90/The Mushroom Cultivator

Once finished, this compost is normally pasteurized at 1 35 °F. for four hours. If pasteurization
is impossible, discard the cool outer shell and utilize the areas showing strong actinomycete activity.
Although these areas will not be free from all pests and competitors, they should provide a reas-
onably productive substrate. The aspect and characteristics of a properly prepared Long Compost
should conform to the guidelines for compost after Phase II. (See Aspect of the Finished Compost
on page 105 and Color Plate 8).

Short Composting
Commercial Agaricus growers uniformly base Their composting procedures on the methodolo-
gy developed by Dr. James Sinden, who called his technique "Short Composting" in reference to
the short period of time involved. Dr. Sinden's process is centered around the fast acting chemical
reactions occurring in zone 3. Besides the shorter preparation time, this process also results in a
greater preservation of dry matter, thus retaining valuable nutrients. Figure 89 illustrates the zona-
tion during short composting.
Without commercial composting equipment, approximating the temperature conditions of
Short Composting is very difficult. However, it does provide a model for optimum composting and
can be approached by adhering to the basic principles discussed in this chapter. The Short Com-
posting procedure is outlined below.
 Compost Preparation/91

The procedures for making a synthetic compost by the short composting method are outlined
below, with minor modifications for the home cultivator. Note the longer period of pre-composting
to condition the straw.

Figure 88 Temperature zonation during Figure 89 Temperature zonation during

Long Composting. Short Composting.
92/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 90 Commercial compost turning machine.

Composting Tools
Since commercial growers work with many Tons of compost, a bucket loader is essential. They
also use a specially designed machine for turning the piles. This compost turner can travel through
a 200 foot pile in a little over one hour, mixing in supplements and adding water. Small scale culti-
vators can make compost without these machines. The following is a list of tools and facilities that
are basic to compost preparation.
1. A cement floor. Not absolutely necessary but highly desirable, a cement floor is easy to
work on, prevents migration of water to the earth and prevents soil and unwanted soil or-
ganisms from contaminating the pile. Water leaching from the pile, a good indicator of
compost moistures, is quite evident on a cement floor. If a cement floor is not available, a
sheet of heavy plastic can be used.
2. Bobcat or small tractor loader with 3/4-1 yard bucket with fork. If producing large
amounts of compost, one of these machines saves time and labor. Not only do they make
 Compost Preparation 793

Figure 91 Pile formers in use.

pre-wetting, supplementing and pile building easier, they can be used to turn The pile.
3. Pile formers. These are constructed from 2 x 4's and plywood or planks to The dimen-
sions desired for the compost pile One for each side is necessary. Standard size would be
4-5 feet high by 8 feet long. An alternative to pile formers is a three sided bin.
4. Long handled pitchfork with 4 or 5 prongs. The basic tool in a compost yard, all com-
post piles were Turned wiTh pitchforks before the adv/ent of compost turners and bucket
loaders.
5. Flat bladed shovel. Used for handling supplements.
6. Hose with spray nozzle, or sprinkler.
7. Thermometers. Although pile temperatures can be guaged by touch, a long stemmed
thermometer gives accurate readings.

Characteristics of the Compost at Filling

The composting materials undergo very distinct changes during Phase I. A judgment as to the
suitability of the compost for filling is based on color, texture and odor. Gradual darkening of the
straw and the pronounced scent of ammonia are the most obvious features. These and other char-
acteristics provide important guidelines for judging the right time for filling the compost. (Note:
these guideslines do not apply for a compost prepared by the Long Composting methods.)
The compost is ready for filling if:
1. Compost is uniformly deep brown.
2. Straw is still long and fibrous, but can be sheared with some resistance.
3. When the compost is firmly squeezed, liquid appears between the fingers.
94/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 92, 93 Compost at

filling can be sheared with
moderate resisance.
Figure 94 Compost at fill-
ing should release some
moisture when firmly
squeezed.
 Compost Preparation/95

4. Compost has a strong smell of ammonia, pH of 8.0-8.5.

5. Compost is lightly flecked with whitish colonies of actinomycetes.
6. Kjeldahl nitrogen is 1.5% for horse manure and 1.7% for synthetic composts.

Supplementation at Filling
The key to a successful Phase II, whether in trays, shelves or a bulk room, lies in the heat gen-
erating capabilities of the completed Phase I compost. To this end the compost should be biologi-
cally "active," a term that describes a compost with sufficient food reserves to sustain a high level of
microbial activity. Whereas the Sinden Short Compost is a model of a vitally active compost, the
Rasmussen Long Compost is considered biologically "dead" because these food reserves have
been deliberately exhausted during Phase I. In this same sense, a compost having completed the
Phase II is also considered a dead compost.
A method that insures a high level of microbial activity during the Phase II is supplementation
with highly soluble carbohydrates during Phase I or with vegetable oils (fats) at filling. The purpose
of these supplements is to provide readily available nutrients which stimulate the growth of the mi-
crobial populations. The effect of carbohydrates or oil supplementation on the Phase II is:
1. Accelerated thermogenesis—The nutrients provided by the supplements act as a "super-
charger" for the microbial populations. Consequently their increased activity generates
more heat. Specifically, supplementation with vegetable oil (cottonseed oil} increased popu-
lations of actinomycetes and thermophilic fungi (Schisler and Patton, 1 970) while soluble
carbohydrates (molasses) enhanced bacterial populations (Hayes and Randle. 1968).
2. Better compost ventilation—Heightened thermogenesis within the compost requires lower
air temperatures within the Phase II room. The greater the compost to air temperature dif-
ferential, the better the air movement through the compost. In this respect a dead compost
requires a high room temperature and is difficult to condition because of its low microbial
activity.
3. Rapid reduction of free ammonia—The increased ventilation and microbial activity give rise
to a rapid fixation of ammonia. As a result, the Phase II period is reduced by as much as
three days. The advantage of this reduced time period is that dry matter and hence nutrients
for mushroom growth are conserved.
4. Reduced spawn running period—Oil supplemented composts show increased mycelial ac-
tivity and therefore higher temperatures during the spawn running period. As a result the
colonization period is shortened by three to five days.
5. Increased yields—Yield increases of 0.4-0.5 Ibs/ft2 are common for Agaricus growers us-
ing vegetable oil at filling. Similar increases are reported for molasses.
Compost supplementation with soluble carbohydrates is an effective way to prepare an active com-
post. These materials are listed earlier in the chapter as Group IV supplements. They are added to a
synthetic compost during pre-composting (50%) and at third turn (50%) and to a horse manure
compost at make-up and at third turn. Molasses is added at make-up at a rate of 10 ml per pound of
96/The Mushroom Cultivator

compost wet weight and is diluted 1:2 with water for easy application. Vegetable oil is sprayed onto
the compost the day of fill at a rate of 10 ml per pound of compost wet weight. Even application is
important to avoid creating hot spots.
Compost supplementation with soluble carbohydrates or vegetable oils is highly recom-
mended, especially for those planning a Phase II without stearn or with only limited supplemental
heating. Hence, this type of supplementation is particularly appropriate for the home cultivator.

PHASE II COMPOSTING
While Phase I is a combination of biological and chemical processes, Phase II is purely biologi-
cal, In fact, Phase I! can be considered a process of microbial husbandry. By bringing the compost
indoors into specially designed rooms, the environmental factors of temperature, humidity and fresh
air can be controlled to such a degree that conditions for growth of select microbial groups can be
maximized. These thermophilic and thermotolerant groups and their Temperature ranges are:
Bacteria: 100-170°F. Different species of bacteria are active throughout this range so an op-
timum can not be given. At temperatures above 130°F. bacteria dominate and are responsible for
the ammonification that occurs at these temperatures. The most common bacteria found by resear-
chers are Pseudomonas species.
Actinomycetes: 115-140°F. with an optimum temperature range of 125-132°F. The most
common species are found in the genera Streptomyces and Thermomonospora. Work done by
Stanek (1971) has shown that actinomycetes and bacteria are mutually stimulatory, resulting in
greater efficiency when working together.
Fungi: 110-130°F. with an optimum temperature of 118-122°F. Common genera are
Humicola and Torula. Recent research indicates that these fungi are the most efficient de-ammoni-
fiers, which has led to a more general use of their temperature range for Phase II conditioning.
The basic function of these microorganisms is to utilize and thereby exhaust the readily availa-
ble carbohydrates and the free ammonia. Ammonia in particular must be completely removed be-

Figure 95 Temperature vs.

ammonia utilization by
microbial populations.
(After Ross, 1978)
 Compost Preparation/97

cause of its inhibitory effect on the growth of mushroom mycelium. The result of this miccrobial ac-
tion is a build-up of cell substance or "biomass" which contains vitamins, fats and proteins. What
the mushroom mycelium uses for a large portion of its nutrition then, is the concentrated bodies
forming the microbial biomass. This biomass constitutes part of the brown layer coating the partially
decomposed straw fibers.
Many growers consider Phase II to be the most important stage in the growing cycle and rightly
so. An improperly prepared substrate yields few if any mushrooms. It is critical, therefore, that the
environmental conditions required during Phase II be carefully maintained. Phase II can be sepa-
rated into two distinct parts, each serving a specific function. These are:
1. PASTEURIZATION: The air and compost temperature are held at 135-140 °F. for 2-6
hours. The purpose of pasteurization is to kill or neutralize all harmful organisms in the
compost, compost container and the room. These are mainly nematodes, eggs and larvae
of flies, mites, harmful fungi and their spores. The length of time needed generally depends
on the depth of fill. Deeper compost layers require more time than shallow ones. In gener-
al, two hours at 140°F. is sufficient. Compost temperatures above 140°F. must be avoid-
ed because they inactivate fungi and actinomycetes while at the same time stimulating the
ammonifying bacteria. If temperatures do go above 140°F., be sure there is a generous
supply of fresh air.
2. CONDITIONING: The compost temperature is held at 118-130 °F. Once the pasteuriza-
tion is completed, the compost temperature should be lowered gradually over 24 hours to
the temperature zone favored by actinomycetes and fungi. The exact temperature varies ac-
cording to the depth of fill. At depths up to 8 inches, 122 °F. as measured in the center of
the compost is most frequently used. At depths over 8 inches, temperature stratification
becomes more pronounced, making a higher core temperature of 128 °F.advantageous. A
common procedure is to bring the compost Temperature down in steps, dropping the core
temperature 2°per day, from 130° to 122°F. This temperature is then held until all traces
of ammonia are gone.

Basic Air Requirements

Phase II is purely a process of aerobic fermentation and as such a constant supply of fresh air is
essential. To insure this supply, a minimum fresh air setting is established on the air intake damper.
A standard minimum setting is 8-10% of the intake opening. The oxygen level can be checked in a
practical manner by lighting a match in the Phase II room. If a flame can be maintained, the oxygen
level is sufficient. Lack of oxygen stimulates the growth of Chaetomium, the Olive Green Mold,
which will spoil the compost. (See Chapter XIII).
Compost temperatures follow the air temperature of the room. Fresh air not only supplies oxy-
gen, but is also used to keep the compost within the correct temperature zone. To drop the com-
post temperature, more fresh air is introduced and vice versa. Oversupply of fresh air is only a prob-
lem if it leads to rapid cooling of the compost. In this regard, changes in the fresh air setting should
98/The Mushroom Cultivator

be slow and deliberate. Only when the compost threatens to overheat should maximum fresh air be
introduced. This is particularly common directly after pasteurization.
Peak microbia! activity normally occurs 24-48 hours after pasteurization. As Phase II pro-
gresses and the food supply diminishes, this activity begins to slow. Compost temperatures should
begin to drop on their own, As they drop, the fresh air supply should be decreased, thus slowly rais-
ing the air temperature as the compost reaches the required temperature zones. If the fresh air
minimum is reached and the compost temperatures are still dropping, a supplemental heat source
must be installed.

Phase II Room Design

The Phase II room can be a special room set aside solely for this purpose (the norm on Tray
farms) or it can be in the same room where cropping occurs. Design features are critical for its suc-
cess and should be strictly adhered to. These features are:
1. Adequate insulation: Insulate to a R value of 19 for walls and a minimum of 30 for the ceil-
ing. A vapor barrier is needed to protect the insulation. (A layer of polyethylene is cheap and
effective.)
2. The room must be functionally airtight. The door should form a tight seal. Any cracks or
openings allow The passage of flies.
3. The ventilation system uses a backward-curved centrifugal fan driven by pulleys and belts,
and whose speed can be varied. The fan should be capable of moving air at 1 cubic foot per
minute (CFM) per square foot of compost surface area. A perforated polythene duct runs the
length of the room and directs the air either straight down the center aisle or across the ceil-
ing to the side walls. High velociTy airflow is necessary To mainfain even Temperafures
Throughout as well as to keep The room under positive pressure.
4. A fresh air vent is located before the fan. This damper also regulates recirculated air. (See
Fig. 73).
5. Filters are placed before the fresh air inlet. These filters are important as protection against
flies, dust and spores. High efficiency spore filters are commonly used for the incoming fresh
air. A pre-filter placed upstream of the main filter will increase its life. Recirculated air should
never be filtered during Phase II because of its high moisture content.
6. At the opposite end of the room from the fresh air vent are exhaust louvers operating on air
pressure. This exhaust air outlet must be screened from the inside.
7. If steam is used for boosting temperature, pipes can be run the length of the floor along the
side walls discharging oufwards. Steam can also be discharged directly into the air duct after
the fan. High output electric space heaters can also be used.

Filling Procedures
Depending on the growing system chosen, the compost is loaded into trays, shelves or a bulk
 Compost Preparation/99

Figure 96 Small Phase II room designed for trays or bulk fill.

room. Certain basic principles should be adhered to when filling. These are:
1. Fill the room as quickly as possible to minimize heaf loss from The compost.
2. Compress a long strawy compost and fill loosely a short dense compost.
3. If the compost appears dry, water lightly and evenly during filling. If water streams out when a
handful is squeezed, don't fill. Add again as much gypsum, turn and wait a few days,
4. Fill all shelves and trays evenly and to the same depth. Avoid creating pockets of compact
compost. Keep all compost within the container. No compost should hang over the sides.
5. Once finished, the floor should be cleaned of all loose compost, then washed with water.

Depth of Fill
Up to a point there exists a direct relationship between the amount of compost filled per square
foot and yield. In a fixed sheif system, the amount of compost filled is usually the amount available
for cropping. This normally holds true for trays, although some systems empty the trays at spawning
and then refill 25% fewer trays than the number that was originally filled. This results in high dry
weight efficiencies without the complications of deep compost layers during Phase II. As a general
rule, a fill depth of 8 inches will provide sufficient nutrients as well as contribute to the ease of Phase
II- At depths over 8 inches temperature stratification will lead to varying conditions wifhin the com-
100/The Mushroom Cultivator

post, complicating the Phase II program. Ar depths under 5 inches there is insufficient mass for
proper heat generation and large quantities of steam may be needed.
An important consideration is the ratio of cubic feet of compost filled to cubic feet of air space in
the room. This ratio largely determines whether a supplementary heating source is necessary.
Clearly, greater volumes of compost require less additional heating. To maximize compost heat
generation, some tray systems stack trays no more than 3-4 inches apart during Phase II. These
trays are later distributed to two cropping rooms with a spacer inserted between the trays to facilitate
picking.

PAY PHASE II PROCEDURE: TRAYS OR SHELVES

0 The house is filled and cleaned. Thermometers are placed in the center of at least four
containers, and one in the middle of the room for reading air temperature. Shut the

Figure 97 Phase II temperature profile for trays or shelves.

 Compost Preparation/101

door, turn on the fan and close the fresh air vent. Air and compost temperatures should
rise from microbial activity. If not, additional heat should be supplied. Once The compost
reaches 120°F., The fresh air vent should be opened and regulated to maintain compost
temperatures in the 125-130°F. range. From this point on, the fresh air vent should
never be less than the minimum setting of 10%.
1-2 A temperature chart should be kept, noting air and compost as well as fresh air and
steam settings. Temperatures should be read every 4-6 hours. Compost temperatures
should be in the 125-130°F. range for the first 48 hours after fill. After this period, pas-
teurization should commence. The air temperature is boosted to 140°F. and held long
enough to subject the compost to 140°F. for 2 hours. If 140° can not be reached, a
compost and air temperature of 135° for four hours is sufficient. The temperatures
should be monitored closely to be sure pasteurization is complete. A long stemmed ther-
mometer can be pushed through a drilled opening in the door, or a remote reading ther-
mocouple can be used. After pasteurization, full fresh air is introduced to stop rising
compost temperatures. Once the compost temperature begins to drop, adjust the fresh
air setting To stop the compost in the temperature zone required, 128-130°F.
2-10 Starting at 128°F., use fresh air to lower the compost temperature gradually, 2° per
day, until 122 ° is reached. Hold The composf at that temperature until it is free of ammo-
nia. Throughout this conditioning process, a compost to air differential of 10-30°F. is
normal. This differential is important for The passage of air through The compost. Little or
no differential is undesirable and indicates over-composting or under-supplementation.
During the conditioning period definite changes in the compost become apparent. The
compost becomes well flecked with whitish actinomycetes, and on the surface whitish
grey aerial rnycelia of Humicola species appear. Both are indicators of proper microbial
conversion.
5-10 Once the compost is free of ammonia, full fresh air is introduced, dropping the compost
temperature rapidly to spawning temperatures in the 76-80 °F. range.

