Subject: Cross Culture

Supervisor: Đinh Thị Hoàng Triều

Education

GROUP 15:

Trần Khắc Trí - 20CNA13

Nguyễn Thị Thu - 20CNA13
Lê Thị Hoài - 20CNA13
Thương - 20CNA13
Dương Thị Nhàn - 20CNA08
Lê Thị Mi Ni - 20CNA08
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài
 OUTLINE: EDUCATION

I. Introduction

II. Body

II.1. Definitions

II.1.1. Learner-centeredness (Phương pháp lấy người học làm

trung tâm)

II.1.2. Plagiarism (Đạo văn)

II.1.3. Credit-driven practice (Bệnh thành tích)

II.1.4. Bureaucratic (Bộ máy quan liêu)

II.1.5. Fabrication (Việc bịa đặt)

II.1.6. Self-Schema Theory (Thuyết sơ đồ bản ngã hay là cách

ta nghĩ về bản thân mình)

II.1.7. Xenophobia (Phân biệt hoặc chống lại nền văn hóa ở
nước ngoài)

II.1.8. Groundbreaking (Đột phá mang tính cải tiến nhất)

II.2. Proverbs

II.2.1. Travel broadens the mind (Đi một ngày đàng học một
sàng khôn)

II.2.2. Haste makes waste (Dục tốc bất đạt)

II.2.3. A man is known by the company he keeps (Gần mực thì

đen, gần đèn thì sáng)

II.2.4. Practice makes perfect (Có công mài sắt có ngày nên
kim)

II.2.5. Where there’s a will there’s a way (Có chí thì nên)

II.2.6. We learn not at school, but in life (Học thầy không tày
học bạn)

II.2.7. Necessity is the mother of invention (Cái khó ló cái

khôn)
II.3. Idioms

II.3.1. As easy as ABC (Dễ như ăn bánh)

II.3.2. Bookworm (Mọt sách)

II.3.3. Copycat (Sao chép bài của người khác)

II.3.4. Crack the book (Mở sách ra để học)

II.3.5. Have one’s nose in a book (Cắm mặt vào sách vở ,người
luôn đọc sách bất cứ khi nào có thể)

II.3.6. Learn by rote (Học vẹt)

II.3.7. Teacher’s pet (Học trò cưng của thầy cô giáo)

II.3.8. Passing with flying colors (Làm bài tốt trong kì thi)

II.4. Education

II.4.1. Formal and informal education

II.4.1.1. Formal education

II.4.1.2. Informal education

II.4.2. Differentiation of Formal and Informal Education

II.4.2.1. Formal education

II.4.2.1.1. Definition

II.4.2.1.2 Intention

II.4.2.1.3. Method and guidance

II.4.2.1.4. Rules and Curriculum

II.4.2.2. Informal education

II.4.2.2.1. Definition
II.4.2.2.2. Intention
II.4.2.2.3. Method and guidance
II.4.2.2.4. Rules and Curriculum

II.4.3. Transmission of Know-how in Informal Education

 II.4.3.1. Apprenticeship

II.4.3.2. Ethnotheories

II.4.3.3. Guided participation in cultural activity

II.4.3.4. Schooling and Apprenticeship

II.4.4. Educational effects

II.4.4.1. Effects of Different Education Systems

II.4.4.1.1. Negative perspectives

II.4.4.1.2. Positive perspectives

II.4.4.2. International Comparison of School

Achievement

II.4.5. Cross-cultural Education

II.4.5.1. Values and Expectations

II.4.5.1.1. Culture confusion

II.4.5.1.2. Difficulties

II.4.5.1.3. Educational advantages

II.4.5.2. Diversity in Higher Education

II.4.5.2.1. Further education

II.4.5.2.2. Opportunities for Advanced Degrees

II.4.5.2.3. Lifelong learning and Career Transitions

II.4.5.3. Active Participation

II.4.5.3.1. Student Engagement

II.4.5.3.2. The influence of Teaching Style on

student participation

II.4.5.3.3. Challenges of Cross-Cultural Education

II.4.5.4. The Teacher-Student Relationship

II.4.5.4.1. Expectations and Responsibilities

 II.4.5.4.2. Classroom Environment and Student-
Professor Relationships

II.4.5.4.3. The balance between Social

Relationships and Academic Expectations

II.4.5.4.4. Multiple Roles of Professor and Cultural

Differences

II.4.5.5. Trust, Honesty and the Honor System

II.4.5.5.1. The honor system

II.4.5.5.2. Dishonesty behaviors

II.4.5.5.2.1. Plagiarism

II.4.5.5.2.2. Cheating

II.4.5.5.2.3. Fabrication

II.4.5.5.2.4. Aiding dishonesty

II.4.5.5.2.5. Falsification

II.4.5.5.3. Punishments

II.4.5.6. Competition and Grading

II.4.5.6.1. Competition

II.4.5.6.2. Grading: More cultural habit than

science

II.4.5.7. Student Stress and Coping

II.4.5.7.1. Student Stress

II.4.5.7.1.1. Younger Students: A Transition

of Challenges

II.4.5.7.1.2. Older Students: Wisdom

Amidst Challenges

II.4.5.7.2. Coping strategies

II.4.5.8. International and Immigrant Students in the

United States

II.4.5.8.1. Personal network

 II.4.5.8.2. Orientation

II.4.5.8.3. Educational attitudes and expectations

II.4.5.9. Classroom Seating Arrangements

III. Conclusion
Lê Thị Hoài Thương – 20CNA13

I. Introduction

Cross- Cultural Communication is an important subject for English learners.

The cultural use of English as well as an understanding of cultural values and
attitudes should be incorporated into language programs. Moreover, to learn
and research to function in another language one must become comfortable
in the culture of the new language and in face-to-face communication. Cross-
Cultural Communication as a vehicle for teaching and learning English.
Moreover, the information of this subject helps students understand many
aspects of language and culture all over the world. Adapt to American
cultural and cultural differences affecting communication with speakers of
American English.

Cross-cultural Communication will help students answer questions about

cultural aspects of each country and provide useful information.

Education: Values and Expectations is an interesting topic. Our aim of this

topic is to discover the cultural characteristics and educational values of
countries around the world. At the same time, this topic will provide learners
with many teaching methods and some different school rules of some
educational backgrounds.

They will be expressed through characteristic elements such as beliefs and

religion, human scale, social class, etc. Proverbs and idioms related to
education are also mentioned.

In conclusion, Education: Values and Expectations is an indispensable part of

this topic, so we hope that this useful information can help learners learn a
little more about the process of education and forms of identity.
Lê Thị Hoài Thương – 20CNA13

II. Body

II.1. Definitions

II.1.1. Learner-centeredness (Phương pháp lấy người học

làm trung tâm)

Meaning: Learner-centeredness means that teaching methods shift the focus

of activity from the teacher to the learners. These methods include: Active
learning, in which students solve problems, answer questions, formulate
questions of their own, discuss, explain, debate, or brainstorm during class.

(https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/learner-centered/16789)

II.1.2 Plagiarism (Đạo văn)

Meaning: Plagiarism refers to steal and pass off (another's ideas or words) as
one's own, to use (another's work) without crediting the source, to commit
literary theft in order to present an idea new and original idea or product
originating from an existing source.

(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/plagiarism?
q=Plagiarism)

II.1.3. Credit-driven practice (Bệnh thành tích)

Meaning: Credit-driven practice means that is an illusion about a person's

achievements. It is also shown in the fact that people can only do little but
reason a lot, hides shortcomings, refuse to acknowledge their weaknesses
and lack of responsibility.

II.1.4. Bureaucratic (Bộ máy quan liêu)

Meaning: Bureaucratic means that relating to a system of controlling or

managing a country, company, or organization that is operated by a large
number of officials, involving complicated rules and processes that make
something slow and difficult.
Lê Thị Hoài Thương – 20CNA13

(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/vi/dictionary/english/bureaucratic?
q=Bureaucrati)

II.1.5. Fabrication (việc bịa đặt)

Meaning: "Fabricate" refer to invent or create some false evidence to

deceive someone.

(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/vi/dictionary/english/fabricate?
q=Fabrication)

II.1.6. Self-Schema Theory: (Thuyết sơ đồ bản ngã hay là

cách ta nghĩ về bản thân mình)

Meaning: A self-schema is a cognitive structure involving some aspect

of the self that is considered important to the individual

(https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/sports-psychology/body-image-and-
self-esteem/self-schema-definition/)

II.1.7. Xenophobia: ( Phân biệt hoặc chống lại nền văn

hóa ở nước ngoài)

Meaning: Extreme dislike or fear of foreigners, their customs, their religions,

etc. The fear or dislike of anything which is perceived as being foreign or
strange. It is an expression which is based on the perception that a conflict
exists between an in-group and an out-group and it may manifest itself in
suspicion of one group's activities by members of the other group, a desire
to eliminate the presence of the group which is the target of suspicion, and
fear of losing a national, ethnic, or racial identity

(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/xenophobia)

II.1.8. Groundbreaking( Đột phá mang tính cải tiến nhất)

Meaning: Something new and shocking, a thing that has never been seen or
done before,a remarkable development step.

(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/groundbreaking)
Lê Thị Hoài Thương – 20CNA13

II.2 Proverbs

II.2.1 Travel broadens the minds

( Đi một ngày đàng học một sang khôn) - Italian Proverb

The meaning of this proverb is that Life is a journey . “Travel” is an action

verb, using your feet to move from one place to another. Travel is a journey,
long trips, exposure to many new things from the outside world. "Broadens
the minds" is a good thing, a good thing, a new thing that is very useful for
everyone to expand their minds, learn many things that make them smarter.
Simply understanding the meaning of this proverb "Travel broadens the
minds" is that when traveling for a day, you will learn many useful things.
The more you travel, the more you learn. Just by going out into society to
learn, you will definitely gain new knowledge, which is the result of the
learning process. In addition, the proverb is also a word of encouragement,
encouraging the human spirit of learning and discovery. We need to learn
new knowledge horizons to expand our knowledge, expand our horizons and
collect for ourselves the knowledge of humanity. Every journey that people
go through brings experiences. Travelling to different countries and places
helps in exploring many things and gives us opportunities to meet people,
understand the nature, and broaden our vision. Individuals who mostly stay
within the comfort zone of their homes do not get much exposure to
experience the life outside of their homes. However, when they travel, they
get a chance to know different aspects of life which were unfamiliar to them
earlier. Travel therefore helps in exploring the world from different
perspectives and adds a character to the existing knowledge of the
individuals. Similarly, our minds are broaden and widen as we acquire
Lê Thị Hoài Thương – 20CNA13

information and collect images and memories during travel and that leave a
deep impact on our mind. A huge benefit of travelling lies in experiencing
new cultures and understanding new perspectives. The knowledge that
comes from travel also includes planning for the trip, without which the tour
will not produce expected results, such as discovering new interests for one
and learning new things. This also varies from person to person and if
planned appropriately, it helps the traveller in adapting to different
ideologies, cultures, and basic ways of living. Besides, a greater benefit of
travelling is that you get a chance to interact with different types of people
irrespective of their religion, caste and creed leaving your ego aside which
gives you a deeper sense of happiness.

Application of this proverb: Traveling a lot is a way to access culture and

exchange cultures with each other. Different history, language, traditions
and customs all over the world. This proverb is used in situations where
people are encouraged to gain knowledge by going out to experience.

II.2.2 Haste make waste

(Dục tốc bất đạt) - Chinese Proverb

The meaning of this proverb: Rushing into a decision may cause mistakes
that waste more time than would have been taken by proceeding more
carefully. Rushing into action without thinking it through. When one rushes
something, the results are often not favorable and end up costing more time
and money than if one had taken the time to think things through
beforehand.

Application of this proverb: From the past to until now or processing of

globalization. Carefulness and meticulousness are two important things to
make the right decisions. People often out of control will easily fail in life. The
lesson of the proverb is to first think things through or have a plan in place
before action to avoid problem.
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

II.2.3. A man is known by the company he keeps (Gần mực

thì đen, gần đèn thì rạng)
The proverb "A man is known by the company he keeps" is a proverb that it
has both literally and figuratively meaning. In Vietnamese there is a
sentence with a similar meaning that 'Gần mực thì đen, gần đèn thì rạng'.
The literally meaning of this proverb is that a person's character and values
can be judged by the type of people they associate with or spend time with.
It implies that individuals tend to be influenced by the behavior, attitudes,
and moral standards of their companions.
The origin of this proverb is unclear, but it has been used in various forms
throughout history. There is a source claiming that the expression "a man is
known by the company he keeps" is derived from a fable written by Aesop in
the 500s B.C called "The Ass and his Purchaser." In the story, a man takes an
ass to his farm on a trial basis to see how the ass will fit into his herd of
asses. When the ass enters the pasture, he seeks out the laziest and
greediest ass that the man owns to keep company. The man returns the ass
because he knows it too will be lazy and greedy, based on the animal the ass
chose to spend time with. The moral of the story is that a man is known by
the company he keeps.
The concept behind this proverb is that people tend to be influenced by their
social environment. The company we keep can shape our behavior,
attitudes, and values. If someone consistently surrounds themselves with
individuals who have negative traits or engage in unethical activities, it is
likely that they share similar characteristics. On the other hand, if someone
associates with positive, morally upright individuals, it suggests that they
also possess similar qualities.
For example, Mike's reputation as an honest and trustworthy individual was
reinforced by the company he kept, as he surrounded himself with a close-
knit group of successful entrepreneurs and community leaders. Another
example is that despite his own moral values, James found his reputation
tarnished due to his close ties with individuals involved in fraudulent
business practices, serving as a stark reminder of the adage "A man is
known by the company he keeps.". This proverb serves as a reminder to
choose our companions wisely, as they can have a significant impact on our
own reputation and character.
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

II.2.4. Practice makes perfect (có công mài sắt có ngày

nên kim)
The phrase "practice makes perfect" is indeed a proverb that emphasizes the
importance of consistent practice and effort in improving one's skills and
achieving excellence. It has both a literal meaning, referring to the
improvement that comes from repeated practice of a specific task or activity,
and a figurative meaning, highlighting the broader concept of persistent
effort leading to success in any endeavor. In Vietnamese there is a sentence
with a similar meaning that 'Có công mài sắt, có ngày nên kim'
The literal meaning of the phrase suggests that through repeated practice
and effort, one can improve their skills and abilities. It implies that by
consistently engaging in a particular activity or task, one can achieve a high
level of proficiency or mastery.
Figuratively, the phrase conveys the idea that continuous practice and
dedication are essential for achieving excellence in any endeavor. It
emphasizes the importance of persistence, discipline, and hard work in
reaching one's goals and aspirations.
The original phrasing of this proverb was “use makes perfect.” This phrase
was derived from the older Latin phrase “Uses promptos facit.” It appears
that the first time it was recorded in English was in the diary of John Quincy
Adams in 1761. Over time, it has become a commonly used expression to
encourage dedication and perseverance in the pursuit of mastery.
While the phrase is widely recognized, there are also synonymous
expressions that convey a similar idea, such as "practice makes a man
perfect," "repeatedly doing something will make you an expert," and
"repetition builds perfection." These phrases all emphasize the role of
practice and repetition in skill development.
For example, the most important thing about getting better at playing a
sport is to keep playing it. There is nothing like enough practice and
eventually it is the practice that will make you perfect. Another example is
that I have done this assignment so many times now that I can do it with my
eyes closed. Practice has made me perfect at it!
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

II.2.5. Where there’s a will there’s a way (Có chí thì nên)
The phrase "Where there's a will, there's a way" is an proverb expression
that encapsulates the notion that individuals who possess determination and
motivation will invariably discover means and solutions to accomplish their
objectives. In Vietnamese there is a sentence with a similar meaning that 'Có
chí thì nên'.
In its literal sense, the phrase implies that individuals who possess a strong
will and determination to achieve a particular task or overcome an obstacle
will inevitably find a method or solution to do so. It suggests that a resolute
willpower can engender creative thinking and resourcefulness, enabling
individuals to devise alternative strategies or approaches to reach their
goals.
Figuratively, "Where there's a will, there's a way" conveys the idea that
individuals who exhibit unwavering determination and perseverance can
surmount challenges and achieve success in various domains of life. It
underscores the potency of determination and a positive mindset in
overcoming obstacles and finding effective solutions.
The origin of this phrase is often attributed to the English writer George
Herbert, who included a similar saying in his collection of proverbs, "Jacula
Prudentum," published in 1640. The original excerpt reads, "To him that will,
ways are not wanting." Over time, the phrase evolved into its more
commonly recognized form, "Where there's a will, there's a way," by the
1820s.
The underlying concept behind this phrase centers on the belief that
possessing a strong will or determination impels individuals to seek out
solutions, surmount obstacles, and accomplish their objectives. It
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

emphasizes the importance of perseverance, resourcefulness, and a positive

mindset in confronting challenges and finding viable resolutions.
The phrase "Where there's a will, there's a way" can be employed in diverse
contexts to inspire and motivate individuals to pursue their goals, overcome
obstacles, and discover solutions. It serves as a reminder of the power of
determination and a positive attitude in the face of adversity.
For example, despite encountering significant financial constraints, Mira
remained resolute in her pursuit of studying abroad. She firmly adhered to
the belief that where there's a will, there's a way, and she diligently sought
out scholarships and part-time employment opportunities to finance her
education.

