 2

we can also consider a rectangle and triangle ;

Rectangle = L * W
= 40 * 100 = 4000 m

Triangle = 1/2 * b * h
= 1/2 * 40 * 150 = 3000 m
total = 4000+3000 = 7000 m
28
APPLICATION ON : Area under the graph

20

50

To find the distance in a curved graph

We will consider the curve above to be a triangle.
So the distance would be an approximation,
approximation then we add
about 10% of the calculated area to compensate for the
curved area.

Triangle = 1/2 * b * h
= 1/2 * 50 * 20 = 500 m

Adding on the 10% :

500 * 10 = 50
100

Total = 500 + 50 = 550 m

29
APPLICATION ON : Area under the graph

20

50

To find the distance in a curved graph

We will consider the curve above to be a triangle.
So the distance would be an approximation
approximation, then we
remove about 10% of the calculated area to remove the
extra curved area.

Triangle = 1/2 * b * h
= 1/2 * 50 * 20 = 500 m

Removing the 10% :

500 * 10 = 50
100

Total = 500 - 50 = 450 m

30
3. VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS
In a Velocity-Time graph , we can see the positive and
negative values. This is because velocity is a vector
quantity.
In vector quantities, positive and negative signs must be
considered.
Positive and negative signs indicate direction.

Velocity

40
30
20
10
Time
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-10
-20

r s t three in the last

in th e fi three
v e locity seconds,
on d s , velocity
sec is increas
e c r e a sing. ing -in a
is d different d
irection

31
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32
1.3 Forces &
Hooke’s Law

Force is any push or pull

Force is a vector quantity
Force is measured in Newtons (N)

IMPORTANT FORCES TO KNOW

1. Weight
Weight, also known as a gravitational force, is the assumed
pull of gravity on a body. This has an equation of:

W=M*G “gravitational Acceleration”

the acceleration of an object in
Gravitational free fall within a vacuum
Weight (n) Mass (kg)
acceleration 9.8
This was Isaac Newton’s
This represents constant assumed value to make the force
laws and assumption of gravity
acceleration downwards make sense!
This value varies from one
place to another.
The value of g is always 9.8
33
2. Normal Contact force
“For every action (force) in nature there is an equal
and opposite reaction”
This occurs on surfaces only
This force acts perpendicular to the surface

N N

only in this exampe: as you can see, the force always acts
weight = normal perpendicular to the surface

3. Friction force
This is basically any contact between two surfaces, where
one of them is moving. That is how a friction force occurs,
resisting motion.
e
n forc
tio
fric
friction
force
otion
m

inclined surfaces
decrease the friction
force
34
3. Air Resistance
This describes the forces that are in opposition to the
motion of an object when moving through air.
Air resistance depends on two things:

1. speed 11. surface area

As speed increases, air As surface area increases,
resistance also increases. air resistance also
They are directly increases. They are directly
proportional. proportional.

4. Upthrust force
This describes the upward forces exerted on the
object by the liquid
If the weight of the body is greater than the
upthrust force, it will sink.
If the weight of the body is equal to the upthrust
force, it will float

35
 NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
This states that the resultant force = zero in 2 cases.

body is at rest body is moving in a

R = 1000 N straight line with constant
speed
acceleration = 0
W = 1000 N force = 0

NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

F = m * a

Resultant Mass (kg) Acceleration (m/s²)

force
driving force: force applied
Resultant force: in the direction of motion
F = D - R
resisting force: force applied
driving force - resisting force
in the opposite direction.

The resultant force and the acceleration always have the same
sign and direction

- If the Resultant force is a positive value, then the acceleration is positive

- If the Resultant force is a negative value, then the acceleration is negative

- If the Resultant force equals to zero, then the acceleration is also zero.

36
Remember: motion is in the direction of the driving force

Example 1:
D = 1000 N

A.R = 200 N
F = 200 N
F=D-R
F = 1000 - (200 + 200) = 600 N
The resultant force and the acceleration are positive, so they both act in
the direction of motion. The speed is increasing.

Example 2:
D = 1000 N

A.R = 800 N
F = 200 N
F=D-R
F = 1000 - (800 + 200) = 0 N
The resultant force and the acceleration are equal to zero, so this means
that the speed is constant.

Example 3:
D = 400 N

A.R = 800 N
F = 200 N
F=D-R
F = 400 - (800 + 200) = -600 N
The resultant force and the acceleration are negative, so they both act
opposite to the direction of motion. The speed is decreasing.

37
 A
Example 4:
A skier is moving down a slope.

Let’s investigate distance AB. B

The speed is increasing, so this means that the
C
driving force is greater than the resisting force
(friction).
Therefore, the resultant force is positive and the
acceleration is also positive.

Let’s investigate distance BC.

The speed is constant. Due to the increase in speed,
the friction force increases until it is equal to the
driving force.
Consecutively, the resultant force and acceleration
are equal to zero.
Speed

AB : increasing speed
decreasing acceleration

B C BC : constant speed
zero acceleration

A Time

38
TERMINAL VELOCITY & FREE FALL

Terminal velocity refers to the velocity of a particle

when the acceleration of the object as it falls
downward is equal to zero.

Free-fall is a state or type of motion where an object

falls downward subjected to its own weight with an
acceleration equal to 9.8.

ball boy paper

Ignoring air resistance

All three bodies will reach the ground at the same
time, as they are all going down with constant
acceleration (9.8 m/s²)

TAKE NOTE!
Air Resistance is present in real life, and it
definitely affects the acceleration of an
object.

Increasing air resistance decreases the acceleration

39
Considering air resistance
Notice that the acceleration will change according to
the value of the air resistance.
As speed increases, so does air resistance
As surface area increases, so does air resistance
(for instance, a parachute opening)
Increasing the air resistance decreases the resultant
force, which consecutively decreases the
acceleration

mass = 70 kg mass = 70 kg

A.R = 0 N A.R = 200 N

W=m*g
W = 70 * 9.8 F=m*a
D-R=m*a
≈ 700 N
700 -200 = 70 * a
F=m*a 500 = 70 * a
W W
D-R=m*a a = 7 m/s
m/s²
700 -0 = 70 * a
a = 10 m/s²

mass = 70 kg
mass = 70 kg

A.R = 600 N
A.R = 700 N

F=m*a F=m*a
D-R=m*a D-R=m*a
700 -600 = 70 * a 700 -700 = 70 * a
W 100 = 70 * a W 0 = 70 * a
a = 1.4 m/s
m/s² m/s²
a = 0 m/s

40
 mass = 70 kg

A.R = 1000 N

F=m*a
D-R=m*a
700 - 1000 = 70 * a
-300 = 70 * a
W a = -4.2 m/s²
m/s

Considering the graph of this journey

Initially, the acceleration is equal to 9.8 m/s² , as the

only force acting on the body is the weight
Then the acceleration decreases as both the speed
and the air resistance increase. The resultant force
decreases.
Later on, the acceleration is equal to zero, and the
magnitude of the air resistance is equal to the
weight, hence the resultant force is equal to zero.
This is called “Terminal Velocity”.
As the parachute opens, air resistance increases
due to the surface area of the parachute, it is greater
than the weight. The resultant force is negative.
Finally, Air resistance decreases until it equals to the
value of the weight, this is due to the decrease in
speed.

41
Speed

.4 .
5

.3
.2

.1 .6 .7

Time

42
5. Centripetal force
Centripetal force is what keeps a body moving in a circular
path by changing the direction of motion continuously,
For any object moving on a circular path. the resultant
force is called Centripetal force.
This force always acts towards the center of the circle
This force is always perpendicular to the direction of
motion

Example 1:
A car in a roundabout
The centripetal force is the side
way friction.
The centripetal force is towards
the center

Example 2:
A swinging pendulum
The centripetal force is the
tension in the pendulum string
The centripetal force is towards
the center

43
Example 3:
A swinging ball
The centripetal force is the
tension in the pulled string
The centripetal force is towards
the center

Centripetal force increases under certain conditions:

speed mass radius

increases increases decreases

e ex am ples
h
In all t o nclude
e ca n c
above, w s are
b o d ie
that the on s tant
ith c
moving w u an tity.
sc a la r q
speed -a However, as the d
irection
of motion is co
nstantly
changing, we can
not say
that they are
moving
with constant ve
locity or
acceleration.

44
 Extension & Hooke’s Law

Deformation means the change in an object’s

shape or length due to an applied force.

PLASTIC ELASTIC

This means that the shape This means that the shape
will not return to its original will return to its original
shape shape

Original length is given the letter l

Extension is the difference between the
measured length and the original length
Extension = measured - original

no force
or extension force is applied
applied so the spring is
extended

45
IMPORTANT EXAMPLES

1. force = zero
Original length is 10 cm
extension = zero

2. force = 100 N
measured length = 13 cm
extension = measured - original
extension = 13 - 10 = 3 cm
100 N

3. force = 200 N
measured length = 16 cm
extension = measured - original
extension = 16 - 10 = 6 cm
200 N

46
 HOOKE’S LAW
Hooke’s Law states that force and extension are
directly proportional if not exceeding the limit of
proportionality (elastic limit).

From A to B:
Elastic deformation
Force
Straight line .B .C
Direct

From B to C:
Plastic deformation
Curved graph
Indirect .
A Extension

Spring 1 Spring 2
F = 100 N F = 100 N
Extension = 10 cm Extension = 20 cm

Spring 1 is stronger than spring 2

This is because spring 1 is extended a shorter distance with the
same applied force,
which means that spring 1 needs a higher force to extend

47
 Force/N
1 2

15

Extension/ cm
x1
x2

Considering spring 2 to be stronger than spring 1

Extension / cm

2
1
x2
x1

15 Force / N

Spring 2 here is stronger than spring 1 because it has a lower

extension
48
 Spring Constant ( k )

K = F force( n)

X
extension ( mm, cm, m)
Force

Extension

In this graph, we can say that the slope of

this graph is the spring constant ( k ).
This is because the slope is: y axis
x axis
so we apply this:
force
extension
49
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50
1.4 Moment &
Equilibrium

PIVOT

FORCE

perpendicular distance to the pivot

Moment is a vector quantity

Moment is described using ‘clockwise ’
and ‘anticlockwise’
The direction of forces is either upwards,
downwards, left or right.

FINDING THE MOMENT

What is moment?
Force * Perpendicular Distance
The turning effe
[ unit is Nm ] ct
of a force about
between the force a
and the pivot
pivot

51
 Example 1
5N

2m

Moment = Force * Distance

=5*2
= 10
anticlockwise

Example 2
4N

3m

Moment = Force * Distance

=4*3
= 12
clockwise
52
 Example 3 Example 4
3N
4cm
1m 2m 3cm

2N 2N
6N
both forces are clockwise both forces are clockwise
Moment = Force * Distance Moment = Force * Distance
= (3*2) + (2*1) = (6*3) + (2*4)
= 8 Nm = 26 Ncm

Example 5 Example 6
7N 5N 1m 2m

1m 2m

5N 3N
10N
clockwise moment = 5*2 = 10 Nm clockwise moment = 22 Nm
anticlockwise moment = 7*1 = 7 Nm anticlockwise moment = 20 Nm
resultant moment = 10-7 = 3 Nm resultant moment = 22-20= 2 Nm

53
 THE CONCEPT OF “NO MOMENT”

Case 1
10N

In this case, the force will not make

a turning effect (moment) because
there is no distance between the
pivot and the force.

Case 2

10N

In this case, the force will not make

a turning effect (moment) because
the distance is not perpendicular to
the rod.
54
INVESTIGATE THE FOLLOWING ROD

10N

This rod will rotate clockwise.