Phase II in Bulk
For many people, equipping a standard Phase II room for trays or shelves may be inappropri-
ate, especially if steam is used. The recent development of the bulk system now gives the home
grower the ability to perform the Phase II without steam. This system utilizes compost heat more ef-
ficiently by loading the compost in mass, five feet deep, into a small well insulated room with a
slatted floor. Instead of air diffusing through the compost by convection, air is blown under the floor
and forced up through the compost. The wide compost to air temperature differential so essenfial to
conventional Phase II processes is eliminated; compost and air temperatures are now no more Than
5°F. apart. This narrow differenTial is in part relaTed To a reduced compost-to-air volume ratio, which
in a bulk room is 1:1 or 1:%. This reduction of air space, coupled with the airtight, well insulated
room, results in full utilization of compost heat generation. A large measure of control over compost
102/The Mushroom Cultivator

temperatures becomes possible and optimum temperatures within the mass can be tightly regu-
lated.

Bulk Room Design Features

The size of the bulk room varies according to individual needs, but should be large enough that
there is sufficient compost mass to supply heat.
1. At a fill depth of 4-5 feet, one ton of compost requires approximately 8-10 sq. ft. of floor
space.
2. Bulk rooms are well insulated. The walls and door are R-19; the ceiling is R-30 mini-
mum. A vapor barrier should protect all insulation.
3. The room has a double floor. The bottom floor is concrete, insulated to R-19 with styro-
foam or other water impervious material, and covered with tar or temperature resistant
plastic as a vapor barrier. The compost floor is 12-18 inches above the bottom floor, and
is made of 4 x 4's with spacers in between to leave 20% air space. This floor is removable
to permit periodic cleaning.
4. The interior walls and ceiling are made of exterior grade plywood, treated with a wood
preservative or marine epoxy. Allow 14 inch for expansion. Caulk or seal with fiberglass
(ape.
5. The room must be airtight. Caulk all cracks and corners.
6. The access door runs the width of the room for easy loading and unloading. An airtight
sea! is essential.
7. A wood plank wall is inserted before the access door to prevent the compost from press-
ing against it. The plank wall is held in place by runners on either wall.
8. The ventilation system is powered by a centrifugal, high pressure belt driven blower, with
a capacity of 90-120 CFM per ton of compost at a static pressure of up to 4 inches of wa-
ter gauge. The recirculation duct comes out on the top of the back wall and down to the
fan. The supply duct goes from the fan to the air chamber under the compost floor. All
ductwork should be insulated.
9. The fresh air inlet and damper are located before the fan. This damper also regulates the
recirculated air. The fresh air should be filtered.
10. The exhaust outlet is located on the access door. This is a free swinging damper that oper-
ates on room pressure. This outlet is covered by a coarse filter.
1 1. Standard inside dimensions are 6-12 feet wide by 8-10 feet high.
1 2. For better temperature control the bulk room should be built inside a larger building, like a
garage, where temperaure differences are less extreme. The introduction of cold fresh air
hampers the process by neutralizing the compost heat.
A simple variation of this bulk room is a well insulated bin.1 The bin is constructed using the
 Compost Preparation/103

principles just outlined. Rather than a mechanical air system, fresh air is admitted through adjustable
vents at floor level and exits through similar vents in the ceiling. Because air passage is by convec-
tion, the compost should be filled loosely and to a depth of no greater than four feet.

Figure 98 Bulk pasteurization room. Ventilation system on end wall. (Design—Vedder)

Figure 99 Bulk pasteurization room. Ventilation system on side wall. (Design—Claron)

104/The Mushroom Cultivator

Bulk Room Filling Procedures

1. Fill as quickly as possible to minimize heat loss.
2. Compost should have good structure and optimum moisture content. Do not fill a dense,
overwet compost.
3. Fill evenly. Compost density is important. Avoid localized compaction as well as gaps.
Gaps or holes in the compost become air channels to the detriment of the surrounding
material. Be sure the compost presses firmly and evenly against all sides of the room.
4. Before filling the last three feet, put the inside board wall in place. Now fill the remaining
area. The compost should press firmly against the board wall.

Testing for Ammonia

The basic ammonia detection test has always been The sense of smell. The odor of ammonia
must be completely gone from The compost before it can be spawned. Odors are always good indi-
cators of compost suitability. However, to be absolutely certain, other methods are also used.
1. Cresyl Orange and filter paper: Pre-cut strips of white filter paper are saturated with a few
drops of cresyl orange liguid which turns the white paper yellow. Expose the paper to the
inside of the Phase II room or to the exhaust air of the bulk room. The paper can also be
 Compost Preparation/105

placed into small holes dug into the compost. The presence of ammonia turns the paper
varying shades of red. Purple indicates the highest concentration, while pink indicates a
lower one. When the yellow paper remains unchanged in color, free ammonia is absent.
2. Air samplers using gas detection tubes: These tubes are filled with chemicals that change
color as air samples are drawn into them. The tubes are calibrated in parts per million (ppm)
and give accurate readings down to 1 ppm. The air samplers are manufactured by Mine
Safety Co. and the Draeger Corp. Individual tubes cost from $2.00-$4.00 in lots of ten.
(See sources in Appendix).

Aspect of the Finished Compost

The following guidelines can be used to determine whether a compost is ready for spawning.
(See Color Photographs 5-8).

Figure 100 Bulk room Phase II temperature profile, (Dutch procedure)

106/The Mushroom Cultivator

1. The raw pungent odor is gone; the odor is now light and pleasant, even slightly sweet.
2. The ammonia odor is completely gone. The cresyl orange test shows no reaction. Detector
tubes read 10 ppm or less.
3. The pH is below 7.8, preferably 7.5.
4. Straws appear dull and uniformly chocolate brown, speckled with whitish actinomycetes.
5. The compost is soft and pliable and can be sheared easily.
6. When squeezed the compost holds its form. No water appears and the hand remains
relatively clean.
7. Moisture content is 64-66% for horse manure and 67-68% for synthetics.
8. Nitrogen content is 2.0-23%; the C:N ratio is 17:1.

ALTERNATIVE COMPOSTS AND

COMPOSTING PROCEDURES
Sugar Cane Bagasse Compost
Sugar cane bagasse is the cellulosic by-product of sugar cane after most of the sugars have
been removed. It is generally a short fibrous material with a high moisture holding capacity. Total ni-
trogen amounts to 0.1 8%. In 1 960, Dr. Kneebone of Pennsylvania State University reported grow-
ing Psilocybe aziecorum on a bagasse based compost. He later reported in more detail on experi-
ments using bagasse compost for growing Agaricus brunnescens. Bagasse used as stable bedding
produced yields comparable to the horse manure based control. Bagasse supplemented with a
commercial activator ("Acto 88") yielded poorly.
Dr. Kneebone's composts were prepared using the standard techniques elucidated in this chap-
ter with a turn schedule on days O-2-5-7-9. The supplemented bagasse was composted 3 days
longer and all bagasse based composts had moisture contents ranging from 75-83%. Significantly,
the bagasse compost with the lowest moisture content had the highest yield. All bagasse composts
had larger mushrooms than the control.
This work by Kneebone demonstrates the value of bagasse as a mushroom growing substrate.
Using the compost formula format, composts can be devised to meet the needs of the two species
named and many others. A good supplement would be horse droppings on wood shavings. If the
bagasse compost becomes too short or wet, the gypsum can be increased from 5% to 8% of the
dry weight.

The 5-Day Express Composting Method

During the past 20 years compost research has been directed towards shortening the overall
preparation period. The goal is to reduce handling and further conserve the nutrient base (dry mat-
 Compost Preparation/107

ter). But so far, no one has been able to consistently produce a high yielding compost by rapid prep-
aration methods. However, a recent article by Kaj Bech (1978) of the Mushroom Research Lab in
Denmark reports the most promising method to date. According to Bech, total dry matter loss is
held to 20-25% with a composting time of 8-10 days (5 day Phase I and 3-5 day Phase II). His
method and materials follow:
DAY PROCEDURE
-2 Take one ton wheat straw based horse manure (moisture content 50%, nitrogen content
of 1.0-1.1) Homogenize well and make up the pile using standard dimensions.
0 1st turn: Add ammonia sulfate, (NH4)2S04. 11.25 kg. Wet thoroughly with approxi-
mately 450 liters of water.
2 2nd turn: add calcium carbonate (CaC03) 33.75 kg. Add approximately 1 80 liters of
water.
3 Mix well and fill Trays, shelves or tunnel for standard Phase II.
 Non-Composted Subtrafes/109

CHAPTER VI
NON-COMPOSTED SUBSTRATES

Figure 101 Psilocybe cyanescens fruiting outdoors in a bed of fresh alder chips.
110/The Mushroom Cultivator

T he use of non-composted and semi-composted materials as mushroom growing substrates is

common among commercial growers of Pleurotus, Volvariella, Flammulina and Stropharia.
Because of the simplicity and ease by which they are produced, these substrates are ideal for the
home cultivator. The advantages of these substrates are the rapid preparation times and the easily
standardized mixtures formulated from readily available raw materials. These substrates can be
treated by sterilization, pasteurization or used untreated in their natural state.

NATURAL CULTURE
For most people mushroom cultivation implies an indoor process employing sterile culture
techniques and a controlled growing environment. Although this has been the natural progression
of events for commercial cultivators and is the only way to consistently grow year round crops, it
need not be the sole method available to the home cultivator. For hundreds of years home growers
have made up outdoor beds and have enjoyed harvesting seasonal crops of mushrooms. In fact,
most mushrooms now being grown commercially were originally grown using natural culture tech-
niques.
By observing wild mushrooms fruiting in their natural habitats, one can begin to understand
their growth requirements. To fully illustrate how this methodology works, the development of natu-
ral culture for Psilocybe cyanescens will be used as an example. Psilocybe cyanescens grows along
fence lines and hedge rows, in tall rank grass, in berry thickets, in well mulched rhododendron beds,
in piles of wood chips and shavings and in ecologically disturbed areas. In many instances, the
mushrooms are found growing in soil, but upon close examination of the underlying mycelial net-
work, it is apparent that they are feeding on wood or other similar cellulosic material. Due to the
thick strandy mycelium of Psilocybe cyanescens, it is relatively easy to locate and gather colonized

Figure 102 Virgin spawn: Psilocybe cyanescens mycelium on a wood chip.

 Non-Composted Subtrates/111

pieces of substrate. These pieces are considered virgin spawn and are used to inoculate similar
materials. Freshly cut chips of alder, maple and fir all support healthy mycelial growth. Because
alder is high in sugar content, without resins and abundant in northwestern North America, it has
been selected as the primary substrate material.
Even though such a virgin spawn is not absolutely clean, Psilocybe cyanescens mycelium col-
onizes fresh substrate pieces so rapidly that there is little risk of contamination. In order to prepare
inoculum for the following year, the newly inoculated chips are kept indoors in gallon jars or other
protective containers. With sufficient moisture, minimal air exchange and normal indoor tempera-
tures, the mycelium soon spreads throughout the fresh chips. For the best results a 1:5 ratio of
virgin spawn to fresh chips is recommended. As one jar becomes fully permeated, it can be used to
produce more spawn.
In the spring freshly cut wood branches are chipped, then mixed with the fully colonized inocu-
lum and made into a ridge bed directly on the ground. Experience has shown that irregular chips
approximately 1 -3 inches long give better results than finely ground material such as sawdust. Fresh
chips not only provide a greater nutrient and water reservoir, but also have substantial surface area
for primordia formation. Strong mycelial growth can be sustained on wood chips for a prolonged
period of time. (Mycelial growth on fresh sawdust is at first rapid and rhizomorphic but soon slows
and loses its vitality).
The ridge beds should be made 4-6 inches deep and 2 feet wide. To insure a humid microcli-
mate for mushroom development the bed should be made under rhododendrons or other leafy or-
namentals, along a fence or hedge row, or on grass which is allowed to grow up through the bed.

Figure 103 Chipping freshly cut alder

branches.
112/The Mushroom Cultivator

The bed must never be placed where it is exposed to direct sunlight but it should not be so well pro-
tected that rainfall can not reach it.
During the spring and summer the mycelium colonizes The fresh substrate which should be
covered with plastic or cardboard to prevent drying. A weekly watering helps to keep The moisture
content high. In the fall the bed is uncovered and given a heavy watering Twice a week, buf with care
not to flood it. When the mushrooms begin to fruit, watering should be gauged according to envi-
ronmental conditions and natural precipitation. As long as the temperature stays above freezing the
mushrooms will grow continuously. If a freeze is expected, the beds can be protected with a plastic
covering. Extended freezing weather ends outdoor cropping until the following year.
Throughout the winter the beds can be protected by a layer of straw, cardboard or new chips
topped with plastic. This is particularly important for harsh climates. Other possibilities include mak-
ing the bed inside a cold frame or plastic greenhouse. Certain regions of the country like the North-
west are better suited to natural culture than others. In this respect it is desirable to use a local strain
adapted to local conditions. In climates unsuited To ouTdoor culTivation, the wood chips can be filled
into trays and brought inside.
Once the primary bed has been established outdoors, it can be likened To a perennial planT,
which is The nature of mushroom mycelium. Indoor spawn preparation and incubation become un-
necessary. With each successive year chips can be drawn from the original bed and used as inocu-
lum. This means ThaT the total bed area can be multiplied by five on an annual basis. (See Figure
164 of Psilocybe cyanescens fruiting indoors in tray of alder chips).

Figure 104 Oak dowels before and after colonization by

shiitake (Lentinus edodes) mycelium.
 Non-Composted Subtrates/113

Figure 105 Shiitake plug

inserted into oak log.

Figure 106 Stacked ar-

rangement of shiitake logs in
a greenhouse.

Figure 107 Shiitake cul-

ture outdoors under shade
cloth.
114/The Mushroom Cultivator

SEMI-STERILE AND STERILE

WOOD BASED SUBSTRATES
Mushrooms that grow on wood or wood wastes are termed lignicolous due to their abililty to
utilize lignin, a microbial resistant substance that constitutes the heart wood of trees. The main com-
ponents of wood, however, are cellulose and hemicellulose, which are also nutrients available to lig-
nin degrading mushroom mycelium. The chart appearing below shows a typical analysis of different
wood and straw types. This table not only illustrates the similarities between wood and straw, but
also the important differences between coniferous and broad leaf trees. The high concentrations of
resins, turpentine and tanins make conifers less suitable for mushroom growing. Conifers are used
on occasion, but they are mixed one to one with hardwood sawdust. In general, the wood of broad
leaf or hardwood species have proven to be the best mushroom growing substrates. Specifically
these tree types are: oak; elm; chestnut; beech; maple; and alder.
Hemi-
Type Resin N P-2 0-5 K20 cell. Cell. Lignin
Spruce 2.30 0.08 0.02 0.10 11,30 57.84 28.29
(Picea excelsa)
Pine 3.45 0.06 0.02 0.09 11.02 54.25 26.25
(Pinus silvestris)
Beech 1.78 0.13 0.02 0.21 24.86 53.46 22.46
(Fagus silvatica)
Birch 1.80 — — — 27.07 45.30 19.56
(Betula verrucosa)
Wheat Straw 0.00 0.60 0.30 1.10 — 36.15 16.15
(Triticum sativum)
Table of the analyses of various types of wood and straw. Figures are percent of dry weight.
(Adapted from H. Rempe (1953)).
The most notable commercial species grown on wood is Lentinus edodes. the shiitake mush-
room. Traditional methods use oak logs, 3-6 inches in diameter and three feet long, cut between fall
and spring when the sap content is the highest. Special care should be taken not to injure the bark
layer when cutting and handling the logs. The bark is of critical importance for fruiting and is one of
the key factors considered by commercial growers when selecting tree species. The logs should be
scraped clean of lichens and fungi and then drilled with four longitudinal rows of one inch deep
holes spaced eight inches apart. Next, these holes are plugged with spawn and covered with wax.
After 9 to 1 5 months of incubation the logs begin to fruit. {See the species parameter section in
Chapter XI.) The use of freshly cut logs provides a semi-sterile substrate with no special treatment
and is a very effective method for the home cultivator.
Commercial growers of lignicolous mushrooms are turning increasingly to sawdust based
substrates. Such substrates have been developed in Japan for growing Pleurotus, Flammulina and
 Non-Composted Subtrates/115

Auricularia. They are also being utilized with some modifications by commercial shiitake growers in
the United States. The development of these mushroom specific substrates follows certain well de-
fined guidelines.
The basic raw material is cellulose, a major constituent of sawdust, straw, cardboard or paper
wastes, wood chips, or other natural plant fibers. Any of these materials should be chopped or
shredded, but never so finely as to eliminate their inherent structural qualities. This cellulosic base
comprises approximately 80% of the total substrate mixture.
To these basic substrate materials are added various nutrient supplements and growth stimula-
tors in meal or flour form. By supplying proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, the supple-
ments serve to enhance the yield capabilities of the substrate base. Protein sources include concen-
trates like soya meal or soya flour, wheat germ and brewer's yeast. The most suitable carbohydrate
sources are starchy materials such as rice, potatoes, corn and wheat. Some supplements are well
balanced and provide both carbohydrates and proteins. Examples of these are bran, oatmeal and
grains of all types. The number of possible supplements is extensive and need not be limited to
those listed. The supplements comprise approximately 8-25% of the total dry weight. The addition
of gypsum at a rate of 5% of the dry weight can improve the structure and porosity. It should be
considered an optional ingredient.
Japanese growers of Flammulina velutipes, Auricularia auricula and allies, and Pleurotus
ostreatus have a standard substrate formula consisting of 4 parts sawdust and 1 part bran, The saw-

Figure 108 Photograph of shiitake mushrooms growing on a sawdust block.