II.2.6. We learn not at school, but in life (Học thầy không

tày học bạn)
The proverb "We learn not at school, but in life" encapsulates the notion that
practical experiences and real-life situations provide invaluable opportunities
for personal growth and learning, surpassing the limits of traditional
schooling. In Vietnamese there is a sentence with a similar meaning that
'Học thầy không tày học bạn '.
In its literal interpretation, the phrase implies that genuine education is
derived from lived experiences rather than solely through structured
academic settings. It suggests that the complexities and challenges of
everyday life offer valuable lessons that cannot be replicated in a classroom
environment.
Figuratively, the proverb underscores the belief that while formal education
is essential, it is not the sole source of knowledge and wisdom. It highlights
the importance of applying theoretical knowledge in practical contexts and
engaging with diverse perspectives and situations.
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

The precise origin of this proverb remains uncertain, as it has become a

common adage passed down through generations. There is a source claiming
that it was said by the Roman philosopher Seneca. Nevertheless, it reflects a
widely-held belief that education extends beyond the boundaries of
educational institutions, encompassing all aspects of an individual's life
journey.
The concept underlying this proverb centers on the recognization that
personal growth, knowledge acquisition, and understanding of the world are
nurtured through a continuous engagement with real-life experiences,
challenges, and interpersonal interactions. This perspective encourages
individuals to actively seek out opportunities for growth and learning in their
day-to-day lives, beyond the confines of conventional educational systems.
The proverb "We learn not at school, but in life" can be employed to
emphasize the value of experiential learning and self-directed education. It
serves as a reminder to individuals that while formal education provides a
foundation, true knowledge and wisdom are gained through active
participation in the real life.
For example, Tom's decision to forgo traditional higher education raised
concerns among his parents. However, he reassured them by sharing his
belief in the proverb 'We learn not at school, but in life.' He expressed his
intent to pursue his passions, engage in hands-on experiences, and learn
through direct interaction with the complexities of the real world.

II.2.7. Necessity is the mother of invention (Cái khó ló cái

khôn)
The proverb "Necessity is the mother of invention" encompasses both a
literal and figurative meaning. In Vietnamese there is a sentence with a
similar meaning that 'Cái khó ló cái khôn'.
Literally, it suggests that when a pressing need or problem arises, individuals
are motivated to devise innovative solutions or inventions to fulfill that need
or resolve the problem. This interpretation underscores the notion that
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

necessity serves as a driving force behind human ingenuity and the

emergence of novel discoveries.
Figuratively, the proverb conveys the idea that challenging circumstances or
constraints often inspire individuals to think creatively and find inventive
solutions . This figurative understanding emphasizes the role of adversity in
stimulating human imagination and problem-solving capabilities.
The origins of this proverb can be traced back to ancient Greek philosopher
Plato. However, the phrase in its current form is commonly attributed to the
English philosopher and author Francis Bacon, who employed it in his work
"The Advancement of Learning" published in 1605.
The underlying concept behind the proverb is that when confronted with a
necessity or urgent need, individuals are spurred to seek solutions, often
resulting in the creation of new inventions or ideas.
This proverb finds relevance in various contexts where the importance of
innovative problem-solving, creativity, and ingenuity is underscored. It can
be invoked in discussions related to technological advancements, scientific
discoveries, or even personal anecdotes where individuals have overcome
challenges by devising inventive solutions.
For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, many companies had to adapt
to remote work and find new ways to connect with their customers. This
situation exemplifies how necessity is the mother of invention, as businesses
quickly developed innovative online platforms and communication tools to
continue their operations.

II.3. Idiom
II.3.1. As easy as ABC (Dễ như ăn bánh)
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

The idiom expression "as easy as ABC" is commonly used to convey the idea
of something being straightforward or uncomplicated. It can be used both
literally and figuratively to emphasize the simplicity or ease of a task,
concept, or situation.Literally, the idiom compares the ease of understanding
or accomplishing something to that of learning the alphabet, which is
considered a basic and fundamental skill. Figuratively, it signifies that a task
or situation can be effortlessly managed or comprehended without much
difficulty or complexity.
The idiom "as easy as ABC" is believed to have originated from the
association of the alphabet with basic learning. Learning the alphabet is one
of the first educational tasks that children undertake, and it is considered a
fundamental and relatively simple skill. Therefore, comparing something to
the ease of learning the alphabet implies that it is very easy to understand or
accomplish
The concept behind the phrase is that learning the alphabet is one of the
first things a child learns, and it is considered a simple and fundamental skill.
Therefore, comparing something to the simplicity of the alphabet implies
that it is easy to grasp or accomplish
It is a versatile expression that can be used in various contexts, both formal
and informal, such as conversations, writing, or presentations. When used
judiciously, the idiom "as easy as ABC" adds emphasis to the accessibility or
manageability of a given subject matter, enhancing the clarity and impact of
the communication.
For example: "The instructor's clear explanations and engaging teaching
style made the complex topic as easy as ABC for the students to grasp."
Lê Thị Mi Ni – 20CNA08

II.3.2. Bookworm (Mọt sách)

The idiom "bookworm" encompasses both a literal and figurative meaning,
signifying an individual who possesses an ardent love for reading and spends
a significant amount of time immersed in books and studying. In its literal
sense, "bookworm" alludes to the larvae of certain insects that have the
propensity to damage books by gnawing on the pages or bindings. However,
figuratively, it characterizes an individual who is deeply passionate about
books and learning.
The origins of the idiom "bookworm" can be traced back to at least the mid-
1700s. Initially, the term was employed somewhat derogatorily to describe
someone who engaged in more study or reading than was considered
customary during that period. Over time, the term has evolved to embrace a
more positive connotation, highlighting a person's fervent dedication to
reading and acquiring knowledge.
The underlying concept of the idiom lies in drawing a parallel between an
individual's voracious appetite for books and the behavior of a literal
bookworm, which consumes books. By likening a person's insatiable reading
habits to the consumption of books by the larvae, the idiom emphasizes the
individual's unwavering passion for literature and learning.
The idiom "bookworm" is utilized to describe individuals who exhibit a
profound enthusiasm for reading and are often found engrossed in books. It
can be used neutrally or positively, depending on the context. It is important
to note that "bookworm" should not be confused with the term "bibliophile,"
which pertains to individuals who appreciate books for their historical
significance, physical format, or other characteristics beyond the act of
reading.
For examples:"Ever since she was a child, Mira has been a bookworm,
spending countless hours at the library and devouring novels from various
genres.
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

II.3.3. Copycat

The term "copycat" originated in 19th century American English and was
initially associated with the behavioral tendencies of domestic cats. The term
was derived from the observation that cats often imitate the actions of other
cats, and kittens learn by mimicking their mother. This literal usage of
"copycat" described the tendency of feline animals to replicate or mimic the
behaviors of their counterparts.

As language evolved, so did the application of the term "copycat,"

transitioning from its literal usage to a figurative one that pertains to human
actions. In contemporary usage, "copycat" typically refers to individuals who
imitate or mimic the actions, ideas, or style of others without adding their
own originality or creativity. This figurative usage of "copycat" is often
employed in a negative context, highlighting a lack of originality and
suggesting that the person in question is merely replicating someone else's
work or ideas without contributing something new.

The concept of a "copycat" extends across various domains, including art,

fashion, technology, and social interactions. In art or fashion, a copycat may
refer to someone who reproduces or imitates the work of a renowned artist
or designer without incorporating their own unique perspective or innovative
ideas. This lack of originality or creativity becomes the central focus when
using the term "copycat," emphasizing the individual's tendency to imitate or
replicate the work of others without offering something distinct.

The term "copycat" serves to underscore the absence of originality or

creativity in an individual's actions or ideas. It draws attention to their
inclination to imitate or replicate the work of others, emphasizing the
importance of originality and innovation. By highlighting the negative
aspects of copying without adding personal contributions, the term "copycat"
encourages individuals to strive for uniqueness, authenticity, and the
development of their own creative ideas in various domains of human
endeavor.
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

II.3.4.Crack the book

The idiom "crack the book" dates back to the 18 th century and has since
become a widely used expression in English-speaking countries, especially in
North America. This phrase encompasses both a literal and a figurative
meaning.

In its literal sense, "crack the book" refers to physically opening a book, often
by separating its pages at the spine. The verb "crack" conveys the idea of
swiftly or forcefully opening something. For example, one might say, "I
cracked the book open to the first page," indicating the act of physically
accessing the content.

However, the more commonly used figurative meaning of "crack the book"
pertains to actively engaging with the content of a book. This figurative
usage emphasizes the act of immersing oneself in the information or ideas
presented in the book for the purpose of learning or gaining knowledge. It
implies a focused and dedicated approach to studying or absorbing the
material. For instance, a student might state, "I have an important exam
tomorrow, so I need to crack the books tonight and thoroughly review all the
material. The figurative meaning of "crack the book" underscores the
significance of active engagement with the content rather than merely
physically opening the book. It highlights the intention to delve deep into the
information, concepts, or narratives presented within the pages and to study
or learn from them diligently.

By employing the idiom "crack the book," individuals demonstrate their

commitment to acquiring knowledge and their recognition of the value of
studying and engaging with written material. It encourages a proactive and
focused approach to learning, emphasizing the act of immersing oneself in
the text to extract valuable insights and information.

The idiom "crack the book" serves as a reminder of the active role readers
play in the learning process. It encourages individuals to go beyond
superficial skimming and to invest time and effort in comprehending and
internalizing the material they encounter. By cracking the book, one
embraces the opportunity to expand their knowledge, explore new
perspectives, and cultivate a deeper understanding of the subject matter at
hand.
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

II.3.5. Have one’s nose in a book

The origin of the idiom "have one's nose in a book" remains uncertain, but it
likely stems from the vivid image of someone so engrossed in reading that
their physical nose is positioned close to or touching the pages. This idiom
carries both a literal and figurative meaning.

In its literal sense, "having one's nose in a book" refers to the physical
proximity of the reader's nose to the book while reading. It exemplifies the
act of being physically absorbed in the content. The image suggests a person
deeply engaged in the act of reading, displaying focused attention and
concentration.

Figuratively, "having one's nose in a book" conveys a deeper meaning. It

signifies being fully absorbed in the content, often to the point of being
oblivious to one's surroundings. This figurative usage portrays an individual
who is deeply engrossed in the material, demonstrating a strong interest and
concentration. The idiom "having one's nose in a book" carries connotations
of intellectual curiosity, a studious nature, or a profound love for reading. It
implies that the person consistently engages with books and is deeply
immersed in the literary world. This expression can also imply that the
individual prioritizes the solitary enjoyment of books over social interactions
or other activities.

For example, consider the case of Sarah. Known for always having her nose
in a book, she reads during various moments, such as waiting for the bus,
having lunch, or even during social gatherings. Despite occasional teasing
from friends, Sarah's voracious appetite for reading and the extensive
knowledge she gains from constant immersion in literature are admired.

The idiom "having one's nose in a book" reflects the cultural appreciation for
reading and the value placed on intellectual pursuits. It emphasizes that
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

reading allows individuals to explore new worlds, expand their knowledge,

and cultivate a lifelong love for learning. This idiom underscores the
transformative power of books and their ability to captivate and transport
readers, fostering personal growth and intellectual development.

II.3.6. Learn by rote

The phrase "Learn by rote" originated in the 15 th century and is derived from
the Middle English word "rote," meaning "a fixed or mechanical way of doing
something". Initially, it referred to the process of learning or reciting through
repetitive repetition.

In a literal sense, learning by rote involves memorizing information or

knowledge by repeating it without necessarily understanding the underlying
concepts. This approach emphasizes the mechanical and repetitive nature of
the learning process. Individuals who learn by rote repeat information or
instructions until it becomes ingrained in their memory. This method is
commonly employed for memorizing facts, formulas, or other information
that can be recalled without full comprehension.

Figuratively, learning by rote extends beyond mere memorization. It implies

a superficial or mechanical understanding of a subject matter, lacking a
deeper comprehension of its meaning or implications. Figuratively, learning
by rote suggests a deficiency in critical thinking and analytical skills, as the
focus is solely on memorizing information without fully grasping its
significance. Moreover, figuratively, "learning by rote" can serve as a
criticism of educational practices that prioritize memorization over
comprehension and critical thinking. It implies a dearth of creativity,
analytical abilities, or the practical application of knowledge.
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

Critics argue that excessive reliance on learning by rote limits intellectual

development and hinders the ability to think critically or solve complex
problems. They advocate for interactive and participatory learning
approaches that foster deeper understanding, critical thinking, and the
practical application of acquired knowledge. While learning by rote can be
beneficial for certain types of information, such as memorizing multiplication
tables or vocabulary, it is crucial to balance it with other learning methods
that promote comprehension, critical thinking, and the ability to apply
knowledge in practical situations.

In summary, the phrase "Learn by rote" has its origins in the 15 th century and
refers to the process of memorizing information through repetition. It can
convey both a literal and figurative meaning, highlighting the mechanical
nature of memorization and suggesting a lack of deeper understanding or
critical thinking. Critics argue for a more holistic approach to learning that
encompasses comprehension, critical thinking, and practical application.

II.3.7. Teacher’s pet

The exact origin of the metaphorical expression "teacher's pet" is uncertain,

though it is believed to have emerged during the late 19 th century in the
United States. The phrase combines the words "teacher" and "pet" to create
a metaphorical image. The term "pet" in this context draws upon the concept
of a cherished animal that receives special care, attention, and affection
from its owner.

The origins of "teacher's pet" likely lie in school environments where

students compete for the favor and attention of their teachers. Over time, it
became a commonly used phrase to describe a student perceived as the
favorite of the teacher.

Figuratively, "teacher's pet" is employed to characterize someone who is

excessively favored or given special treatment by an authority figure. This
suggests that the individual is the preferred one, receiving benefits or
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

privileges that others do not enjoy. Such favoritism can be viewed as unfair,
biased, or nepotistic, leading to resentment from individuals who feel
overlooked or marginalized. It is important to note that the figurative usage
of "teacher's pet" extends beyond the literal teacher-student relationship.
This idiom can be applied to various situations where someone is perceived
as seeking favor with an authority figure, often at the expense of others or
for personal gain. In such cases, the expression underscores the perception
of preferential treatment and the potential negative consequences it can
entail, such as fostering a sense of inequality, diminishing trust among
peers, or hindering fair opportunities.

In summary, "teacher's pet" is a metaphorical expression that likely

originated in late 19th-century American schools. It refers to a student who is
perceived as the favored one by a teacher. The phrase has since been
figuratively employed to describe situations where individuals receive
excessive favoritism from authority figures, highlighting the notion of
preferential treatment and its potential ramifications.

II.3.8. Passing with flying colors

The idiom "with flying colors" has both literal and figurative meanings. Its
literal origin can be traced back to naval warfare during the late 16th to 18th
centuries when ships utilized the term "colors" to refer to their flags. When a
ship returned to port or "passed" the harbor with "flying colors," it signified a
triumphant outcome as their flags were proudly unfurled and prominently
displayed. This visual display was a symbol of victory and success.
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

Conversely, a defeated ship would "strike the colors" by lowering its flags,
indicating surrender or defeat.

Figuratively, "with flying colors" is an idiomatic expression used to describe

exceptional success or achievement in a task or endeavor. It goes beyond
mere completion, suggesting that the individual has excelled or performed
remarkably well, surpassing expectations. For example, if someone passes a
test "with flying colors," it means they have achieved outstanding results or
demonstrated exceptional performance in their academic endeavors.

This figurative use of the idiom emphasizes the notion of surpassing

expectations and achieving excellence. It conveys a sense of
accomplishment and commendation for the individual's remarkable
performance in a particular area. Whether it be academic achievements,
professional accomplishments, or personal endeavors, using the phrase "with
flying colors" underscores the exceptional nature of the outcome.

Understanding the nautical origins of the idiom "with flying colors" adds
depth to its figurative usage, highlighting the historical context behind the
expression. It serves as a reminder of the connection between maritime
traditions and everyday language, showcasing how idioms can evolve and
take on metaphorical meanings while still retaining their historical roots.

II.4. Education

II.4.1. Formal and informal education

Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

II.4.1.1. Formal education

Formal education refers to an organized and regulated system of education

that follows a curriculum and awards recognized academic certificates or
degrees. It is typically provided in schools, colleges, official institutions, and
universities, either in person or through e-learning platforms.

Formal education is characterized by several key features that contribute to

its effectiveness and structure. Firstly, it adheres to a structurally specific
curriculum that outlines the subjects and topics to be taught at each
educational level. This ensures consistency and uniformity in the content
delivered to students, providing a standardized educational experience.

Certified teachers play a crucial role in formal education. These teachers

have undergone specialized training and hold certifications that validate
their expertise and authority to teach the prescribed curriculum. Their
knowledge and instructional skills contribute to effective teaching and create
a supportive learning environment.

Evaluation criterion is integral to formal education. It involves assessments

and grading systems that measure students' progress and understanding of
the material. These evaluations provide valuable feedback, helping students
gauge their performance and identify areas for improvement. They also
inform educators' instructional strategies and contribute to the overall
assessment of students' proficiency and achievement.

Formal education is organized into time-bound courses or programs with

defined durations. This structured approach allows for the systematic
progression of knowledge and skills, building upon foundational concepts and
fostering a scaffolded learning experience.