10N
F1 : No moment
F2 : Clockwise moment
F3 : Anticlockwise moment
The distance of F2 is larger
than F3 ,
so the moment of F2 is larger
10N
than F3 .
pivot

Important conclusion
5N 5N

a a

5N 10N

b b

rod b has the larger moment rod b has the larger moment
because the distance from the because the force applied
pivot increased. increased
55
EQUILIBRIUM AND STABILITY

Clockwise moment = Anticlockwise moment

resultant moment is zero
The upward forces = The downward forces
resultant force is zero

22N

8m
2m
2m 5m

2N
5N 5N
10N

clockwise moment = (5*2)+(10*4) = 50 Nm

anticlockwise moment = (2*5) +(5*8) = 50 Nm
resultant moment = zero

downward forces = 10 + 5 + 2 + 5 = 22 N
To achieve equilibrium, apply an upward force
of 22N on the pivot.
56
 Find the value of W

22N

60 cm
20 cm 20 cm

W
4N
15N

clockwise moment = (4*60)+(w*20) = . . .

anticlockwise moment = (15 * 20) = 300 Ncm
(4*60) + (w*20) = 300
w * 20 = 60
w = 3N
To know the force applied on the pivot . . .
use the second equilibrium equation of:
upward forces = downward forces

upward forces = 15 + 3 + 4 =22 N

downward forces = 22 N (consecutively)

57
 FN

2 cm

5 cm
8 cm 10 N 4N

clockwise moment = (10*5)+(4*8) = 82 Ncm

anticlockwise moment = (F * 2)
(F * 2) = 82
F = 41 N
force on the pivot = 41 - (10+4) = 27 N downwards

14N

2 cm d cm

4N
10 N

clockwise moment = 4 * d = . . .
anticlockwise moment = 10 * 2 = 20 Ncm
(4 * d) = 20
d = 20 N
force on the pivot = 10 + 4 = 14N upwards

58
 14 N

2 cm d cm

10 N 4N

clockwise moment = 4 * d
anticlockwise moment = 10 * 2 = 20
4 * d = 20
d =5 cm
force on the pivot = 10 + 4 = 14 N upwards

A B

Mass of ball ‘A’ : 50 kg

Mass of ball ‘B’ : 40 kg
Ball ‘A’ is closer to the pivot

A high force
low distance B low force
high distance

resulting in same moment

59
INVESTIGATING CENTRE OF MASS

The centre of mass is the point where the whole

weight of the body may be considered to act.
However, if the body is not uniform, we make a rough
estimate of where the centre of mass is.

Note: we usually assume the centre of mass to be

closest to the pivot which has the greatest mass of
the body

INVESTIGATING STABILITY

If this box is acted upon by a

force to make it topple...

pivot pivot

this makes an this makes a clockwise

anticlockwise moment moment and the box will
and the box will not topple topple

60
Methods to increase the stability of a body
The stability of a body is increased if
1. The centre of mass is as low as possible. It should
be above the base and near the geometric centre
of the body
2. The area of base of the body is large

.
.
more stable

. .
more stable

61
 .
F (20 N)

4 cm

. W (30 N)
.
x

In this example, x will be the pivot.

Force ‘F‘ will make an anticlockwise moment
= (20 * 4) = 80 Ncm
Weight ‘W‘ will make a clockwise moment
= (30 * 3) = 90 Ncm
in conclusion, the box will not topple.
This is because the clockwise moment is greater
than the anticlockwise moment.

62
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63
1.5
Momentum

P =M*V
momentum
mass (kg)
velocity

Momentum is the product of mass and velocity

Momentum is a vector quantity which has
magnitude and direction
UNIT: Kg m/s

use + and - signs to differentiate between directions

Example 1: Example 2:

m = 500 kg v = 5 m/s m = 500 kg v = 5 m/s

Momentum = m * v Momentum = m * v
= 500 * 5 = 500 * 5
= +2500 kg m/s = -2500 kg m/s
64
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
momentum before collision = momentum after collision
M1U1 + M2U2 = M1V1 + M2V2
[ U is the initial velocity and V is the final velocity ]

m= 2kg m= 3kg
u= 4m/s u= 3m/s

1 2
before collision

1 2 calculate final
after collision velocity of ball 2

To find the final velocity of ball 2, use the law of

conservation of momentum. Don’t forget the signs!
mu +mu = mv +mv

( 4 * 2 ) + (3 * -3) = ( 2 * -1 ) + 3v
8 - 9 = -2 + 3v
-1 = -2 + 3v
v = 0.33 m/s +ve
65
 A before collision B

m= 30 kg m= 40 kg
u= 5 m/s u= 4 m/s

A B

V = o.5 m/s
after collision
calculate final
velocity of car B

To find the final velocity of ball 2, use the law of

conservation of momentum. Don’t forget the signs!
mu +mu = mv +mv

( 30 * 5 ) + (40 * -4) = ( 30 * 0.5 ) + 40v

150 - 160 = -15 + 40v
-10 = -15 + 40v
v = 1/8 m/s +ve
66
 before collision
A B
m= 3 kg m= 4 kg
u= 5 m/s u= 0 m/s

A B
after collision
V = 1 m/s calculate final
velocity of ball B

To find the final velocity of ball B, use the law of

conservation of momentum. Don’t forget the signs!

mu +mu = mv +mv

( 3 * 5 ) + 0 = ( 3 * -1 ) + 4v
15 = -3 + 4v
18 = 4v
v = 4 . 5 m/s +ve
67
IF TWO BODIES COLLIDE, THEN GET
ATTACHED

They become one body, with one V at the end

M1U1 + M2U2 = (M1 + M2) V

[ U is the initial velocity and V is the final velocity ]

m= 3 kg m= 2 kg
u= 4m/s u= 2 m/s

1 2
before collision

after collision

To find the final velocity of both balls, use the law of

conservation of momentum. Don’t forget the signs!
m u + m u = (m + m ) * V

( 3 * 4 ) + (2 * -2) = ( 3 + 2 ) V
12 - 4 = 5V
8 = 5v
+ve
v = 1 . 6 m/s
68
IMPULSE
Impulse is the change in momentum
Unit is Kg m/s
Impulse = Mv - Mu
[ U is the initial velocity and V is the final velocity ]

m= 3 kg u= 2 m/s wall

3 kg +

find the
v = -1
3 kg impulse

To find the impulse exerted, use the rule, consider

directions too.
Impulse = Mv - Mu
( 3 * -1 ) - ( 3 * 2 )
-3 - 6
-9 kg m/s

-ve
69
To find the impulse exerted, use the rule, consider
directions, they are both positive.

u= 2 m/s

3 kg + Impulse = Mv - Mu
(3*1) - (3*2)
3 - 6
3 kg + -3 kg m/s

v = 1 m/s

Another Case : The ball does not rebound from wall

u = 2 m/s
Impulse = Mv - Mu
3 kg +
(0) - (3*2)
0-6
-6 kg m/s

3 kg
comes to rest

70
RELATION BETWEEN IMPULSE AND FORCE

F = m* a
F = m * v-u
t
F * t = m * ( v- u )
F * t = mv - mu change in
momentum

F * T = Impulse = change in momentum

NS KG M/S

impulse has two units!

71
RELATION BETWEEN IMPULSE AND FORCE

Example 1 :
A car is moving with speed 5 m/s then comes to
rest after 0.5 seconds. The car has a mass of 300
kg. Find the force exerted by the car.

F * T = mv - mu
F * 0.5 = 0 - (300*0.5)
F * 0.5 = 0 - 1500
F = 3000 N

Example 2 :
A car is moving with speed 15 m/s then the driver
applies the breaks so the speed decreases to 5 m/s
in 10 seconds. Mass of the car is 600 kg. Find F.

F * T = mv - mu
F * 10 = (600*5) - (600*15)
F * 0.5 = 3000 - 9000
F = 600 N
72
Example 3 :

u = 20 m/s Mass = 3 kg
Time = 50 ms
3 kg +
DIVIDE BY 1000
SO TIME IS IN
SECONDS !!

3 kg
v = 30 m/s

Impulse = change in momentum

mv - mu = F * t
( 3 * 30 ) = F * (50/1000)
F = 3000 N

The value of V is negative because it is

opposite to the direction of U.
Time = 50 ms must be converted, always
work with seconds.

73
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74
1.6
Energy & Power

Law of conservation of energy

The law of conservation of energy states that
energy can neither be created nor destroyed -
only converted from one form of energy to
another.
This means that a gain in one type of energy
=
the loss of another form of energy.

1.Chemical Energy
This is the energy stored in fuel.
When burning fossil fuels, chemical
energy is converted to light & heat energy.
When discharging a battery, chemical
energy is converted to electric energy.

75
2.Elastic (strain) Energy
This is the energy gained by a body upon
stretching, compression, bending, or twisting.
For instance, a spring’s motion

3.Electric Energy
This is the energy gained by charges to flow
through electric supplies
An example of this is a lamp
The lamp converts electric energy into
light and heat energy.

4.Heat Energy
This is the energy gained due to...
Rise in temperature
Contact between two rough surfaces (like
a box being pulled along the floor)
Change in state (like an ice cube melting)

76
5.Internal Energy
This is the sum of Kinetic, Heat, and
Potential energy
This is used as heat (thermal) energy.

6.Light Energy
This is a kind of kinetic energy with the ability
to make types of light visible to human eyes.

7.Sound Energy
This is a form of energy that can be heard by
living things. Only those waves that have a
frequency of 16 Hz to 20 kHz are audible to
humans.

77
8.Gravitational Potential Energy
This is the energy stored in a body due to its
position.
For this type of energy we have an equation:

P . E = M* G * H
height (m)
mass (kg) gravitational
acceleration
(9.8 m/s²)
When a body is raised vertically upwards,
it gains potential energy.
When a body is being dropped vertically
downwards it loses potential energy.
If the body is moving along a horizontal
plane, there is no change in potential
energy.

Height and Potential Energy are directly

proportional.

78
9.Kinetic Energy
This is the energy stored in a body due to its
motion.
For this type of energy we have an equation:

K . E = ½ *M * V ²

velocity (m/s²)
mass (kg)
This type of energy depends entirely on
the velocity of the body (speed)
As the body is accelerating positively, so
speed increases and so kinetic energy
also increases.
As the body is decelerating, so speed
decreases and so kinetic energy also
decreases.
If a body has zero acceleration, so its
speed remains constant and so there is no
change in the kinetic energy.
If a body is at rest then the kinetic energy
is equal to zero.
79
10.Work Done
When a force is exerted on a body and it
moves a certain distance, then there is work
done by this body.

W.D = F * D

distance (m)
force (N)

When calculating the work done, the force

applied must be in the direction of motion
Forces applied could be weight, resistive
forces, or even a pushing force
10.1 Weight
If the body is lifted upwards then the force
acting on the body is weight.
example:
An elevator lifts 4 boxes, each of 20 kg, a
distance of 3 metres. calculate the work done.
weight = m * g
= 80 * 10 = 800 N
work done = F * D = 800*3 = 2400 Joules
80
10.2 Resistive Forces

If a body is falling downwards, then we get

Air Resistance
example:
A ball is falling from a table that is 2 metres
high. There is a resistive force due to air
resistance of magnitude 50N. Find the work
done.
work done = F * D = 50 * 2 = 100 J

If a body rests on a surface, the we get

Normal Contact Force

100 N

5 metres

example:
A box of weight 100 N slides 5 metres across a
table.
work done = F * D = 100 * 5 = 500 J

81
Important relation between P.E and K.E
to study the relation between potential energy
and kinetic energy, let’s study the free fall of a
basketball of mass 3 kg.