116/The Mushroom Cultivator

dust can be aged up to one year, which is said To improve its moisture holding capacity. Presoaking
the sawdust prior to mixing in the bran is an effective way to achieve the required 60% moisture op-
timum. A firm squeeze of the mixture should produce only a few drops of water between the fingers,
if the mixture has too much moisture, loose water collects in the bottom of the substrate container, a
condition predisposing the culture to contamination.
The substrate can be filled into a number of different containers. Mason jars, polypropylene jars
or high density, heat-resistant polyethylene bags are commonly employed. The containers are
closed and sealed with a microporous filter. They are sterilized at 1 5 psi for 60-90 minutes. After
sterilization the containers are cooled to ambient temperature and inoculated. The inoculum can be
either grain spawn or sawdust-bran spawn.
During incubation substrate filled plastic bags can be molded to the desired cropping form.
Common shapes are round mini-logs or rectangular blocks. Some Pleurotus growers mold the
Figure 109 Flammulina velutipes, the
Enoke Mushroom, fruiting in mason jar
containing sawdust mixture.

Figure 110 Autoclavable plastic bag and

microporous filter disc, known in the
Orient as the Space Bag.
 Non-Composted Subtrates/117

sawdust substrate into a cylindrical shape. 6-8 inches long and 4-5 inches in diameter. The fully col-
onized "logs" are stacked together on their sides with the ends exposed as the cropping surfaces.
An alternative is to slit the bag lengthwise in four places, exposing the substrate to air while retaining
the plastic as a humidity hood. If growing in jars, Flammulina and Pleurotus fruit from the exposed
surface at the mouth of the jars.

GROWING ON PASTEURIZED STRAW

In commercial mushroom production one of the most frequently used substrate materials is
cereal straw. Not only does straw form the basis for mushroom composts, but it is also used uncom-
posted as the sole ingredient for the growth of various mushroom species. Although all types of
straw are more or less suitable, most growers use wheat because of its coarse fiber and its availabili-
ty. The straw should be clean, free from molds and unspoiled by any preliminary decomposition.
Preparation simply involves chopping or shredding the dry straw into 1 -3 inch pieces. This can be
done with a wood chipper, a garden compost shredder or a power mower. The shredding increases
moisture absorption by expanding the available surface area. Shredding also increases the density of
the substrate mass.

Figure 111 Equipment needed for pasteurization of straw: 55 gallon drum; gas burn-
er; shredder; hardware cloth basket and straw.
118/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 112 Shredding the straw.

Figure 113 Filling the shredded straw into the
wire basket.
Figure 114 Checking the water temperature.
Figure 115 Draining the pasteurized straw.
 Non-Composted Subtrates/119

The chopped straw is treated by pasteurization which can be carried out with live steam or hot
water. Presoaked to approximately 75% water, the straw is filled into a tunnel or steam room as de-
scribed in the composting chapter. It is steamed for 2-4 hours at 140-150°F., then cooled To 80 °F.
and spawned. An alternative program calls for 12-24 hours at 122°F. after the high temperature
pasteurization. This program is designed to promote beneficial microbial growth giving the straw a
higher degree of selectivity for mushroom mycelium.
The method best suited to the home cultivator is the hot water bath. Figure 111 illustrates a
simple system utilizing a 55 gallon drum and a propane burner. The drum is half filled with water
that is then heated to 160-170 °F. Chopped dry straw is placed into the wire mesh basket and sub-
merged in the hot water. (A weight is needed to keep The straw underwater.} After 30-45 minutes
the straw is removed from the water and allowed to drain. It is very important to let all loose water
run off.
Once drained, the straw is spread out on a clean surface and allowed to cool to 80 ° F. (or less),
at which point it can be spawned. The straw is evenly mixed with spawn and filled into trays, shelves
or plastic bags. Some compression of the straw into the container is desirable because the cropping
efficiency will be increased.
The use of plastic bags is a simple and efficient way to handle straw substrates. A five gallon bag
(1 -2 mils thick) is well suited to most situations. Two dozen nail sized holes equally spaced around
the bags provide aeration. Upon full colonization, the mycelia of species like Pleurotus ostreatus

Figure 116 Inoculating grain spawn onto the

cooled pasteurized straw.
120/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 117 Pasteurized straw stuffed into plastic bags which are then perforated with
nail size holes.

and Psilocybe cubensis actually hold the straw together, at which time the bag can be completely
removed. Another alternative is to perforate or strip the bag from the top or side to allow easy crop-
ping.
Wheat straw prepared and pasteurized in this manner can be used to grow Pleurotus ostreatus.
Stropharia rugoso-annulata, Panaeolus cyanescens and Psilocybe cubensis. It is quite possible that
other species can utilize this substrate or a modification of it. Studies with Pleurotus ostreatus have
demonstrated yield increases with the addition of 20% grass meal prior to substrate pasteurization.
Supplementation of the straw after a full spawn run is another method of boosting yields (See
Chapter VII.) Bono (1978) obtained a yield increase of 85% with Pleurotus flabellatus by adding
cottonseed meal to the fully colonized straw. The optimum rate of addition was 132 grams per kilo-
gram of dry straw (approximately 22 grams crude protein per kilogram straw). Bono also found that
supplementation increased the protein content and intensified the flavor of the mushrooms.
 Spawning and Spawn Running in Bulk Subtrates/121

CHAPTER VII
SPAWNING AND SPAWN
RUNNING IN BULK SUBSTRATES

Figure 118 Mycelium running through compost.

122/The Mushroom Cultivator

T he inoculation of compost or bulk substrates is called spawning. The colonization of these

substrates by the mushroom mycelium is known as spawn running. At spawning and during
spawn running there are several factors that must be considered if yields are to be maximized. These
factors are:
1. Moisture content of the substrate.
2. Temperature of the substrate.
3. Dry weight of the substrate per square foot of cropping surface.
4. Duration of spawn running.

Moisture Content
Mushroom mycelium does not grow in a substrate that is either too dry or too wet. A dry sub-
strate produces a fine wispy mycelial growth and poor mushroom formation because the water es-
sential for the transport and assimilation of nutrients is lacking. On the other hand, an over-wet sub-
strate inhibits mycelial growth and produces overly stringy mycelia. Controlled experiments with
Agaricus brunnescens grown on horse manure composts have shown yield depressions when the
moisture content deviates more than 2% from the optimum. Deviations greater than 5% generally
result in a spawn run that does not support fruitbody production. A dry compost at spawning should
be lightly watered and mixed well to guard against the formation of wet spots. For an over-wet com-
post the common procedure is to add gypsum unti! the loose water is bound.

Substrate Temperature
Since mushroom mycelium grows within the substrate, the substrate temperature must be
monitored closely. Thermometers are placed both in the center of the substrate—the hottest region
—and in the room's atmosphere. These two thermometers establish a temperature differential. If the
hottest point in the substrate is 80 ° F. and the air is 70 ° F. then the temperature of the total mass
•must lie within this range.
The optimum temperature for mycelial growth varies depending on the mushroom species.
Agaricus brunnescens grows fastest at 77 °F. whereas Psilocybe cubensis prefers 86 °F. Tempera-
tures higher or lower simply slow mycelial growth. The growth curve shown in Figure 119 illus-
trates the effect of temperature on the growth of Agaricus brunnescens mycelium. Note that growth
slows at a faster rate as the temperature rises above the optimum. Therefore the object during spawn
running is to keep the substrate within the temperature range that is optimal for the fastest growth of
mycelium.

Dry Weight of Substrate

Other factors aside, the dry weight of substrate per square foot of cropping surface largely deter-
mines total yield. Commercial Agaricus growers aim for at least five pounds of dry weight of com-
post per square foot and sometimes compress up to eight pounds per sq. ft. into their containers.
Cropping efficiencies are calculated by dividing total yield per square foot into the dry weight of one
 Spawning and Spawn Running in Bulk Subtrates/123

square foot of the substrate. Thus a yield of four pounds per sq. ft. of freshly picked mushrooms di-
vided by five pounds dry weight of substrate equals an 80% cropping efficiency. Efficiencies of
80-100% are considered to be close to the maximum yield potential of Agahcus brunnescens.
The actua amount of substrate that can be compacted into one square foot of growing area and
managed depends upon the cooling capabilities of the control system as well as the outside temper-
ature. Experiments using Tracer elements in mushroom beds three feet deep have shown that nutri-
ents from the farthest point are transported to The growing mushrooms. Yields per sq. ft. increased
although at a lower substrate efficiency.
During spawn running the metabolism of the growing mycelium generates tremendous quanti-
ties of heat. Substrate temperatures normally reach a peak on the 7th-9th days after spawning and
can easily reach 90 °F. At this temperature thermophilic microorganisms become active, thereby in-
creasing the possibilities of further heat generation. The substrate can easily soar above 100 °F, and
a compost can actually rise again to conditioning temperatures. Temperatures between 95-110°F.
can kill The mycelium of many mushrooms. Even if the mycelium is not completely killed, these
temperatures do irreversible harm to mycelial vitality and fruiting potential. These elevated tempera-
tures also stimulate the activity of competitor molds and may render the substrate unsuitable for fur-
ther mushroom growth. Because of the enhanced heat generating capabilities of deeply filled beds.
Agaricus growers rarely fill more than 1 2 inches of compost into the beds.

15 20
COMPOST TEMPERATURE

igure 119 Growth curve of Agaricus brunnescens on compost.

124/The Mushroom Cultivator

The decision on how deep to fill the spawned substrate is an important one. Here again, the
ratio of substrate to free air space in the growing room is significant. (See Chapter IV). An efficient
method of spawn running is to The fill trays 6-8 inches deep with compost and stack them closely to-
gether in the room. In this manner the heat generated within each tray remains controllable, while at
the same time the total compost heat will be sufficient to heat The room. Outside air temperature as
well as the capacity of the heating and cooling equipment should determine how many substrate
filled containers can be placed within a given space. Fresh air is generally used to provide cooling
except when it is warmer than the room temperature.

Duration of Spawn Run

Once colonization is complete, the substrate should be cased, or if casing is not used, it should
be switched to a fruiting mode. If spawn running is continued beyond this point, valuable nutrients
that could be utilized for production of fruitbodies will be consumed by further vegetative growth. If
for some reason the cropping cycle must be delayed, the substrate should be cooled until a more
opportune time.

Spawning Methods
Spawning methods, like spawn itself, have evolved over the years. As late as 1 950 Agaricus
brunnescens growers customarily planted walnut sized pieces of manure spawn or kernels of grain
spawn in holes poked into the compost at regular intervals. Using this method spawn running was
slow, and areas far from the inoculum were more susceptible to invasion by competitors. The full
potential of grain spawn was not realized until the development of "mixed spawning". The principle
of mixed spawning is the complete and thorough mixing of the grain kernels throughout the sub-
strate. In this manner all parts of the substrate are equally inoculated, resulting in the most rapid and
complete colonization possible.
The standard spawning rate used by Agaricus growers is seven liters/Ton of compost or one
quart/8 sq. ft. If spawn is readily available and cheap, it is advantageous to use high spawning rates
which lead to more rapid colonization. It is also advantageous to break up the grain spawn into indi-
vidual kernels the day before spawning. If the spawn is fresh, the grain should break apart easily. If
the spawn can not be used when fresh, it should be refrigerated at 38°F.
The basic principle of spawn running is the same regardless of the type of mushroom or sub-
strate. COLONIZATION MUST PROCEED AS RAPIDLY AS POSSIBLE TO PREVENT
OTHER ORGANISMS FROM BECOMING ESTABLISHED. Once the mushroom mycelium be-
comes dominant, natural antibiotics secreted into the substrate inhibit competitors. To prevent inva-
sion by competitors it is important that spawning take place under carefully controlled hygienic con-
ditions. Fungus gnats in particular must be excluded, and for this purpose a tight, well sealed work-
ing area is best. This area and all tools should be disinfected one day prior to spawning with a 10%
bleach solution. When using disinfectants be sure your skin is protected and avoid breathing any
fumes.
 Spawning and Spawn Running in Bulk Subtrates/125

Figure 120 Psilocybe semilanceata mycelium running through pasteurized wheat

straw.

If the substrate has been filled into shelves, the spawn is broadcast over the surface and mixed in
with a pitchfork or by hand. With trays, a similar method can be used, or alternatively, the substrate
can be dumped out on a clean surface, mixed with spawn and then replaced in the trays. Substrates
from a bulk room are removed, mixed with spawn and then placed into the chosen container.
It is common procedure to level and compress the substrate to avoid dehydration caused by ex-
cessive air penetration. The degree of compression depends upon substrate structure. Long, airy
materials can be compacted more than short, dense ones. Commercial tray growers compact the
compost into the trays with a hydraulic press so that the compost surface resembles a table top. This
enables the application of an even casing layer.

Environmental Conditions
The required environmental conditions for spawn running are very specific and must be closely
monitored. Substrate temperatures are controlled by careful manipulation of the surrounding air
temperature. Heating and cooling equipment are helpful but not absolutely essential unless the out-
side climate is extreme. A well insulated room with provisions for fresh air entrance and exhaust air
exit should be adequate for most situations. The steady or periodic recirculation of room air by
means of a small fan helps to keep an even temperature throughout the room and guards against lo-
calized over-heating, especially in the uppermost containers. Humidity is extremely important at this
time and must be held at 90-100%. If the humidity falls below this level, water evaporates from the
Jbstrate surface to the detriment of the growing mycelium. Humidification can be accomplished by
steam humidifiers or by cold water misters. If steam is used, care must be taken that the increase in
r temperature does not drive the substrate temperature above the optimal range. One common
126/The Mushroom Cultivator

method of counteracting drying is to cover the substrate with plastic. Be ready to remove the cover-
ing during the period of peak activity if temperatures rise too quickly.
During spawn run the mushroom mycelium generates large quantities of carbon dioxide. In
fact, it has been demonstrated that mushroom mycelium is capable of C02 fixation. Because of this
ability to absorb CO2. room concentrations of 10,000-15,000 ppm are considered beneficial and
desirable. A C02 level high enough to stop growth is uncommon under normal circumstances. Be-
ing heavier than air, C02 settles at the bottom of the room, which is yet another reason for even air
circulation within the growing environment.

Super Spawning
Super spawning is also called "active mycelium spawning" vis a vis the Hunke-Till process.
Essentially, a set amount of substrate is inoculated and colonized in the normal manner. The fully
run substrate is then used as inoculum to spawn increased amounts of a similar substrate. One
could theoretically pyramid a small quantity of inoculum into a considerable amount of fully colo-
nized substrate. This technique requires the primary substrate to be contaminant free; otherwise
contamination, not mycelium, will be propagated. The possibilities inherent in this method may be
of greater application when transferring naturally occurring mycelial colonies to non-sterile yet
mushroom specific substrates. An excellent example of this is the propagation of Psilocybe
cyanescens on wood chips. (See Chapter VI.)

Supplementation at Spawning
One of the newest advances in Agaricus culture is the development of delayed release nutrients
added to The compost at spawning. These supplements are specially formulated nutrients encapsu-
lated in a denatured protein coat. They are designed to become available to the growing mush-
rooms during the first three flushes. The application rate is 5-7% of the dry weight of the substrate.
Yield increases of '/2 to 1 Ib/sq. ft. are normal. Here again, complete and thorough mixing is essen-
tial to success. Caution: these materials enrich the substrate, making it more suitable to contami-
nants if factors predisposing to their growth are present. (For suppliers of delayed release nutrients,
refer To the resource section in the Appendix).

Supplementation at Casing (S.A.C.)

SACing is another method used to boost the nutritional content of the substrate. The materials
used are soy bean meal, cottonseed meal, and/or ground rye, wheat or kafir corn grains. The fully
colonized substrate is thoroughly mixed with any one of these materials at a rate of 1070 of the dry
weight of the substrate. The substrate and the supplements must both be clean and free from con-
taminants; otherwise contamination will spread and threaten the entire culture. High substrate tem-
peratures should be anticipated on the second to third day after supplementation. With this type of
nutrient enhancement yield increases of '/2-2 Ibs/sq. ft. are possible.
 The Casing Layer/127

CHAPTER VIII
THE CASING LAYER

Figure 121 Panaeolus cyanescens fruiting in tray of pasteurized straw. Note

mushrooms formed only on cased half.
128/The Mushroom Cultivator

C overing the substrate surface with a layer of moist material having specific structural character-
istics is called casing. This practice was developed by Agaricus growers who found that
mushroom formation was stimulated by covering their compost with such a layer. A casing layer en-
courages fruiting and enhances yield potential in many, but not all, cultivated mushrooms.