Financial considerations are associated with formal education, as scheduled

fees are often required to cover educational costs. These fees contribute to
the maintenance and improvement of educational facilities, resources, and
support services, enhancing the overall learning environment.

Attendance is emphasized in formal education, fostering regular class

attendance and meeting specific requirements. Regular attendance ensures
consistent engagement with the curriculum, promotes active participation,
and maximizes learning opportunities.

In summary, formal education is characterized by a structurally specific

curriculum, certified teachers, evaluation criterion, time-bound courses,
financial considerations, and an emphasis on attendance. These features
contribute to the organization, standardization, and effectiveness of formal
education, providing students with a structured and supportive learning
environment to acquire knowledge and skills.
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

Formal education offers numerous benefits for personal growth, skill

development, and employability. It provides opportunities for learning and
exploration, helping students discover their interests and potential career
paths. Formal education also develops important personal abilities, such as
leadership and teamwork skills, while improving work ethic and time
management. Communication skills are emphasized, and collaboration and
teamwork are fostered through group projects. Additionally, formal education
enhances employability by signaling a certain level of knowledge and skills
to employers, opening doors to a wider range of job opportunities. Overall,
formal education provides a structured and comprehensive learning
experience that contributes to personal growth, skill development, and
increased employability.

Formal education is important because it imparts systematic learning,

develops critical thinking skills, and helps individuals reach their full
potential. It teaches students how to learn effectively and process
information systematically. Formal education also fosters critical thinking by
exposing students to diverse subjects and perspectives. Moreover, it offers
individuals the opportunity to pursue their desired career paths and make a
positive impact in society. In summary, formal education provides a
structured framework for learning, develops critical thinking, and empowers
individuals to succeed academically, professionally, and personally.

II.4.1.2. Informal education

Informal education refers to learning that occurs outside of formal

educational institutions and is often self-directed or driven by personal
interests. It is a lifelong process that can take various forms and occurs in
everyday life situations.

Informal education is characterized by several distinct features that

differentiate it from formal education. Firstly, it is self-directed, allowing
individuals to choose what they want to learn and how they want to learn it.
This autonomy and personal motivation drive the learning process.

Informal education is non-structured, lacking a specific curriculum or

guidelines. Instead, it is flexible and adaptable, accommodating individual
needs and preferences. This flexibility enables learners to explore topics of
interest and delve into learning at their own pace.

A key aspect of informal education is its emphasis on real-life application. It

focuses on practical skills and knowledge that can be directly applied in
everyday situations. Learning through experience and hands-on activities is
common, enabling learners to develop practical competence and problem-
solving abilities.
Lê Thị Ngọc Lài – 20CNA08

Informal education draws from a diverse range of sources. These sources can
include books, online resources, workshops, community activities,
mentorship, hobbies, travel, and informal conversations with others. This
broad array of sources enriches the learning experience and promotes a
multidimensional understanding of various subjects.

Overall, informal education offers a dynamic and personalized approach to

learning. It recognizes the value of self-directed exploration, real-life
application, and diverse sources of knowledge. By embracing these
characteristics, individuals can engage in lifelong learning, continuously
expanding their knowledge and skills beyond the confines of formal
educational settings.Informal learning can take a lot of different forms. It can
be as simple as watching a movie or reading your favorite webcomic, or it
can be more complex, like learning how to program by playing with a new
language. It also includes self-study, workshops, online courses, hobbies,
volunteering, and informal mentorship. Self-study involves independent
learning, while workshops and seminars provide knowledge from experts.
Online courses offer flexible learning options, and hobbies allow for skill
development. Volunteering and community involvement provide practical
knowledge, and informal mentorship offers guidance and support. Informal
education complements formal education by facilitating lifelong learning and
personal growth.

Informal learning can be done at any time and in any place. Some popular
sources for informal education are self-help books, seminars, classes at
community colleges, courses on websites like Coursera, YouTube videos,
podcasts, and blog posts.

Informal education offers flexibility, reduced stress, diverse learning

methods, motivation and engagement, cost-effectiveness, learning from
anyone, and immediate application of knowledge. It allows individuals to
learn at their own pace, without exams or strict grading systems. Informal
education offers a variety of resources and methods, catering to different
learning styles. It sparks curiosity, leading to deeper understanding and
retention of knowledge. It is often more affordable or free, accessible to a
wider audience. Informal education allows learning from diverse sources and
provides practical knowledge for immediate real-life application.
Dương Thị Nhàn – 20CNA13

II.4.2 Differentiation of Formal and Informal Education

II.4.2.1. Formal Education
II.4.2.1.1. Definition
Formal learning refers to learning that takes place in a formal and organized
environment like a classroom. Formal education with the structured
education system that runs from primary (and in some countries from
nursery) school to university, and includes specialised programmers for
vocational, technical and professional training.
II.4.2.1.2 Intention
Formal education is future-oriented. The goal of making formal education
mandatory is to ensure that everyone is literate and smart enough to make
their own decisions and choose their own field to work in once they become
adults. Formal learning is structured training that enables your team
members to expand their knowledge, skills, and abilities.
II.4.2.1.3. Method and guidance
Formal education uses methods like face-to-face setting seminars, coaching
sessions and training sessions. It delivered with the guidance of an
instructor, and learners are directed. Formal education has structured and
organized and takes place in a traditional learning environment. The
education that students get from trained teachers in classrooms through a
structured curriculum is referred to as the formal system of education.
Formal education is carefully thought out and provided by teachers who
have a basic level of competency. This competency is standardized through
formal training of teachers, to provide them with a certification that may be
different in different countries. Formal education is imparted mainly in
modern science, arts, and commerce streams with science stream later
getting divided into engineering and medical sciences. On the other hand,
there are also specialization of management and chartered accountancy that
students can take up in higher studies after completing 16 years of formal
education.

II.4.2.1.4. Rules and Curriculum

Formal education is based on a set curriculum; formal education is mostly
done within a classroom setting. It has rigid and fixed rules and regulations.
Formal education is structured hierarchically. It is planned and deliberate
and scheduled fees are paid regularly. Formal education has a chronological
grading system and syllabus and subject-oriented
Dương Thị Nhàn – 20CNA13

II.4.2.2. Informal education

II.4.2.2.1. Definition
Informal learning refers to unplanned and unstructured learning that takes
place in an informal setting. Informal education refers to a lifelong learning
process, whereby each individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and
knowledge from the educational influences and resources in his or her own
environment and from daily experience.
II.4.2.2.2. Intention
Informal education is not goal-oriented. Informal education aims to establish
or enhance environments in which people can learn, expand their
experiences, and make changes. Informal education refers to learning that
results from activities related to daily life experiences, work, family, or
leisure.
II.4.2.2.3. Method and guidance
Informal education not delivered with the guidance of an instructor. Informal
education unplanned and unstructured and does not usually involve a
traditional learning environment. It uses methods like forums, fun activities,
conversations and online communities. Informal education refers to a system
of education that is not state operated and sponsored. It does not lead to any
certification and is not structured or classroom based. For example, a father
giving lessons to his son to make him proficient in a family owned business is
an example of informal education. Informal education is, therefore, a system
or process that imparts skills or knowledge that is not formal or recognized
by the state. This education is also not organized or structured like it is in
formal education.
Learnings from incidents, radio, television, films, elders, peers, and parents
get classified as informal education. Informal learning helps little ones to
grow and adapt to the ways and traditions of the society, and they learn to
adapt to the environment in a much better manner.
II.4.2.2.4. Rules and Curriculum
Informal education is need-based syllabus and it has flexible rules
regulations. An informal curriculum refers to subjects that are taught but not
officially listed in the curriculum. For instance, a teacher may teach her
students a few words in Portuguese while the class is learning about the
history and culture of Brazil. There is no set curriculum required.
Informal education consists of experiences and actually living in the family
or community.
Dương Thị Nhàn – 20CNA13

II.4.3. Transmission of Know-how Informal Education

II.4.3.1. Apprenticeship
An essential process in informal education is apprenticeship. Informal
education can transmit specific, economically useful knowledge and often
follows a very structured, albeit implicit, pedagogy. Masters employ
scaffolding to effect a progression within each step, allowing trial and error
only if there is no material risk. Informal education thus involves more than
just observation and imitation Verbal instruction is an integral part of the
apprenticeship process, but the pupils seldom speak and do not ask
questions.
Based on her studies with Nahua Indians of Mexico, Chamoux (1986)
provides a typology of know-how (or skill) and its transmission that
distinguishes between 'incorporated know-how' and 'the mastery of algor.
The former results from personal, concrete experience; one may have a
certain skill but not be able to describe it. It is therefore not easily
transmitted by formal teaching and is best acquired through apprenticeship,
by participating in the activity
Incorporated know-how may be general or particular, transmitted to
everyone or only to certain individuals who become specialists Transmission
occurs either with a master or through gradual immersion; the latter is
possible in the case of cultural activities that can frequently be observed.
II.4.3.2. Ethnotheories
Indigenous theories of education structure the pedagogical modalities in a
coherent fashion (Chamoux 1986, Super and Harkness 1997). In some types
of traditional informal education (for Nahuas), observation is preferred to
instruction as a learning method, and may be combined with low pressure to
learn and high preference for the will of the apprentice.
II.4.3.3. Guided participation in cultural activity
The way caretakers structure the activities of children is another
characteristic, studied by Rogoff et al. (1993), who observed caregivers and
their toddlers in four settings: Mayan Indians in a small town in Guatemala, a
tribal village in India, and two middle-class urban neighborhoods in Turkey
and the USA In the first two communities, children were nonverbally
encouraged to observe adult activities; they were basically responsible for
their own learning In the two middle-class settings, mothers tended to
structure explicitly their children's learning, used verbal interactions, and
provided lessons' removed from the context of ongoing activities They also
tended to organize their schedule to separate adult activities from time
Dương Thị Nhàn – 20CNA13

devoted to interacting with children. In the two rural communities, adults

shared their attention among a variety of activities, managing several tasks
at the same time, including socializing with other adults and facilitating the
children's involvement and learning. The behavior of the middle-class
mothers can be seen as a preparation for schooling Rogoff et al. (1993)
suggest that many school reforms move in the direction of group work in
which the children become more responsible for their own learning.
II.4.3.4. Schooling and Apprenticeship
The transferability between practical and school-based knowledge is of
special importance in education research Delbos and Jorion (1984) observed
how empirical knowledge is conveyed in traditional professions in France in
contrast to scientific, school-based knowledge. In activities where
competence is acquired through experience within the family, knowledge is
transmitted not explicitly but through participation in daily life and as if it
were an unquestionable truth. While this knowledge is specific school
knowledge is rather general and abstract but transferability does not always
live up to the facts
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

II.4.4. Educational effects

One aim of education research is to specify conditions for development and

learning. However, it is difficult to derive general conclusions on the basis of
only Western-world theorizing and methodology.

II.4.4.1. Effects of Different Education Systems

When an educational system is implanted into another culture, there are

various effects that can be observed. One of the main criticisms of exporting
Western-type schooling into "traditional" societies is its lack of cultural
relevance and practical use. The educational goals and values of the Western
system may not align with the cultural values and needs of the receiving
society, leading to a disconnect between what is taught in schools and what
is valued in the local community.

The effects of formal and informal education are often intertwined, making it
difficult to isolate their individual impacts. However, when the educational
goals of families and schools align, there can be cumulative effects on
learning. This is often seen in Asian societies such as Japan and Korea, where
teachers and mothers share the same educational values and coordinate
informal and formal education. This coordination can lead to higher
achievement among Asian students compared to their North American
counterparts.

Transfer of education between different contexts is easier when the same

goals are functional. For example, traditional Quranic education attempts to
train memorization skills by teaching fixed formulas, which can provide
elements of social and cognitive skills required by modern schooling. In such
cases, the transfer of education can be smoother and more effective.

On the other hand, negative effects on learning can occur when there are
conflicting or nonmatching educational goals. This is often seen in cases of
involuntary acculturation, where children from a minority group attend a
majority-group school. The mismatch between the educational goals of the
minority culture and the majority culture can hinder learning and educational
outcomes.

The effects of formal and informal education, as well as their combination,

can vary depending on the developmental age of the individual, the
environmental conditions, and the adaptive function of the specific skill. For
example, studies have shown that language background and preschool
experience have different effects on the reading acquisition of rural and
urban Moroccan children in the first year of primary school. The effects of an
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

urban environment were found to be longer lasting than those of language

background and preschool experience.

Formal schooling can have an influence on both general and domain-specific

skills, such as literacy and logical thinking. Studies conducted on Quranic-
schooled adults in Liberia have shown that literacy increases specific
memory skills, but these skills can also be acquired without Western
schooling. In contexts where practical significance for arithmetic skills exists,
formal schooling can benefit from informal education. However, it is
important to note that informally acquired arithmetic skills may have their
limits when compared to school-based algorithms.

The effects of implanting an educational system into another culture are

complex and multifaceted. It is crucial to consider the cultural relevance and
practicality of the system being implemented, as well as the coordination
between formal and informal education. By understanding these factors,
educators and policymakers can work towards creating educational systems
that are more inclusive and effective in promoting learning and development
in diverse cultural context.

II.4.4.1.1. Negative perspectives

Education is a powerful tool that shapes individuals' perceptions and

understanding of the world. However, when it comes to cross-cultural
education, there can be negative perspectives that hinder cultural
appreciation and perpetuate biases. This will explore the negative
educational perspectives on cross-culture, focusing on ethnocentrism and
cultural assimilation.

One negative educational perspective on cross-culture is ethnocentrism,

which refers to the belief that one's own culture is superior to others. This
perspective can lead to a biased understanding of different cultures,
emphasizing the values and practices of one's own culture while disregarding
or devaluing those of others. Ethnocentrism can hinder the development of
cultural empathy and open-mindedness, perpetuating stereotypes and
hindering genuine cross-cultural understanding. It can create a sense of
cultural superiority among students, limiting their ability to appreciate and
engage with diverse cultures.

Another negative educational perspective on cross-culture is cultural

assimilation, which occurs when individuals from one culture are expected to
adopt the values, behaviors, and practices of a dominant culture. This
perspective can lead to the erasure or marginalization of diverse cultural
identities and contributions. It can create pressure for individuals to conform
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

to a dominant cultural norm, disregarding their own cultural heritage.

Cultural assimilation can hinder the celebration of diversity and perpetuate a
homogenous educational environment, limiting cross-cultural interactions
and understanding.

English-only policies in educational settings serve as an example of a

negative educational perspective on cross-culture. These policies require
students to primarily use English as the language of instruction, disregarding
the linguistic diversity and cultural backgrounds of students whose first
language is not English. While the intention may be to promote English
language proficiency, such policies can inadvertently devalue and
marginalize students' native languages and cultures.

English-only policies can create a sense of linguistic and cultural superiority,

perpetuating the notion that English-speaking cultures are more important or
superior to others. This perspective can hinder students' cultural self-esteem
and their ability to express themselves fully in their native language. It can
also limit opportunities for cross-cultural exchange and understanding, as
students may feel pressured to conform to the dominant culture's norms and
expectations.

Negative educational perspectives on cross-culture, such as ethnocentrism

and cultural assimilation, hinder genuine cultural appreciation and
understanding. It is crucial for educational systems to adopt inclusive
approaches that celebrate and value diverse cultures, promoting cultural
empathy and respect. By fostering an environment that recognizes the
importance of all cultures, education can play a vital role in breaking down
barriers and promoting a more inclusive and harmonious society.

II.4.4.1.2. Positive perspectives

Education plays a pivotal role in fostering cross-cultural understanding,

appreciation, and empathy. Positive educational perspectives on cross-
culture aim to promote cultural diversity, inclusivity, and a global mindset
among students. This will explore the positive aspects of cross-cultural
education, focusing on multicultural education and cultural exchange
programs.

One positive educational perspective on cross-culture is multicultural

education, which recognizes and values the diversity of cultures within a
learning environment. Multicultural education promotes the inclusion of
different cultural perspectives, histories, and contributions in the curriculum.
It aims to create an inclusive educational experience that reflects the
experiences and identities of all students.
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

Multicultural education encourages students to develop cultural empathy,

understanding, and respect for others. It enhances their ability to critically
analyze and challenge stereotypes and biases. By incorporating diverse
cultural perspectives in the curriculum, students gain a broader
understanding of the world and develop a more inclusive worldview.

Cultural exchange programs provide another positive educational

perspective on cross-culture. These programs facilitate direct interactions
between students from different cultural backgrounds, allowing them to
learn from one another and develop a deeper appreciation for different
cultures. Students have the opportunity to engage in meaningful cross-
cultural exchanges, such as studying abroad, hosting international students,
or participating in cultural immersion programs.

Cultural exchange programs foster a sense of global citizenship, as students

gain firsthand experiences of different cultures, languages, and traditions.
These programs promote mutual understanding, respect, and collaboration
among students from diverse backgrounds. Through intercultural
interactions, students develop valuable skills such as empathy, adaptability,
and intercultural communication, which are essential for success in an
increasingly interconnected world.

The Global Classroom Initiative is an example of a positive educational

perspective on cross-culture. It is a program implemented in schools that
aims to foster global citizenship and cross-cultural understanding. This
initiative integrates global perspectives and experiences into the curriculum,
encouraging students to explore and appreciate different cultures,
languages, and world issues.