POTENTIAL KINETIC
P.E = m * g * h

3 x 10 x 5 = 150 J 5m K.E = zero

3 x 10 x 3 = 90 J 3m 150 - 90 = 60 J

3 x 10 x 1 = 30 J 1m 150 - 30 = 120 J

P.E = zero 0m 150 J

notice that the energy

lost as potential, is gained
as kinetic
at the end, all the potential energy is converted to
kinetic energy. If the ball hit the ground and did not
rebound, then all the energy will be converted to sound
and heat energy in the collision.
82
To calculate the speed at any point in the
journey, use the equation of kinetic energy:
½ x m x v²
for instance, when the kinetic energy was 150 Joules:
K . E = ½ x m x v²
150 = ½ x 3 x v²
150 = 1.5 x v²
v² = 100
v = 10

IF THE BALL REBOUNDS

If the ball rebounds, then some of the kinetic and

potential energy will be lost as sound and heat
energy due to bouncing until the ball finally
comes to rest and all energy is converted to heat
and sound energy.
83
TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES
There are 2 types of energy sources:
renewable
non-renewable (previously stored energy, finite,
assumed to run out eventually)

1.Chemical energy (fossil fuels)

oil fire
natural gas fire
coal fire
Those fuels are burnt to produce a high amount of
heat energy which is used to heat water to convert
it to steam. Then, this steam rotates a turbine and
the generator generates electricity.

pipes heat the oil turbine is used generator

NOTE:
this is considered non-renewable,
since it is affected by the sun in order
to decompose the living organisms to
fossil fuels.

84
2.Geothermal energy
Water is pumped into the deep, hot layers of the
ground, and it is heated to become steam with very
high pressure and speed. This is then moved to a
turbine and generator.

water is pumped turbine is used generator

into the ground

3.Nuclear Fission
The isotope of Uranium, which splits and
produces a very high amount of energy, is used
to heat water to become steam, and then move
a turbine and activate the generator, hence
generating electricity.

power station turbine is used generator

85
 4.Solar Energy
Solar panels convert the light energy from the sun
into electric energy.

sun heat solar panels electricity

this method produces electrical energy without

moving parts like a turbine or a generator.

note:
this is renewable energy,
not always working
(at night, for instance)

If we assumed that a solar

cell absorbs 20J/m² , then
the three panels shown will
absorb at a total rate of
60J/m²

86
5.Hydroelectric Energy
Water is first at a very high point above ground
level, which results in a high storage of potential
energy. This energy is then converted to kinetic
energy as it moves downwards. To benefit off of
this, we add a turbine and a generator at the end of
the waterfall to convert this energy into electric
energy.

Potential Energy
due to height

Kinetic Energy
as water falls

note:
This is a form of renewable energy, as it
relies on natural elements.

87
6.Tidal Energy
This is a form of renewable energy
This type of energy relies on the moon
water waves have high potential energy which is
then converted to kinetic energy in pipes. This is
then followed by a turbine and a generator to
convert this stored energy to electric energy.

Potential Energy
due to height

Kinetic Energy
as water falls

7.Wind Energy
When moving a large amount of air, we generate
huge amounts of kinetic energy. This is then
converted to electric energy as the blades rotate.

note:
this type of energy is renewable
as it relies entirely on natural
elements.

88
Power
POWE
R = ENERGY
JOULES
TIME
SECOND

Power is the rate of change of energy

To be able to say that the unit of power is
watts, we must have the energy in joules and
the time in seconds
Unit of Power : Watts

energy energy
power = power =
time time

energy
power =
time

89
IMPORTANT RELATION BETWEEN:
Power
Energy
Time

Example 1:
Assume a person of weight 100 N walks 3 metres
on day one in a time interval of 10 seconds.

day one
work done = force x distance = 100 x 3
= 300 joules
power = energy = 300 = 30 watts
time 10

Example 2:
Assume a person of weight 100 N walks 3 metres
on day two in a time interval of 20 seconds.

day two
work done = force x distance = 100 x 3
= 300 joules
power = energy = 300 = 15 watts
time 20

90
Example 3:
Assume a person of mass 50 kg runs 100 metres
on day one in a time interval of 100 seconds.

day one
work done = force x distance = 500 * 100
= 50000 joules
power = energy = 50000 = 500 watts
time 100

Example 4:
Assume a person of mass 50 kg runs 100 metres
on day two in a time interval of 200 seconds.

day two
work done = force x distance = 500 * 100
= 50000 joules
power = energy = 50000 = 250 watts
time 200

From the previous examples, we notice that when

energy is constant, and time is changing, the power
changes but the energy stays the same.
Power and time are inversely proportional when
energy is constant.

91
Example 5:
Assume a person of weight 100 N walks 3 metres
on day one in a time interval of 10 seconds.

day one
work done = force x distance = 100 * 3
= 300 joules
power = energy = 300 = 30 watts
time 10

Example 6:
Assume a person of weight 50 N walks 3 metres
on day one in a time interval of 10 seconds.

day one
work done = force x distance = 50 * 3
= 150 joules
power = energy = 150 = 15 watts
time 10

From the previous examples, we notice that when

time is constant, and energy is changing, both the
power and the energy change.
Power and energy are directly proportional
when time is constant.

92
Example 7:
Assume a person of weight 100 N walks 3 metres
on day one in a time interval of 10 seconds.

day one
work done = force x distance = 100 * 3
= 300 joules
power = energy = 300 = 30 watts
time 10

Example 8:
Assume a person of weight 50 N walks 3 metres
on day two in a time interval of 20 seconds.

day two
work done = force x distance = 200 * 3
= 600 joules
power = energy = 600 = 30 watts
time 20

As the energy increases and the power stays the

same, then the time must increase.
energy
power =
time

93
 Efficiency

useful output x 100

Efficiency =
input

A B
input output input output

5000 W 2000 W 10000 W 3000 W

2000 3000
efficiency = x 100 efficiency = x 100
5000 10000

= 40 % = 30 %

Machine A is better than machine B

Machine A is more ‘efficient’
Machine A produces a higher percentage of
useful output from the given input.

94
Example 1:
A lamp has an input power of 8 Watts, and a
wasted power of 6 Watts. Calculate its efficiency.

lamp 1
useful power = 8 - 6 = 2 watts
useful output x 100
Efficiency =
input
= 2 x 100 = 25 %
8

Example 2:
A lamp has an input power of 20 Watts, and a
wasted energy of 80 Joules in 10 seconds.
Calculate its efficiency.

wasted power:

energy 80
wasted power = = = 8 watts
time 10

lamp 2
useful power = 20 - 8 = 12 watts
useful output x 100
Efficiency =
input
= 12 x 100 = 60 %
20

95
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96
1.7
Pressure
Pressure

Pressure is the force per unit area

There must be molecules present so

pressure can happen
We can achieve pressure in solid, liquid,
and also gas mediums
In a vacuum, there is no pressure as there
are no molecules present
The unit for pressure is pascal

Newtons
force
Pressure =
area
M²

97
 1. Pressure in solids

W
W
diagram 1 diagram 2

The very same book is placed on the same floor, but

in different positions.
In diagram one, less area is in contact with the floor ,
hence higher pressure is exerted.

Area = 2m² Area = 10m²

20 N 20 N
diagram 1 diagram 2

In this case, both nails apply the same force on the

ground, but Nail 1 will have a higher pressure due to
the small area in contact with the floor.

98
 Mass = 2kg Mass = 1kg

Area = 2m² Area = 10m²

20 N 10 N
diagram 1 diagram 2

pressure = 20/2 pressure = 10/2

= 10 pascals = 5 pascals

In this case,
Area is constant
Force and pressure change directly
When force is increased, pressure also increases

force
P=
area
to maintain constant pressure, then
If the force increases, then the area must increase
by the same amount

99
 2.Pressure in liquids
Pressure = ρ g h
* *
density
gravitational height
(rho)
acceleration
C
3m the pressure applied is:
B A >B > C
Density of water is 1000
5m kg/m 3
A

Pressure at A Pressure at B Pressure at C

ρ x g x h ρ x g x h ρ x g x h
1000 x 10 x 5 1000 x 10 x 3
= 50,000 Pa = 30,000 Pa = zero Pa

This is the pressure applied by the

liquid only.
To calculate the total pressure, we
must add the value of Atmospheric
Pressure: 100,000 Pa

100
 point x

point y

Comparing pressure at two points

The pressure applied at point x will be the
atmospheric pressure only (100,000 Pa).
However, the pressure applied at the point y
as the toy boat sinks will increase.
This is due to:
1. Pressure caused by the liquid
2. Pressure caused by the atmosphere

101
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102
UNIT TWO:

THERMAL
PHYSICS

103
 2.1
States Of
Matter
A state of matter is one of the distinct forms in
which matter can exist. Three states of matter
are observable in everyday life: solid, liquid, gas.

A brief comparison:

solid liquid gas

spacing
between
molecules
closely packed loosely packed far apart

compressibility incompressible incompressible compressible

motion of vibrate at fixed sliding over very fast and

particles position eachother random motion

attraction strong but

forces between strong weaker than very weak
molecules solids

volume fixed fixed variable

104
Explaining observable properties of the three
states in terms of the kinetic molecular model:

observed property explanation

due to the very strong
solids have a definite shape
intermolecular forces of attraction

liquids can flow and take the due to the molecules sliding over
shape of the container eachother

gases can flow and completely due to molecules moving freely

fill the available space and being far apart

molecules in solids and liquids are

solids and liquids have similar
closely packed, but in gases they
high densities
are far apart

since molecules in solids and

liquids are closely packed, they
gases are compressible but
will exert very strong repulsive
solids and liquids are
forces on eachother. However, in
incompressible
gases particles are far apart so
they can be pushed together

105
HEATING STAGES
melting boiling

SOLID LIQUID GAS

COOLING STAGES
ensation freezing
cond

GAS LIQUID SOLID

IMPORTANT CURVE
temp / °C
s
ga

boiling
d
ui
liq

melting
lid
so

time / sec

106
During melting and boiling, the
temperature does not change. That’s why
the speed of the molecules does not
change either.
The heating done during melting and
boiling is not to raise the temperature but
to rather change the state and break
down the bonds between the molecules.

During melting, there are two states

present: solid and liquid

During boiling, there are two states

present: liquid and gas.

melting boiling

107
 EVAPORATION

The most energetic molecules at the

surface gain enough energy to break down
the bonds and escape causing a cooling
effect.

High energy particle

Low energy particle

Why the cooling effect takes place

Because the most energetic molecules escape
and leave behind the least energetic ones, so
the energy of the liquid decreases, hence also
decreasing the temperature.
We can alter many factors to increase the
rate of evaporation such as temperature,
surface area and air current

108
1 . Increasing temperature
By increasing the temperature of a liquid, the
energy of the molecules also increases, so
more molecules are able to break the bonds
and escape.

2 . Increasing surface area

By increasing the surface area, we do not
increase the energy of the molecules, however
we increase the number of exposed energetic
molecules on the surface.

3 . Increasing air current

This speeds up the breaking down of bonds
which consecutively increases the rate of
evaporation.

BOILING EVAPORATION

Happens at any temperature Happens at specific temperatures

Happens to the molecules at

Happens to all the molecules
the surface only

109
KELVIN SCALE

It is important to note that -273°C is

equivalent to zero Kelvins.
here molecules stop moving completely
this is the minimum kinetic energy point
this is called “absolute zero” temperature

P P

T/°C T/°K

Hence, we can form an equation:

T (K) = T °C + 273

110
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 2.2
PVT

Temperature
is a measure of the average kinetic energy. When
the temperature increases, kinetic energy
increases, and so the speed of the molecules also
increase, and vice versa.

Volume
When volume increases, expansion occurs. This
means that the spacing between molecules
increases, and not the size of the molecule

How does gas exert pressure?