CASING CASING CASING

SPECIES OPTIONAL REQUIRED NOT REQUIRED
Ag. brunnescens •
Ag. bitorquis •
C. com at us •
Fl. velutipes •
Lentinus edodes •
Lepista nuda •
PI, ostreatus •
PI. ostreatus
(Florida variety) •
Pan. cyanescens •
Pan. subbalteatus •
Ps. cubensis •
Ps. cyanescens •
Ps. mexicana •
Ps. tampanensis •
S. rugoso-annulata •
I/, volvacea •

In all species where the use of a casing has been indicated as optional, yields are clearly en-
hanced with the application of one. The chart above refers to the practical cultivation of mush-
rooms in quantity. It excludes fruitings on nutrified agar media or on other substrates that produce
but a few mushrooms. Consequently, casing has become an integral part of the mushroom grow-
ing methodology.

Functions
The basic functions of the casing layer are:
1. To protect the colonized substrate from drying out.
Mushroom mycelium is extremely sensitive to dry air. Although a fully colonized sub-
strate is primarily protected from dehydration by its container (the tray, jar or plastic bag},
the cropping surface remains exposed. Should the exposed surface dry out, the myceli-
um dies and forms a hardened mat of cells. By covering the surface with a moist casing
layer, the mycelium is protected from the damaging effects of drying. Moisture loss from
the substrate is also reduced.
 The Casing Layer/129

2. To provide a humid microclimate for primordia formation and development.

The casing is a layer of material in which the mushroom mycelium can develop an exten-
sive, healthy network. The mycelium within the casing zone becomes a platform that
supports formation of primordia and their consequent growth into mushrooms. It is the
moist humid microclimate in the casing that sustains and nurtures mycelial growth and
primordia formation.
3. To provide a water reservoir for the maturing mushrooms.
The enlargement of a pinhead into a fully mature mushroom is strongly influenced by
available water, without which a mushroom remains small and stunted. With the casing
layer functioning as a water reservoir, mushrooms can reach full size. This is particularly
important for heavy flushes when mushrooms are competing for water reserves.
4. To support the growth of fructification enhancing microorganisms.
Many ecological factors influence the formation of mushroom primordia. One of these
factors is the action of select groups of microorganisms present in the casing. A casing
prepared with the correct materials and managed according to the guidelines outlined in
this chapter supports the growth of beneficial microflora.

Properties
The casing layer must maintain mycelial growth, stimulate fruiting and support continual
flushes of mushrooms. In preparing the casing, the materials must be carefully chosen according
to their chemical and physical properties. These properties are:
1. Water Retention: The casing must have the capacity to both absorb and release sub-
stantial quantities of water. Not only does the casing sustain vegetative growth, but it also
must supply sufficient moisture for successive generations of fruitbodies.
2. Structure: The structure of the casing surface must be porous and open, and remain so
despite repeated waterings. Within this porous surface are small moist cavities that protect
developing primordia and allow metabolic gases to diffuse from the substrate into the air.
If this surface microclimate becomes closed, gases build up and inhibit primordia forma-
tion. A closed surface also reduces the structural cavities in which primordia form. For
these reasons, the retention of surface structure directly affects a casing's capability to
form primordia and sustain fruitbody production.
3. Microflora: Recent studies have demonstrated the importance of beneficial bacteria in
the casing layer. High levels of bacteria such as Pseudomonas putida result in increased
primordia formation, earlier cropping and higher yields. During the casing colonization
period These beneficial bacteria are stimulated by metabolic gases that build up in the sub-
strate and diffuse through the casing. In fact, dense casing layers and deep casing layers
generally yield more mushrooms because they slow diffusion. It is desirable therefore to
build-up CO2 and other gases prior to primordia formation. (For a further discussion on
the influence of bacteria on primordia formation, see Appendix II.)
The selection of specific microbial groups by mycelial metabolites is an excellent ex-
130/The Mushroom Cultivator

ample of symbiosis. These same bacteria give the casing a natural resistance to competi-
tors. In this respect, a sterilized casing lacks beneficial microorganisms and has little resis-
tance To contaminants.
4. Nutritive Value: The casing is not designed to provide nutrients To developing mush-
rooms and should have low nutritional value compared to the substrate. A nutritive casing
supports a broader range of competitor molds. Wood fragments and other undecom-
posed plant matter are prime sites for mold growth and should be carefully screened out
of a well formulated casing.
5. pH: The pH of the casing must be within certain limits for strong mycelial growth. An
overly acidic or aklaline casing mixture depresses mycelial growth and supports competi-
tors. Agaricus brunnescens prefers a casing with pH values between 7.0-7.5. Even
though the casing has a pH of 7.5 when first applied, it gradually falls to a pH of nearly
6.0 by the end of cropping due to acids secreted by the mushroom mycelium. Buffering
the casing with limestone flour is an effective means to counter this gradual acidification.
The optimum pH range varies according To the species. (See the growing parameters for
each species in Chapter XI.)
6. Hygienic Quality: The casing must be free of pests, pathogens and extraneous debris.
Of particular importance, the casing must not harbor nematodes or insect larvae.

Materials
To better understand how a casing layer functions requires a basic understanding of soil com-
ponents and their specific structural and textural characteristics. When combined properly, the
soil components create a casing layer that is both water retentive and porous.
1. Sand: Characterized by large individual particles with large air spaces in between, sandy
soils are well aerated. Their structure is considered "open". Sandy soils are heavy, hold
little water and release it quickly.
2. Clay: Having minute individual particles bound together in aggregations, clay soils have
few air pockets and are structurally "closed". Water is more easily bound by clay soils.
3. Loam: Loam is a loose soil composed of varying proportions of sand and clay, and is
ch'aracterized by a high humus content.
Agaricus growers found that the best type of soil for mushroom growing was a clay/!oam.
The humus and sand in a clay/loam soil open up the clay which is typically dense and closed.
The casing's structure is improved while the property of particle aggregation is retained. The
humus/clay combination holds moisture well and forms a crumbly, well aerated casing.
There are two basic problems with using soils for casing—the increased contamination risk
from fungi and nematodes, and the loss of structure after repeated waterings. Cultivators can re-
duce the risk of contamination by pasteurization, a process whereby the moistened casing soil is
thoroughly and evenly steamed for twohours aT 160° F. An alternative method is to bake the
moist soil in an oven for Two hours aT 1 60 ° F.
 The Casing Layer/131

Figure 122 Sphagnum peat and lime-

stone flour needed for casing.

The development of casings based on peat moss has practically eliminated the use of soil in
mushroom culture. Peat is highly decomposed plant matter and has a pH in the 3.5-4.5 range.
Since this acidic condition precludes many contaminants from colonizing it as a substrate, peat is
considered to be a fairly "clean" starting material. Peat based casings rarely require pasteuriza-
tion. But because peat is too acidic for most mushrooms, the addition of some form of calcium
buffering agent like limestone is essential. "Liming" also causes the aggregation of the peat parti-
cles, giving peat a structure similar to a clay/loam soil. A coarse fibrous peat is preferred because
it holds its structure better than a fine peat. In essence, the properties of sphagnum peat conform
to al! the guidelines of a good casing layer.
Buffering agents are used To counter the acidic effects of peat and other casing materials. Cal-
cium carbonate (CaC03) is most commonly used and comes in different forms, some more desir-
able Than others.
1. Chalk: Used extensively in Europe, chalk is soft in texture and holds water well. Chunks
of chalk, ranging from one inch thick to dust, improve casing structure and continuously
leach into the casing, giving long lasting buffering action.
2. Limestone Flour: Limestone flour is calcitic limestone mined from rock quarries and
ground to a fine powder. It is the buffering agent most widely used by Agaricus growers
in the United States. Limestone flour is 97% CaC03 with less than 2% magnesium.
132/The Mushroom Cultivator

3. Limestone Grit: Produced in a fashion similar to limestone flour, limestone grit is rated
according to particle size after being screened through varying meshes. Limestone grit is
an excellent structural additive but has low buffering abilities. A number 9 grit is recom-
mended.
4. Dolomitic Limestone: This limestone is rarely used by Agaricus growers due to its high
magnesium content. Some researchers have reported depressed mycelial growth in cas-
ings high in magnesium.
5. Marl: Dredged from dry lake bottoms, marl is a soft lime similar to chalk but has the con-
sistency of clay. It is a composite of clay and calcium carbonate with good water holding
capacity.
6. Oyster Shell: Comprised of calcium carbonate, ground up oyster shell is similar to lime-
stone grit in its buffering action and its structural contribution to the casing layer. But
oyster shell should not be used as the sole buffering agent because of its low solubility in

Table Comparing Casing Soil Components

Absorption Potential
Material milliliters water/gram % Water at Saturation
Vermiculite 5.0 84%
Peat 2.5 79%
Potting Soil 0.7 76%
Loam 0.3 25%
Chalk 0.6 37%
Limestone Grit 0.2 15%
Sand 0.2 18%
Values vary according to source and quality of material used. Tests run by the authors.)

Casing Formulas and Preparation

The following casing formulas are widely used in Agaricus culture. With pH adjustments they
can be used with most mushroom species that require a casing. Measurement of materials is by
volume.
FORMULA 1 FORMULA 2
Coarse peat: 4 parts Coarse peat: 2 parts
Limestone flour: 1 part Chalk or Marl: 1 part
Limestone grit: 1/2 part Water: Approximately 1-1 1/4 parts
Water: Approximately 2-2 1/4 parts
One half to one part coarse vermiculite can be added to improve the water retaining capacity
of these casing mixtures and can be an aid if fruiting on thinly laid substrates. When used, it must
 The Casing Layer/133

be presoaked to saturation before being mixed with the other listed ingredients.
An important reference point for cultivators is the moisture saturation level of the casing. To
determine this level, completely saturate a sample of the casing and allow it to drain. Cover and
wait for one half hour. Now weigh out 100 grams of it and dry in an oven at 200°F. for two to
three hours or until dry. Reweigh the sample and the difference in weight is the percent moisture
at saturation. This percentage can be used to compare moisture levels at any point in the crop-
ping cycle. Optimum moisture content is normally 2-4% below saturation. Typically, peat based
casings are balanced to a 70-75% moisture content.

Application
To prepare a casing, assemble and mix the components while in a dry or semi-dry state.
Even distribution of the limestone buffer is important with a thoroughly homogeneous mixture be-
ing the goal. When these materials have been sufficiently mixed, add water slowly and evenly,
bringing the moisture content up to 90% of its saturation level. There is an easy method for pre-
paring a casing of proper moisture content. Remove 10-20% of the volume of the dry mix and
then saturate the remaining 80-90%. Then add the remaining dry material. This method brings
the moisture content to the near optimum. (Some growers prefer to let the casing sit for 24 hours
and fully absorb water. Prior to its application, the casing is then thoroughly mixed again for even
moisture distribution).
At this point apply the casing to the fully run substrate. Use a pre-measured container to con-
sistently add the same volume to each cropping unit.
1. Depth: The correct depth to apply the casing layer is directly related to the depth of the
substrate. Greater amounts of substrate increase yield potential which in turn puts more
stress on the casing layer. Prolific first and second flushes can remove a thin casing or
damage its surface structure, thereby limiting future mushroom production. A thin casing
layer also lacks the body and moisture holding capacity to support large flushes. AS A
GENERAL RULE, THE MORE MUSHROOMS EXPECTED PER SQUARE FOOT OF
SURFACE AREA, THE DEEPER THE CASING LAYER.
Agaricus growers use a minimum of one inch and a maximum of two inches of cas-
ing on their beds. Substrate depths of six to eight inches are cased 1 1/4 to 11/2 inches
deep. Substrates deeper than 8 inches are cased 1 1/2 to 2 inches deep. Nevertheless, ex-
periments in Holland using casing depths of 1 inch and 2 inches demonstrated that the
deep casing layer supported higher levels of microorganisms and produced more mush-
rooms. (See Visscher, 1 975). To gain the full benefits of a casing layer, an absolute mini-
mum depth on bulk substrates is 1 inch. For fruiting on sterilized grain, the casing need
not be as deep as for fruitings on bulk substrates. Shallow layers of grain are commonly
cased 3/i to 1 inch deep.
2. Evenness: The casing layer should be applied as evenly as possible on a level substrate
surface. An uneven casing depth is undesirable for two reasons: shallower regions can
134/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figures 123, 124 &

125 Casing a tray of
grain spawn. First the
fully colonized grain is
carefully broken up and
evenly distributed into
the tray. As an option, a
layer of partially
moistened vermiculite
can be placed along the
bottom of the tray to
absorb excess water. If
the grain appears to
have uncolonized
kernels, cover the
container with plastic
and let the spawn
recover for 24 hours
before casing.
Otherwise, casing can
proceed immediately
after the spawn has
been laid out.
 The Casing Layer/135

easily be overwatered, thereby stifling mycelial growth; and secondly, the mycelium
breaks through the surface at different times, resulting in irregular pinhead formation.
When applying the casing to large areas, "depth rings" can be an effective means to in-
sure evenness. These rings are fabricated out of flat metal or six inch PVC pipe, cut to
any depth. They are placed on the substrate and covered with the casing, which is then
leveled using the rings as a guide. Once the casing is level and even, the rings are re-
moved.
Although the casing layer must be even, the surface of The casing should remain
rough and porous, with small "mountains and valleys". The surface structure is a key to
optimum pinhead formation and will be discussed in more detail in the next chapter.

Casing Colonization
Environmental conditions after casing should be the same as during spawn running. Substrate
temperatures are maintained within the optimum range for mycelial growth; relative humidity is
90-100%; and fresh air is kept to a minimum. (Fresh air should only be introduced to offset over-
heating). The build-up of CO2 in the room is beneficial to mycelial growth and is controlled by an
airtight room and tightly sealed fresh air damper. If the entrance of fresh air cannot be controlled, a

Figure 126 Depth rings used for even casing application on bulk substrates.
136/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 127 Mycelial growth (Agaricus brunnescens) into casing with optimum
moisture.

sheet of plastic should be placed over the casing. This plastic sheet also prevents moisture loss from
the casing.
Soon after casing, substrate temperatures surge upward due to the hampered diffusion of
metabolic gases which would normally conduct heat away. This surge is an indication of mycelial
vitality and is a positive sign if the room temperature can be controlled. This temperature rise can
be anticipated by lowering either the temperature of the substrate prior to casing or lowering The
air temperature of the room after casing.
Within three days of application, the mycelium should be growing into the casing layer. Once
mycelial growth is firmly established, the casing is gradually watered up to its optimum moisture
holding capacity. This is accomplished by a series of light waterings with a misting nozzle over a
two to four day period (depending upon the depth of the casing). Deeper casings require more
waterings. Optimum moisture capacity should be achieved at least two days before the mycelium
reaches the surface. IT IS EXTREMELY IMPORTANT THAT THE WATERINGS DO NOT
DAMAGE THE SURFACE STRUCTURE OF THE CASING. Heavy direct watering can "pan"
the casing surface, closing all the pore spaces and effectively sealing it. The growing mycelium is
then trapped within the casing layer and may not break through it at all. The ultimate example of
panning is a soil turned to mud.
To repair a casing surface damaged by watering, the top 14 inch can be reopened by a tech-
nique called "scratching". The tool used is simply a 1 x 2 x 24 inch board with parallel rows of
 The Casing Layer/137

Figure 128 Mycelial growth (Psilocybe cubensis)

into casing with optimum moisture.

nails (6 penny) slightly offset relative to one another. With this "scratching stick", the casing is
lightly ruffled prior to the mycelium breaking through to the surface. After The surface has been
scratched, the casing should be given its final waterings prior to pinning.
A modified application of this technique is "deep scratching". When the mycelium is midway
through the casing, the entire layer is thoroughly ruffled down to the bulk substrate. The agitated
and broken mycelium rapidly reestablishes itself and within three to four days it completely colo-
nizes the casing. The result is an early, even and prolific pinhead formation. Before using this
technique, the grower must be certain that the substrate and casing are free of competitor molds
and nematodes.