The Global Classroom Initiative incorporates various activities such as virtual

exchanges, cultural presentations, and collaborative projects with students
from different countries. These activities allow students to interact and learn
from their peers around the world, broadening their perspectives and
promoting cultural appreciation. By engaging in cross-cultural experiences,
students develop a deep understanding of global issues and develop the
skills necessary to become responsible global citizens.

Positive educational perspectives on cross-culture, such as multicultural

education and cultural exchange programs, play a crucial role in promoting
cultural diversity, inclusivity, and global understanding. By incorporating
diverse cultural perspectives into the curriculum and providing opportunities
for direct cross-cultural interactions, education can empower students to
become empathetic, open-minded, and culturally competent individuals.
Embracing these positive perspectives is essential for creating a harmonious
and interconnected world where cultural diversity is celebrated and valued.
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II.4.4.2. International Comparison of School

Achievement

Formal education typically follows the "Western model" emphasizing

cognitive skills that facilitate success in highly technological and scientifically
structured environments.

The objective of the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) is

to gather data representative of 15-year-old students' knowledge and skills
in mathematics, science, reading, and cross-curricular competencies across
OECD countries. The International Association for the Evaluation of
Educational Achievement (IEA) has conducted three large-scale comparative
studies (FIMS, SIMS, TIMSS) that highlight notable differences in academic
achievement among schools. Even within linguistically similar societies like
Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, significant variations in school
performance were observed. Comparisons between Japanese and Taiwanese
students with their North American counterparts, as well as higher-achieving
Asian students compared to those in Germany and North America,
consistently demonstrate better mathematical performance. Chinese and
Japanese students consistently outperform their American peers in
mathematics and science across all age groups.

These differences are likely related to a number of things, such as various

educational systems, teaching and learning philosophies, time management
techniques, cultural norms, and interactions between informal and formal
education. East Asians value education more highly, emphasize the
importance of effort in academic success, have higher aspirations, invest
more time in academic effort, and report being more involved as parents in
their children's academic performance. Motivational and socioemotional
factors can mediate differences in cognitive abilities. Future research must
examine whether these are also impacted by education.

II.4.5. Cross-cultural education

II.4.5.1. Values and Expectations

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II.4.5.1.1. Culture confusion

International students and immigrants

who enroll in educational institutions in
the United States often encounter a
series of "culture shocks" due to the
disparities between their home
countries' educational systems and the
norms prevalent in American
classrooms. This adjustment process
can be particularly challenging for
students who are accustomed to
educational expectations that differ
significantly from those in their new academic environment.

For instance, in certain countries, students are expected to humbly obey

their teachers' instructions and maintain absolute silence during class
sessions. However, in other cultural contexts, students are encouraged to
openly criticize or even contradict their teachers. Furthermore, while prayer
in the classroom may be deemed acceptable in one country, it may be
strictly forbidden in another.

II.4.5.1.2. Difficulties

These cultural disparities, combined with the experience of being a

newcomer, contribute to the difficulties faced by non-native born students as
they adapt to their new educational settings. The need to navigate and
reconcile these differences in expectations and practices can pose significant
challenges to their academic and personal growth.

In addition to the challenges mentioned earlier, non-native born students

face a multitude of other difficulties when adapting to their new educational
settings. These difficulties can vary depending on factors such as language
proficiency, previous educational experiences, and cultural background. One
of the most obvious obstacles is the language barrier. Non-native born
students may struggle with understanding and expressing themselves in the
language of instruction, hindering their ability to actively participate in class
discussions, comprehend academic materials, and complete assignments.

Cultural differences can be a significant source of stress for non-native born

students. They may find themselves in a classroom setting where the
cultural norms and values differ greatly from what they are accustomed to,
affecting their ability to form relationships with peers and teachers.
Additionally, educational systems vary across countries and regions,
resulting in challenges in adjusting to different curricula, teaching methods,
and assessment practices.
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Access to academic support resources, such as tutoring or language

assistance, may be limited for non-native born students, making it more
challenging for them to catch up academically. Stereotyping and biases can
also impact these students, as they may be perceived as less capable or
intelligent due to language proficiency or cultural background, leading to
feelings of marginalization and impacting their self-confidence and
motivation.

Building social connections and integrating into the new school community
can be daunting for non-native born students, who may struggle to find
common ground with peers who have different cultural references and
experiences. This sense of isolation can affect their overall well-being and
sense of belonging. Additionally, the challenges of adapting to a new
educational setting can take a toll on the emotional well-being of non-native
born students, leading to feelings of homesickness, anxiety, or stress. It is
crucial to provide them with the necessary support and resources to address
their emotional needs.

II.4.5.1.3. Educational advantages

It is worth highlighting that the presence of a diverse student population on

American campuses can be beneficial in fostering understanding and
appreciation for alternative habits, customs, and attitudes. Interacting with
students from various cultural backgrounds helps to broaden perspectives
and dispel the notion that the "American way" is the sole valid approach to
life and learning. This exposure to different perspectives encourages a more
inclusive and open-minded mindset, promoting cross-cultural understanding
and acceptance.

When students from diverse backgrounds come together in the educational

setting, they bring with them a wealth of experiences, knowledge, and
traditions. This diversity enriches the learning environment by providing
opportunities for students to learn from one another and gain a deeper
understanding of the world around them. By interacting with peers who have
different cultural perspectives, students can challenge their own
preconceived notions and expand their understanding of what is possible.

Moreover, exposure to diverse cultures and perspectives can help to break

down stereotypes and biases that may exist within the student population.
By engaging in meaningful conversations and interactions with individuals
from different backgrounds, students can develop a greater appreciation for
the complexities and nuances of different cultures. This can lead to the
development of empathy and respect for others, as well as a recognition of
the value that diversity brings to society.
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The presence of a diverse student population can also contribute to the

broader community and society as a whole. Students who have had the
opportunity to interact with individuals from different cultural backgrounds
are more likely to be open to new ideas and experiences. This can lead to
the development of innovative and creative solutions to the challenges that
society faces. Additionally, a diverse student body can help to prepare
students for the global workforce, where they will likely encounter individuals
from different cultural backgrounds and perspectives.

The presence of a diverse student population on American campuses is

incredibly valuable in fostering understanding, appreciation, and acceptance
of different cultures and perspectives. It provides an opportunity for students
to learn from one another, challenge their own biases, and develop a more
inclusive and open-minded mindset. This diversity not only enriches the
learning environment but also contributes to the broader community and
prepares students for the global workforce. It is important for educational
institutions to continue to prioritize diversity and create an inclusive
environment where students from all backgrounds can thrive.

The experiences of international students and immigrants attending schools

in the United States encompass various instances of "culture shocks." These
shocks arise from the contrasting educational expectations in their home
countries and the new classroom norms they encounter in American
educational institutions. While these adjustment challenges can be attributed
to both cultural differences and the experience of being a newcomer, they
also present an opportunity for American students to appreciate the value of
diverse habits, customs, and attitudes, thereby acknowledging that the
"American way" is not the sole standard of existence.

In terms of educational values and expectations, Vietnam and the United

States differ significantly. In Vietnam, education is highly regarded as a
means to achieve social mobility and success, with a strong emphasis on
academic achievement, discipline, and respect for authority. Traditional
values such as hard work, perseverance, and obedience are deeply ingrained
in the Vietnamese education system. Conversely, in the United States,
education is also highly valued, but there is a greater emphasis on
individuality, creativity, and personal growth. American society values critical
thinking, innovation, and the ability to think outside the box. While academic
achievement is important, there is also an expectation for students to be
well-rounded individuals who can contribute to society in various ways.
Teachers in Vietnam hold a position of authority and are highly respected,
while in the United States, teachers are seen as facilitators of learning who
encourage critical thinking and collaboration. Understanding these
differences provides insights into the respective education systems and the
cultural contexts in which they operate.
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II.4.5.2. Diversity in Higher Education

II.4.5.2.1. Further education

In the United States, individuals of all age

groups, ranging from young students to
middle-aged individuals and senior citizens,
have a plethora of options when it comes to
pursuing further education. The country
boasts a wide array of institutions of higher
learning that cater to the varied needs and
aspirations of these individuals. In certain
communities, adult schools and two-year
colleges, also known as "junior colleges" or "community colleges," provide
accessible avenues for continued education. These institutions not only offer
academic programs leading to specific degrees but also provide vocational
training that equips students with practical skills relevant to their current or
desired employment. For instance, individuals may enroll in courses on
computer programming or language instruction to enhance their professional
capabilities and excel in their respective fields.

Higher education in the United States is a diverse and expansive system that
offers a wide range of opportunities for individuals seeking to further their
education. It is considered an optional stage of formal learning following
secondary education and is also referred to as post-secondary education,
tertiary education, or third-level education. The higher education system in
the United States is delivered at approximately 4,360 Title IV degree-
granting institutions, including colleges and universities.

There are various types of higher education institutions in the United States,
including public and private universities, research universities, liberal arts
colleges, community colleges, and for-profit colleges. Public universities are
funded by state governments and often offer lower tuition fees for in-state
residents, while private universities rely on tuition charges and other sources
of funding. Research universities are known for their emphasis on research
and offer a wide range of academic programs and opportunities for graduate
education and research.

Community colleges and adult schools play a crucial role in providing

accessible avenues for continued education. These institutions offer a range
of academic programs and vocational training that equip students with
practical skills relevant to their desired careers. They often have flexible
schedules and affordable tuition fees, making them attractive options for
individuals with work or family commitments.
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Graduate programs in higher education offer advanced coursework and

research opportunities for individuals seeking to deepen their knowledge and
expertise in specific fields. These programs, which include master's and
doctoral degrees, allow students to contribute to cutting-edge research and
innovation.

The United States higher education system also emphasizes lifelong learning
and career transitions. Continuing education programs, professional
development courses, and certificate programs are available to meet the
evolving needs of learners at different stages of their careers. These
programs provide opportunities for individuals to enhance their skills, acquire
new knowledge, and stay current in their fields.

Diversity and inclusivity are important aspects of the American higher

education system. Universities actively promote cross-cultural interactions
and provide resources and support for international students, creating a
multicultural learning environment. This exposure to different perspectives
and cultures enriches the educational experience and prepares individuals
for global citizenship.

II.4.5.2.2. Opportunities for Advanced Degrees

Individuals who find themselves with ample leisure time, such as retirees,
often seize the opportunity to pursue their long-held interests and passions
through educational courses. The availability of such courses allows them to
delve into subjects or hobbies that they may have had to set aside when
occupied with other responsibilities earlier in life. Whether it's a retired
engineer exploring creative writing or a former lawyer delving into art
history, these courses provide a platform for personal growth and intellectual
stimulation.

It is noteworthy that many four-year colleges and universities also extend

their offerings to cater to individuals seeking to pursue advanced degrees
through graduate programs. This ensures that individuals who aspire to
attain higher levels of education and expertise have avenues to do so,
regardless of their age or background. The inclusivity and accessibility of
these programs provide opportunities for lifelong learners to continue their
educational journey and expand their horizons.

Graduate programs often provide flexible options such as part-time or online

study, allowing individuals to balance their educational pursuits with other
commitments. This flexibility is particularly beneficial for those who may
have work or family responsibilities. Universities recognize the value of
diverse perspectives and experiences that individuals from different
backgrounds bring to the academic community. Therefore, they actively
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encourage and support individuals from various walks of life to pursue

advanced degrees.

For individuals looking to enhance their career prospects, pursuing an

advanced degree can be a valuable step. Graduate programs provide
specialized knowledge and skills that can open doors to new opportunities
and career advancements. They also offer networking opportunities and
access to industry experts, further enriching the educational experience and
increasing professional prospects. Whether it's a mid-career professional
seeking to switch fields or an individual looking to advance within their
current industry, graduate programs can provide the necessary tools for
success.

In addition to career advancement, graduate programs in the United States

also contribute to research and innovation. These programs are known for
their emphasis on research, and students pursuing advanced degrees have
the opportunity to contribute to cutting-edge research in their respective
fields. This hands-on experience not only enhances their knowledge and
skills but also allows them to make meaningful contributions to their
disciplines. By pushing the boundaries of knowledge and driving innovation,
graduate students play a crucial role in shaping the future of their fields.

Furthermore, graduate programs foster an inclusive and diverse educational

environment. Higher education institutions in the United States are
committed to creating spaces where individuals from different backgrounds,
cultures, and age groups can come together to exchange ideas and
collaborate. This enriches the educational experience by providing a broader
perspective and encouraging cross-cultural understanding. The interactions
and discussions that take place in graduate programs contribute to the
creation of a vibrant intellectual community where diverse voices are valued
and respected.

The United States offers abundant opportunities for individuals seeking

advanced degrees. Whether it's retirees exploring their passions,
professionals looking to enhance their careers, or individuals pursuing
research and innovation, the higher education system caters to diverse
aspirations and backgrounds. The availability of flexible study options and
the commitment to inclusivity ensure that individuals from all walks of life
can pursue their educational goals and contribute to the intellectual
landscape of the nation. By embracing lifelong learning and fostering an
environment of academic excellence, the United States continues to be a
beacon of educational opportunity for individuals seeking to expand their
knowledge and skills.
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II.4.5.2.3. Lifelong Learning and Career

Transitions

In American culture, there is a well-known saying that emphasizes the value

of lifelong learning: "you are never too old to learn." This sentiment is
reflected in the increasing trend of older and younger individuals studying
side by side in American institutions of higher learning. Women, in particular,
are encouraged to acquire new skills and knowledge to reenter the job
market once their children have grown. Additionally, many individuals opt to
change careers at different stages of their lives, often necessitating further
education to acquire the necessary qualifications and expertise. As a result,
educational institutions are actively striving to meet the diverse needs and
goals of these students by offering a wide range of programs and support
systems.

The United States offers a rich educational

landscape that accommodates the
aspirations and requirements of individuals
across various age groups. Whether
individuals seek specific degrees,
vocational training, or personal enrichment,
the country's institutions of higher learning
endeavor to provide opportunities and
resources that cater to their diverse needs
and ambitions. Through these educational
pursuits, individuals of all ages can continue to grow, develop, and
contribute to society.

In terms of diversity in higher education and cross-cultural aspects, Vietnam

and the United States exhibit notable differences. Vietnamese higher
education institutions tend to have limited diversity in terms of international
students and faculty, unlike their American counterparts. Vietnamese
universities prioritize local cultural norms and educational practices, which
may result in less exposure to cross-cultural diversity within academia.
However, Vietnam possesses a rich cultural heritage and diverse ethnic
groups within the country, contributing to a unique cultural experience for
domestic students. On the other hand, the United States is renowned for its
diverse higher education system, attracting students and scholars from all
around the world. American universities actively promote cultural diversity
and inclusivity, with a significant presence of international students and
faculty. The U.S. higher education system fosters cross-cultural interactions
and encourages global perspectives through various programs, initiatives,
and multicultural student organizations. Consequently, the United States
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

offers a more diverse and culturally inclusive environment in its universities

compared to Vietnam.

II.4.5.3. Active Participation

II.4.5.3.1. Student Engagement

Student participation is not only

welcomed but also expected in most
academic subjects. Instructors and
professors often incorporate oral
participation as a component of
students' grades. Courses are
typically designed to revolve around
lively classroom discussions, student-
generated questions, and informal
lectures. However, in larger classes,
formal lectures may be more prevalent, limiting student engagement to a
more passive role.

In a smaller percentage of informal classes, students may even have the

opportunity to choose the topics of study and select relevant books and
articles. This level of autonomy can be perplexing for individuals from
different cultural backgrounds. For instance, a Japanese student was taken
aback when her professor instructed the class to develop a course outline
and compile a list of recommended readings. She perceived the professor as
neglecting his responsibilities and lacking competence. The student was
aware that the professor had consistently received positive evaluations from
previous students, yet she struggled to accept his authority when he treated
students as equals and assumed they possessed equal knowledge.

In certain courses, particularly graduate seminars, the role of the teacher

becomes more managerial, with students actively contributing to the
teaching process through discussions and presentations. Instructors often
encourage students to take initiative and be responsible for their own
learning. Advanced degree seekers are typically expected to actively engage
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in their education by critically analyzing theories, formulating models, and

interacting with their professors. Students who refrain from asking questions
or fail to bring forth their own ideas may be perceived as uninterested in the
course.

II.4.5.3.2. The Influence of Teaching Style on

student participation

The teaching style of a professor also influences the level and nature of
student participation. Some instructors prefer to guide the class without
dominating it, fostering an environment where students are encouraged to
question and challenge ideas. Students who disagree with their teachers are
expected to be prepared to defend their positions. Generally, confident and
experienced instructors’ welcome students who express differing opinions.

While instruction in science and mathematics tends to adhere to more

traditional methods, such as formal lectures accompanied by note-taking,
the educational trends that have influenced the teaching of humanities and
social sciences have also permeated into these disciplines. Students may be
required to solve problems in groups or engage in project-based learning.
Applied classes, as opposed to purely theoretical ones, place a strong
emphasis on hands-on involvement.

II.4.5.3.3. Challenges of Cross-Cultural

Education

The variation in educational approaches and expectations across different

cultures can pose challenges for students participating in cross-cultural
education. Understanding and adapting to different teaching methodologies,
assessment methods, and classroom dynamics is essential for creating a
more inclusive and effective learning environment.