Gas particles have fast and random motion,
so in a container, the particles hit the walls of
the container, exerting force on that certain
area , hence causing pressure
We conclude that as the hitting increases, the
pressure also increases and vice versa

112
 heating

The effect of increasing temperature on

volume, while keeping pressure constant

As temperature increases, the speed of the particles

increases and they move faster, so the spacing
between them increases and volume increases.

The expansion rate of gas is much higher than

liquids, and liquids are slightly higher than solids
This is because the gas molecules are the
furthest apart compared to liquids or even
solids which are closely packed
For instance, railway tracks have spaces
between them to allow solid expansion

113
 not allowed to expand

The effect of increasing temperature on

pressure, while keeping volume constant

As temperature increases, the speed of the particles

increases and they move faster, so they hit the
walls of the container more, increasing pressure

It is important to know that increasing the

temperature will affect either volume or
pressure, not both together
There must be one constant, for the other factor
to change
If temperature increases and volume increases,
then pressure is constant
If pressure increases then volume remains
constant

114
The effect of changing pressure & volume
with constant temperature

Since temperature is constant then the speed of the

molecules is constant.

The pressure will increase -not because the

hitting is faster or harder, but because the area
of hitting decreased so the walls of the container
are hit more frequently

115
 Expansion

Contraction

IMPORTANT RELATION
between pressure & volume

P1V1 = P2V2
pv is constant

p = pressure in pascals (Pa)

V = volume in metres cubed (m3)
This means that the pressure and volume are inversely
proportional to each other
When the volume decreases (compression), the
pressure increases
When the volume increases (expansion), the
pressure decreases

116
EXAMPLE #1

A helium cylinder contains 60 cm3 of

5
helium with pressure 8 x 10 Pa.
It is used to fill a balloon.
He The pressure drops after filling the
5
balloon to 2 x 10 Pa.
Find the volume of the balloon.

P1V1 = P2V2
5
( 8 x 105) x 60 = (2 x 10 ) x V 2
V2 = 240 cm 3
He Note: this is the final volume of the
balloon and the helium cylinder
together.
Therefore, the balloon’s volume alone:
240 - 60 = 180 cm 3

117
EXAMPLE #2

atmospheric pressure

A bubble of air

At A , the volume of the air bubble is small

because the pressure is high.
The volume of the air bubble at B is large because
the pressure is lower.

EXAMPLE #3
At high altitude, the pressure
is lower, so we observe the
bottle shrink and collapse as
it is dropped from the top of
the mountain.

118
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2.3
Heat Transfer

Heat energy will always move from the point of

high temperature to the point of low temperature.

Heat transfers in three ways conduction

convection
radiation

1. Conduction
This mainly happens in solids
This is because the solid molecules are
closely packed together so they are able to
conduct heat
This is a method that transfers heat without
the movement of atoms
Conduction differs in metals from non
metals

120
1.1 conduction in metals
Copper, iron, and steel are a few examples
When heat is applied, the kinetic energy of the
free moving electrons increases, so the speed
also increases and they start to drift between
molecules; transferring heat energy from hot
areas to the cold areas.

1.1 conduction in non-metals

Glass, plastic, and wood are a few examples
When heat is applied, the temperature
increases, so the kinetic energy also increases.
This leads them to vibrate and bump into the
neighbor molecules, hence transferring heat.

121
2. Convection
This happens in fluids (liquid/gas)
Depends mainly on density
No side way convection

at A when the temperature rises, the spacing between

molecules increases, and so the volume increases,
hence density decreases, so hot water rises up.

at B when the temperature decreases, the spacing

between molecules decreases, and so the volume
decreases, hence density increases, so this water falls
down.

122
 at A when the temperature rises,
B
the volume increases, so density
decreases, so the hot molecules
rise up.
A at B the temperature decreases,
so the volume decreases and the
density increases, so the
molecules fall down.

In an air conditioned room, the

hot air in the room rises up, with
higher volume and density.
The cool air from the AC falls
down

With electric heaters, the hot air

rises up with low density and
volume. The cool air in the room
falls down, and the cycle repeats

The hot smoke from a cigarette

rises up

123
Convection mainly depends on the density
change, which happens due to the change in
volume during heating or cooling.

A A

D hot B D cold B

C C
A will be heated by C will be cooled by
convection because hot air convection because cold air
rises up. falls down.

beaker X beaker Y

heat source

metal gauze
heat source

The ice cube in beaker Y will melt faster, because

convection happens by hot air rising upwards, so the cold
water falls down

124
3. Radiation
The only method to transfer heat in vacuum
Electromagnetic waves
“Infrared radiation”
Heat energy from the sun is one example

Absorption & Emission

All surfaces absorb and emit heat
Hot surfaces emit radiation
- best emitter is dull black
- worst emitter is shiny white
Cold surfaces absorb radiation
- best absorber is dull black
- worst absorber is shiny white

Radiation depends on:

1. Temperature of the body
2. Area
3. Color
4. Texture

125
EXPERIMENT
To determine the rate of absorption

dull black dull white

heater

shiny black shiny white (silver)

Readings:
Initial temperature
Final temperature
Precautions:
Equal amounts of water in all beakers
Equal distances between each beaker and
the heater
The greatest change in temperature will be found
in the dull black beaker
126
EXPERIMENT
To determine the rate of absorption

dull white

shiny
black
dull black

shiny white
Readings:
Initial temperature
Final temperature
Precautions:
Equal distances between the thermometer
and the four sides of the box
The greatest change in temperature will be found
near the dull black side

127
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128
 2.4
Heat energy
calculations
Temp/ °C

s
5

ga
3
boiling
l g
4
d
ui
liq

2
melting
s l
lid

1
so

s
Time / s

during 1 , 2 , 3 the heat supplied is to increase the

temperature

during 4 , 5 the heat supplied is to change the state

of matter where no change in temperature happens,
just breaking the bonds

129
 Heat energy is named “Q”
Power = energy (Q) in joules
time ( seconds )
∴ Heat energy = Power x Time

For the heat energy used to change

temperature, (not the state) , we have
another rule:

Q = M * C * ΔT

heat energy mass specific change in

(joules) (kg) heat temperature
capacity (t2 - t1) °c
( j/kg°c)

Specific heat capacity ( C )

This is the amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C
Unit : J / kg°C or J / g°C

130
 EXPERIMENT
To determine the specific heat capacity

Readings:
power of the heater
mass of the iron block
initial temperature
final temperature

thermometer 🌡 insulator
electric
heater
time interval

iron block

then substitute in the formula:

p x t = m x c x Δt
Find C
The values of C and the thermometer readings
in the experiment will be larger than the actual
values.
This is due to the heat lost to the surroundings
To decrease the error, we use an insulator and
a lid.

131
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132
UNIT THREE:

WAVES

133
 3.1
General
Introduction

A wave is a term which refers to the way energy is

transmitted through a medium due to the vibration of
particles.
Waves can be classified into two groups:

Electromagnetic Waves
waves that can travel through vacuum.
doesn’t need a medium
Example: light waves, infrared waves etc.

Mechanical Waves
waves that cannot travel through vacuum.
needs a medium
Example: sound waves

134
Waves can be also classified into two types:

Transverse Waves
Up and down vibrations
Perpendicular to the direction of motion
Example: Light waves, infrared, ultraviolet
etc.
crest
vibration amplitude

direction
of motion wavelength
trough

Longitudinal Waves
Left and right vibrations
Parallel to the direction of motion
Consists of compressions and rarefactions

vibration

direction of travel

compression rarefaction

135
 IMPORTANT KEYWORDS

Compression : Area of high air pressure, and low

spacing

Rarefaction : Area of low air pressure, and high

spacing

Wavelength ( λ )
This is the distance between two successive crests or
troughs. Or likewise,
The distance between two successive compressions
or rarefactions.

Amplitude ( a )
The maximum displacement from the mean position

Period Time ( T )
The time taken to make one complete cycle, in
seconds.
Period Time = time
no. of cycles

Frequency
The number of cycles per second.
Period Time = no. of cycles
time
136
 IMPORTANT CALCULATION

We calculate the speed of the wave by

multiplying the value of the wavelength by the
frequency.
The unit is m/s or cm/s

S = λ x f
wavelength frequency
(m) or (cm) (Hz)

Example 1 :

time
6 seconds

Period time = time / no. of cycles = 6 / 2 = 3 seconds

Frequency = no. of cycles / time = 2 / 6 = 1 / 3 = 0.5 Hertz

137
Example 2 :

. . distance
12 m

We can observe in from the graph above, three complete cycles

If 3 cycles are completed in 12 meters,
then one cycle is 12/3 which gives us 4 meters
This is the wavelength

λ
a
small λ
small T
high a
high f

λ
a

large λ
large T
low a
low f

138
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139
3.2
Behavior of
Waves
Reflection
All waves can undergo Refraction
Diffraction
To discuss the behavior of waves, we will draw
waves as rays.
A . Straight Waves
The ray shows the direction of motion
The lines drawn perpendicular to the ray are called
wavefronts , the distance between two of these
lines is called wavelength

λ λ λ λ

wavefront

140
B . Circular Waves
The ray shows the direction of motion
The circles here are called wavefronts , the
distance between two of these lines is called
wavelength

wavefront

1 . Reflection
To draw reflection, we draw the incident ray, then
we draw a normal line perpendicular to the
surface, which allows us to measure the incident
angle. Using the angle (i) we draw the ray of
reflection with an equal angle (r).
Finally, we draw wavefronts perpendicular to both
rays.
During reflection, speed, wavelength, frequency
and density remain the same.

141
(i) : Incident angle between the incident ray and the
normal line
(r) : Reflected angle between the incident ray and the
normal line

142
2 . Refraction
This is the change of speed of a wave due to
the change in medium
Mediums are classified into less dense and
more dense
There is no change in frequency, only speed and
wavelength
Less dense ∴ s ↑ λ ↑ (deep)
More dense∴ s ↓ λ ↓ (shallow)

λ↑
λ↓

shallow

deep

λ λ λ λ λ λ

143
 i normal line
r

When moving from deep (less dense) to shallow

(more dense), the speed and the wavelength
decrease so the ray bends towards the normal

i normal line
r

When moving from shallow (more dense) to deep

(less dense), the speed of the wavelength
increase so the ray bends towards the normal
frequency stays the same in both cases
144
 normal line

λ surface λ
deep s↑ λ↑ shallow s↓ λ↓

normal line

λ surface λ
shallow s↓ λ↓ deep s↑ λ↑

When moving along the normal line, no bending

happens to the ray because the incident angle is
zero when passing through the normal

145
3 . Diffraction
This is the spreading of waves due to passing
through a barrier

A . WIDE BARRIER

the size of the barrier must be greater than or equal

to double the wavelength

146
B . NARROW BARRIER

the size of the barrier must be less than or equal to

the wavelength

Speed stays the same

Frequency stays the same
Wavelength stays the same
Orientation stays the same
The shape of the wavefront changes

147
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The seven waves in the spectrum are common

8 in:

1. All are electromagnetic waves, they can all

travel through vacuum
2. All are transverse waves, they vibrate up and
down
3. They all have the same speed: 3 x 10 m/s

ultra micro radio

γ rays
t X rays LIGHT infrared
violet waves waves

frequency increases
f↑ f↓
wavelength decreases
λ↓ λ↑

same speed

148
 USES & EFFECTS OF THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
ultra micro radio
γ rays
t X rays LIGHT infrared
violet waves waves