Casing Moisture and Mycelial Appearance

Moisture within the casing layer has a direct effect on the diameter and degree of branching
in growing mycelium. These characteristics are indicators of moisture content and can be used as
a guide to proper watering.
I- Optimum Casing Moisture: Mushroom mycelium thrives in a moist humid casing,
sending out minute branching networks. These networks expand and grow, absorbing
water, C02 and oxygen from the near saturated casing. This mycelial growth is character-
ized by many thick, white rhizomorphic strands that branch into mycelia of smaller dia-
meters and correspondingly smaller, finer capillaries. The overall aspect is lush and
138/The Mushroom Cultivator

dense. When a section of casing is examined, it is held firmly together by the mycelial
network but will separate with little effort. The casing itself remains soft and pliable.
2. Overly dry casing: In a dry casing, the mycelium is characterized by a lack of rhizo-
morphs and an abundance of fine capillary type mycelia. This fine growth can totally per-
meate the casing layer, which then becomes hard, compact and unreceptive to water. It is
common for puddles to form on a dry casing that has just been watered. Also, a dry cas-
ing rarely permits primordia formation because of its arid microclimate and is susceptible
to "overlay". Mushrooms, if they occur, frequently form along the edges of the tray.
Overlay is a dense mycelial growth that covers the casing surface and shows little or
no inclination to form pinheads. Overlay directly results from a dry casing, high levels of
C02 and/or low humidity. (See Chapter IX on pinhead initiation).
3. Overly Wet Casing: In a saturated casing, the mycelium grows coarse and stringy, with
very little branching and few capillaries. Mycelial growth is slow and sparse which leaves
the casing largely uncolonized. Often the saturated casing leaches onto the substrate sur-
face which then becomes waterlogged, inhibiting further growth and promoting contami-
nation. Subsequent drying may eventually reactivate the mycelium, but a reduction in
yield is to be expected.
 Strategies for Mushroom Formation/139

CHAPTER IX
STRATEGIES FOR
MUSHROOM FORMATION
(PINHEAD INITIATION)

t r\— ".»—™ ^m mil -».-mm^mmmfmrnm•••>••».<'•»& .". i. 'j* <ak ». - 1 - __^ti

I yu c
canning electron micrograph of Psilocybe cubensis primordia.
140/The Mushroom Cultivator

T he change from the vegetative state of mycelial growth to the generative one of primordia for-
mation is called pinning, pin setting, pinhead initiation or fructification. Primordia or pinheads
are knots of mycelium that precede development into small mushrooms. All species require a set of
environmental conditions for pinning that are quite different from the conditions for mycelial growth.
By understanding the factors that regulate this change in the mushroom life cycle, the cultivator can
control the pinning process.

In nature primordia formation is primarily influenced by seasonal changes in environmental

conditions. In temperate climates most mushrooms fruit during the cool, wet fall whereas in tropical
and subtropical climates mushrooms fruit during the rainy season. The fruiting period ends when
the season changes and environmental conditions become too hot, too cold or too dry. The myce-
lium then lies dormant or grows slowly, reactivated only by the warming of spring and summer.
These seasons are times for the mycelium to expand its network, absorb nutrients and rebuild its
energy reserves. Once the cool wet conditions of fall return, these reserves are used to support an-
other crop of mushrooms.

Basic Pinning Strategy

Mushrooms fruit indoors in response to much the same conditions that trigger fruiting in the
wild. Several environmental factors, working in combination, provide an ideal environment in which
mushrooms flourish. Most, if not all cultivated mushrooms fruit at lower temperatures than the opti-
mum for the growth of mycelium. Usually, a drop in temperature is accompanied by rain or an in-
crease in humidity. Water is essential for the absorption of nutrients by the mycelium. And vaporous
water creates the humid microclimate That is so critical for the developing primordia. Primordia have
a low tolerance to C02 and need ample fresh air. And while the mycelium has no requirement for
light, many species need light to initiate pinheads and to mature into healthy mushrooms. Mush-
rooms form only when there is a coincidence of all these factors. Cultivators create an artificial envi-
ronment that prolongs these optimum conditions so that mushrooms are given The best possible en-
vironment in which to grow.

Primordia formation strategies are well defined for species now under cultivation. These proce-
dures are similar in their approach and differ only in certain environmental requirements. Given that
the substrate has sufficient nutrients, the interaction of water, humidity, temperature, fresh air, C02
and light all play determining roles in the fructification process. (In some cases, specific microorgan-
isms must be present before fruiting can occur). The modification of any one of these factors be-
yond the fruiting requirements can inhibit or stop the process. Hence, the cultivator must have pre-
cise control over conditions within the growing room if this critical phase is to be carried out suc-
cessfully.
 Strategies for Mushroom Formation/141

PRIMORDIA FORMATION PROCEDURES

Agaricus brunnescens culture illustrates the interplay of environmental factors in pinhead initia-
tion. It serves as a useful model for setting primordia in many species, especially those using a cas-
ing layer. In each of the following stages, the main considerations are highlighted and fhen dis-
cussed in detail. Although Agaricus does not require light, and since most cultivated mushrooms
do, this requirement has been listed as the last parameter.

Stage I: Preparation
Following its application, the casing is conditioned to allow even mycelial growth info it. Once
mycelial growth is well established, the casing layer microclimate and the growing room are careful-
ly managed to meet the following requirements.
1. The casing layer is at optimum moisture capacity.
2. The casing layer surface is rough and porous.
3. The relative humidity of the growing room's air is 95%.
4. The substrate is incubated in total darkness.
During the casing colonization period, the casing layer is being conditioned for pinhead initia-
tion. Gradually, the moisture content is brought up to the optimum and a microclimate with high
relative humidify is carefully maintained. Water in the casing moves by capillary action to the surface
where it is drawn into the air by evaporation. This constant movement slowly depletes the casing of
the moisture needed to protect pinhead development. Therefore, in conjunction with an optimum
casing moisture level, the relative humidity of the room must be held at 95%. Lower humidities
must be accompanied by light but regular waterings. The higher the humidity (rH). the less water
will be lost to evaporation.
Given optimum moisture conditions in and directly above the casing layer, the next step is to
prepare the casing surface. Whether by initial application or by ruffling at a later time, the casing sur-
face should be rough and open—with minute mountains and valleys. A rough open casing has
more surface area where pinheads can form, provides a humid environment conducive to that for-
mation and allows the diffusion of metabolic gases.

Stage II: Environmental Transition—The Prelude to Setting Primordia

Pinhead initiation techniques should begin when the mycelium reaches the valleys of the cas-
ing surface. Once the mycelium is clearly established in the valleys, the cultivator can begin the first
steps leading to the setting of pinheads. Within this one to two day period, the
1. Substrate and air temperatures are lowered to the fruiting range.
2. The humidity is maintained at the 95% level.
3. The carbon dioxide content of the room is reduced by the introduction of fresh air.
4. The room is lighted on a 12 hour on/off cycle.
142/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 130 Overlay.

Mycelium breaking through the casing surface early should be lightly sprinkled with moist cas-
ing. Uneven growth through the casing layer is usually an indication of a casing with irregular
depths, By "patching" shallow areas, an even mycelial spread is assured. Note that the more even
the distribution of the mycelium in the valleys of the casing's surface, the more even the
pin-set and the greater the first and second flushes.
The exact time for initiation varies with the strain and according to the experience of the individ-
ual grower. Some strains continue to grow vegetatively for a period after the initial temperature
shock whereas others stop immediately. For this reason, some cultivators initiate when 20% of the
valleys show mycelial growth while others wait until 90% are run through with mycelium. Normally
within 12-48 hours from the time the mycelium is first visible in the valleys, the initiation sequence
is started.

The first step in the pinhead initiation process is to lower the substrate and air temperature from
the mycelial growth optimum to the fruiting range. This temperature "shock" is accomplished by
ventilation with a large volume of cool fresh air, thereby lowering the room's temperature to a point
5-20 ° below the optimum for spawn running. (For Agaricus brunnescens, this would mean drop-
ping air temperature from 70 °F. to 64 °F.). Whatever the air temperature may be, the bed tempera-
ture is normally several degrees warmer. The length of time needed to affect this change is deter-
mined by the total volume of substrate and the temperature of the air being introduced. Within 48
hours, the substrate temperature should fall to fruiting temperatures, effectively slowing vegetative
growth. This change signals to the mycelium that it is time to fruit.
 Strategies for Mushroom Formation/143

Figure 131 Cased grain culture of Agaricus brunnescens showing overlay and stroma.

Fresh air also removes high concentrations of carbon dioxide and other metabolic gases from
the room. Since Agaricus brunnescens does not pin properly at C02 concentrations above 2000
ppm, lowering the carbon dioxide content of The room's air to under 2000 ppm is critical. The in-
hibitory effect of carbon dioxide on mushroom formation gives Agaricus growers a high degree of
control over the pinning process. Not until carbon dioxide is removed will pinheads form. If carbon
dioxide levels remain high, the mycelium will totally cover the casing surface, a condition called
overlay.
The mycelial mat formed by overlay makes the casing impervious to water and produces few
pinheads. Overlay also occurs if the casing surface is too dry, the humidity (rH) is too low or the air
temperature remains Too high. Overlay can be counteracted by patching, but the cause must be
diagnosed and carefully corrected if the culture is to be revived. Few flushes will be as great from a
casing with overlay as from a casing properly managed.

Stage III: Primordia Formation (Knotting)

Once substrate temperatures have been lowered and C02 levels have been reduced, prirnordia
will begin to form. Maintain:
1. A constant fresh air supply to remove metabolic gases, and C02 at levels less than 1000
ppm.
2. A constant temperature in the growing room that is within the fruiting range-
144/The Mushroom Cultivator

3. A relative humidity of 95%.

4. A 12 hour on/off light cycle.
The combination of temperature drop, high humidity and reduction of metabolic gases by a
constant supply of fresh air now provides an environment conducive to pinhead formation. These
parameters should be held constant until the pins are set. Any abrupt changes in temperature or hu-
midity will be harmful to primordial growth. Pinhead initials form in the humid valleys of the casing
layer and are visible as small knots of mycelium. This is the earliest stage of fruiting. Within five days
these knots enlarge into small mounds or buttons that soon differentiate into mushrooms.
Due to slowed mycelial growth in the cooled substrate, carbon dioxide evolution is greatly re-
duced. Consequently, the fresh air supply can be moderated to the minimum level necessary to
maintain 1000 ppm of carbon dioxide. At this time, oversupply of fresh air can lead to high evapo-
ration rates and excessive drying. The humidity should never be allowed to fall below 90%. If dry
air becomes a problem, a light misting of the casing surface, two to five times daily, should keep the
microclimate moist. In fact, some growers knock down the mycelium with a forceful watering on
the first day of initiation. Others mist daily as a standard practice. However, once pinning has begun,
any forceful watering will kill a number of developing pins, and damage others. Given sufficient cas-
ing moisture and a high humidity, these watering practices become unnecessary.

Stage IV: Pinhead Development

After the pinheads have grown to pea size (3-5 mm.), their further development is primarily de-
pendent on air temperature and relative humidity. To insure That they mature into healthy mush-
rooms, the
1. Air temperature is held constant within the fruiting range.
2. Relative humidity is lowered to 85-92%.
3. A constant fresh air supply with C02 below 2000 ppm.
4. A 12 hour on/off light cycle.
The humidity is lowered to 85-92%, thereby increasing the evaporation rate, an essential re-
quirement for pinhead maturation. If humidity remains too high, pinhead development will be re-
tarded. The easiest way to reduce humidity is to raise the air temperature by 1 -2 °F. or to increase air
movement within the room. Under no circumstances should pockets of stagnant air be allowed to
form. Evaporation is negligible in stagnant air pockets which are also excellent breeding grounds for
mushroom pathogens.
At This time, a slightly higher level of carbon dioxide is desirable (in the 1500-2000 ppm
range) and fresh air can be cut back accordingly. Given proper CO2 levels, and sufficient evapora-
tion, the pins continue to develop. The exact rate of growth depends on the air temperature in the
room. Work done by Lambert (1938) has shown that a pinhead of Agaricus brunnescens with a di-
ameter of 2 millimeters fully develops into a mature mushroom in twenty-two days at 50 °F., in ten
days at 60°F. and in six days at 70°F. Although mushrooms develop more quickly at 70°F., over-
all yields diminish. Optimum temperature for cropping in Agaricus brunnescens is 62-64°F.
 Strategies for Mushroom Formation/145

Figure 132, 133 &

134 Three day
pinhead development
sequence in Agaricus
brunnescens.
Change-over from
Stage III to Stage IV
occurs within this
tirne frame.
146/The Mushroom Cultivator

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

PRIMORDIA FORMATION AND YIELD
The importance of the primordia formation period can not be over-emphasized. For maximum
yields an optimum number of pinheads must be set, matured and brought to harvest. Certain rela-
tionships exist between the pinning process and yields. These are:
1. During the primordia formation period, pinheads for the first and second flush
are being generated. The second flush primordia are present as thickened mycelial knots
which develop after the first flush is harvested. Once the first flush is off the beds, the second
set of primordia begin to enlarge and within days attain button size. Because 60-75% of the
total yield is normally harvested from the first two flushes, the few days of pinhead initiation
are the most critical in the growing of mushrooms. Hence, all environmental factors must
be carefully monitored to insure the best possible pin-set.

Figure 135 Three pinheads of Coprinus comatus forming on cased section of com-
post. Note mycelial knot in upper center.
 Strategies for Mushroom Formation/147

9 The greater the number of pins set for the first flush, the higher the yield, provided
sufficient nutrients are available to support their growth. However, with more pinheads
competing for the same nutrient base, the smaller are the mushrooms arising from it. Fewer
pinheads result in larger mushrooms, but lower total yields.
3 The substrate will only support the development of a certain number of primor-
dia per flush. Under normal circumstances with an even pin-set, pinheads may "abort"
because of insufficient nutrients or late formation.
4 Pins that form early delay the growth of neighboring primordia. Good examples of
this can be found in shallow areas or along the borders of the substrate container. Remov-
ing these relatively few "volunteers" before they develop is advantageous to the remaining
primordia that constitute the first flush.

THE INFLUENCE OF LIGHT

ON PINHEAD INITIATION
Mushroom species requiring light for primordia formation are said to be photosensitive. Al-
though light is not necessary to induce fructification in all mushrooms (i.e. Agaricus brunnescens),
certain spectra have proven to be stimulatory to pinhead initiation and are critical for the normal de-
velopment of the fruitbody. Psilocybe cubensis and Pleurofus ostreatus are two such photosensitive
species.
A thorough investigation on the photosensitivity of Psilocybe cubensis can be found in a mas-
ter's thesis by E.R. Badham (1 979). His work reinforces the conclusions of other researchers work-
ing with the Basidiomycetes: more pinheads are initiated upon exposure to blue and ultra-violet light
with distinct peaks at 370, 440 and 460 nanometers. Badham showed that light stimulation at
these wavelengths for as little as half a millisecond per day caused primordia to form. In contrast,
red, infra-red and green light having wavelengths greater than 510 nanometers were ineffective.
With this knowledge, the cultivator of photosensitive species can develop initiation strategies
incorporating the influence of light. Ideally a fully colonized substrate should be incubated in total
darkness and exposed to light only after the mycelium first shows through the casing layer. If the
cultivator wants to check the culture without the chance of premature pinning, red light is recom-
mended (The proper location and type of light is discussed in more detail in Chapter IV).
 Environmental Factors/149

CHAPTER X
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
SUSTAINING THE
MUSHROOM CROP

Figure 136 Wild strainn of Agaricus brunnescens fruiting in bag of cased compost
150/The Mushroom Cultivator

F or the home cultivator the onset of cropping is a time of excitement and anticipation. It is also a
time for increased attention to the finer details of environmental control. Temperature, humidi-
ty, light and airflow in the growing room all play vital roles which together determine the nature of
further mushroom development.

Temperature
During the vegetative growth period, the substrate was held in the optimum range by careful
manipulation of the air temperature. But once the change to generative growth is initiated, the sub-
strate temperature becomes less important and air temperature becomes the controlling factor.
The time it takes button sized mushrooms to mature is influenced primarily by the air temper-
ature of the growing chamber. Each species has an optimum temperature for fruitbody develop-
ment that lies within a broader growing range. Knowing the temperature parameters as outlined in
Chapter XI, the cultivator can speed or slow development depending on which end of the cropping
range is chosen. Lower temperatures can be used to postpone or lengthen the harvesting period
and allow for maximum quality control. High temperatures serve to shorten the cropping period by
promoting rapid, intense flushes. However, the dangers of high temperatures include the risk of
heat building up in the substrate and consequent C02 generation, as well as the ability of insects and
contaminants to grow and reproduce at faster rates. Commericial Agaricus growers commonly
lower the air temperature by 2 °F. 48 hours prior to the peak of the first and second flushes. Further
flushes are then run hotter to speed the crop to completion. It is important that the cultivator evalu-
ate the heat generating capabilities of the crop and insure that the environmental control system is
capable of handling them.

Flushing Pattern
The mushroom crop grows in cycles called flushes or "breaks". Depending on the species be-
ing grown these flushes normally come in seven to ten day intervals with each successive flush bear-
ing fewer mushrooms. The manner in which these flushes appear is determined during the pin initi-
ation period. Even pinning sets up a uniform pattern of flushing that continues throughout the crop-
ping cycle. Uneven flushing creates difficult situations for proper watering and environmental con-
trol. To encourage even flushing, early forming pinheads are picked off as buttons unless it appears
that these pins constitute the flush itself. Poor first flushes are indicative of faulty pinning procedures
and lead to lower total yields and a longer cropping period as the cultivator tries to maximize yields
from the following flushes. But keep in mind that many times it is the progressive build-up of com-
peting contaminant organisms that eventually bring mushroom growth to a halt. For this reason, the
goal is to maximize yields in the early flushes.
To further increase the flushing speed the actual harvest period in each flush should be kept
short and concise. Late developing mushrooms are removed with or on the day after peak produc-
tion. The sooner the flush is completely removed the quicker the next one will appear and the short-
 Environmental Factors/151

Figure 137 Agaricus brunnescens af-

fected by high CO2 concentration. Note
long stems and underdeveloped caps.
Figure 138 The effect of dry air on
Psilocybe cubensis caps, a condition
known as "scaling".
152/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 139 Rosecomb on Psilocybe Figure 140 Fruitbody abnormality occa-

cubensis, an abnormality caused by con- sionally seen in Psilocybe cubensis.
tact with chemicals, especially those that
are petroleum based.

er the overall cropping cycle. Stunted undeveloped mushrooms are also cleared from the cropping
surface between breaks with care not to disturb The casing. Small dead pinheads should be left in
place and cause little harm. (As a rule, an aborted mushroom can be removed as long as the casing
is not touched in the process.) At no time should the casing be over-handled in an attempt to clean.
Such handling can spread disease spores and damage subsequent pin formation.