Cross-cultural education is a dynamic field that brings together students

from diverse cultural backgrounds to learn and grow together. While this
educational approach offers numerous benefits, it also presents challenges
when it comes to promoting active participation in the classroom. This essay
explores the key challenges faced in cross-cultural education and provides
insights into how educators can overcome these obstacles to foster active
participation among students.

One of the primary challenges in cross-cultural education is the variance in

cultural perceptions and expectations regarding active participation. In some
cultures, students are accustomed to a passive role, where they
predominantly listen and absorb information. Encouraging active
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engagement from students who come from such backgrounds can be a

daunting task. Educators must bridge this gap by creating an inclusive
environment that values and encourages active participation, while
respecting students' cultural norms and expectations.

Language barriers can significantly hinder active participation in cross-

cultural education. Students who are not fluent in the language of instruction
may feel hesitant to speak up or ask questions in class. This can limit their
engagement and prevent them from fully participating in discussions. To
address this challenge, educators can implement strategies such as
providing language support, encouraging peer interactions, and utilizing
visual aids to enhance comprehension.

Cross-cultural education often challenges traditional power dynamics

between students and teachers. In some cultures, students are expected to
show deference and respect to their teachers, which can discourage active
participation or questioning. Creating a safe and inclusive environment
where students feel comfortable challenging ideas and expressing their
opinions is essential. Educators can foster a more egalitarian classroom by
promoting open dialogue, encouraging student-led discussions, and valuing
diverse perspectives.

Cultural differences can significantly influence learning styles and

preferences. Some cultures prioritize group collaboration and discussion,
while others emphasize individual study and reflection. In a cross-cultural
classroom, finding a balance between these different learning styles and
creating opportunities for active participation can be a challenge. Educators
can address this by incorporating a variety of teaching methods, such as
group work, individual projects, and interactive discussions, to cater to
diverse learning preferences.

To foster active participation, educators must be sensitive to cultural norms

and adapt their teaching strategies accordingly. Understanding and
respecting students' cultural values and beliefs is crucial for creating an
inclusive and supportive learning environment. By incorporating culturally
relevant content, acknowledging diverse perspectives, and promoting
cultural exchange, educators can encourage active participation while
fostering mutual respect and understanding among students.

Preconceived stereotypes and biases can significantly impact student

participation in cross-cultural education. Students from marginalized or
minority backgrounds may face challenges in being heard and valued in the
classroom. Addressing and challenging these biases is essential for
promoting active participation and creating an inclusive learning
environment. Educators can play a pivotal role in creating awareness,
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facilitating discussions on diversity and inclusion, and promoting empathy

and respect among students.

Cross-cultural education is a powerful tool for promoting global

understanding, empathy, and collaboration. However, it is not without its
challenges. Fostering active participation in a cross-cultural classroom
requires educators to be aware of and sensitive to the unique obstacles that
students from different cultural backgrounds may face. By creating inclusive
learning environments, adapting teaching strategies to accommodate
diverse learning styles, and addressing biases and stereotypes, educators
can overcome these challenges and create a space where all students feel
valued, engaged, and empowered to actively participate in their educational
journey.

In comparing Vietnam and the United States in terms of active participation

in cross-cultural education, several key differences emerge. In Vietnam,
traditional cultural norms emphasize respect for authority figures and a more
passive learning style, which can hinder active participation. On the other
hand, the United States encourages students to actively engage in
discussions, express their opinions, and question authority, fostering a
culture of active participation. Language and communication barriers also
play a role, with English proficiency being more widespread in the United
States. Additionally, power dynamics and authority structures differ, as
Vietnamese culture places a strong emphasis on hierarchical relationships,
while the United States promotes a more egalitarian approach between
students and teachers. Furthermore, different learning styles influence active
participation, with Vietnam favoring rote memorization and lecture-based
teaching, while the United States emphasizes interactive and collaborative
learning. Despite these differences, both countries are working towards
creating inclusive environments that value cultural norms and bridge
language barriers to foster active participation and enhance cross-cultural
understanding.

II.4.5.4. The Teacher-Student Relationship

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II.4.5.4.1. Expectations and Responsibilities

Many educators hold the belief that it is

the responsibility of the student to
actively engage in the learning process.
This means that when a reading
assignment is given, teachers expect
students to not only complete the
reading, but also to have a thorough
understanding of the material, even if it is
not specifically discussed in class or
assessed through an examination. In
essence, the ideal student is one who is intrinsically motivated to learn for
the sake of learning itself, rather than solely focusing on achieving high
grades. This perspective differs from certain educational systems in other
countries, where courses are often designed with the primary goal of helping
students pass exams. In the United States, courses are typically structured
with the intention of fostering a deeper understanding of the subject matter,
rather than solely focusing on exam performance. As a result, teachers may
not hold a high regard for students who only attend class on the day of an
exam, as this behavior indicates a lack of genuine interest in the learning
process.

II.4.5.4.2. Classroom Environment and Student-

Professor Relationships

In the United States, a significant number of instructors hold a belief that

fostering an informal and relaxed classroom environment can greatly
enhance the learning experience and promote innovation among students.
This teaching approach aims to create a space where students feel
comfortable expressing their thoughts and ideas without fear of judgment.
The informality of the classroom setting encourages open communication
and active participation, allowing students to engage more deeply with the
subject matter.

Unlike in some other countries, where the teacher-student relationship is

more formal and hierarchical, American classrooms often encourage
students to develop friendly and easygoing relationships with their
professors. This informal rapport between students and instructors is seen as
a way to build trust, encourage collaboration, and foster a sense of
community within the academic setting. Students are encouraged to
approach their professors with questions, concerns, or ideas, knowing that
they will be met with openness and support.

It is important that the adoption of a casual demeanor by a professor does

not diminish their expertise or qualifications. On the contrary, professors who
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create a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom are often highly respected by

their students. This emphasis on informality and egalitarianism reflects the
values of American academic culture, where the focus is not solely on grades
or academic achievements, but also on the overall growth and development
of the student as an individual.

The informal classroom environment allows for more meaningful interactions

and discussions, enabling students to actively participate in the learning
process. Students are encouraged to voice their opinions, challenge existing
ideas, and engage in critical thinking. In turn, professors facilitate this by
creating a safe and inclusive space where diverse perspectives are valued
and encouraged.

The informal nature of the classroom does not undermine the authority or
professionalism of the professor. While students may enjoy a friendly
relationship with their instructors, there is still an expectation of
professionalism and adherence to academic standards. Professors maintain
their role as educators and mentors, guiding students through the learning
journey, setting expectations, and providing guidance and support.

The emphasis on an informal classroom environment and strong teacher-

student relationships is deeply rooted in the American educational system. It
reflects a belief that when students feel comfortable and engaged in the
learning process, they are more likely to thrive academically and develop a
lifelong love for learning. This approach not only benefits students during
their time in school but also prepares them for future professional and
personal endeavors, where effective communication and collaborative skills
are highly valued.

In conclusion, the emphasis on cultivating an informal and relaxed classroom

environment in the United States is driven by the belief that it promotes
effective learning and encourages innovation among students. This approach
fosters strong teacher-student relationships, where students feel comfortable
expressing their thoughts and ideas, and professors serve as mentors and
guides. The informality and egalitarianism within the American academic
culture contribute to a dynamic and engaging learning experience that
prepares students for success in their future endeavors.

II.4.5.4.3. The balance between Social

Relationships and Academic Expectations

In the United States, it is not uncommon for professors to establish social

relationships with their students outside of the classroom. These
relationships can range from casual interactions to more meaningful
connections based on shared interests or mentorship. However, it is crucial
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to recognize that while these social relationships may exist, they do not
undermine the professor's role as the educator within the classroom setting.

For instance, it is not unusual for a professor to grab a cup of coffee with a
student to discuss their academic progress or offer guidance on career
choices. These informal meetings can provide valuable opportunities for
students to seek advice and build rapport with their professors. However,
despite the friendly nature of these interactions, professors still maintain
their expectation that students meet deadlines, actively participate in class
discussions, and diligently prepare for exams.

The existence of a social relationship between a professor and a student

does not grant special privileges or exemptions from academic
responsibilities. Professors understand the importance of maintaining
objectivity and fairness when evaluating students' work. Therefore, even if a
professor has a close social bond with a student, they are unlikely to treat
that individual differently when it comes to assessing their schoolwork.

While it is essential to strike a balance between social relationships and

academic expectations, professors are mindful of maintaining
professionalism and ensuring that their actions do not create favoritism or
bias. They recognize that their primary responsibility is to provide a quality
education and create an inclusive learning environment for all students. This
means treating each student fairly, regardless of their personal relationship
outside of the classroom.

In some cases, professors may provide additional support or guidance to

students who require assistance. This could involve offering extra office
hours, providing additional resources, or offering constructive feedback on
assignments. However, even in these instances, the professor's role remains
that of an educator, ensuring that students receive the necessary tools and
knowledge to succeed academically.

The ability to establish social relationships with students outside of the

classroom is a testament to the strong teacher-student relationships that are
nurtured within the American academic culture. It reflects the belief that
learning is not confined to the boundaries of the classroom but extends to
meaningful interactions and connections outside of traditional academic
settings. These relationships can contribute to a student's personal and
professional growth, offering guidance, mentorship, and networking
opportunities.

In conclusion, while professors in the United States may establish social

relationships with students outside of the classroom, it is crucial to maintain
the distinction between these personal connections and the professional role
of the professor within the academic setting. Professors understand the
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

importance of treating all students fairly and objectively when evaluating

their academic performance. By balancing social relationships with academic
expectations, professors can create an inclusive and supportive learning
environment that promotes both personal connections and educational
growth among their students."

II.4.5.4.4. Multiple Roles of Professors and

Cultural Differences

Professors fulfill multiple roles in relation to their students, often serving as

mentors, counselors, and friends in addition to being educators. It is crucial
for students to recognize and adapt to the shifting dynamics of these
relationships.

A real-life example of this can be seen in the experience of an American

professor and his Middle Eastern graduate student who developed a
friendship. However, the student struggled to navigate the different roles the
professor had to fulfill. The student would spend extended periods of time in
the professor's office, unaware that this was perceived as an intrusion. The
student's relaxed attitude towards time, influenced by his culture, clashed
with the professor's compartmentalization of work and socializing.
Consequently, the student's understanding of the distinction between
work/study and socializing was unclear, leading to misunderstandings and
potential tensions.

In this scenario, it is essential to recognize the importance of cultural

awareness and sensitivity when forming relationships with professors or
navigating through different academic environments. Cultural norms and
expectations can significantly impact how individuals perceive and navigate
social boundaries. Students from diverse cultural backgrounds may have
different expectations regarding the level of informality and personal
connection they can establish with their professors.

Consequently, it becomes crucial for both students and professors to engage

in open and honest communication, fostering an environment where
expectations and boundaries are clearly defined. Professors can play a
pivotal role in addressing these cultural differences by initiating
conversations about expectations, setting clear guidelines, and providing
students with a comprehensive understanding of the academic and social
dynamics within the institution.

Similarly, students must actively seek to understand the cultural nuances

and expectations of the academic environment they find themselves in. By
familiarizing themselves with the prevailing norms and values, students can
better navigate the complexities of their relationships with professors and
avoid inadvertently overstepping boundaries.
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

While professors fulfill various roles in relation to their students, it is crucial

for students to recognize and adapt to the shifting dynamics of these
relationships. Cultural differences can further complicate these dynamics,
requiring both students and professors to engage in open and respectful
communication. By fostering an environment of understanding and setting
clear boundaries, students and professors can cultivate positive and
meaningful relationships that enhance the educational experience for all
parties involved.

The teacher-student relationship in Vietnam and America can differ

significantly due to cultural, educational, and societal factors. In Vietnamese
culture, there is a strong emphasis on respect for authority figures, including
teachers. Students are expected to show deference and obedience to their
teachers. The classroom environment in Vietnam is often more traditional
and teacher-centered, where the teacher is seen as the primary source of
knowledge, and students are expected to listen and take notes.
Communication between teachers and students is formal and hierarchical,
with students addressing their teachers using formal titles.

In contrast, American culture prioritizes individualism and equality. Students

are encouraged to express their opinions and engage in open discussions
with their teachers. American classrooms tend to be more student-centered,
with teachers promoting active participation, critical thinking, and
collaborative learning. The teacher-student relationship in America is
generally more informal and egalitarian, with students addressing their
teachers by their first names and engaging in open and respectful dialogues.

The expectations and roles of teachers also differ between Vietnam and
America. In Vietnam, teachers are highly respected and considered
authoritative figures responsible for imparting knowledge and discipline.
Students are expected to follow instructions and adhere to rules set by the
teacher. In America, teachers are seen as mentors and facilitators of
learning, guiding students' personal and intellectual growth.

Parental involvement in education also varies between the two countries. In

Vietnam, parental involvement is highly valued, and parents play an active
role in their child's academic progress. They have a close relationship with
teachers and regularly communicate with them. In America, parental
involvement is encouraged but can vary depending on individual
circumstances.

It's important that these are general observations, and there can be
variations within each country and between different educational institutions.
Cultural norms and educational practices may evolve over time, leading to
changes in the teacher-student relationship in both Vietnam and America.
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

II.4.5.5. Trust, Honesty and the Honor System

II.4.5.5.1. The honor system

Trust is a fundamental expectation in American education, where the "honor

system" plays a significant role. This system, enforced by teachers and
schools, requires students to demonstrate honesty in all aspects of their
schoolwork. Violating the honor system can have severe consequences, such
as failing a course, having a permanent record of the violation, and even
being suspended or expelled from the university. It is crucial for students to
understand that dishonesty can also jeopardize their relationships with fellow
students, potentially leading to a loss of respect from those who prioritize
independent study and exam preparation.

In some cases, instructors may choose to leave their classrooms during

exams, implicitly conveying their expectation for students to adhere to the
honor system. Although they might not explicitly state, "I expect you all to
abide by the honor system," the underlying message is clear: students are
expected to work independently and not share answers.

II.4.5.5.2. Dishonesty behaviors

To underscore the significance of maintaining academic honesty, a university

handbook from the Midwest offers a comprehensive list of behaviors that are
classified as academic dishonesty.

II.4.5.5.2.1. Plagiarism

Plagiarism is an act of academic dishonesty that involves using someone

else's work, whether it be written content, ideas, or research, and presenting
it as one's own without giving credit to the original source. This unethical
behavior disregards the intellectual property of others and undermines the
principles of honesty and integrity in academia. Plagiarism can occur in
various forms, including copying and pasting text from online sources,
paraphrasing without proper citation, or even purchasing pre-written essays.
Academic institutions strictly condemn plagiarism and impose severe
consequences on those who engage in such dishonest practices.

II.4.5.5.2.2. Cheating

Cheating encompasses a wide range of dishonest behaviors in an academic

setting. It includes actions such as using unauthorized materials during tests,
copying answers from others, collaborating with classmates during individual
assessments, or obtaining and distributing exam questions in advance.
Cheating not only undermines the fairness and integrity of the evaluation
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

process but also hampers the learning experience for individuals who engage
in honest studying and preparation. Whether it occurs during tests, take-
home exams, or the submission of papers, cheating is considered a serious
offense in educational institutions, leading to penalties that can range from
failing a specific assignment to expulsion from the institution.

II.4.5.5.2.3. Fabrication

Fabrication involves the deliberate reporting of false or inaccurate data in

academic work such as research papers, experiments, or surveys. This
unethical practice undermines the reliability and credibility of scholarly work,
as it presents information that is not based on truth or evidence. Fabrication
can occur in various fields, from falsifying research findings to exaggerating
results to fit desired outcomes. Academic institutions prioritize the pursuit of
knowledge and truth, making the fabrication of data a grave violation of the
principles of academic integrity. Students who engage in fabricating
information risk severe consequences, including academic penalties and
damage to their academic reputation.

II.4.5.5.2.4. Aiding dishonesty

Aiding dishonesty involves knowingly providing information or assistance to

another student that will be used in a dishonest manner. This could include
sharing answers, providing unauthorized access to study materials, or
helping others cheat during exams or assignments. Aiding dishonesty not
only compromises the integrity of the educational system but also
undermines the fairness and equality of the learning environment. Academic
institutions take a firm stance against such behavior and hold both the
person receiving assistance and the person providing it accountable for their
actions. Penalties for aiding dishonesty can range from academic probation
to suspension, depending on the severity of the offense.

II.4.5.5.2.5. Falsification

Falsification of records and official documents involves forging signatures or

altering information on academic documents with the intention of deceiving
others. This behavior can include tampering with transcripts, altering grades,
or submitting falsified certificates or letters of recommendation. Such actions
not only violate the principles of academic integrity but also undermine the
credibility and trustworthiness of the educational system. Academic
institutions treat the falsification of records and official documents as a
serious offense, imposing severe penalties that can include expulsion and
legal consequences.
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

II.4.5.5.3. Punishments

In the United States, the punishments for educational cheating can vary
depending on the severity of the offense and the policies of the educational
institution involved. Common punishments for cheating include academic
penalties, such as receiving a failing grade on the assignment or exam,
failing the entire course, or being placed on academic probation.
Additionally, students may face the loss of privileges, such as participating in
extracurricular activities or holding leadership positions. Disciplinary actions,
ranging from warnings and counseling to suspension or expulsion, may also
be imposed. These actions aim to maintain the integrity of the institution and
send a message that cheating will not be tolerated. Furthermore, cheating
can have long-term consequences on a student's academic and professional
life, potentially leading to the revocation of college admission offers or
scholarships and damaging their reputation. It's important to note that
specific punishments can vary between schools and districts, as institutions
have their own codes of conduct and policies to address academic
dishonesty.