☆ cosmic rays ☆radio and TV

☆ detection of ☆security marking ☆electric grills transmissions
cancer ☆detecting fake ☆short range ☆astronomy
☆sterilizing food bank notes communication like ☆RFID
☆sterilizing ☆sterilizing water TV remote
medical ☆damage to ☆intruder alarms
equipment surface cells/eyes ☆ skin burns
☆causes skin
cancer/eye
conditions ☆satellite TV
☆mobile phones
☆microwave ovens
☆medical x rays
☆ internal heating
☆scanning
of the body cells
☆metal gates
☆ mutation/damage
to cells in the body

149
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Many important systems of communication rely
on electromagnetic radiation, including:

Mobile phones and wireless internet use microwaves

This is because microwaves can penetrate

some walls and only require a short aerial
for transmission and reception

Bluetooth uses radio waves

This is because radio waves pass through

walls but note that the signal is weakened
on doing so

Optical fibres are used for cable TV and high-speed

broadband

This is because glass is transparent to

visible light and some infrared; visible light
has short wavelength, infrared can carry
high rates of data
150
DIGITAL VS ANALOGUE DATA
There are two types of signals:
Analogue
Digital
Analogue signals vary continuously - they can take
any value

A digital signal can only take one of two (discrete)

states
These are usually referred to as;
1s and 0s
Highs and lows, or
Ons and offs

151
TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
Sound waves that can be transmitted as a digital
or analogue signal

Signals for speech or music are made up of

varying frequencies
In order to make out the information clearly,
the signal needs to be transmitted with as
little interference as possible

The signal is converted both before transmission

and after being received
Before transmission: the signal is converted
from analogue to digital
After being received: the signal is converted
from digital to analogue

152
BENEFITS OF DIGITAL SIGNALING

☆ An analogue signal consists of varying frequency

or amplitude
☆Examples of analogue technology include
telephone transmission and some broadcasting

☆A digital signal is generated and processed in two

states:
☆1 or 0 (high or low states respectively)

The key advantages of transmission of data in

digital form compared to analogue are:
The signal can be regenerated so there is minimal
noise
Due to accurate signal regeneration, the range of
digital signals is larger than the range of analogue
signals (they can cover larger distances)
Digital signals enable an increased rate of
transmission of data compared to analogue
Extra data can be added so that the signal can be
checked for errors

153
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154
3.3
Light Waves
Reflection
All waves can undergo Refraction
Dispersion
To discuss the behavior of waves, we will draw
waves as rays.

1 . REFLECTION OF LIGHT
If the reflecting surface is a mirror
Draw two incident lines, then the normal line
perpendicular to the mirror. Reflect both lines, then
extend the two reflected lines

1. Not real (virtual, drawn

by extension)
2. Same size
3. Upright
4. Laterally inverted
5. Same distance between
the object and the
mirror, and the image
and the mirror
155
2 . REFRACTION OF LIGHT
By changing the medium, the wavelength (λ) and
the speed (s) change but the frequency stays the
same
Light can travel in air then move in glass or water
Air is less dense than glass or water
Some (very few) rays are reflected when refraction
takes place (partial reflection)

156
 i normal line
r

When moving from air (less dense) to water

(more dense), the speed and the wavelength
decrease so the ray bends towards the normal

i normal line
r

When moving from glass (more dense) to air (less

dense), the speed of the wavelength increase so
the ray bends away from the normal
frequency stays the same in both cases

157
CRITICAL ANGLE

When moving from glass

(more dense) to air (less
i
dense), the speed of the
i = 42° wavelength increase so the
ray bends away from the
normal

The critical angle is the incident angle which:

makes the refracted ray move along the surface
makes the angle of refraction = 90°
If exceeded, the ray will experience “total internal reflection”

Total internal reflection

Travelling from more dense to less dense mediums
Incident angle > Critical angle
No refraction, just reflection

158
 GLASS BOX

i
speed = 3 x 108

r 8
speed = 2 x 10

r 8
speed = 3 x 10

Application :
1 . Periscope (2 parallel glasses)

1 3

4
At 1 and 2, there is no
2
bending because the ray
passes through the normal
line.

At 3 and 4 the incident angle

is greater than the critical
angle so there is a total
internal reflection

159
Application :
2 . Optical fibres
This is very thin glass fibre which is used to transmit light
from one place to another.
Because the incident angle is greater than the critical angle,
so total internal reflection occurs.
This is used in medical applications and telecommunication

REFRACTIVE INDEX

This is the measure of the bending of a ray of light

when passing from one medium into another.
This is given the letter “n”
8
The speed of light in air is 3x10 m/s, so the unknown
could be n or the speed of light in glass

n = sin θ Air
sin θ other medium

160
Example :
Assume that the refractive index is around 1.5

i = 30 1.5 = sin 30
air
sin r
r ∴ sin r = sin 30
glass
1.5
∴ r = 19
so always make sure
!
NOTE that the angle of air is

mu st be greater than the

n angle of glass.
a te r than
gre
1

REFRACTIVE INDEX

When the ray enters into a different medium at an angle

c (the critical angle), the angle of refraction is 90°
Hence, we get another rule for n :

n = 1
sin c

This is because sin 90 = 1

161
 3 . DISPERSION OF LIGHT

White light enters the glass prism, and it produces

7 colors (ROYGBIV)
8
Inside the prism, red has a higher speed than
violet because violet bends closer to the normal
Outside the prism, red and violet have the same
speed (3x10 ) m/s but red has high λ and low f
violet has low λ and high f

infrared

b l elight
vi s i
e lig ht)
(whit RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
GREEN
BLUE
INDIGO
VIOLET

ultraviolet

162
Monochromatic Light
This is light that contains one color or one
wavelength or one frequency
No dispersion
Only refraction takes place

163
 Lenses & Images

There are two types of lenses

CONCAVE CONVEX

known as diverging known as converging

lens lens
used in telescopes many uses

The convex lens

.
F
.
C
focal length
.
F

164
1. When a ray strikes the lens at its optical centre, it
continues to follow its path.

.F
.C
. F

2. When a ray, parallel to the principal axis strikes the

lens, the reflected ray passes through a focus on the
principal axis

.
F
.C
.
F

3. When a ray passing through focus strikes the

lenses, the reflected ray will pass parallel to the
principal axis

.
F
.
C
.
F

165
1. If the object is very far, at a distance greater than
double the focal length, the image produced is
small
inverted
real

this happens in cameras

2. If the object is placed at the point exactly double the

focal length (2F), the image produced is
same size
inverted
real

this happens in photocopiers

166
3. If the object is placed between F and 2F, the image
produced will be
larger
inverted
real

this happens in projectors

All three cases give inverted images, what

differs is the size of the image. If the object is far
the image produced is small, and if it is near
then the image produced will be large.

167
4. If the object is placed at F, then there will be no image
produced.

5. If the object is placed between F and C, then the image

produced will be:
larger (magnified)
upright
not real (virtual)

this is used in microscopes

168
REFLECTION OF LIGHT ON A MIRROR

image

object

steps:
1. Draw the image in front of the object, at
an equal distance from the mirror
2. Draw two incident rays from the object
3. Draw a normal line
4. Draw a reflected ray
5. Extend the reflected ray

169
REFRACTION OF LIGHT IN WATER

steps:
1. Draw the image above the object
2. Produce 2 incident rays till the surface
of the water
3. Draw a normal line
4. Draw a refracted ray away from the
normal
5. Extend the refracted ray till the image

170
 Lenses & Correction

Long-sightedness: near-vision (ability to see things

up close) is blurry, this is mainly because the image
is formed behind the retina.

Short-sightedness: long-vision (ability to see

things in the distance) is blurry, this is mainly
because the image is formed in front of the retina.

short-sightedness long-sightedness

fix using a fix using a

concave lens convex lens

171
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172
3.4
Sound Waves

Sound waves are longitudinal

Sound waves are mechanical

Characteristics of sound waves

1 . Loudness
This is determined by amplitude. To increase
amplitude, we increase the pressure in
compressions and decrease the pressure in
rarefactions.

173
 2 . Pitch
This is determined by frequency. To increase the
pitch, we increase the number of compressions
and rarefactions in the cycle.

Not all frequencies can be heard

Human audible range is 20 Hz → 20 kHz
Less than 20 Hz is called infrasonic
More than 20 kHz is called ultrasonic

f s ou nd
h e sp eed o That’s why we see
T
3 0 m /s,
3
in air is y low
the lightning
s v e r
which i o the
before hearing the
r ed t
compa ht in air thunder
of l ig
speed 8
3x 1 0

174
EXPERIMENT

Give one student a pistol (heat and light source), and

another student a stopwatch.

readings to be taken :
1. Distance between the two students
2. Time between seeing the light and hearing the
sound
3. Calculate speed = distance / time

Assume the time of seeing the light is t=0 , this

means that at the instant of firing, we see the light.
To increase accuracy, increase the distance between
the two students, to let the value of the time be
larger.
Sound travels faster in solids compared to liquids,
and faster in liquids compared to gas because the
molecules are closer together, hence faster
vibration

175
 SPEED OF SOUND
In gases : 330 m/s
In liquids : 1500 m/s
In solids : 6000 m/s

Example :
When we hit steel, we hear two sounds, because
the sound travels through steel (solid) quickly,
then through air (gas).
This is because sound waves travel faster in
solids compared to gas.

176
 ECHOES
Echoes are reflections of sound waves.
When calculating speed in this case, we use 2d
instead of d.

speed = 2d
t
this is because the sound travels 2 distances,
once till it hits a wall, and the second one when it
travels back to the human ear.

177
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178
UNIT FOUR:

ELECTRICITY
& MAGNETISM

179
4.1
Charging

Conductors Insulators

These materials allow These materials resist the

charges to flow freely. free movement of charges.

rubber diamond
balloon
copper wire

rubber tire
silver
spoon

Note, in conductors such as metals and graphite, it’s

due to the free moving electrons, but in ionic
compounds in liquid state, we have moving ions.

An atom is said to be neutral

This is because the number of positive protons
is equal to the number of negative electrons.
In order to charge an atom, it must lose an
electron to be positively charged, or gain an
electron and become negatively charged
180
Electrostatic force
This is the force exerted by charges, where like
charges repel and opposite charges attract.

+ + +
attraction repulsion repulsion

Electric field
Any charge produces an electric field, which is the
region around it. If another charge is present in that
region, it experiences an electrostatic force.
When drawing electric fields, we use arrows:

positive charge negative charge

The number of arrows indicate the strength of the

electric field; if we draw many arrows, then the field is
strong and vice versa.

181
 Electric field between two parallel lines

Electric field between two spheres

How do we make charges?

Depending on the material we have, we will choose a

suitable method.
for non-metals (insulators) we will use rubbing
for metals we will use induction

182
CHARGING BY RUBBING
When two different insulators are rubbed together,
one insulator will lose electrons and become positively
charged, and the other insulator will gain electrons and
become negatively charged.

1 2

the polythene rod has gained electrons, giving it

a negative charge
the duster has lost electrons, giving it a positive
charge
both the rod and the cloth are made of
insulating materials

183
CHARGING BY INDUCTION
This process involves touching of a charged particle to
a conductive material. This way, the charges are
transferred from the charged material to the
conductor. This method is useful for charging
conductors.

+ -
+ -
+ -

When the positive rod approaches the sphere,

the negative charges will be attracted and the
positive will be repelled
Then we connect the sphere to the earth using a
metal wire
Electrons flow from the earth to the sphere
The positive charges are neutralized
The number of negative charges increases

The same exact procedure applies if we use a

negative rod, except the positive charges will be
attracted

184
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185
4.2
Circuits
The positive charges flow from positive to
negative
The negative charges flow from negative to
positive
NOTE

The conventional flow of current is in the

opposite direction of electrons, i.e. from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal of the
cell.