Air Movement
Air movement in the growing room is designed to create an even flow across all levels of crop-
ping surface. This even airflow counteracts temperature stratification and dead air pockets by equal-
izing the environment of the room. In this manner the crop can be managed as a whole, giving the
grower greater control over the cropping cycle.
During the pin initiation period fresh air is introduced into the room to remove metabolic gases
produced by the mushroom mycelium. Although gas production is reduced once this vegetative
 Environmental Factors/153

Figure 141 Bacteria! blotch parasitizing Agaricus

brunnescens.

Figure 142 Characteristic phototropic response

of Psilocybe cubensis toward light.
growth has been slowed, the maturing mushrooms create more carbon dioxide, the removal of
which requires a continuous supply of fresh air. The number of these air changes varies depending
upon the air/bed ratio and the C02 reguirement of the mushroom species being grown. Agaricus
bitorquis needs only half the amount of fresh air required by Agaricus brunnescens. A common
rate for Agaricus brunnescens is 4-6 changes per hour. For more C02 tolerant species such as
Psilocybe cubensis, 2-3 changes per hour is sufficient. (The most accurate method for determining
fresh air requirements employs the multiple gas detector. This instrument measures C02 content of
the air in parts per million (ppm), from 300 (natural level) up to 20.000 ppm. See Appendix for
sources.)
Because many mushrooms are sensitive to carbon dioxide, the physical development of the
mushroom can also be used as a guide. High C02 environments produce long stems and small un-
derdeveloped caps in Agaricus brunnescens and Pleurotus ostreatus. Pleurotus exhibits similar
symptoms in conditions of low light intensity.
In general, too much fresh air is preferable to insufficient air supply. However, fresh air dis-
places the existing room air which is then exhausted from the room. Unless this fresh air is precon-
ditioned To meet the requirements of the species, one will be constantly disrupting the growing envi-
ronment and thereby over-working the heating and humidification systems. For this reason the air
circulation system should be designed to recirculate the room air. This is accomplished by a mixing
box with an adjustable damper that proportions fresh and recirculated air. In this regard, C02 toler-
ant species give the grower a distinct advantage in maintaining the correct environment because
they need less fresh air for growth.
An important effect of air circulation and fresh air supply is the evaporation of moisture from the
cropping surface. Excessive humidity without adequate air movement and evaporation retards
mushroom development. Saturated stagnant air pockets are also breeding areas for contaminants
154/The Mushroom Cultivator

like the Forest Green Mold (Trichoderma) and Bacterial Blotch (Pseudomonas). As stated in the
previous chapter on pinhead initiation, once the primordia are set, the relative humidity should be
lowered to 85-92% and held constant within this range throughout cropping. Besides the creation
of a cool surface by "evaporative cooling", evaporation aids in the transport of nutrients (in solution)
from the substrate to the growing mushrooms. If The evaporation rate is too high and the humidity
falls below 85%, excessive drying occurs, causing small stunted mushrooms and cracked scaly
caps. A dry cropping surface further reduces yields and is difficult to recondition. In this respect, it is
critical for the grower to reach a balance between air circulation, fresh air and humidification. This is
but one aspect of the "Art" of mushroom culture.

Watering
Maturing mushrooms have water requirements that must be met if maximum yields are to be
achieved. Mushrooms grown on uncased substrates draw their moisture from the substrate, where-
as those grown with a casing draw equally from both. Uncased substrates are more susceptible to
dry air and therefore require a relative humidity of 90-95% as well as periodic misting of the crop-
ping surface. If the cropping surface dries and forms a dead mycelial mat, it can be reopened to fur-
ther flushing by raking or scratching. This technique is often used by Pleurotus growers to stimulate
later flushes.
The advantages of using a casing layer are many. Protected from atmospheric drying, the sub-
strate moisture is channeled solely to the mushroom crop. And, the water reservoir provided by the
casing not only supplies the mushroom flushes but also serves To keep a high humidiTy in the crop-
ping surface microclimate. In order to sustain these benefits, the grower must learn to gauge casing
moisture and know when to water.
Other than light mistings, any substantial waterings before the burton stage can result in dam-
aged pins. But once the mushrooms have reached button size, it is time to begin building the casing
moisture back up to the peak reached at pre-pinning. The aim is to reach capacity just prior to the
main harvest. This is accomplished by a series of daily, light to moderate waterings with a fine mist-
ing nozzle. Commercial Agaricus growers have traditionally used a rose-nozzle but many have now
switched to nozzles with finer sprays and variable volume outputs. This enables the grower to add
moisture without damaging the casing surface. In this regard, high water pressures and close nozzle
proximity to the casing should be avoided.
The goal is to keep the surface of the casing open and porous throughout the cropping cycle.
Puffing on too much water at once is the most common cause of panning. By watering 2-4 times/
day rather than just once, the casing can slowly absorb the water without damage to the surface.
After the first flush is harvested the casing should be kept moist with light mistings until the next
flush reaches the button stage. The casing moisture is then built up again. Each new flush is treated
in this manner, although later flushes will have fewer mushrooms and therefore require less water.
At no time should the casing be allowed to dry out. Mushrooms pulled from a dried casing carry
large chunks of casing with them, creating gaps in the cropping surface and at times exposing the
 Environmental Factors/155

substrate to possible colonization by contaminants. If the substrate is exposed during

One of the common contaminants in mushroom growing is Bacterial Blotch (see Chapter
XIII). Blotch results from mushroom caps that remain wet for extended periods of time. Agaricus
growers attempt to dry recently watered mushroom caps as quickly as possible by lowering the hu-
midity of the room. This is accomplished by increasing air circulation and introducing more fresh air
or by raising the air temperature 1 -2 ° F. Agaricus growers also stop watering once the mushroom
cap has reached adolescence because wet mushroom caps become prime sites for disease. Small
scale growers may be able to water around maturing mushrooms without directly hitting the caps. If
Bacterial Blotch or other diseases appear on the mushrooms or the casing soil, these areas should
not be watered. Watering contaminated regions will spread the infection further. A common strategy
for serious disease outbreaks is to lower the relative humidity and run the casing drier than normal.
Agaricus cultivators also use slightly chlorinated water (150 ppm).

Harvesting
The way an individual picks mushrooms can dramatically affect future flushes. Damage to rest-
ing pinheads and disturbance of the casing soil must be minimized during picking. Often times pin-
heads are in close proximity to developing mushrooms and enlarge directly after the mature ones
are picked. Should any pinhead be harmed, the grower will have lost a potential fruitbody. More-
over, these damaged pinheads are easily parasitized by fly larvae and other contaminants. The best
pickers are meticulous, unhurried, and above all treat the mushrooms with care. Carelessness in
picking, when multiplied by hundreds of cultures, can be costly indeed.
The most important factor in harvesting mushrooms is timing. Agaricus brunnescens should
be picked before the veil breaks and the stem elongates. Psilocybe cubensis is morphologically dis-
tinct from Agaricus species, having a longer stem, a less fleshy cap and a more delicate veil. It is
both natural and desirable to have tall stands of Psilocybe mushrooms while this is not the case with
A
. gacrius. Cultivators of these two species, however, share many things in common. One particular
problem is the massive release of spores from the mature mushrooms. These spores often times
cover the casing layer and can inhibit further pinhead development. High spore loads can also
cause allergic reactions amongst workers. For these reasons, one should pick the mushrooms at the
stage when the veil begins to tear or soon thereafter.
The nature of the crop determines how the mushrooms should be picked. Flushes with mush-
room in varying stages of development are more difficult to harvest. This is especially true if the
promordia formation period was interrupted by fluctuations in the environment. One example is a
phenomenon common to Psilocybe cubensis culture in mason jars. Mushrooms sometimes form
between the casing and the glass. Thes "border breaks" are due to high humidity pockets and pre-
mature light stimulation. In tray culture where mycelium is not exposed to side light and proper
moisture is easily managed border breaks are uncommon. Mushrooms then grow uniformly from
the surface of the casing layer where they can be easily picked.
156/The Mushroom Cultivator

Harvesting techniques:
1. Equipped with a basket and short bladed paring knife, grasp the base of the stem, and with
a twisting motion, pull the mushroom from the casing layer being careful not to disturb
neighboring pinheads.
2. Trim the stem base, removing only flesh to which the casing or substrate is attached. Mush-
rooms having thin stems are best cleaned using a knife in a downward scraping motion. All
trimmings should be placed in a sealed plastic bag and removed from the cropping area.
3. Mushrooms growing in clumps or clusters should be broken apart and harvested individual-
ly when possible. Special care must be taken with those clumps containing both mature
and immature mushrooms. Leave immature mushrooms attached to the casing layer or
substrate to insure continued growth.

Preserving Mushrooms
If not served within four days, mushrooms can be preserved by drying,' freezing or canning. Air
drying of mushrooms is the method most widely used by home cultivators and field hunters. Since
most mushrooms are 90% water, they must be dried within a few hours or fly larvae and bacteria
will consume them. Provided mushrooms are placed in a flow of warm, dry air, this large fraction of
water soon evaporates into the air. Dried mushrooms are smaller, lighter and less fragrant than fresh
ones. Once dried, they are sealed in airtight moisture proof plastic containers and refrigerated.
Mushrooms will be preserved for years in this manner. When needed, simply rehydrate them in wa-
ter before cooking. They will regain much of their original size and flavor.
Commercially available food dehydrators are well suited for drying mushrooms. Their only dis-
advantage is that the trays are often too close together, necessitating the cuffing of large mushrooms
into thin slices. Or, one can build a dehydrator solely designed for this function and customized to
an individual's particular needs. A good dryer should be able to dry the mushrooms in 24-48 hours
by passing warm air no hotter than 110 °F. Open air drying at room temperature is also feasible us-
ing dehumidifiers in combination with air circulation fans. "Flash" drying at high temperatures
should be avoided since the mushrooms lose much of their nutritive value and, as the case may be,
much of their psilocybin content.
Freezing is another method of preserving mushrooms. But unless the mushrooms are first
dried, frozen mushrooms are soggy and unappealing upon thawing. In freezing, the water constitut-
ing 90% of a mushroom's mass becomes crystallized. Frozen mushrooms are held together more
by ice crystals rather than their own cellular structure. Since ice expands upon crystallization, cells
break under the stress. Because frozen mushrooms disintegrate into a formless mass when thawed,
they are mostly used in soups or stews.
The best of both drying and freezing is freeze drying. This is the ideal method for preserving
the flavor, nutrition, form and/or psilocybian content of mushrooms. Because of the expense, only
a few commercial mushrooms, such as shiitake (Lentinus edodes) are freeze dried.
 Environmental Factors/157

Freeze dryers operate on the principle of first flash freezing fresh mushrooms which are then
placed onto heated trays in a cooled, high vacuum chamber. The frozen water within the mush-
rooms begins to melt from the heat generated from the trays. But instead of becoming a liquid, the
water is immediately transformed into a vapor that is pumped out of the freeze drier. Freeze drying
preserves much of the original cell structure and hence mushrooms dried in this manner are often
life-like in appearance. Since commercial freeze driers are prohibitively expensive, few home
cultivators can afford them. Many people have discovered, however, that mushrooms placed in a
frost-free refrigerator are almost as well preserved.
Canning is another method for storing mushrooms. Mushrooms preserved by canning must be
carefully cleaned beforehand, precooked for 3 or 4 minutes in boiling water, then inserted into glass
jars with a small amount of vinegar and sterilized in a pressure cooker. (Sterilization for mushrooms
is usually 30-40 minutes at 10 psi. Consult a book on mushroom cookery for further information
on canning mushrooms). Canned mushrooms, especially those that have been pickled, are pre-
ferred by many epicureans To those preserved by other means.
No matter what the technique, fresh mushrooms are undoubtedly better tasting Than preserved
mushrooms. If one chooses to dry, freeze or can, young mushrooms should be selected over old
ones. Label each container with the species, the name of who grew or identified the mushrooms,
the date and the place of origin. (One general rule recommended by all mycologists is: when eating
wild mushrooms for the first time, always leave one or two small specimens aside in case illness en-
sues and a mycologist or a doctor needs To be consulTed.)
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/159

CHAPTER XI
GROWING PARAMETERS FOR
VARIOUS MUSHROOM SPECIES

Figure 143 Stropharia rugoso-annulata fruiting in a bed of wood chips.

160/The Mushroom Cultivator

G rowing parameters for mushrooms vary with every species. Through time spent in
countless trials and from observations by both home and commercial cultivators, specific
cultural requirements have been ascertained.
Mushrooms fruit in response to unique sets of conditions involving nutrition (substrate),
temperature, pH, relative humidity, light and carbon dioxide. What follows are outlines pin-
pointing the optimal environmental ranges for each stage in the mushroom's life cycle. By ad-
hering to these optima, a cultivator can maximize fruitbody production in a precise and delib-
erate fashion.
 Crowing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/161

SPECIES: Agaricus bitorquis (Quel.) Saccardo

= Agaricus rodmanii Peck
= Agaricus campestris var. edulis Vitt.
= Agaricus edulis (Vitt.) Moller and Schaeff.

Figure 144 Linear (longitudinally radial) mycelium of Agaricus bitorquis.

STRAINS: Horst B30 (The first commercial strain to be developed by Gerda Fritsche at the Dutch
Mushroom Research Center in Horst, Holland).
Horst K26, K32 (These are two second generation strains from Horst B30 and are distinctive
from it in that they fruit earlier, give higher yields and have slightly longer stems. Spawn of this
species is now available from Amycel.)
COMMON NAME: Rodman's Agaricus
GREEK ROOT: Agaricus comes from the greek word "agarikon" which scholars believed origi-
nated with a Scythian people called Agari who were well versed in the use of medicinal plants and
employed a fungus called "agaricum", probably a polypore in the genus Fomes. The species epi-
thet bitorquis means having two rings, for the double annulus that so distinguishes this species from
close relatives like Agaricus campestris, the Meadow Mushroom.
162/The Mushroom Cultivator

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cap smooth, white, thick fleshed, convex to broadly convex to plane
with age. The cap margin is incurved at first but soon decurves. The gills are pinkish at first, soon
darkening to chocolate brown with spore maturity. The stem is thick, relatively short and adorned
with a double membranous annulus. (The lower ring is often a thin annular zone). Its spores are
dark chocolate brown in mass.
NATURAL HABITAT: Naturally found in lawns, gardens, roadside areas, pastures, in enriched
grounds and on hard packed soil. A temperate species, widely distributed, A. bitorquis fruits pri-
marily in the spring and To a lesser degree in the fall.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Types: Rhizornorphic to linear; whitish to pale whitish in color.
Spawn Medium: Rye grain buffered with calcium carbonate and/or calcium sulfate. See Chapter
III.
Fruiting Substrate: Nitrogen enriched wheat straw and/or horse manure based compost bal-
anced to 71-74% moisture content.
Method of Preparation: See Chapter V on compost preparation. Pasteurization achieved
through exposure to live steam for 2 hours at 140 ° F. throughout the substrate. Compost should
be filled to a depth of 6-12 inches.
Spawn Run:
Relative Humidify: 90-100%.
Substrate Temperature: 84-86 °F. Thermal death limits have been established at 93 ° F. over
prolonged period of time.
Duration: 2 weeks.
CO2: 5,000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Type of Casing: After fully run, cover with the standard casing whose preparation is described in
Chapter VIII. Layer to a depth of 1 -2 inches. The casing should be balanced to a pH of 7.2-7.5.
Post Casing/Prepinning:
Relative Humidity: 90-100%.
Bed Temperature: 84-86 °F.
Duration of Case Run: 10-12 days.
CO2: 5000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Primordia Formation:
Relative Humidify: 95-100%.
Bed Temperature: 77-80 °F.
Air Temperature: 75-77 °F.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/163

Lighting: None required.