However, international students accused of plagiarism may have omitted

citations out of ignorance rather than intentional dishonesty. Cultural
differences play a role in this, as students from other countries may not hold
the same views on private property, particularly in the form of ideas or
research. Nevertheless, international students must adapt to the rules and
expectations of their respective colleges or universities.

Students from countries where "beating the system" is a survival technique

may find it challenging to adjust to the fact that any falsification of official
school documents is considered dishonest and punishable in the United
States. For instance, several Eastern European students were expelled from
their college after it was discovered that they had provided false information
about their prior schooling on their admission applications. Although their
attempt to manipulate the system may have stemmed from the struggles
they faced in a society with numerous bureaucratic barriers, American
university administrators cannot overlook such dishonest behavior,
regardless of cultural background.

In summary, trust is a fundamental expectation in American education, and

the honor system places a strong emphasis on honesty in all aspects of
schoolwork. Violations of this system have severe consequences, and
students must understand the potential impact on their academic standing
and relationships with their peers. Furthermore, plagiarism and other forms
of academic dishonesty are taken seriously, reflecting American cultural
beliefs regarding respect for others' ideas and research. While cultural
differences may exist, students from diverse backgrounds must adapt to the
expectations of their educational institutions.
Trần Khắc Trí – 20CNA13

Vietnam and the United States have distinct cultural backgrounds that shape
their perspectives on trust, honesty, and the honor system in education. In
Vietnam, trust is deeply rooted in communal values, where individuals rely
on close relationships and personal connections. Honesty is highly valued,
but it can often be influenced by societal norms and the desire to maintain
harmony. The honor system in education is emphasized, with students
expected to adhere to strict codes of conduct. In contrast, the United States
places a strong emphasis on individualism, where trust is often earned
through personal achievements and credentials. Honesty is valued, but it is
also influenced by a more competitive environment. The honor system in
education is present but may vary across institutions, with some schools
placing more emphasis on personal responsibility while others rely on
external monitoring mechanisms. Ultimately, both countries have unique
cultural perspectives that shape their views on trust, honesty, and the honor
system in education.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

II.4.5.6. Competition and Grading

II.4.5.6.1. Competition

Competition is a ubiquitous and age-old behavior pattern (Sun et al., 2015),

and has become a prevalent problem across countries, cultures, and ethnic
groups (Wong et al., 2006). For decades, psychological research has valued
the study of competition (Sun et al., 2015). In the field of education, due to
the limited high-quality educational resources, plus the driving force of
students' life goals, competition has also become a reality that students
have to face (Posselt and Lipson, 2016).

Relationships between students can

be cooperative or competitive.
Cooperative student relationships
are characterized by students'
willingness to work together as a
team, and to share knowledge and
information. Competitive student
relationships: relationships
characterized by students' desire to
work alone, and not to share
knowledge. In the realm of
education, the dynamics of cooperative and competitive relationships
among students differ between Western and Asian education systems,
reflecting a confluence of factors, including grading practices, cultural
norms, and the overarching educational philosophies that underpin these
systems.

Within Western education systems, the interplay between cooperative and

competitive dynamics is nuanced: Western students often embrace
cooperation when the focus is on learning rather than assessment. In
courses taken for credit only, or in settings where grades are not the
primary driver, students frequently engage in collaborative learning. They
form study groups, share resources, and foster an environment of mutual
support.

However, the competitive facet becomes more conspicuous in

environments characterized by grading curves. In highly competitive
academic contexts, such as prestigious programs or institutions, students
may adopt a more competitive stance. The fear that assisting peers may
detract from their own chances of securing top grades can discourage
collaboration. Grading curves can introduce a zero-sum mindset,
amplifying competition for limited high grades.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

In Eastern cultures, students are often very friendly in sharing information

and lecture notes even in an exam. If they refuse to share them-reflected
in culture- they are afraid of being called as stingy and ostracized by other
students. The student who refuses to share the lecture notes, give the
answer of school work, or help others in doing individual work is often
excluded from the group. Asian education systems also exhibit a complex
interplay of cooperative and competitive elements:

Cooperation is deeply ingrained in Asian cultural values, reflecting notions

of group harmony and shared success. Students in countries like Japan and
South Korea often prioritize collective achievement. They collaborate,
study together, and readily share resources and knowledge. Extracurricular
activities and community engagement further reinforce this cooperative
ethos.

On the flip side, some Asian education

systems are marked by intense
competition, especially where
standardized tests play a pivotal role in
university admissions. In nations like
China and India, students often engage
in fierce competition to secure coveted
spots in prestigious institutions. In these
exam-centric environments, cooperation
can give way to individual competition, as higher scores are closely tied to
individual success.

Foreign or immigrant students- in several Western countries- may be

disoriented during the first few weeks at a new school because they do not
understand the system and are not willing to ask questions. Many students
do not take advantage of the numerous services offered on campus that
assist students in developing skills and social groups. Some colleges offer
students tutorial support in such subjects as writing, language study,
computer skills, and other basic subjects. Students who appear to be most
successful in ‘learning ropes’ are those who take initiative to ask questions,
locate resources and experience new social situations. However, Professors
decide on their own method of grading. Some instructors use the "curve"
grading system, which is based on a formula that calculates a certain
number of As, Bs, Cs, Ds, and Fs. In other words, a professor knows what
percentage of the students will receive each grade. A student's score is
calculated relative to those of the other students. In some courses where
an individual’s grades are calculated in relation to others’ scores and the
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

grading curve is used, students may be reluctant to share lecture notes or

other information for fear that their own grades will suffer.

In education systems, competition among students persists for several

reasons that extend beyond the classroom. One of the foremost drivers of
this competition is the pursuit of a high Grade Point Average (GPA), which
holds profound implications for students' future educational and career
prospects. The grade-point average, or GPA, is usually based on a
numerical system in which A (excellent) = 4 points; B (good) = 3 points, C
(average) = 2 points; D (poor) = 1 point; and F (fall) = no points. Students
begin to accumulate their GPA during their first semester or quarter. If
students let their GPA drop in the first few semesters of college, it is
difficult to pick it up and maintain a high average. It is important to keep a
high GPA in order to be accepted to graduate schools; some employers
also want to know a student's GPA.

One significant factor fueling this

academic competition is the stringent
requirements for admission to superior
graduate schools. These graduate
programs often demand applicants to
possess a stellar academic record, with
a focus on a high GPA. Students
aspiring to further their education
recognize that achieving top grades is
crucial to gain a competitive edge in
the admission process. This recognition fosters a culture of academic
competition as students vie for limited spots in these prestigious programs.

Moreover, the competition among students is accentuated by the limited

openings available in these superior graduate programs. The imbalance
between the number of applicants and the available slots intensifies the
competition, making high grades a coveted asset. Students understand
that their GPA is a critical determinant in securing a place in their desired
graduate programs, and this realization drives them to strive for academic
excellence.

Beyond graduate school admissions, the competitive job market adds

another layer to the pursuit of high grades. Employers often use academic
performance as an initial screening criterion when evaluating job
applicants. Graduates with impressive GPAs are often favored, particularly
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

for positions that demand a high level of academic achievement or

specialized expertise. Consequently, students are acutely aware of the role
grades play in shaping their employability and career prospects.

This grade-conscious culture is deeply ingrained in Western education

systems. American students understand that their grades are not merely
symbols of academic achievement but also gateways to opportunities.
Scholarships, research positions, internships, and leadership roles within
student organizations are all influenced by academic performance. Thus,
students are driven to excel academically to unlock these valuable
avenues. In this pursuit of high grades, many instructors offer extra-credit
assignments as opportunities for students to improve their GPA. These
assignments serve as a means for students to demonstrate their
commitment to their studies and their willingness to go the extra mile. It is
a reflection of their determination to excel academically and achieve the
highest possible GPA.

II.4.5.6.2. Grading: More cultural habit than

science

In Vietnam, the evaluation and assessment of students' academic

performance follow a distinctive set of practices, which differ in several key
aspects from grading systems found in some Western countries. While
grading curves, also known as bell curves, are not as commonly employed
in the Vietnamese educational system, Vietnam has developed its own
unique approach to assessing and evaluating student performance.

Central to the Vietnamese assessment landscape is the use of a 10-point

grading scale, where students receive scores ranging from 1 (the lowest)
to 10 (the highest). The passing grade typically falls between 4 and 5,
depending on the specific institution and course. Notably, the assessment
process in Vietnam often relies on subjective judgments made by teachers.
Educators assess students based on a range of factors, encompassing
classroom participation, homework completion, performance on exams,
and the quality of other assignments. This emphasis on teacher discretion
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

plays a significant role in shaping students' academic progress.

Vietnamese education is renowned for its competitive nature, particularly
at the secondary and high school levels. Students often experience intense
pressure to excel academically, reflecting the country's strong
commitment to education. The National High School Graduation
Examination, commonly referred to as "Kỳ thi tốt nghiệp trung học phổ
thông," holds immense importance as it significantly influences students'
academic trajectories and future opportunities.

While grading curves may not be a prevalent feature of Vietnamese

assessment practices, standardized testing is a cornerstone of the
educational system. National and regional exams are highly regulated and
form a critical component of academic evaluation. The outcomes of these
examinations can directly impact students' access to higher education and
their prospects in future careers. Assessment methods in Vietnam
encompass a diverse range of approaches, including written exams, oral
assessments, practical tests, presentations, and other forms of evaluation.
These methods are often employed to assess students' competencies
across various subjects and grade levels.

Supplementary education in the form of private tutoring and exam

preparation centers, known as "lớp học thêm" or "trung tâm luyện thi," is
commonplace in Vietnam. Many students seek additional support from
these centers to bolster their academic performance and prepare
rigorously for critical exams.The Vietnamese government plays a pivotal
role in the education system, overseeing standards and regulations.
National exams, in particular, adhere to strict standardization measures to
ensure consistency and fairness in the assessment process.

In Western education systems, particularly in the context of grading and

assessment, there is a strong emphasis on transparency, open
communication, and fairness. Unlike some Eastern education systems
where grades may be viewed as sacred and secretive, Western institutions
strive to make the grading process as clear and accessible as possible.

One of the key aspects of this transparency is ensuring that students have
a comprehensive understanding of the grading system. At the beginning of
each course, students are provided with detailed grading rubrics, syllabi,
and guidelines. These documents outline the specific criteria for
assessment, the grading scales used, and the weightage assigned to
various assignments, exams, and class participation. This transparency
enables students to set their own academic targets and make informed
decisions about their effort and focus. Armed with a clear understanding of
how different components contribute to their final grades, students can
strategically allocate their time and energy throughout the course to
maximize their performance. Furthermore, the transparency of the grading
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

system empowers students to address any concerns or discrepancies in

their grades. If they believe that their grades do not accurately reflect their
work and understanding of the course material, students are encouraged
to approach their professors with their objections. This open
communication is a fundamental aspect of the Western educational ethos.
However, it is paramount that students approach these discussions with
their professors in a polite and respectful manner. Expressing
disagreement or seeking clarification should be done constructively and
without anger. This approach fosters a positive and collaborative
environment for resolving grading-related issues. In cases where concerns
persist or students believe that an error or unfairness has occurred in
grading, many Western institutions have established grade appeals
processes. These processes allow students to formally appeal a grade
through designated channels, ensuring that grading decisions are subject
to review and scrutiny.

II.4.5.7. Student Stress and Coping

II.4.5.7.1. Student Stress

In the realm of education, the experience of emotional challenges and

stress varies significantly among students, influenced by factors such as
age, life experiences, and responsibilities. This contrast is particularly
notable when comparing younger and older students, each navigating the
educational environment through a distinct lens shaped by their individual
circumstances.

II.4.5.7.1.1. Younger Students: A

Transition of Challenges

For younger students, often fresh

out of high school and stepping into
the unfamiliar terrain of college or
university, the educational
landscape can be a realm of
heightened emotional challenges.

The transition to higher education marks a crucial juncture, one that

introduces an array of academic pressures. Younger students, who may
not be accustomed to the rigors of college life, often grapple with the
stress associated with examinations, coursework deadlines, and the sheer
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

academic workload. A critical aspect of this transition is the learning curve

related to responsibility. Many younger students are in the process of
honing their time management and responsibility-handling skills. Balancing
academic commitments with newfound social freedoms and extracurricular
activities can be a formidable task. Learning to prioritize effectively is
another facet of this journey. The ability to juggle coursework, meet
deadlines, and maintain a fulfilling social life while maintaining academic
excellence can be a daunting challenge for younger individuals who are
still refining their organizational abilities. Instructors and professors may
appear intimidating to younger students, especially in large lecture halls or
unfamiliar academic settings. Fear of judgment, hesitancy to seek
clarification or assistance, and a lack of confidence in engaging with
faculty can be significant hurdles to their educational experience.

Student stress within Eastern education systems is a complex and

pervasive issue that significantly impacts the lives of students in countries
such as China, South Korea, Japan, and India. This stress arises from a
combination of cultural, societal, and educational factors, resulting in an
environment where academic pressure can be overwhelming.

One of the primary contributors to

student stress in Eastern countries is
the emphasis on competitive entrance
exams for prestigious universities.
These exams are highly competitive,
and success or failure on them can have
a profound impact on a student's future
educational and career prospects. The
intense competition to secure a coveted
spot in these institutions places an
immense burden on students, leading to long hours of study and a
relentless focus on academic achievement.

Moreover, Eastern cultures traditionally place a strong value on academic

success. Students are expected to excel academically, often with little
tolerance for underperformance. This expectation can create a tremendous
amount of pressure as students strive to meet these high standards.

To excel in this demanding environment, many students resort to long

study hours, often attending supplementary private tutoring or "cram
schools" in the evenings and on weekends. The relentless pursuit of
academic excellence can lead to burnout and high levels of stress.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

Parental expectations also play a significant role in amplifying student

stress. Parents in Eastern cultures frequently have high hopes for their
children's academic achievements, adding to the pressure felt by students.
The fear of disappointing parents or not meeting their expectations can be
a significant source of stress.

Compounding these factors is the limited work-life balance that many

students experience. The intense focus on academics often leaves little
time for extracurricular activities, hobbies, or relaxation, further
contributing to stress and potentially leading to mental health issues. In
some Eastern cultures, there is also a stigma surrounding mental health
discussions, making it difficult for students to seek help for stress or
anxiety. This reluctance to address mental health concerns can exacerbate
the problem.

Additionally, the belief that academic success is directly tied to future

career success can add to the pressure. Students may feel that their job
prospects are limited if they do not excel academically, further intensifying
their stress.

In both Vietnam and South Korea, military service obligations can add to
the academic pressures faced by young men. This necessitates effective
time management, coping with psychological stress, and considering how
to balance military and academic responsibilities efficiently.

The duration of military service in

Vietnam, typically ranging from 18
months to 2 years, can disrupt the
academic pursuits of young male
students. This interruption is
particularly noteworthy for those
pursuing short-term or equivalent
programs. Universities and colleges
often need to adjust academic
programs to accommodate the
military service commitments of their
students. This can pose challenges
for students as they strive to
maintain their academic progress.
Students serving in the military may
grapple with the psychological and emotional stress associated with
balancing military responsibilities and academic studies. This can lead to
tension and anxiety.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

In South Korea, military service typically

occurs after university graduation.
However, during their university years,
students often face immense pressure
related to competitive college entrance
exams. These exams are highly
competitive, and success or failure can
significantly impact a student's future.
When called for military service after
university, South Korean students may
experience pressure in balancing their
careers and military obligations. South
Korean society places strong emphasis
on career success and personal
achievements. Thus, both military
service and the pursuit of prestigious
university admission represent
significant societal expectations. Meeting these expectations can be
challenging and pressuring.

Student stress associated with exams and meeting deadlines is a

pervasive issue in Western education systems. Whether in the United
States, the United Kingdom, or other Western countries, students often
grapple with a variety of stressors that can impact their mental and
emotional well-being.

High-stakes standardized tests, such as SATs, ACTs, and college entrance

exams, play a significant role in determining students' academic futures.
The pressure to perform well on these tests can be immense, as they often
influence university admissions and scholarship opportunities. In addition
to standardized testing, many Western schools employ competitive
grading systems that foster an environment where students compete for
limited top grades. This competition can add to the stress students face, as
they strive to outperform their peers.

Heavy workloads are another contributing factor to student stress.

Students are often tasked with managing multiple assignments, projects,
and exams simultaneously. The need to balance academic responsibilities
with extracurricular activities, part-time jobs, and personal lives can be
overwhelming.

Parental and societal expectations also weigh heavily on students. The

desire to meet or exceed the academic achievements of their peers and
fulfill societal norms can lead to increased stress levels. Furthermore, the
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

college admissions process, characterized by fierce competition for

coveted spots in prestigious institutions, intensifies stress during the
application phase. Performance anxiety is a common byproduct of these
pressures. The fear of failure or disappointing others can hinder a student's
ability to perform at their best in exams or meet deadlines for
assignments.