1 . Current intensity
This is the rate of flow of charges.
Charges carry energy from the battery and lose these
charges to the attached device.

RULE

current Q charges
(Ampere) I = (Coulomb)
t time
(Seconds)
186
2 . Electromotive Force
This is the amount of energy gained by one charge in
the battery.
This is measured in volts.

3 . Potential Difference
This is the amount of energy lost by one charge to
the attached device.
This is measured in volts.
emf

p.d
4 . Resistance
This is the potential difference of a device per unit
ampere.

187
 OHM’S LAW

Volt Ohm (Ω)

V = I*R
Ampere

Ohm’s law states that voltage and current are

directly proportional if the temperature remains
constant

Series connection Parallel connection

In a series circuit, the components are

connected in a line and the same current flows
through all of them. In a parallel circuit, the
components are connected so that each
component has its own separate branch and
the same voltage is applied to each
component.

188
Analyzing series circuits
1. Current ( I )
The current in a series circuit is the same throughout
and it remains constant.
2. Electromotive Force ( V )
The voltage is divided,
the high resistance gets a high voltage
the low resistance gets a low voltage.
3. Resistance ( R )
Total resistance in a series circuit is the resistance of
each element added up.
R total = R1 + R2
e.m.f
I I

I I

p.d 1 p.d 2

189
Example 1 :
The electromotive force of this circuit is 18V, the
current flowing is 2A, and the resistance of bulb 1
and 2 are 6Ω and 3Ω respectively.
Find the potential difference of each bulb.
emf = 18v

I = 2A

bulb 1 bulb 2

6Ω 3Ω

1. Calculate the V of each bulb separately

2. Use Ohm’s law V = I R
*
V1 = I1 * R1
V1 = 2 * 6 = 12 V

V2 = I2 * R2
V2 = 2 * 3 = 6 V

190
Example 2 :
The electromotive force of this circuit is 24V, the
current flowing is 2A, and the resistance of bulb 1
and 2 are 5Ω and xΩ respectively.
Find the value of x.
emf = 24v

I = 2A

bulb 1 bulb 2

5Ω xΩ

Solution 1
V1 = I1 * R1 V = I R
V1 = 2 * 5 = 10 V *
∴ V2 = 24 - 10 = 14 V
V2 = I2 * R2
14 = 2 * R2
R2 = 7Ω

Solution 2
Vt = It * Rt
24 = 2 * Rt
∴ Rt = 12 Ω
using Rt = R1 + R2
12 = 5 + R2
R2 = 7Ω

191
Example 3 :
The current flowing is 0.5A, and the resistance of the
resistor is 8Ω, and the bulb 16Ω.
Find the electromotive force of this circuit.
emf = ?

I = 0.5 A

resistor bulb

8Ω 16Ω

Solution 1

V1 = I1 * R1 V = I R
V1 = 0.5 * 8 = 4 V *
V2 = I2 * R2
V2 = 0.5 * 16 = 8 V
V total = 8 + 4
∴ V = 12

Solution 2
Vt = It * Rt
Vt = 0.5 ( 8 + 16 )
Vt = 0.5 (24)
V = 12

192
Analyzing parallel circuits
1. Current ( I )
The current in a parallel circuit is divided.
The high resistance gets low current
The low resistance gets high current
I total = I1 + I2

2. Electromotive Force ( V )
The voltage remains the same

3. Resistance ( R )
The resistance is “product over sum”
product R1 + R2
R total = =
sum R1 x R2
The total value of R should be smaller than the
smallest value

e.m.f

I total
p.d
i1

i2 p.d

193
Example 1 :
The electromotive force of this circuit is 20V, the
current flowing is 5A, and the resistance of resistor1
is 5Ω. Find the resistance of the second resistor.

e.m.f = 20v

I = 5A
R1 = 5Ω
i1

R2 = ?
i2

V1 = I1 * R1
20 = I1 * 5
I1 = 4A

V2 = I2 * R2
20 = 1 * R2
R2 = 20 Ω

Rt = product / sum = (20*5)/(20+5)

=4Ω

194
Example 2 :
The electromotive force of this circuit is 6V, the
current flowing is 3A, and the resistance of bulb 1
and 2 are 6Ω and 3Ω respectively.
Find the current going to each bulb.
e.m.f = 6v

I = 3A
R1 = 6Ω
i1

R2 = 3Ω
i2

- V1 = I1 * R1
6 = I1 * R1
I1 = 1A

- V2 = It - I1
V2 = 2A

- Rt = product / sum = (3*6)/(3+6)

= 2Ω

195
Example 3 :
The value of i1 is 3 Amperes, and the resistance is
4Ω.
the value of i2 is 2 Amperes and the resistance is
unknown.
The electromotive force is also unknown.
e.m.f = ?

I = 3A
R1 = 4 Ω
i1 = 3A

R2 = ?
i2 = 2A

emf = V1
V1 = I1 * R1
V1 = 3 * 4 = 12v

V2 = I2 * R2
12 = 2 * R2
R2 = 6 Ω

196
Example 4 :
The electromotive force is 12V , the current in the
circuit is unknown, but bulb1 has a resistance of 2Ω ,
bulb 2 has 8Ω and bulb 3 has 6Ω.
Find I total, I1, and I2.

e.m.f = 12 v

I=?
R1 = 2 Ω R2 = 8 Ω
i1 = ?

R3 = 6Ω
i2 = ?

V1 = I1 * R
12 = I1 * (8+2)
I1 = 1 . 2 A
V2 = I2 * R
12 = I2 * 6
I2 = 2 A
∴ I = I1 + I2 = 3.2 A

197
Example 5 :
The electromotive force is 24V , the current in the
circuit is 2A ,the resistance in Resistor 1 is 7Ω, and
12Ω in resistor 2. The resistance in Resistor 3 is
unknown.
Find the current in each resistor.
e.m.f = 12 v

i1 = ? R2 = 12Ω

i2 = ? R3 = ?

V1 = I1 * R1
V1 = 2 * 7 = 14v
V2 = V3 = 24 - 14 = 10v
V2 = I2 * R2
10 = I2 * 12
I2 = 0.83 A
I3 = I1 - I2
I3 = 2 - 0.83 = 1.16 A
V3 = I3 * R3
10 = 1.16 * R3
R3 = 8.6Ω
198
 FACTORS WHICH AFFECT RESISTANCE

1 . Length
Length is directly proportional to resistance.
As length increases, resistance decreases
As length decreases, resistance decreases

2 . Cross sectional area

Area is inversely proportional to resistance.
As area increases, resistance decreases
As area decreases, resistance increases
If area is doubled, resistance is halved
If diameter is doubled, resistance is quartered

3 . Temperature
Temperature is directly proportional to resistance in
metals
(if temperature increases, resistance increases)
Temperature is inversely proportional to resistance
in non-metals
(if temperature increases, resistance decreases)

199
 VERY IMPORTANT RULES

POWER

2
P = V*I P = I *R

2
V energy
P = P =
R time

ENERGY

Energy== VV* I I* tt
* *

Energy== V
V* I Q
*t*

200
 VERY IMPORTANT RULES

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

work done
W
E = (joules)
Q
charge
(coulomb)

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

work done
W
V = (joules)
Q
charge
(coulomb)

201
“ Kilowatt-hour ”
A kilowatt-hour is a measure of energy. The
amount of electricity your home or business
uses over a period of time is measured in
kilowatt-hours.
If you clean your floors with a 1,000-watt
vacuum cleaner for one hour, you use one kWh
of energy.
If you are using a 100-watt device, such as a
LED TV, you would have to watch your favorite
shows for 10 hours before using 1 kWh

202
 As the filament is kept on, it heats up
and the temperature rises. This means
that resistance also increases, so the
graph of the lamp is as shown:

V I

I V

Relation between voltage and current

V
R increasing R constant

R decreasing

I
In this graph, voltage is on the y-axis and current is on
the x-axis. The slope is resistance because R = V / I
Which is the slope.

203
 I
R decreasing R constant

R increasing

In this graph, voltage is on the x-axis and current is on

the y-axis. The slope is 1/R
the axis is reversed, so the value of R is also
reciprocated

COMPARING SERIES AND PARALLEL

In parallel circuits, each device can be switched

on/off independently
In parallel circuits, each device can be supplied
with the main voltage instead of dividing the
voltage
In parallel circuits, if a device fails, the circuit will
completely operate, but in series circuits if a
device fails the entire circuit stops working

204
 Important Devices

Ammeter
This device is used to measure current
intensity
Connected in series
Very small resistant

Voltmeter
This device is used to measure e.m.f and p.d
Connected in parallel
Very large resistant

Circuit breaker / fuse

When current increases, the circuit must be
opened to prevent flowing of current
Fuse melts , circuit breaker operates an
electromagnet
Connected in series to prevent flow
Added in live wires
205
 correct position wrong position

Variable Resistor
This device is used to change the value of the
resistance
Connected in parallel
Very large resistant

206
 A B C

The brightness of the lamp changes since the

voltage and current change when resistance is
changed.
If the resistor is connected at at A, the
resistance of the variable resistor is zero so all
the voltage will go to the bulb (maximum
brightness)
If the resistor is connected at B, the resistance
of the variable resistor increases, and so the
voltage also increases, so voltage across the
lamp decreases (brightness decreased)
If the resistor is connected at C, the resistance
of the variable resistor is increased further so
the lamp voltage decreases (minimum
brightness)

207
MAJOR HAZARDS
1 . Overheating and fire
Overheating and fire is caused by excessive current
flowing in a circuit.
When current increases, temperature also increases
so this causes overheating.
A circuit breaker or fuse is used to prevent this.

2 . Electric shock
If any part of your body meets live electricity an
electric current flows through the tissues, which
causes an electric shock
Insulating the wires or earthing prevents this.

When choosing a circuit breaker or a fuse, we always

go for a smaller Ampere value.
For instance, if the maximum load of a cable is 8A,
then the suitable fuse would be 7A or even 6A.
If a wire can carry up to 5A, and the device needs
only 3A, then the rating would be 4A.

208
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4.3
Magnetism
Two shapes of a magnet :

Horse Shoe Bar Magnet

The metals attracted by a magnet :

Iron
Steel
Cobalt
Nickel

Magnetic Field
This is produced by all magnets, it is the region
surrounding the magnet in which magnetic force
is exerted on any magnetic substance present.

210
Direction of magnetic fields
The compass needle will always point from the
north pole to the south pole.

Magnetic field strength is affected by distance.

The closer an object is to the magnet, the stronger
the force will be.
We consider this information in our illustrations,
when drawing magnetic fields, the closeness of
the lines indicates the strength of the magnetic
field.

Magnetic sources around us

Permanent magnets
The Earth
Current flowing in a wire

211
1 . PERMANENT MAGNETS
When unmagnetized iron and steel
approach a magnet, the iron will
attract more filings than steel
When removing the iron and steel
from the magnet, the iron rod will be
unmagnetized but steel will remain
magnetized
This means that steel is a permanent
magnet
Steel will attract once, and the other
side will repel
Iron will have no poles

iron steel

212
2 . THE EARTH’S MAGNET
A compass needle will experience
magnetic forces due to the earth’s
magnetic field
If there is no magnetic field nearby, the
compass needle will always point
North
If a strong magnetic field is close by,
then this will affect the compass -not
the earth’s magnetic field

3 . CURRENT FLOWING IN A WIRE

Any current flowing in a wire produces
a magnetic field
There are two types of wires that
produce magnetic fields: straight wire
and coiled wire (solenoid)

213
3 . 1 Straight Wire
I

The magnetic field shape is concentric circles

around the wire
The direction of the magnetic field is either
clockwise or anticlockwise
The magnetic field is strongest near the wire
To find the direction of the magnetic field we use
the Right Hand Grip Rule

3 . 2 Coiled wire or Solenoid

The current flowing in the coil produces a magnetic

field
To know the direction of the magnetic field
produced by the solenoid, use the Right Hand Grip
Rule
214
 The Right Hand Grip
Rule
The direction of the current is known
We want to find the direction of the magnetic
field
Thumb → Current
4 fingers → Magnetic field

⦿ ⓧ

current out of the page current into the page

215
 strengthening the
magnetic field

With the straight wire and also the solenoid,

we can do certain things to achieve a stronger
magnetic field, such as:
Increasing the current

Being closer to the wire

Increasing the number of coils or turns

Pushing the turns closer together

Putting an electromagnetic core of iron

inside the coiled wire

When choosing an electromagnetic core, we
choose iron as it is a temporary magnet,
unlike steel which becomes a permanent
magnet.