C02: less than 2000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 2-4 per hour.
Watering: Regular misting (once to twice daily) of the beds stimulates primordia formation.
Cropping:
Relative Humidity: 85-92%.
Air Temperature: 75-77 °F.
CO2: less than 3000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 2-4 per hour.
Flushing Interval: Every 8-9 days.
Harvest Stage: Directly before the partial veil stretches.
Yield Potential: Average commercial yields are reported at 3 Ibs/sq.ft. over a 5 week cropping
period. Maximum yields are 4 Ibs per square foot.
Moisture Content of Mushrooms: 92% water; 8% dry matter.
Nutritional Content: Thought to be similar to Agaricus brunnescens.
Comments: The development of Agaricus bitorquis has given commercial growers greater flexi-
bility, especially those in warmer climates where elevated temperatures have been a limiting factor.
An advantage of this mushroom is its resistance to virus (a devastating disease that attacks A.
brunnescens) and its tolerance of high CO2 levels. A disadvantage of growing this warmth-loving
Agaricus is the higher incidence of disease endemic to the temperature range in which this species
flourishes. Agaricus bitorquis is coarser, firmer, more strongly flavored and has a longer shelf life
than its close relative, A. brunnescens.
Genetic Characteristics: Basidia retrapolar (4-spored), forming haploid spores, heterothallic. The
mating of compatible monokaryons can result in fruiting strains. Clamp connections absent. See
Chapter XV.
For further information consult:
P.J.C. Vedder 1978, "Modern Mushroom Crowing", Educaboek, Culemborg, Netherlands.
(English edition available from Swiss American Spawn Company, Inc., Madisonville, Texas.)
P.J.C. Vedder 1978, "The Cultivation of Agaricus bitorquis"in The Biology and Cultivation
of Edible Mushrooms ed. by Chang and Hayes. Academic Press, New York.
Darmycel LTD. Spawn Lab Bulletin 1978, "A Guide to Darlington and Somycel Spawn
Strains".
164/The Mushroom Cultivator

SPECIES: Agaricus brunnescens Peck

= Agaricus bisporus (Lge.) Sing.

Figure 145 Agaricus brunnescens fruiting in trays of compost.

STRAINS: Type or Brown Variety (var. bisporus)

White Variety (var. albidus)
Cream Variety (var. avellaneous)
COMMON NAME: The Button Mushroom.
GREEK ROOT: Agaricus comes from the greek word "agarikon" which scholars believed origi-
nated with a Scythian people called Agari who were well versed in the use of medicinal plants and
employed a fungus called "agaricum", probably a polypore in the genus Fomes. The species epi-
thet brunnescens comes from the latin "brunneus" or brown. Literally, the name means the fungus
that becomes brown, probably referring to the color change of the flesh upon bruising. Also called
Agaricus bisporus for the two spored basidia populating the gill faces.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: A robust, thick fleshed Agaricus species, with thin gills that are pink-
ish when young, and darkening to sepia and then chocolate brown in age. The cap is characteristi-
cally brownish, whitish or cream colored. The cap surface is smooth to appressed squamulose and
dry. This species has a short, thick stern which is adorned with a persistent membranous annulus
from a well developed partial veil. Its spores are chocolate brown in mass.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/165

NATURAL HABITAT: Naturally found in soils enriched with dung, on compost piles and in horse
stables. A temperate species, widely distributed, A. brunnescens fruits from May until November
over much of the northern hemisphere outside the tropical zone.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Types: Moderately rhizomorphic; dingy white, sometimes with brownish hues.
Spawn Medium: Rye grain buffered with calcium carbonate and/or calcium sulfate. See Chapter
III.
Fruiting Substrate: Nitrogen enriched wheat straw and/or horse manure based compost bal-
anced to 71-74% moisture content. This species also fruits well on rye grain covered with an un-
sterilized peat based casing layer.
Method of Preparation: See Chapter V on compost preparation. Pasteurization achieved
through exposure to live steam for 2 hours at 140 °F. throughout the substrate. Compost should be
filled to a depth of 6-12 inches.

Figure 145a Agaricus brunnescens

fruiting on cased rye grain spawn.

Figure 145b Characteristic Agaricus

brunnescens mycelium.
166/The Mushroom Cultivator

Spawn Run:
Relative Humidify: 90-100%.
Substrate Temperature: 76-78 °F. Thermal death limits have been established at 96 °F. but
damage can occur as low as 90 °F.
Duration: 2 weeks.
CO2: 5000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Type of Casing: After fully run, cover with the standard casing whose preparation is described in
Chapter VIII. Layer to a depth of 1-2 inches. The casing should be balanced to a pH of 7.0-7.5.
Post Casing/Prepinning:
Relative Humidity: 90-100%.
Bed Temperature: 76-80 °F.
Duration of Case Run: 8-12 days.
CO2: 5000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Primordia Formation:
Relative Humidify: 95-100%.
Compost Temperature: 65-70 °F.
Air Temperature: 62-65 °F.
CO2: less than 1000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 4 per hour.
Light: None required.

Cropping:
Relative Humidify: 85-92%.
Air Temperature: 62-65 °F.
CO2- less than 1000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 4 per hour.
Flushing Interval: 7-10 days.
Harvest Stage: Directly before the partial veil stretches.
Light: None required.

Yield Potential: Average commercial yields are 3 Ibs/sq.ft. over a 5 week cropping period. Maxi-
mum yield is 6 Ibs. per square foot.
Moisture Content of Mushrooms: 92% water; 8% dry matter.
Nutritional Content: 24-44% protein (dry weight); 56 milligrams of niacin per 100 grams dry
weight.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/167

Comments: Historically, this species and/or its close relatives were the first mushrooms to be culti-
vated in Europe during the late 1 700's. It remains the most widely cultivated mushroom in the
world Today, A broad range of commercially available strains exist, many of which have been geneti-
cally selected for certain advantageous characteristics, especially yield, color and stature.
This species does not form pinheads on agar media unless activated charcoal or select bacteria
are present. A species sensitive to high levels of carbon dioxide, Agaricus brunnescens fruits only
within narrow environmental parameters. As a secondary decomposer, this species fruits best on
substrates that have been transformed by a succession of specific microorganisms.
The common button mushroom is the mainstay of the mushroom growing industry in this
country.
Genetic Characteristics: Basidia bipolar (2-spored), forming diploid spores; secondarily homo-
thallic. The mating of compatible dikaryons typically results in strains both more vigorous and high-
er yielding. Clamp connections absent. See Chapter XV.
For further information consult:
P.J.C. Vedder 1978, "Modern Mushroom Crowing", Educaboek, Culemborg, Netherlands.
(English edition available from Swiss American Spawn Company, Inc.. Madisonville, Texas).
Fred Atkins, 1973, "Mushroom Crowing Today", MacMillan Publishing Co., New York.
168/The Mushroom Cultivator

SPECIES: Coprinus comatus (Mull, ex Fr.) Gray

Figure 146 Fully mature Coprinus comatus fruiting in a tray of compost.

STRAINS: On deposit at the American Type Culture Collection and available through various cul-
ture banks, both commercial and private.
COMMON NAME: The Shaggy Mane.
GREEK AND LATIN ROOTS: Coprinus comes from the Greek word "kopros" meaning dung
and comatus from the Latin "coma" meaning shaggy or adorned with hair tufts. The genus
Coprinus is noted for the several species that grow on dung and for deliquescing gills. The species
epithet describes the shaggy texture of the cap's surface.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cap medium to large in size, whitish, ovoid when young, soon elon-
gating upwards and becoming parabolic. As the mushroom matures and spores are produced, the
cap begins to disintegrate from the margin's edge by an autodigestive process known as deliques-
cence. The disintegrating portions progressively darken and eventually liquify. The cap surface is
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/169

Figures 147-150 Four day developmental sequence of Coprinus comatus fruiting in a

tray of compost.
170/The Mushroom Cultivator

smooth at The disc, scaly below, soon gray, darkening with maturity until black and thin fleshed. The
gills are very crowded, whitish at first, soon gray, darkening with age to black. The partial veil mem-
branous, often leaving a fugacious, membranous (collar-like) annulus that can be moved over the
stem. The spore deposit is black.
NATURAL HABITAT: Common along roadsides, near debris piles, in lawns and in barnyards
during the late summer and fall.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Types: Linear to cottony, zonate-cottony mycelia; whitish in color.
Spawn Medium: Rye grain. See Chapter III.
Fruiting Substrate: Composted wheat straw enriched with horse and/or chicken manure, ad-
justed to 70% moisture content. Also, pasteurized chopped wheat straw supports fruitings of this
species. Garcha et al. (1979) reported that composts having The distinct scent of ammonia after
Phase II supported the greatest fruitings of Coprinus comatus.
Method of Preparation: See Chapters V & VI on the preparation of compost and straw. Pasteuri-
zation achieved through exposure to live steam for 2 hours at 140°F. Compost or straw should be
filled to a depth of 6-12 inches.
Spawn Run:
Relative Humidity: 90-10070.
Substrate Temperature: 76-80 °F.
Duration: 8-12 days.
CO2: 5000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0-1 per hour.

Type of Casing: After fully run, cover with the standard casing whose preparation is described in
Chapter VIII. Layer to a depth of 1-2 inches. The casing should be balanced to a pH of 7.0-7.5.
Post Casing/Prepinning:
Relative Humidity: 90-100%.
Bed Temperature: 76-80 °F.
Duration of Case Run: 10-12 days.
C02: 5000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0-1 per hour.
Primordia Formation:
Relative Humidity: 95-100%.
Bed Temperature: 65-67 °F.
Air Temperature: 62-65 °F.
CO2: less than 1000 ppm.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/171

Fresh Air Exchanges: 4 per hour.

Light: Natural daylight or grow-light recommended on a 1 2 hour on/off cycle.
Cropping:
Relative Humidity: 85-927o.
Air Temperature: 62-65°F.
C02: less than 1000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 4 per hour.
Flushing Interval: 7-10 days.
Harvest Stage: Directly before the gills begin to deliquesce.
Light: Natural daylight or grow-light on a 12 hour cycle on/off cycle.
Yield Potential: Average commercial yields are 2-3 Ibs/sq.ft. over a 4 week cropping period.
Maximum yield potential has not yet been established.
Moisture Content of Mushrooms: 92-94% water; 6-8% dry matter.
Nutritional Content: 25.4 % protein (dry weight).
Comments: Like many other species in this genus, Coprinus comatus is a Thermotolerant
mesophile that often appears in compost piles. This mushroom was first grown in quantity at the
Dutch Mushroom Research Station using the same compost, casing and environmental parameters
as for the cultivation of Agaricus brunnescens. The authors have grown this species on compost
prepared for Agaricus and on straw alone, although fruitings appear more substantial on the former.
Coprinus comatus is edible and choice. However, the crops are difficult to keep because of the
early onset of deliquescence. By submerging mushrooms in water, deliquescence is slowed and
mushrooms remain in good condition for several days after picking.
Extracts from fresh specimens of this species has been shown to have antibiotic properties,
similar to Those from Lentinus edodes.
Genetic Characteristics: Basidia tetrapolar (4-spored), forming haploid spores; heterothallic.
Clamp connections present. See Chapter XV.
For further information consult:
P.J.C. Vedder 1978, "Modern Mushroom Crowing", Educaboek, Culemborg, Netherlands.
(English edition available from Swiss American Spawn Company, Inc., Madisonville, Texas).
172/The Mushroom Cultivator

SPECIES: Flammulina velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Sing.

= Collybia velutipes (Curt, ex Fr.) Kumm,

Figure 151 Flammulina velutipes fruiting in tray.

STRAINS: Many wild and domesticated strains of F. velutipes are available from commercial and
private stocks. (See Appendix). The Japanese have remained at The forefront of Enoke cultivation
with two popular commercial strains, "Maruei" and "Ebios".
COMMON NAME: Enoke; Winter Mushroom; or Velvet Stem.
LATIN ROOT: Flammulina comes from the latin word "flammeus" or flame colored for the yel-
lowish orange to reddish orange color of the cap. The species epithet velutipes is the conjunction of
two latin words, the adjective "velutinus" meaning covered with fine hairs and the noun "pes" or
foot.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Caps typically small, reddish orange to reddish brown, at first hemis-
pherical, soon plane. The cap margin is often irregularly shaped. The gills are yellowish tinged. In
wild collections, the stem is densely fibrillose, velvety, short and tough. In culture, however, the
stems are long and smooth. A partial veil is absent. Its spores are whitish in mass.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/173

NATURAL HABITAT: Common across the North American continent and in other temperate to
boreal regions of the world. Thriving on woody tissue, especially living trees and considered a cold
weather mushroom.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Types: Linear to cottony mycelia, sometimes aerial.
Spawn Medium: Sawdust/bran. One liter (1000 ml.} bottle of spawn inoculates 50-160 (800
ml.) containers. See Chapter III.
Fruiting Substrate: A 80-90% hardwood sawdust and 10-20% rice bran medium. Newly
chipped sawdust holds moisture poorly and some Japanese growers age the sawdust for several
years before using. Standard fruiting containers are quart mason jars or 800 ml. small mouthed
plastic bottles. Some growers are currently experimenting with the cultivation of this species on bulk
substrates in trays. Adjust moisture content of substrate to 58-60%.
Method of Preparation: See Chapter III for the preparation of sawdust/bran media. A 4:1 volu-
metric ratio of sawdust to bran (equivalent to a mass ratio of 10:1 sawdust to bran) is recommended.
Sterilize for 1-2 hours at 250°F. (15 psi).
Spawn Run:
Relative Humidify: 90-100%.
Substrate Temperature: 72-77 °F.
Duration: 20-30 days using standard methods; 12-13 days using in vitro inoculation methods.
CO2: 5000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Type of Casing: None required.
Primordia Formation:
Relative Humidity: 85%.
Air Temperature: 50-55 °F.
C02: less than 1000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 4 per hour.
Light: None needed.
Cropping:
Relative Humidify: 85%
Air Temperature: 50-55 °F.
Duration: 2-3 weeks.
C02: less than 1000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 4 per hour.
Light: Natural daylight or grow-light on a 12 hour cycle on/off cycle.
Flushing Interval: 1 0 days.
174/The Mushroom Cultivator

Figure 152 Developing pinheads of Flammulina velutipes.

Yield Potential: Average commercial yields are 160-220 grams per 800 ml. bottle. Maximum
yields are nearly 600 grams per 800 ml. bottle.
Moisture Content of Mushrooms: 92% water; 8% dry matter.
Nutritional Content: Reports vary from 18% to 31% protein (dry weight}; 107 milligrams of nia-
cin per 100 grams dry weight. F. Zadrazil (1979) found that colonization of straw by this species
decreases its digestibility for use as fodder. This contrasts with the effects of Pleurotus and
Stropharia rugoso-annulata whose presence on straw markedly increases its digestibility. Like many
wood degrading fungi, an anti-tumor antibiotic has been isolated from F. velutipes and is appropri-
ately called flammulin.
Comments: F. velutipes tends to form mycelial "pellets" soon after colonizing a substrate. This
phenomenon makes liquid culture techniques more difficult. Japanese researchers found that the
addition of 5% corn starch and 2% malt to a liquid solution inhibits the formation of these trouble-
some pellets. Curiously, fruitings on sawdust/bran beds can be precipitated when pieces of a fruit-
body are added to this solution. Shiio et al. (1974} found that one could induce the early formation
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/175

Figure 153 Flammulina velutipes fruiting in plastic

jar.

of fruitbodies with a technique whereby fresh pieces of Flammulina velutipes are mixed directly into
liquid spawn and then introduced into the sawdust/bran medium. Not only was The fruiting process
accelerated, the spawning period was cut in half and yield was nearly quadrupled over a year's time.
Using this same technique with Pleurotus ostreatus, yields were increased over and above the norm
by a factor of three. Total production in either case, equalled as much as 14 of the substrate on a dry
weight basis. An analogous technique was developed by Urayama (1972) who discovered that cell-
free extracts of fresh F. velutipes mushrooms introduced to cultures of distantly related species
caused fruitbody formation.
Genetic Characteristics: Basidia Tetrapolar (4-spored), forming haploid spores; bifactorially het-
erothallic. Single spore isolates capable of producing sterile fruitbodies. Dikaryons are faster grow-
ing and characterized by clamp connections. Mycelium can produce oidia, self sectioning chains of
cells with similar functions as spores. See Chapter XV.
For further information consult:
H. Tonomura, 1974. "F/ammulina velutipes" in The Biology and Cultivation of Edible
Mushrooms. Academic Press, New York.
176/The Mushroom Cultivator

SPECIES: Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing.