Recognizing the impact of student stress on mental health, there is a

growing awareness and effort to provide mental health support within
schools. Schools and institutions are increasingly focusing on holistic
education that values personal development and well-being alongside
academic achievement.

II.4.5.7.1.2. Older Students: Wisdom

Amidst Challenges

Conversely, older students, whether they have prior work experience,

military service, or family responsibilities, often possess a reservoir of life
experiences that equip them with enhanced stress-coping mechanisms.
Older students tend to possess well-developed time management skills.
Life experiences, including parenthood and work-related responsibilities,
have honed their ability to efficiently organize their schedules. Balancing
academic commitments, family obligations, and work responsibilities
becomes a more manageable task for them.

Moreover, resilience is a hallmark of older students. Having encountered

adversity in various aspects of life, they have acquired the ability to bounce
back from setbacks. Whether facing challenging exams or tight deadlines,
their resilience allows them to persevere in the face of stress.

Clear goals and priorities also characterize older students. They understand
the significance of education in achieving their career objectives and
supporting their families. This sense of purpose serves as a powerful
motivator, enabling them to navigate through stressful situations with
determination. Additionally, emotional maturity tends to accompany age.
Older students are generally better equipped to handle stress with
composure, reducing the likelihood of being overwhelmed by academic
pressures. For those with prior work experience or military service, exposure
to high-pressure environments equips them with valuable problem-solving
skills and the ability to remain composed under stress.

Having faced high-pressure situations in their personal or professional

lives, they tend to exhibit greater resilience in navigating academic
pressures. Older students are more likely to maintain a holistic perspective
on life's priorities. A student who is also a parent, for instance, understands
that academic achievements, while undeniably important, do not
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

constitute the entirety of one's life. This broader outlook empowers them
to manage academic stress while sustaining a balanced focus on family
and other responsibilities. Older students generally exhibit greater
confidence in interacting with instructors or professors. Their life
experiences foster interpersonal skills that facilitate open communication
and the ability to seek guidance or assistance when necessary. They are
less likely to be intimidated by authority figures in the educational setting.

II.4.5.7.2. Coping strategies

When American students find

themselves struggling to cope with
excessive stress, they often turn to
counseling services provided by their
colleges or universities. These services
typically involve consultations with
college counselors or psychologists who
are trained to address a wide range of
mental health issues.

Trainers need to challenge ourselves around the degree to which we are

teaching the next generation to perceive counseling in a context that is both
multicultural and cross-cultural. Many counseling programs today are
seeking new faculty with strong multicultural competencies to promote those
of their graduate trainees; similarly, new faculty with strong cross-cultural
com-potencies can promote those of the next generation of counseling
psychology graduates. It is possible to systematically train our graduates to
be more cross-culturally competent, just as we are now learning to train our
graduates to be multicultural competent. Curriculum changes (e.g., adding
multicultural courses and infusing multicultural issues), new textbooks, and
cutting-edge conferences that address multicultural issues, as well as faculty
with growing multicultural competencies, have all contributed to the
multicultural competencies of counseling psychology graduates. Similar
curricular and training strategies can promote the cross-cultural
competencies of the next generation of counseling psychology graduates.

However, in addition to professional counseling, many schools also offer peer

counseling programs, where students who have experienced similar
challenges offer advice and support to their peers.

What is Peer Counseling?

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Peer Counseling is an interactive relationship between age groups to

influence positive change. (Bette
2013). It is a process where the
peers, i.e. colleagues, discuss
their issues amicably without
engaging in reprehensible
behavior and, consequently,
improving their academics.
Simply put, according to Mutie
and Ndambuki (1999), peers are
persons of the same age, rank or
capacity. In that case, they are
friends or companions of age,
who learn, talk, compare ideas
and do things together.

A peer is someone you come across in terms of approximate equality, a

companion or a companion. And Peer Counseling is the process of assisting
someone to explore and resolve difficulties they encounter, clarify conflicting
issues and helping that person discover alternative ways of managing
themselves and situations so that they decide what type of action or
behavior helps them.

Peer Counseling is the best alternative for adolescents' need to identify with
their peers. Peers join cliques and groups for the various divergent reasons
such as the provision of personal needs of affiliation and companionship, for
a reward that is either material or psychological; that is prestige &
recognition, enjoyment and excitement, provision of information for raising
of their self-esteem and as a means of gaining identity (Lines, 2006).
Students discuss issues at home and school during a peer counseling
session, substance abuse, and career planning. (Tindi & Silsil, 2008)

Peer counseling has been a crucial part of schools' orientation and counseling
programmes for many years in Britain and America. This has been effectively
established and managed by training and coaching learners on life skills and
basic counseling skills. In their counseling programs, teacher counselors
select peer educators by inviting students to identify two students they are
likely to talk to when confronted with difficulties. Subsequently, the named
students are trained and empowered with skills and techniques to help them
reach other learners (Lepan, 2001). While, in Botswana and Uganda, peer
counseling for teenagers is vital as it enables those in the same age bracket
to discuss openly and to express personal problems and shortcomings about
those in authority, parents, teachers and themselves in a free, relaxed
atmosphere (Rutondoki, 2000; UNESCO, 2002).
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

Not only that, in the recent past, the constitution of Kenya stated that they
must be involved in crucial decisions that affect students (Republic of Kenya,
2010; Machogu, 2012). Prefects are young leaders who are empowered by
the school (Machogu 2012). Although prefects contribute positively to the
leadership of the public secondary school in Kenya, there is a relentless wave
of conflict, hostility and resentment mated on prefects by other students
(Ajowi & Simatwa, 2010).

In Western education, peer counseling is often structured and formalized

within schools and colleges. Peer counselors undergo training in active
listening, communication skills, and basic counseling techniques. They are
prepared to assist fellow students with a wide range of issues, including
academic challenges, stress management, mental health concerns, and
relationship problems. Confidentiality is a core principle, ensuring that
students can share their concerns with peers in a safe and trusting
environment.

In contrast, Eastern education systems may be influenced by cultural norms

that prioritize privacy and discourage discussing personal problems with
others, even peers. Instead, students in some Eastern cultures may rely on
informal support networks within their families, communities, or religious
institutions. However, attitudes toward counseling are evolving in many
Eastern regions, recognizing the importance of mental health support.
Consequently, some educational institutions are adopting Western-style peer
counseling programs to provide additional support to their students.

For students living away from home for the first time, the newfound freedom
and responsibility can be overwhelming. They may grapple with decisions
related to academics, social life, finances, and personal development. In such
cases, they might find it more comfortable to confide in someone close in
age who has faced similar difficulties. Peer counseling programs serve as a
valuable resource for these younger students, offering a relatable and
understanding support system. However, it's important to note that
counseling, whether professional or peer-based, is not universally embraced
by all segments of the student population, particularly among international
students and new immigrants in the United States. In many cultures around
the world, discussing personal problems with strangers is considered
culturally uncomfortable or even taboo. The preference is often to keep such
matters within the confines of close-knit family or community networks.

This cultural difference can pose a challenge for international students and
new immigrants who may be dealing with stress or mental health issues
while navigating the American higher education system. Students described
stressors in their interpersonal and social domain, such as alienation,
acculturation difficulties, and isolation. They perceived these barriers as
obstacles that hinder their capacity to function at their desired academic,
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clinical, or professional level. Similar to previous studies (Knox et al., 2013;

Rahman & Rollock, 2004), four out of 12 participants described experiences
of feeling "othered" by domestic students (i.e., being categorized as different
and an outsider, and little inclusion in typical social connections).
Participants explained that most of their interactions with domestic students
were either required by a course or otherwise superficial in nature, which
heightened feelings of acculturation stress and overall loneliness and
isolation. Additionally, participants perceived interpersonal stressors as
obstacles that limited opportunities to become familiar with the sociocultural
rules and expectations of the host culture and/or hindered the development
of relational assets for future employment opportunities. (Domínguez DG,
Cheng HL, De La Rue L. Career Barriers and Coping Efficacy with
International Students in Counseling Psychology Programs. Couns Psychol.).
The idea of seeking help from counselors, whether peers or older
psychologists, might clash with deeply ingrained cultural norms that
prioritize privacy and self-reliance. To address this cultural disparity and
ensure that all students have access to the support they need, colleges and
universities should strive to create a diverse and inclusive range of mental
health services. This includes recognizing and respecting cultural differences
in attitudes toward counseling. Providing alternative forms of support, such
as culturally sensitive counseling options or peer counseling programs
specifically designed to bridge these cultural gaps, can help ensure that
every student, regardless of their background, can access the assistance
they require to cope with the challenges of college life. In doing so,
institutions can promote the overall well-being and academic success of their
diverse student populations.

Trainers need to challenge ourselves around the degree to which we are

teaching the next generation to perceive counseling in a context that is both
multicultural and cross-cultural. Many counseling programs today are
seeking new faculty with strong multicultural competencies to promote those
of their graduate trainees; similarly, new faculty with strong cross-cultural
com-potencies can promote those of the next generation of counseling
psychology graduates. It is possible to systematically train our graduates to
be more cross-culturally competent, just as we are now learning to train our
graduates to be multicultural competent. Curriculum changes (e.g., adding
multicultural courses and infusing multicultural issues), new textbooks, and
cutting-edge conferences that address multicultural issues, as well as faculty
with growing multicultural competencies, have all contributed to the
multicultural competencies of counseling psychology graduates. Similar
curricular and training strategies can promote the cross-cultural
competencies of the next generation of counseling psychology graduates.
(The Counseling Psychologist. Paul Heppner 2006; 34; 147) There are certain
things that students can de-on their own to cope with problems. In one
university handbook, students are advised to try to manage stress by doing
the following:
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

Regular physical activity is a proven stress reliever. Exercise releases

endorphins, which are natural mood lifters. Engaging in physical activities
not only improves physical health but also contributes to mental well-being.
Students are encouraged to incorporate exercise into their daily routines to
manage stress effectively.
Make certain you get enough sleep during stressful times. Sleep is essential
for cognitive function and emotional stability. During stressful times,
students may be tempted to sacrifice sleep to meet academic or social
demands. However, this approach is counterproductive. Prioritizing sleep
ensures that students are better equipped to face challenges and make
sound decisions.
Learn to relax your body. Learning relaxation techniques such as deep
breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, or yoga can help students release
physical tension. Relaxing the body can lead to a calmer mind, making it
easier to handle stressors effectively
Set priorities; think about one concern at a time. Overloading oneself with
multiple concerns can be overwhelming. Setting priorities allows students to
focus their energy on one task or issue at a time. This approach reduces
stress by breaking down larger problems into manageable pieces.
Learn to accept what you cannot change. Acceptance is a powerful tool for
managing stress. Sometimes, students face circumstances beyond their
control. Learning to accept these situations can help prevent excessive worry
and rumination, leading to a healthier mindset.
Learn to say "No" (do not let yourself be persuaded to do things you do not
want to do). Setting boundaries and learning to say "No" when necessary is
crucial for preventing burnout. It's important not to overcommit oneself,
which can lead to stress and diminished well-being. Know your limits:
Recognizing personal limitations and seeking help when needed is a sign of
strength, not weakness. It's essential for students to understand that it's
okay to ask for assistance when facing overwhelming stressors.
Talk it out, share your stress with someone you trust. Sharing stress with a
trusted friend or counselor can provide emotional relief. Talking about
challenges can lead to new perspectives and solutions while fostering a
sense of connection and support.
Take care of yourself. Self-care involves nurturing one's physical and
emotional needs. This can include relaxation, pampering, or engaging in
activities that bring joy and fulfillment. Self-care is not a luxury but a
necessity for maintaining well-being. Make time for fun: Amid the demands
of academia and life, students often forget to have fun. Incorporating
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

enjoyable activities into their routines can provide a welcome break from
stress and promote a balanced lifestyle.
Avoid self-medication to protect their physical and mental health. Using
drugs or alcohol as coping mechanisms for stress is dangerous and
counterproductive. It can lead to addiction and worsen mental health issues.
Students are advised to seek healthier ways to manage stress. Building a
support network of friends and mentors can provide a safety net during
challenging times. These individuals can offer guidance, encouragement, and
a listening ear when needed.

II.4.5.8. International and Immigrant Students in the

United States

II.4.5.8.1. Personal network

For international students and immigrants pursuing their education in the

United States, there are several common challenges they may encounter,
with one of the foremost being the difficulty of forging meaningful
friendships. Interestingly, this challenge is not unique to foreign-born
individuals but is also experienced by a subset of American students.
However, American colleges and universities have recognized the
importance of addressing this concern and offer various avenues to help
students overcome it.

The journey of making friends in a new cultural and social environment can
be a daunting one for international students and immigrants. Adjusting to a
foreign culture, different social norms, and a diverse range of perspectives
can pose significant hurdles, leading to feelings of isolation. To bridge this
gap, many educational institutions in the United States have established a
diverse array of student clubs and organizations. These extracurricular
activities serve as an invaluable platform where both foreign-born and
American students have an increased likelihood of connecting with like-
minded peers who share common interests, hobbies, or academic pursuits.
Information about these extracurricular opportunities is often easily
accessible, with details frequently posted in prominent locations such as the
student center and listed in the student newspaper. This accessibility
ensures that students are aware of the numerous options available to them
for social engagement and connection-building.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

In general, most foreign

students' closest
friends are fellow
nationals. Within a
foreign student's circle
of close friends may
also be foreign
students from other
countries, though
international conflicts
and antipathies among
nations contribute to
prohibiting friendships among foreign students of certain countries. For
example, we have observed that friendships are not formed among students
from Pakistan and Bangladesh, students from Israel and the Arab nations,
students from Japan and Korea, or students from Nigeria and South Africa.
Few foreign students indicated that they considered American students
among their close friends. This is not surprising, given both the fact that the
foreign student is in an unfamiliar environment which provides little escape
and the fact that most Americans have little understanding of the legal,
financial and academic situations of a foreign student. Because a foreign
student and an American student do not share common legal and social
statuses, they do not seem to have enough in common to forge close
relationships. Also the foreign student expects of his close friendships a
certain amount of instrumentality in helping him in his academic, legal and
financial situations. The foreign student expects to be able to discuss with his
close friends his concerns, difficulties, and plans - and he expects an
informed response from his listeners. Only another foreign student, and
especially a fellow national, can provide both the emotional and instrumental
elements of a close friendship. Many American students interpret foreign
students' behavior as "cliquish" and "unfriendly" - without understanding
that the foreign student's situation puts a premium on close friendships
which can be emotionally and instrumentally supportive. (Hendricks, Glenn
L.; Skinner, Kenneth A. TITLE Economic and Social Coping Strategies of
Foreign Students. Research Bulletin, Volume 15, No. 23.) It is important to
acknowledge that at times, international students may perceive some
Americans as being "cliquish," while conversely, some Americans may view
non-U.S.-born students as cliquish themselves. Such perceptions can
inadvertently contribute to social barriers and inhibitions.

In light of these challenges, individuals who feel excluded from the social
aspects of American college life are encouraged to adopt a proactive
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

approach. Simply passing by people in the hallways is often insufficient to

establish meaningful connections. Instead, taking the initiative to seek out
individuals who share similar interests, hobbies, or backgrounds can be a
pivotal step in breaking down these social barriers.

II.4.5.8.2. Orientation

The initial weeks at a new school in the United States can be a challenging
and disorienting experience for foreign or immigrant students. This
disorientation often arises from a lack of understanding of the American
educational system and a reluctance to ask questions. Regrettably, many
students, whether they are international or domestic, do not fully utilize the
wide range of support services available on campus that can assist them in
developing new skills and forming social connections. Early in each quarter
or semester, students sometimes take the initiative to form "study groups''
in which informal learning and peer teaching takes place. It is best if this
happens in the first or second week of class, as students can become lost
quickly in a challenging course. Occasionally, if asked, professors and
Instructors may assist students in forming study groups. Generally, however,
it is up to the students to do this. The students who tend to excel in this
process of "learning the ropes" are those who take the initiative to ask
questions, seek out resources, and engage in new social situations.

The initial period at a new school can be overwhelming. Foreign or immigrant

students may find themselves grappling with the unfamiliarity of the
American education system, including its teaching methods, grading
systems, and cultural nuances. A common obstacle during this transitional
phase is the hesitation to ask questions. Some students fear being perceived
as inexperienced or bothersome, which can impede their ability to effectively
navigate their new environment.

Educational institutions typically offer a plethora of support services aimed at

helping students develop essential skills and fostering social connections.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

These services encompass academic assistance, career guidance, and social

programs. Academic counselors are available to help students choose
classes and majors and arrange schedules. International student advisors
can help with specific problems concerning immigration, visas, and other
such areas. On many campuses there are "clinics" and "centers” that deal
with specialized problems, psychological counseling services, study skills
centers, and math or business clinics are often available to students.
Academic counselors can usually recommend where to go for these services.
There are other on-campus and off-campus services for students such as
professional typing, and tutoring in many subjects: Some of these services
are free others are not often department secretaries or professors can
suggest names of proficient students who tutor others in particular subjects
School newspapers also list special services in the "Classified Ads” section.
Unfortunately, a significant number of students, including those who could
benefit the most, do not fully avail themselves of these resources.