216
METHODS OF MAGNETISING
1 . Stroking Method
stroking must be done in one direction

2 . Electric Method
By putting the steel bar (unmagnetized) in the coil,
then allowing current to flow, we get a magnetic
field which will later on magnetize the steel bar,

DC supply

Magnetisation by electric current method creates

more powerful magnets than other magnetization
methods such as stroking.

217
METHODS OF DEMAGNETISING

1 . Heating
The heat will cause the magnetic domains in the
magnet to lose their alignment and reduce its
magnetic field.

2 . Hammering
By repeatedly hammering a magnet, the poles lose
their orientation, and become demagnetised.

3 . Electric method
Put the magnetised steel bar in the coil
The AC supply produces an alternating
magnetic field
This demagnetises the steel bar
Remove the steel bar from the coil slowly

steel bar
← remove slowly

AC supply

218
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219
4.4
Forces applied due to
magnetic fields
The current in the wire produces a magnetic
field
The magnet also produces a magnetic field
The two magnetic fields combine together
resulting on a force applied on the wire
The wire moves in a direction perpendicular to
the magnetic field of the current and the
magnet
Finding the direction of the magnetic force
We use “ Fleming’s Left Hand Rule”
Thumb → Magnetic force
First finger → Magnet’s magnetic field
Second finger → Direction of the current

220
Increasing the magnetic force
Increase the current flowing
Use stronger magnets

Example 1

N S

Thumb: direction of the magnetic force

First finger: magnetic field (magnet): North→South
Second finger: current direction: positive→negative
In this example, the direction of the magnetic force
will be out of the paper.

Example 2
force

N ⦿ S

Thumb: direction of the magnetic force

First finger: magnetic field (magnet): North→South
Second finger: current direction: out of the paper
In this example, the direction of the magnetic force
will be upwards.
221
Example 3

ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ
current
ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ ⓧ

Thumb: direction of the magnetic force

First finger: magnetic field (magnet): into the paper
Second finger: current direction: upwards
In this example, the direction of the magnetic force
will be to the left.

important notes
If the direction of the current is parallel to the
direction of the magnetic field then there will not
be a magnetic force
If we change the poles of the magnet, the
direction of the magnetic force will be reversed
If we change the direction of the current only,
the direction of the magnetic force will also be
reversed
If we change both the poles and the direction of
the current, together, then they cancel eachother
out and the magnetic force does not change

222
 simple DC motors
This is a simple device that converts electric
energy to kinetic energy

The current in the coil produces a magnetic

field
The magnet also produces a magnetic field
The two magnetic fields combine
The coil experiences a force and rotates

The split ring commutator

This part of the motor reverses the current in the coil
every half rotation to maintain rotation in one
direction.

223
How does the split ring commutator work?
The brushes are fixed, the split ring
commutator just slides on it
When the split ring rotates 180° , it changes
the direction of the current in the coil

To increase the speed of rotation :

Use a stronger magnet
Increase the number of turns in the coil
Increase the current

224
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225
4.5
Electromagnetic
Induction
This is a phenomenon in which electromotive
force is induced in a wire when the wire cuts a
magnetic field
There are two experiments for
electromagnetic induction

Experiment 1

N S
→

1. The magnet produces a magnetic field

2. If the wire is stationary, no motion, no cutting so no
induced emf, hence the galvanometer will read
nothing
3. If the wire moves and cuts the magnetic field, there
will be induced emf and the galvanometer will read
If the wire moves parallel to the magnetic field, there
will be no cutting, so no induced emf.
226
 If the wire moves inwards only, then the
galvanometer will read one direction only, and as the
wire moves outwards, it will read in the opposite
direction

Experiment 2

1. The magnet produces a magnetic field

2. If the magnet remains stationary, the solenoid will not
cut the magnetic field, so no emf is induced, so the
galvanometer reads nothing
3. If the magnet moves inwards and outwards
repeatedly, the solenoid cuts the magnetic field and
so emf is induced, and the galvanometer reads a
value

To increase the induced electromotive force

Use a stronger magnet
Move the magnet faster
Increase the number of coils

227
 Finding the direction of the current
We use “ Fleming’s Right Hand Rule”
Thumb → Motion
First finger → Magnetic field
Second finger → Direction of the current

Finding the poles of the solenoid

→

X Y

if moving in this direction

then x is north and y is south

if moving in this direction

then x is south and y is north

228
 application of
electromagnetic induction

AC generator
1. The magnet produces a magnetic field
2. The turbine moves the coil which cuts the
magnetic field
3. emf is induced
The output of the AC generator is constantly
changing
When the coils are at 90 degrees, they will be
parallel to the magnetic field, so no cutting
happens therefore no magnetic field is induced
229
 SUMMARY
1 . direct current (DC) 2 . alternating current (AC)

N S N S

S N
Current flowing in the Current flowing in the
solenoid produces an solenoid produces an
electric field electric field
(electromagnet) (electromagnet)

3 . Electromagnetic induction
→

N S

The magnet produces a The magnet produces a

magnetic field magnetic field
The solenoid cuts the The wire cuts the
magnetic field, inducing magnetic field, inducing
emf emf
If the magnet moves If the wire cuts into the
inwards only, the paper only, the
ammeter deflects only ammeter deflects only
one direction 230
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231
4.6
Transformers

Transformers are devices used to change the

voltage. This means:
increasing the voltage (stepping up)
or
decreasing the voltage (stepping down)

The current also changes due to the change

in voltage.
Using P = V x I , we notice that voltage and
current are inversely proportional.

ac supply ac output

Iron core
232
Primary coil
AC supply in the primary coil will produce an
alternating magnetic field.

Iron core
This is to transmit the alternating magnetic field
from the primary coil to the secondary coil.
Secondary coil
Electromotive force is induced here due to
cutting the transmitted alternating magnetic
field in the secondary coil

Why use AC supply?

Alternating current is required in order to have an
alternating magnetic field which allows the
changing of direction -which causes cutting at
the secondary coil.
This is not present in DC power supply, so
without the change of direction, we will not have
cutting, so no emf will be produced.

233
CALCULATIONS
The number of coils in the secondary coil is more
than the primary coil, so this is a step up

N primary = 100 N secondary = 300

(no. of turns) (no. of turns)

V primary = 2000v V secondary = ?

Vs = (200x300) / 100 = 6000v

If we assume that the efficiency is 100%
I primary = 9 A I secondary = 9 A
VpIp = VsIs
2000 x 9 = 6000 x ?
Is = 3 A
If we assume that the efficiency is 90% ,
then after calculating the current of three
amperes we have to get 90% of it
3 x 90/100 = 2.7 A
so we lost 0.3 A

234
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

Voltage
2000

Time

8000

Time

Voltage increases but frequency remains constant

235
CALCULATIONS
The number of coils in the secondary coil is less
than the primary coil, so this is a step down

N primary = 500 N secondary = ?

(no. of turns) (no. of turns)

V primary = 800v V secondary = 400v

Ns = (500x400) / 800 = 250 turns

If we assume that the efficiency is 100%
I primary = 10 A I secondary = ?
VpIp = VsIs
800 x 10 = 400 x ?
Is = 20 A
If we assume that the efficiency is 85% ,
then after calculating the current of three
amperes we have to get 85% of it
20 x 85/100 = 17 A

236
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

Voltage
800

Time

400

Time

Voltage decreases but current increases

237
 Transmission in
overhead cables

Power step-up step-down home

source transformer transformer

We want to transmit electric power from the

power source to the customer using transmission
lines
If the current is very high in the transmission
lines, then there will be overheating and energy
will be lost
2
P lost = I x R

We use a step-up transformer before the

transmission to increase the voltage and reduce
the current, so this prevents overheating
We also need to reduce resistance so we use
thick cables to increase the area, and short wires
to reduce the length

238
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4.7
Electronics

Diode Relay Potential divider

Thermistor LDR

1 . Diode
This device allows current to flow in one direction
It converts from AC to DC
It acts as a rectifier
DC DC

lamp will light up lamp will not light up

240
2 . Thermistor
If the temperature changes, the resistance of the
thermistor changes
Temp

T↑ R ↓ V↓ I↑
T↓ R ↑ V↑ I↓

3 . LDR (light dependent resistor)

If the light changes, the resistance of the LDR also
changes
Light

T↑ R ↓ V↓ I↑
T↓ R ↑ V↑ I↓

4 . Relay
It is a small circuit that operates a larger circuit

241
When the current flows in the first circuit, the coil
produces a magnetic field
The switch in the second circuit will be attracted
and closed
The second circuit is now closed and operating
The lamp lights up

ADVANTAGES OF USING A RELAY

1. Portability
2. Low power consumption
3. Speed
4. Compatibility

circuit 1 circuit 2
relay

thermistor buzzer

242
 When the temperature rises, the resistance of the
thermistor decreases, so the current increases and
flows in the coil, producing a magnetic field.
This attracts the switch in the second circuit and
activates the buzzer.

circuit 1 circuit 2
relay

LDR lamp

When the light increases, the resistance of the

LDR decreases, so the current increases and flows
in the coil, producing a magnetic field.
This attracts the switch in the second circuit and
lights up the lamp.

243
 voltmeter 1 voltmeter 2

When the temperature rises,

The resistance of the thermistor
decreases, so the value on the first
voltmeter decreases.
The value on the second voltmeter
increases.
In this process, current increases, so the
value on the ammeter rises.

244
5 . Potential Divider
This is a simple circuit that uses resistors to supply
a variable 'potential difference' (i.e. voltage)

In this example, the two

lamps will light up equally
because the variable resistor
x y z
is placed at an equal
distance between the two
lamps.