Figure 154 Lentinus edodes, the shiitake mushroom, fruiting on

oak logs.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/177

STRAINS: Numerous strains of Lentinus edodes are available from commercial and private
stocks. The American Type Culture Collection, which sells cultures to educational organizations
and research facilities, has stock cultures of several wild and domesticated strains. Strains are often
distinguished by their preferences for fruiting in colder or warmer temperature zones.
COMMON NAMES: The Shiitake Mushroom; The Japanese Black Mushroom: and The Chinese
Black Mushroom. (The name shiitake comes from the association of this mushroom to the shiia
tree, a member of the genus Pasania).
LATIN AND GREEK ROOTS: Lentinus comes from "lentis" or lens-shaped for the form of the
cap and edodes signifies the edibility of this species.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cap pale to dark reddish brown, convex, becoming broadly convex
to nearly plane in age. The cap margin is typically inrolled when young. The cap surface is covered
with whitish veil remnants, especially along the margin. The flesh is firm, pliant, easily drying and re-
constituting. The gills are whitish, close to crowded, often with serrated edges. The stem is centrally
attached to The cap, short, very tough and adorned with scattered fibrillose remnants of the partial
veil. Its spores are whitish in mass.
NATURAL HABITAT: A wood decomposer, typically saprophytic. Lentinus species are common
on the dead tissue of deciduous trees, mainly Fagaceae (oak, chestnut, shiia [Pasania] and beech).
In nature, they particularly prefer oaks. Fruiting in the fall, early winter and spring, this species is in-
digenous to Japan, China and other countries in the temperate zone of the Indo-China region.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Types: Rhizomorphic to linear.
Spawn Medium: Pre-soaked wooden dowels or a 4:1 sawdust/bran mixture. See Chapter III.
Fruiting Substrate and Method of Preparation: Oak or alder logs, 4-6 inches in diameter, are
sawed into 3 foot lengths. These logs should be cut in the spring or fall to maximize sap content and
can be inoculated immediately. (Some growers prefer to season their logs in shaded, open air stacks
for one month prior to inoculation}. Before inoculating, logs should be cleaned of any lichen or
fungal growths.
Alternative fruiting substrates include alder or oak sawdust and bran mixed 4:1 with a moisture
content of 60% and sterilized at 15 psi for 1 -1 Yz hours. Fortified rye grass straw has also been used
as a sterile fruiting medium. (See Chapter III).
Spawn Run:
Relative Humidity: 60-75% for logs; 90% for sawdust.
Substrate Temperature: Fast growth at 77°F. (Temperatures above 95°F. and below 41 °F.
stop mycelial growth).
Duration: 6-12 months for cut logs; 30-60 days for sawdust blocks.
CO2: None established; no controls needed using these methods.
178/The Mushroom Cultivator

Fresh Air Exchanges: Stacks in open air sufficient. (Recent innovations show that logs stacked
in a vertical configuration and covered with straw and plastic to maintain even temperatures
result in faster spawn running in an outdoor environment. Within a controlled greenhouse, the
logs need not be covered. The contact between the log surfaces should be minimized to pre-
vent competitor molds and lichens from forming).
pH Optima: 5-6.
Light: None required.
Type of Casing: None needed.
Pinhead Initiation:
Initiation Technique: Submerge logs and blocks in cold water for 24-72 hours.
Relative Humidity: 95%.
Air Temperature: 59-68°F.
Duration: 7-14 days after soaking.
CO2: Not applicable.
Fresh Air Exchanges: If within a greenhouse, 2-4 per hour.
Light: Ambient natural light or optimally 10 lux in the 370-420 nanometer range.
Cropping:
Relative Humidity: 85-90%.
Air Temperature: 59-68 °F.
CO2: less than 1000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 2-4 per hour or sufficient to meet CO2 and/or cooling requirements.
Duration: 3-5 years on oak logs; 2-3 years on alder.
Harvest Stage: Directly before the incurved margin straightens and the cap expands to plane.
Flushing Interval: Outdoor methods generate 2 flushes per year (fall and spring); indoor meth-
ods can produce up to 4 flushes depending on the soaking/initiation schedule.
Light: Same as above.
Yield Potential: Average commercial yields are 2-3 Ibs (fresh weight) of mushrooms per log.
Moisture Content of Mushrooms: 85% water; 1 5% dry matter.

Nutritional Content: 10.0-17.5% crude protein (dry weight) and 55 milligrams of niacin per 100
grams dry weight.
Comments: Compounds in this mushroom have anti-cholesterol effects. Chihara (1979) reported
that lentinan, a water soluble polysacharide in L edodes. was "found to almost completely regress
the solid type tumors of sarcoma-180 and several kind (sic) of tumors. . .". The work of others
(Cochran, 1978; Tokita et al., 1972; Tokuda and Kaneda, 1979) have similarly described the ben-
eficial properties of this fungus. (See Appendix 111).
Although the standard method of cultivation involves oak logs, recent experiments employing
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/179

sawdust or rye grass based "synthetic" mixtures have proved that Lentinus edodes can be grown
on a variety of substrates. In a recent article, Han et alia (1981) report the results of growth experi-
ments with shiitake mini-logs composed of 90% broadleaf sawdust, 10% rice bran and 0.2%
CaCO3. Supplements that increased mycelial growth more than rice bran were yeast powder
(2.0%), soybean meal (5.0%), milk powder (2.0%) and molasses (1.5%). The fastest mycelial
growth occurred when the moisture content of the logs was balanced to 50-60%. In tests on fruiting
and yield the following data were compiled:
Once mycelial growth is complete, highest yields were achieved if the vegetative cycle was pro-
longed 4-12 weeks, with the maximum yield at 12 weeks.
At pin initiation, water bath periods of 48-72 hours increased the moisture content of the logs
by 5-1 5% and yields by 50%.
Cooling the logs for eight days at 60-62 DF. following 48 hours of soaking gave the highest
yields.
Using 0.1 % N hydrochloride to adjust the pH of the water bath from 4.5-7.0, a pH of 5.0 pro-
duced the most primorida and mature mushrooms.
At a light intensity of 550 lux, yields were highest.
The addition of the hormones NAA (5ppm), gibberellin (10ppm), ethylene chlorohydrin
(2000x) and colchicine (8000x) as well as yeast powder (0.1 %) to the water bath increased
yields.
Nevertheless, the traditional log method remains the most commercially feasible at this time
and the one best suited to home cultivation.
Genetic Characteristics: Basidia tetrapolar, forming four haploid spores; heterothallic. Dikaryons
with clamp connections. See Chapter XV.

For more information consult:

H. Akiyama et al., 1974. "The Cultivation of Shii-ta-ke in a Short Period". Mushroom
Science IX, pp. 423-433.

T. Ito, 1978. ''Cultivation of Lentinus edodes" in The Biology and Cultivation of Edible
Mushrooms Ed. by ST. Chang, pp. 461-473.

R. Kerrigan, 1982. "/s Shiitake Farming for You?" Far West Fungi, Santa Cruz.

Y.H. Han, W.T. Veng and S. Cheng, 1981. "Physiology and Ecology of Lentinus edodes
(Berk.) Sing, " Mushroom Science XI, Melbourne.
ISO/The Mushroom Cultivator

SPECIES: Lepista nuda (Bull, ex Fr.) Cooke

= Clitocybe nuda (Fr.) Bigelow and Smith
= Tricholoma nudum (Fr.) Kummer

Figure 155 Mycelium of Lepista nuda.

STRAINS: Available from commercial and private slocks. The American Type Culture Collection
has several strains. Although few spawn companies sell strains of L nuda, tissue and spore cultures
are easily obtained from wild specimens. Nevertheless, there are a limited number of productive
strains currently in circulation.
COMMON NAME: The Blewit.
LATIN AND GREEK ROOTS: Lepista comes from the greek "lepis" which means scale. On the
other hand, the species epithet nuda comes from "nudus" or naked. The name Lepista nuda con-
stitutes a contradition of terms, literally translating as the scaly smooth mushroom.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cap typically violet when fresh, becoming buff brown in drying;
smooth, without hairs; dry; convex or broadly convex to plane in age. The cap margin is inrolled or
incurved when young and simply decurved at maturity. The gills are a pale violet color, sometimes
developing brownish hues in age and are adnexed or ascending in their attachment to the stem. The
stem is equal overall but bulbous at the base and covered with fine fibrils over much of its surface.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/181

Fruitbodies can be moderately large when mature. A partial veil is absent. The spore deposit is pale
pinkish Tan.
NATURAL HABITAT: Commonly occurring in the summer to late fall across much of the tem-
perate regions of North America and Europe. This species is found in and around decomposing
piles of sawdust, in conifer duff, amongst leaves and in mature compost piles.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Types: Linear to cottony and usually with purplish to violet hues. (See Color Photo 3).
Spawn Medium: A 4:1 sawdust/bran mixture or rye grain spawn. See Chapter III.
Fruiting Substrates: Horse manure/straw compost mixed with 10% fresh straw at spawning; leaf
mulch/sawdust mixtures.
Spawn Run:
Relative Humidity: 90 + %.
Substrate Temperature: Fastest growth at 70-75 °F. Temperature maxima and minima: 40 DF.
and 86 °F. respectively.
Duration: 25-60 days for complete colonization.
C02: 5000-10,000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Light: Incubation in total darkness.
Type of Casing: Standard peat based casing. An option is the addition of shredded leaf material
and activated charcoal to 10% of total mass. Balance to a pH of 7.0.
Pinhead Initiation:
Relative Humidity: 95%.
Air Temperature: 55-65 °F.
Duration: 7-14 days.
C02: less than 1000 ppm
Fresh Air Exchanges: 2-4 per hour.
Light: Ambient natural light or optimally 10 lux in the 370-420 nanometer range. (Light re-
quirements have not yet been established for this species, and until that time, light stimulation
should be presumed as a prerequisite for fruiting.)
Cropping:
Relative Humidity: 85-907o.
Air Temperature: 55-65 °F.
Duration: 24-52 weeks.
CO2: less than 1000 ppm.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 2-4 per hour.
182/The Mushroom Cultivator

Harvest Stage: While the mushroom caps remain convex.

Flushing Interval: 10-14 days.
Light: Same as above.
Yield Potential: Data very limited. Yields of one and a quarter pounds per square foot in 14 weeks
have been reported by Visscher (1 981}. (Recent studies show that yields can be increased substan-
tially, although no maxima have yet been established.)
Moisture Content of Mushrooms: 88-90% water; 10-12% dry matter.
Nutritional Content: No data available.
Comments: Several contraditions about the fruiting requirements for this species are appar-
ent. Although Wright and Hayes (1979) reported that immature horse manure/straw composts
supported the most vigorous mycelial growth, the work of previous researchers indicates that the
best fruitings occurred on "spent" compost that has been colonized for a year or more. Fruitbodies
also form on spawned leaf mulch mixed with sawdust. The fruiting mechanism may, in part, be con-
trolled by bacterial flora associated with leaf mulch and the decomposition process.
Singer (1963) reported that mycelium implanted in beds of horse manure/straw compost for
7-14 months produced mushrooms directly after the appearance of rhizomorphs. J. Garbaye et al.
(1 979) published data indicating that the supplementation of natural patches with a INPKCa mineral
fertilization induced large fruitings of L nuda as well as Boletus edulis and Lepiota rachodes, two
unrelated species of culinary distinction.
Alexander Smith (1980) remarks that this mushroom should not be eaten raw, but only after
cooking. European books have reported that this mushroom contains thermobile hemolysin, a
compound that degenerates red blood cells. Although this mushroom has been responsible for scat-
tered poisonings when quantities have been eaten, the effects have been relatively minor and the
toxin is easily destroyed by cooking or parboiling. Lepista nuda is, however, a mushroom with
many positive attributes. Its striking color, firm texture and good taste recommend this species as
one of high culinary appeal.
Some commercial production of L nuda is ongoing in Europe. Nevertheless, this mushroom
is not, as of yet, a species with yields substantial enough to warrant commercial production in this
country. It is a mushroom more suited to the interests of home cultivators and natural culture tech-
niques.
Genetic Characteristics: Basidia tetrapolar, forming four haploid spores; heterothallic. Dikaryons
with clamp connections. See Chapter XV.
For more information consult:
S.H. Wright and W.A. Hayes, 1 979. "Nutrition and Fruitbody Formation of Lepista Nuda
(Bull, ex Fr.) Cooke", pp. 873-884 in Mushroom Science X, Part I. Bordeaux.
J. Garbaye et alia, 1979. "Production De Champignons Comestibles En Foret Par Fertilisa-
tion Minerale-Premiers Resultats Sur Rhodopaxillus Nudus". pp.81 1 -81 6 in Mushroom Science
X, Part I. Bordeaux.
M. Vaandrager and H.R. Visscher, 1 981. Experiments on the Cultivation of Lepista Nuda, the
Wood Blewit", pp. 749-759 in Mushroom Science XI, Australia.
 Crowing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/183

SPECIES: Panaeolus cyanescens Berkeley and Broome

= Copelandia cyanescens (Berk. & Br.) Sing.

Figure 156 Panaeolus cyanescens fruiting on cased straw.

184/The Mushroom Cultivator

STRAINS: Hawaiian.
Mexican.
COMMON NAME: Pan cyan.
GREEK ROOT: Panaeolus is Greek for "all variegated", in reference to the spotted appearance of
the gills. The species name cyanescens comes from "cyaneus" or blue for the color the flesh be-
comes upon bruising.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cap 15-40 mm. broad. Hemispheric to campanulate to convex or
broadly convex at maturity. The margin is initially shortly translucent striate when wet, opaque when
dry. The cap is light brown at first, becoming pallid grey in drying, eventually pallid to white, often
covered with spores. The gills are adnexed in their attachment, close, thin, with two or three tiers of
intermediate gills and mottled grayish black at with spore maturity. The stem is 85-120 long x
15-30 mm. thick and equal to bulbous at the base, tubular, often grayish towards the apex, pale yel-
lowish overall, and flesh colored to light brown towards the base. The flesh readily turns bluish
where bruised. A partial veil is absent. Its spores are dark violet-black.
NATURAL HABITAT: Scattered to numerous on dung, in well manured grounds, grassy areas,
meadows, or pastures. Known from Hawaii and Mexico. Two other Panaeoli, close to P.
cyanescens macroscopically and microscopically, grow in western Washington and in Florida.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Types: Linear to cottony mycelia; white to off-white, sometimes bruising bluish where in-
jured.
Spawn Medium: Rye grain. See Chapter III.
Fruiting substrate: Pasteurized wheat straw; horse manure/straw compost.
Method of Preparation: Chopped wheat straw pasteurized in a hot water bath at 160 ° for 20-30
minutes, cooled and spawned or horse manure/straw compost prepared according methods out-
lined in Chapter V.
Spawn Run:
Relative Humidity: 90 + %.
Substrate Temperature: 79-84° F.
Duration: 7-12 days.
C02: 10,000 ppm or higher.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Type of Casing: Standard peat based casing whose preparation is described in Chapter VIII. Layer
to a depth of 1/2-1 inch.
Post Casing/Pre-pinning:
Relative Humidify: 90 + %.
Substrate Temperature: 79-84 °F.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/185

C02- 10,000 ppm or above.

Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Light: Incubation in darkness.
Primordia Formation:
Relative Humidity: 95 + %.
Air Temperature: 75-80 ° F.
C02: 5,000 ppm or below.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 2 per hour.
Light requirements: Diffuse natural or fluorescent grow-iights.
Cropping:
Relative Humidity: 85-92%.
Air Temperature: 75-80 ° F.
COz'. 5,000 ppm or below.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 2 per hour.
Harvest Stage: When the caps are convex.
Flushing Interval: 5-7 days.
Light: Diffuse natural or grow-lights.
Yield Potential: Not yet established.
Moisture Content: 90-92% water; 8-10% dry matter.
Comments: This rapidly growing species fruits readily on pasteurized straw provided a thin layer of
casing is applied (Yz inch). No more than one week passes from the time of casing to the first flush.
Although the fruitbodies are small, the flushes are typically abundant. The degree of bluing seems to
vary with The strain and substrate.
186/The Mushroom Cultivator

SPECIES: Panaeolus subbalteatus Berkeley and Broome

= Panaeolus venenosus Murrill

Figure 157 Panaeolus subbalteatus fruiting

outdoors on horse manure-wood chip compost.

STRAINS: Fruiting strains are easily obtained from wild specimens.

COMMON NAME: The Belted Cap Panaeolus.
GREEK ROOT: Panaeolus is Greek for "all variegated" in reference to the spotted appearance of
the gills. The species name subbalteatus comes from the conjunction of the prefix "sub-" meaning
almost or somewhat and "balteatus" or belt-like, for the characteristic color zonation that forms
along the margin of the cap in drying.
 Growing Parameters for Various Mushroom Species/187

GENERAL DESCRIPTION: Cap 35-50 mm. broad at maturity. The cap is convex to campanu-
late, then broadly convex and finally expanding to nearly plane with a broad umbo. The color is cin-
namon brown to orangish cinnamon brown, fading to tan in drying with a dark brown encircling
zone along the cap margin. The gills are attached to the stem, broader at the center and with three
tiers of intermediate gills inserted. The gill color is brownish and spotted, with the edges remaining
whitish, becoming blackish overall from spore maturity. The stem is 50-60 mm. long by 4 mm.
thick at maturity and is brittle, hollow, fibrous, and enlarges towards the base. The color is reddish
toned beneath a fine sheath of minute whitish fibrils, darkening downwards or when touched. The
stem base often bruises bluish. On the cap, bluing is rarely seen.
NATURAL HABITAT: Scattered to numerous on stable leavings from horses; in horse dung; or
in well manured grounds. This species is widely distributed across the North American continent
and throughout temperate regions of the world.

GROWTH PARAMETERS
Mycelial Type: Cottony mycelia noted; whitish to off-white in color.
Spawn Medium: Rye grain.
Fruiting Substrate: Horse manure compost, pasteurized wheat straw.
Method of Preparation: Horse manure/straw compost or pasteurized wheat straw prepared ac-
cording to methods outlined in Chapters V & VI respectively.
Spawn Run:
Relative Humidity: 90 +%.
Substrate Temperature: 80-86 °F.
Duration: 7-12 days.
CO2: 10,000 ppm or higher.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Type of Casing: Casing optional. If used, make up a standard peat based casing whose prepara-
tion is described in Chapter VIII. Layer to a depth of '/2 to 1 inch.
Post Casing/Pre-pinning:
Relative Humidity: 90%.
Substrate Temperature: 80-86 °F.
CO2: 10.000 ppm or above.
Fresh Air Exchanges: 0 per hour.
Light: Incubate in darkness.
Primordia Formation:
Relative Humidify: 95 + %.
Air Temperature: 75-80 °F.
CO2: 5,000 ppm or below.