Certain colleges provide tutorial support in areas such as writing, language

study, and computer skills. A student having difficulty with course content
may see a professor or during his or her office hours, which are usually
posted on the office door. Professors have to limit their time with students
because they have non-teaching responsibilities such as administrative work
and publishing. If professors want to have a permanent position, they are
obliged to publish a certain number of articles or even books. For this reason,
students having difficulty at times must try to find alternative ways of
seeking help. These services acknowledge that students may arrive with
varying levels of proficiency and seek to bridge any knowledge gaps.
Students who demonstrate the greatest success in acclimating to their new
school environment are often those who proactively take the initiative. They
actively seek out information, ask questions to clarify doubts, and actively
explore the resources available to them. Additionally, they embrace new
social situations, even when they feel unfamiliar or outside their comfort
zone.

II.4.5.8.3. Educational attitudes and

expectations
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The American classroom is shaped by a multitude of culturally ingrained

attitudes and expectations. These cultural nuances can manifest in various
educational practices, such as the honor system and student participation,
reflecting a profound respect for individual responsibility and independence.
However, for foreign and immigrant students, it's crucial to anticipate that
cross-cultural misunderstandings may emerge due to these differences. To
facilitate successful learning in this multicultural educational environment,
cultivating an awareness of these cultural disparities and maintaining
flexibility regarding one's own expectations and behavior are indispensable

factors.

American classrooms are often characterized by a culture of individualism

and self-reliance. The honor system, for instance, places a significant
emphasis on personal integrity and responsibility. Similarly, active student
participation is encouraged, underlining the importance of individual voices
and perspectives. Foreign and immigrant students, arriving from diverse
cultural backgrounds, may encounter challenges when navigating these
cultural dynamics.

Problems experienced by teachers in terms of intercultural education may

stem from attitudes and prejudices towards different cultures due to
insufficient experiences regarding knowing and recognition of features of
other cultures. Most of the participating teachers expressed that they have
no efforts in searching the cultures of their students. Besides, it can be said
that they have prejudices towards foreign students after the observations
conducted in math classes. Similar findings were revealed after the study
conducted with Turkish teachers carried out by Aslan (2017). The participant
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

teachers expressed that they do not have any information about parents,
environments, and different cultures. (Sarı M. H., Yüce E. (2020) ‘Problems
Experienced in Classrooms with Students from Different Cultures’, Journal on
Efficiency and Responsibility in Education and Science, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 90-
100.)

Differences in educational practices, communication styles, and expectations

can give rise to misunderstandings, both inside and outside the classroom.
To enhance the potential for successful learning, it is crucial for all students,
including those from other countries, to foster an awareness of these cultural
distinctions. This awareness includes recognizing that cultural norms and
expectations may differ significantly from what they are accustomed to in
their home countries. Flexibility is another key factor in navigating these
cultural differences effectively. Being open to adapting one's own
expectations and behavior to align with the American educational system
can help foreign and immigrant students integrate more seamlessly into the
classroom environment. Building cultural competency, which involves
understanding, respecting, and adapting to cultural differences, is a valuable
skill for all students. It enables individuals to interact effectively in diverse
settings and fosters a richer, more inclusive learning environment.

II.4.5.9. Classroom Seating Arrangements

Nowadays, in schools the number of

students with challenging behavior
is rising. Based on the data from
the National Centre for Education
Statistics (2013), about 40%
teachers in public schools reported
facing students with challenging
behavior. The learning process of
students is adversely affected by
challenging behavior. Behavior,
which is not compatible with good
classroom learning, is known as disruptive or challenging behavior. An
example of disruptive behavior is making noises with students tapping and
kicking on desks or chairs. Other examples include vandalism and damaging
school property. Disruptive behaviors interrupt the learning process and in
the long term, it will impede academic success if it is not controlled
(Robichaux, 2016).

The physical elements with seating arrangement are the most significant
aspect of a classroom environment. James (2016) stated that the
environment of the classroom is able to improve student achievement,
particularly with actual interaction between the teacher and students,
resulting in more enjoyable learning. A new seating paradigm should be
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

sought against the traditional one. Other than that, different patterns of
seating arrangement will lead to good interaction between students and
teachers during the teaching and learning process (Denton, 1992).
In order to have an effective communication in the classroom, a judicious
seating arrangement must be applied. To develop a positive classroom
environment, a successful arrangement is the major factor of performance.
In addition, students would be encouraged for the involvement in the
learning process via right arrangement of furniture, chairs, and desks in a
classroom (Laterra Wilson, 2012).

There are typically 19 types of seating arrangements for classrooms. Each of

these seating arrangements serves a specific purpose and can be adapted to
different teaching styles and lesson objectives. The choice of seating
arrangement should align with the educational goals and activities planned
for the day. There are many ways to arrange a classroom, such as the
traditional arrangement in straight rows, an arrangement in small groups, U-
shaped seatings, or a classroom with undivided, flexible arrangements.
Some of these arrangements are more common than others, such as an
arrangement in rows or small groups (McCorskey and McVetta 1978;
Wannarka and Ruhl 2008). The type of seating arrangement can be chosen
with different goals in mind (Fives and Buehl 2008; Gest and Rodkin 2011;
Kuzborska 2011). For instance, a seating arrangement in rows may be
chosen to improve information dissemination, whereas an arrangement in
small groups may be chosen to promote student interactions (McCorskey
and McVetta 1978).

Traditional (Rows and Columns)

In 2007, the environment of the classroom began to be exposed to various

seating patterns including Traditional, U-Shaped, and Cluster seating. Today,
the Traditional seating pattern can be considered as passive learning where
the teacher speaks and students listen. Although the teacher has good eye-
contact with all students, the students have very little eye-contact with each
other (Tanahashi, 2007).

Teachers can have a clear view of all the students in the classroom.
Maximum access that makes teachers to easily move around the classroom.
Suitable for large, medium, and small classrooms. Teachers are able to
maintain eye contact with the students during the learning session. Teachers
work with the whole classroom because more effort is needed to get
attention from the students. Encourages individual work. Improves
confidence level during the learning process. Convenient and simple, but not
suitable for large classrooms because some students are sitting far away
from the chalkboard or whiteboard. Distraction and noise pollution that is
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

usually caused by students sitting at the back. No effective interaction

between students. Less approach group or team work activities. Students
pay less attention and have difficulties participating in class activities.
Students do not convey their knowledge. Enhances passivity of students.

1. Rows

This is used most of the time in higher education

when students have to listen to the teacher in the
front. Here, the teacher can’t give any one-on-one
feedback as it’s hard to reach students in the
middle. It’s a seating arrangement to get as many
students in one classroom.

2. Pairs

Let’s start with one of the most used bench

seating arrangements: Pairs. Pair up students
and let them work individually or together. It’s
more fun with two but still gives you a nice
overview. In this way, students can get their
heads together when needed. If they have to
work individually, let’s say they have a test, you
can place a binding folder between the students.
Here, you can also easily divide your classroom
into three columns of pairs. Ask, for example, the
first column to answer question A, the second
column to answer question B and the last column to answer question C. Go
over the answers when they’ve finished. That way, you can speed up the
classical work.

3. Grid
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This seating arrangement is especially handy when testing your students or

when you want them to work individually. They can’t talk to each other or let
their eyes wander on someone else’s paper. I wouldn’t recommend this
seating arrangement in your classroom all the time. Students could get
demotivated as they have no-one to “whisper” to.

Cluster seating arrangement

The students sometimes become chaotic in the group. In order to solve these
problems, there were some ways the teacher found. In order to reduce the
students' reluctance in U-shape seating arrangement, the teacher tried to
trigger some interactions with the students by asking some questions and
giving rewards. In contrast, in implementing Cluster seating arrangement,
the teacher grouped the students by their cognitive level. Those students
with higher intelligence were asked to sit in groups with those students with
lower intelligence. Cluster seating arrangement provides a collaborative
learning among students, it makes the students more active in the class
activities especially in answering the questions given by the teacher and
giving opinions. The teacher suggested Cluster seating arrangement to
promote more students’ participation during the class activities. The teacher
added that both of the seating arrangements are good to implement.
However, the teacher has to consider the class conditions as well.

4. Groups of Four

Use small groups of four when you want your

students to put their heads together. You can
let them work on an assignment. You can
also let them think about a question
individually and ask them to deliberate with
the other students in the group. Of course,
just individual work is also possible. This
seating arrangement just makes it a bit more
social. When working with “groups of four”
students get to sit with others all the time.
They get to know each other better and
make friends. This seating arrangement is a
good idea to start the year.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

5. Corner Work

When you’re working on a big project or

teaching a comprehensive topic with different
aspects or themes, this seating arrangement
will do just fine. Assign different tasks to each
corner. For example, a (digital) crossword
riddle, a quiz, a video with questions, a
whiteboard exercise, … All the assignments
complete each other. Let your students
shuffle so they’ve been to every corner and
did every assignment. You can also use it to
split up students with the same learning
level. One corner where students get more
instructions, the other has expansion
exercises, one corner has noise-canceling
headphones so students can concentrate, etc.

U-Shaped Layout

For smaller classes that want more interaction between the student and
educator, a U-Shaped layout is a better option. A U-Shaped desk
arrangement encourages discussion and makes it easy for the teacher to
observe students and provide one on one help.

Classroom size and number of students can make it difficult to use, for you
may not be able to fit a U-Shape pattern in a small room with a large number
of students. The layout spreads children out considerably so that it can be
hard to address them all and makes group work harder because the desks
can’t easily be moved around.

Easy to see and hear everyone in the group. Front of the room commands
the group’s attention. Unity is created by hanging all the tables together.
Openness gives trainees a sense of freedom and encourages participation.
Best setup to view audio visual presentations. Works well with role-playing
and other physical activities. It’s disadvantages: Requires more space than
any other configuration. Due to space and learning requirements, the
maximum amount of participants should not exceed 24.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

6. U-shape

The U-shape: This needs more effort on students for the learning activities,
where the teacher's position in the classroom is less demanding. Suitable for
medium classroom size. More opportunity for interaction between students
and teacher. Improves confidence level during the learning process. More
space for teachers' movement in the classroom during the teaching and
learning process. Less distraction and noise pollution in the classroom. This
classroom arrangement encourages discussion and makes it easy for the
teacher to observe students and give one-on-one help. With fewer group or
team work activities, students do not convey their own ideas or knowledge.

7. Double U-shape

When you have more students or a smaller

classroom, you can choose for the double U-
shape arrangement. This allows you to put more
students next to each other. It’s very cozy but
has some disadvantages as well. For example,
it’s harder for the teacher to go around in the
classroom. One-on-one support is more or less off
the table here. Students in the back might feel a
bit left out as well. It’s best to use this
arrangement when giving a presentation or when
teaching in front of the classroom.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

8. U-shape Large Classroom

You can see where I’m going here. Let’s say you
have a large classroom and a lot of students,
then you can definitely use this student desk
arrangement. In contrast to the double u-shape
arrangement, this u-shape for in a large
classroom doesn’t really cast students out.
There’s no separate “U” in the front, which
makes it more open to the students in the back.

9. Computer Combination

Any of the other classroom seating arrangements

work with portable devices like laptops, chrome
books or tablets. When you’re in a classroom
with student desks and computers, you can use
this classroom layout. It gives you an overview of
your students’ computers.

Conference style seating

Boardroom style seating, also referred to as conference style seating, offers

a single long, rectangular table around which meeting participants are
seated facing each other. All participants face the middle to enable
discussion and interaction from all directions.

10. Conference Small Classroom

Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

Are you teaching a small group of students? In that case, the conference
classroom arrangement is a possibility. The “conference classroom” gives
your students an “equal voice” and a snapshot of a business meeting room.
Use the conference seating arrangement when making classroom rules,
planning an event, for an intervention, a class discussion, etc. You can also
practice speech (foreign language) by letting the students facing each other
talk to each other. Let them switch places and move on to the next student
in line and talk about another topic.

11. Conference Large Classroom (Hollow

Square)

There's a conference classroom layout for

many students and a large classroom as well.
Use this just like mentioned above. The only
thing that’s not possible is letting students
face each other and talk directly to them.
Don’t use it for group work either.

12. Herringbone

This interesting student desk arrangement

serves two purposes. It is rows of two, three or
four, but slightly turned so they face the center
of the classroom. This way, students give full
attention to the teacher or students at the front
of the classroom, and they can join in on a
classroom discussion easily. You can also let
your students work together with the ones on
their row.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

13. Presentation

Get your students seated next to each other on

one line. Repeat this a few times if you have
enough classroom space. The purpose is to let
students listen to the one in front of the
classroom. This can be the teacher, or a student
giving a presentation or demonstration. Seating
your students this way is a good idea when you
want them to focus on the front of the
classroom. All students should be able to see
something and it’s easier for the one in the front
to divide its attention and eye contact.

14. Butterfly

This one is probably new to you. Let your

students work individually, yet they sit
together. This middle of the butterfly serves as
a place where students go for extra instructions
or a new assignment. Everything will be spread
out on those desks in the middle. The teacher
will be available to give more guidance when
needed as well.

15. Eye

Use eye-formation when you’re setting up a

debate or discussion. Select a group of students
that will debate in the middle of the eye. The rest
will be the audience.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

16. Circle or Half Circle Arrangements

Desks or chairs arranged in a circle or half circle promote community and

encourage all students to participate. Everyone sits in the front row. It also
allows the instructor to see everyone from an equal distance and
communicate easier with students. Advantages: Involves everyone in the
group. There is no table in the middle, therefore people are unobstructed
and can speak directly to each other. Creates equality among the group, with
no designated “leader” position. Their disadvantages: Some people feel
uncomfortable or exposed in this type of arrangement. Can only handle small
groups of people. Not conducive to visual aids or AV presentations.

Circle and Table: Combines informal, open

characteristics of a circle, yet gives trainees a table
for books and note taking. The table may also
remove the sense of vulnerability.

Half Circle: Possesses all of the advantages of the

circle but allows visual aids to be used effectively.
Also identifies a leader position to pressure
involvement of participants if needed.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

17. Large Groups

Split your classroom into two large groups. Let

the groups work on bigger projects like
organizing an event, putting together a play,
setting up their own “company”, keeping a
political meeting with different
representatives, etc. Keep in mind that it
might get loud in your classroom.

18. The ‘horseshoe’ style seating

arrangement

It is an effective way of increasing dynamic

interaction between students and the lecturer,
who is able to move right into the center of the
room. Having stood the test of time, this layout
is proven to increase collaboration in lectures.
Developed originally by Harvard Business
School, this arrangement of seats and desks
delivers excellent sightlines around the room
and promotes the feeling of inclusivity between
students.

Horseshoes

Use this classroom desk arrangement to encourage discussion in smaller

groups. Introduce some bold statements or “problems” about your teaching
topic and let your students discuss them in their groups (in a foreign
language you’re teaching languages). Encourage your students to come to a
consensus or a solution to the problem.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

19. Banquet

A Banquet seating style is similar to a

round dinner table, with the audience
seated around the circumference of the
table facing inwards. Audience interaction
fully enhanced, with audience members
all facing each other. The audience is
closed in, needing to push past other
audience members to enter/exit the
seating area. Line of sight can be
interrupted for guests facing away from
the stage, and similarly for those having
difficulty seeing past guests blocking their
view.

Use this classroom seating layout for two

things: Let students talk to the one facing
them (discussion, practice a foreign language, get to know each other, etc.).
Divide your classroom into two groups. Let them work together on bigger
projects like in number 17. Let them organize an event, put together a play,
set up their own “company”, etc.
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

III. Conclusion
In conclusion, the field education, values and expectations, is a dynamic and
multifaceted field that presents both challenges and opportunities. It
highlights the importance of cross-cultural education, focusing on cultural
awareness and adaptability in bridging the gap between different
educational norms- values and expectations. International students and
immigrants often encounter “culture shocks” when navigating American
classrooms, but these differences can lead to valuable cultural insights and
personal growth.
The United States offers a diverse range of educational options,
accommodating learners of all ages and backgrounds. This diversity reflects
the country's commitment to providing accessible and inclusive education,
catering to various needs and aspirations. Active student participation is a
hallmark of American education, with instructors encouraging lively
classroom discussions and engagement. However, the degree of student
autonomy can vary, necessitating adaptability to different teaching styles
and cultural backgrounds. The challenges and opportunities in cross-cultural
education, the diversity of educational options in the United States, and the
importance of active student participation and adaptability to different
educational approaches, the importance of active student engagement in
American education, the informal teacher-student relationships in the United
States, and the significance of trust, honesty, and the honor system in
American academic culture. It also highlights how cultural differences can
impact students' understanding and adherence to academic integrity
standards. The concept of competition and grading in education, with a focus
on how it varies between Western and Asian education systems. It also
highlights the role of grading curves, competitive and cooperative students’
relationship, cultural norms, and the pursuit of high GPAs in shaping student
behavior. Student stress and coping mechanisms in education vary
significantly based on factors such as age, cultural background, and
educational systems. Additionally, the choice of classroom seating
arrangement plays a crucial role in shaping the learning environment. Each
arrangement serves specific purposes and should align with the educational
goals of the class.
Education continues to be an emerging field that is no doubt making
progress in the US. To evolve effectively, it must be taught in a
developmentally appropriate way, and must be integrated whenever
Nguyễn Thị Thu – 20CNA13

possible. In essence, education: value and expectation, underscores the

significance of fostering cultural sensitivity, embracing diversity, and
promoting inclusive teaching practices to create a more enriching and
effective educational experience for all students, regardless of their cultural
backgrounds.
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