In this example, lamp

number 2 will light up more
than lamp number one
x y z
because the distance
between y and z is greater
than x and y
lamp 1 lamp 2

245
 x y z

At z the voltmeter will read 12 volts, because

it is parallel to the maximum resistance
At y the voltmeter will read 6 volts, because it
is parallel to half of the resistance
At x the voltmeter will read zero volts,
because it will not be parallel to any resistance

DIGITAL VS ANALOGUE DATA

analogue

digital

246
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UNIT FIVE:

RADIOACTIVE
RADIATION

248
5.1
Radioactive
Radiation
The atomic structure consists of :
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons

Proton Neutron Electron

Charge positive neutral negative

Mass 1 unit 1 unit 0.0005 units

Place in the nucleus in the nucleus orbit shells

249
Examples of nuclide notations :

23 7 protons : 3
protons : 11
Na electrons : 11 Li electrons : 3
neutrons : 12 neutrons : 4
11 3

ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms of the same element which have
the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons.
1 2 3 23 24 12 12

H H H Na Na C C
1 1 1 11 11 6 6

Some isotopes make the nucleus unstable

The nucleus emits radiation in order to become
stable
All radiations emitted are from unstable nuclei

There are three types of emissions :

1. Alpha
2. Beta
3. Gamma

250
1 . Alpha particles
4 4

2 2
He
Both of these nuclide notations are correct
Alpha particles consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
The alpha particle is similar to the nucleus of
helium, not the helium atom
Has the shortest range in air because it is very
heavy

mass = 4 units
charge = ± 2
mass (nucleon) number = 4
atomic number = 2

When the nucleus emits alpha particles,

proton number becomes -2
neutron number becomes -2
mass number becomes -4

A 4 A-4

X → + Y
Z 2 Z-2

251
Example :

23 4 19

11
Na →
2
+
9
X
Protons 11 (-2) → 9
Neutrons 12 (-2) → 10
Mass number 23 (-4) → 19

11 p 9p
12 n 10 n

23 19

11
Na →
9
X

252
2 . Beta particles
0
-1 e
-1

Both of these nuclide notations are correct

Beta particles consist of 1electron

mass = 0.0005 units

charge = - 1
mass (nucleon) number = 0
atomic number = - 1

When the nucleus emits beta particles,

proton number becomes +1
neutron number becomes -1
mass number does not change

A 0 A

Z
X →
-1
+
Z+1
Y

253
Example :
23 0 23

11
Na →
-1
+
12
X
Protons 11 (+1) → 12
Neutrons 12 (-1) → 11
Mass number 23 (0) → 23

11 p 12 p
12 n 11 n

1 neutron will be split into 1 electron and 1 proton

the electron will be the beta radiation
then p + 1 and n - 1
the mass number does not change

254
3 . Gamma radiation
One of the electromagnetic waves
Can travel through vacuum
8
Has a speed of 3 × 10 m/s
Has high frequency and low wavelength
Consists of no protons
no electrons
no neutrons

mass = zero
charge is neutral

PROPERTIES OF ALPHA, BETA & GAMMA

1. ionization

2. penetration

3. electric field

4. magnetic field

255
1 . Ionization
Ionization is the process of losing electrons to become
positive ions or gaining electrons to become negative
ions.
Alpha particles are the best at ionization, then
comes Beta then Gamma
Alpha is the best because of its large mass (4u)
and its large charge (+2)

2 . Penetration

The sheet of paper will completely absorb α

The aluminum sheet will completely absorb β
The wall of lead or concrete does not prevent Y

256
3 . Electric field
α
goes to the negative plate
weak deflection
curved line
β
goes to the positive plate
strong deflection
curved line
Y
no deflection
straight line

257
4 . Magnetic field
We can only know the direction of Alpha particles
by using the Fleming left hand rule.
Then to find the direction of Beta particles, we just
reverse the direction of the Alpha particle

S thumb : motion
first finger : North to South
second finger : alpha particle
N

In this example, the alpha particle will be

out of the paper
weak deflection
curved
therefore, the beta particle will be
into the paper
strong deflection
curved
gamma has no deflection, always

258
DEFLECTING RADIOACTIVITY
The GM tube is the most common deflection of
radioactive emissions
It can only determine the number of radiation
It cannot determine the type of radiation

Background radiation
Some radiations are caused by our surroundings
such as food, bodies, mobiles etc. they emit some
radiation which makes the GM tube count 10-50
counts called background radiation, which is
always random.

How can we use the GM tube to identify if

alpha particles are emitted ?
1. Let the GM tube read the background radiation
2. Put a source in front of the GM tube and take
the new reading
3. Insert a sheet of paper between the source and
the GM tube and count the number of radiations
Conclusion :
After inserting a sheet of paper, the number of
radiations will drop to the background radiation
value, which means that the alpha particles were
absorbed.
259
How can we use the GM tube to identify if
beta particles are emitted ?
1. Let the GM tube read the background radiation
2. Put a source in front of the GM tube and take
the new reading
3. Insert a sheet of paper between the source and
the GM tube and count the number of radiations
4. Insert a sheet of aluminum and count the new
number of radiations
Conclusion :
After inserting a sheet of paper, the number of
radiations will drop because beta particles can
penetrate through paper.
After inserting a sheet of aluminum , the number of
radiations will drop to the background radiation.

260
 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Radioactive materials should only be handled
when wearing gloves, and with tongs to increase
the distance from them. It may be appropriate to
wear protective clothing to prevent the body
becoming contaminated. The time that a
radioactive source is being used for should be
limited.

meaning it is not
affected by external
factors

Radioactive decay is spontaneous and random

meaning it is not possible to

know when or where an unstable
nucleus will emit radiation

261
HALF LIFE

This is the time taken for the radiation to decrease

to its half

Example 1

8000 now

7000 1 day
5000 2 days

4000 3 days

3500 4 days
2500 5 days

2000 6 days

From this example, every three days the radiation

decreased to its half, then the half life of this source
is three days.
262
Example 2

0 hours 1 hour 2 hours 3 hours

Source 1 500 400 310 250

Source 2 1000 500 251 126

Source 3 400 310 201 160

Source 4 600 598 590 588

From the previous table, we will notice that

source 1 has a half life of three hours, because it
takes three hours to decrease from 500 → 250
source 2 has a one hour half life, because it takes
one hour to go from 1000 → 500
source 3 has a two hour half life because it takes
two hours to go from 400 → 201
source 4 has not reached its half life yet, because
the 600 didn’t reach 300

263
Example 3

count per minute

now 600

4 hours 300

8 hours 150

12 hours

From the table above, deduce the rate of

decay after 12 hours.

we notice that every four hours the counts

per minute decrease to half of the value,
hence the half life occurs every four hours.
At 12 hours, we will get 75 counts per minute

264
Example 4

counter source

now 310 280

6 hours 170 140

12 hours 100 70

18 hours 65 35

The counter reads 310 counts per minute

including the background radiation.
The half-life is 6 hours, find the rate after 18
hours.
The source will be divided by 2, not the
counter.
Notice that the source value is the counter
value minus 30.

265
Example 5

4
now 9.6 x 10

4
10 years 4.8 x 10

4
20 years 2.4 x 10

4
30 years 1.2 x 10

Notice we added the three numbers to find the

number of radiation after 30 years.

Example 6
A source decay is 4800 counts per minute, after
24 hours the counter reads 600 counts per
minute. Find the half life.

now 4800 3 half-lives occurred

÷2
before we got to the
2400
÷2 600 counts per minute
1200
÷2 in 24 hours,
24 hrs 600
so the half life is 24/3

= 8 hours.
266
 How to find the half-life from the graph
1. Record the first radiation at time zero
2. Find its half-life value on the graph
3. Go to the time axis and record the value

Rutherford's Experiment - Size of the Nucleus

267
 This experiment used very thin gold foil and an
alpha source
Most of the alpha particles passed without
deflection
Very few alpha particles deflected when they
hit the nucleus
The alpha particles deflected at various angles

conclusion and evidence

The atom is an empty space, or the nucleus is
very tiny
this is because most of the alpha particles passed
without deflection
The nucleus is very heavy in mass
this is because alpha particles are also heavy so
they deflected when they hit the nucleus
The nucleus is positively charged
this is because alpha particles are also positively
charged and so they repelled the nucleus when
they hit it

268
 industrial uses
1 . Checking the thickness of a paper
A laser beam is reflected from the paper surface at an
angle, such that the position of the reflected beam on a
detector array depends on the distance to the paper,
which will vary with thickness.

2 . Detecting leakage in pipes

By adding a radioactive source in the pipe, then moving
the GM tube along the pipe until we see a sudden
increment in the readings of the radiation

269
3 . Sterilization
The use of gamma rays kills any present bacteria.

4 . Diagnosis and radio therapy

Radiation has various uses in the medical field

270
 SCAN ME!
To watch the
explanation of this
class

OR ME!
To watch the
solving video of this
class
271
UNIT SIX :

6
SPACE
PHYSICS

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280
 UNIT SEVEN :

EXPERIMENTS

281
 Experiment 1 :
Calculating the time taken for one cycle

Technique
Use a pendulum
Record the time taken for the pendulum to complete
20 cycles, then divide this value by 20 to get the
duration of one single cycle.

20
40 60 80

NOTE
We will not use 100 cycles because the
student will lose count and the speed of
the pendulum will decrease

Variables to keep constant

Mass of the pendulum
Amplitude of the pendulum
Precautions
Take the readings perpendicular to the meter
ruler to avoid parallax error
Check zero stopwatch

282
If the variable was the mass of the pendulum

20 kg 40 kg 60 kg
80 kg

Variables to keep constant

Length of the pendulum
Amplitude of the pendulum
Precautions
Check zero balance
Check zero stopwatch

If the variable was the amplitude of the pendulum

20° 40° 60° 80°

Variables to keep constant

Length of the pendulum
Mass of the pendulum
Precautions
Take readings perpendicular to the protractor to
avoid parallax error
283
 Experiment 2 :
Balancing masses with a pivot

Difficulties
Can’t be sure of the center of mass of the ruler
Masses may not be accurately placed
Masses may slide
Balancing the ruler with the masses on it

Solutions
Find the center of mass of the ruler accurately
before carrying out the experiment
Take the reading before and after the masses
and find the average of the two readings
Stick the masses to the ruler
Fix one mass, and keep moving the other mass
until it is balanced too

284
 Experiment 3 :
Forces and deformation

Direct relationships
Straight line
Line passes through the origin
Finding the gradient / slope

y2 - y1

x2 - x1
Finding the unit of the gradient / slope
y axis

x axis

extension Length

force (N) force (N)

direct relation indirect relation

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 Experiment 4 :
Measuring the rate of cooling

Know that :
Cooling rate is always decreasing
You must deduce results from a graph and/or a
table with units

Conditions to compare
Insulator vs no insulator
lid vs no lid
different amounts of water
different surface areas
different cooling methods

Variables to keep constant

Initial temperature
Room temperature

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Precautions
Take the readings perpendicular to the
thermometer to avoid parallax error
Stir the liquid before reading for thermal
distribution
Wait to make sure the thermometer takes an
accurate reading
Repeat the experiment for accuracy

NOTE
As the temperature tends closer and closer
to the room temperature, the rate of the
energy loss is decreasing.
Vice versa, if we are getting further away
from the room temperature, the rate of the
heat loss will be very high

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 Experiment 5 :
Convex lenses

In this experiment
We change the distance of the object from the
lens
For each distance we measure the height of the
image and the distance between the lens and the
object
As the object gets further away from the lens,
the image gets smaller and closer to the lens &
vice versa
Keep moving the screen backwards and forward
until the image is accurate and focused

Precautions
Hold the experiment in a dark room
Have the object, lens and the screen on the same
height
Have the object, lens and the screen be
perpendicular to the bench
Take readings perpendicular to the ruler
Repeat experiment and take average
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 Experiment 6 :
Reflection and refraction

Ray box method

Source of errors
Thickness of the rays
Not taking the reading perpendicular to the
protractor
Precautions
Make the rays as thin as possible
Experiment in a dark room
Take the readings perpendicular to avoid
parallax error
Optical pins method
Source of errors
Thickness of the lines
Thickness of the mirrors
Thickness of the pins
Short distance between the pins ( less than 5cm)
Precautions
Draw or use thin lines, mirrors and pins
View pins from their base to be vertical
Increase distance between pins (more than 5cm)

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 Experiment 7 :
Circuits

To calculate the resistance of a lamp / wire

Requirements
Voltmeter to calculate voltage
Ammeter to calculate current
Equation: R = V / I
Variables
Length of the wire
Area of the wire
Material of the wire
Temperature of the wire
Series vs parallel connection
Precautions
Switch of the circuit between each reading to
avoid overheating of the wires which may cause
fire or affect results
Check zero ammeter
Check zero voltmeter
Take multiple readings

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