HYDROLOGY

What is Hydrology?
Hydrology is the study of occurrence and movement of water above or below
the surface of the earth. The study embraces the entire domain of water
present in earth, its history along with its quantitative use on the earth.

A civil engineer must have the basic knowledge of hydrology to engage in the
design, planning and the construction of several irrigation structures, flood
control works, bridges and highway culverts.
What is the Hydrological Cycle?
Cycle?
Hydrological cycle can
be defined as the
continuous process of
exchange of water
from the earth surface
to the atmosphere or
vice versa by the
influence of solar
radiation or solar
heat.

It is a closed system
where the water gets
transformed either
from one place to
other or from one form to other under the action of sun heat. Whatever be the
process, the total water in the whole system remains constant. The
representation of the hydrological cycle is represented in the figure-1 below.

The hydrological cycle is involved in the total earth system. The total system
can be classified into three important zone: Atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere. Atmosphere forms the gaseous envelope that is above the
hydrosphere. Hydrosphere forms the body of water that is covering the
surface of the earth. The environment that is below the hydrosphere till the
solid rock forms the lithosphere.

What are the basic components of Hydrological

Cycle?
The basic components of a hydrological cycle constitute:

1. Precipitation
2. Runoff
3. Evaporation
4. Condensation
5. Transpiration
6. Evapotranspiration
7. Infiltration
8. Depression Storage
9. Interception
1. Precipitation
It is the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth’s surface in any
form. Example: rain, hail, snow, sleet, glaze, drizzle, snowflakes.

2. Runoff
It is the water flowing over the land making its way towards rivers, lakes,
oceans, etc. as surface or subsurface flow.

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 1. Surface runoff: it is the running water over the land and which ultimately
discharge water to the sea.
2. Subsurface runoff: The water getting infiltrated into pervious soil mass, making
its way towards rivers and lakes can be termed as subsurface runoff.
3. Evaporation
It is the conversion of natural liquids like water into gaseous form like air.
Evaporation happens in the water bodies

4. Condensation
It is the conversion of a vapor or gas to a liquid. The water vapour evaporates
from the water bodies like ocean, sea and river. These vapors after reaching a
height around 20km in the sky undergo condensation and forms clouds.
These later precipitate as rain, fog etc.

5. Transpiration
It is the evaporation taking place from any plant or greenery. For example, a
water droplet on a leaf getting evaporated into the atmosphere.

6. Evapotranspiration
It is the combination of evaporation and transpiration.

7. Infiltration
It is the process of filtration of water to the inner layers of soil based on its
structure and nature. Pervious soils go through more infiltration than
impervious. Infiltration in soils like sand, gravel and coarser material is more
and for finer soil particles like clay and silt, infiltration is less.
Infiltration is inversely proportional to runoff. In soil, if infiltration is less,
then the runoff is more. Similarly, more infiltration gives less runoff.
Example: bitumen roads have more runoff than metallic red mud roads

8. Depression Storage
It is the part of precipitation required to fill depression zones of land.

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9. Interception
Part of precipitation required to wet the surface of soil, buildings and all
pervious surfaces is called Interception.

Process of Hydrological Cycle

The Process of the hydrological cycle starts with oceans. Water in oceans,
gets evaporated due to heat energy provided by solar radiation and forms
water vapor. This water vapor moves upwards to higher altitudes forming
clouds.

Most of the clouds condense and precipitate in any form like rain, hail, snow,
sleet. And a part of clouds is driven to land by winds. Even during the process
of precipitation, some parts of water molecules may evaporate back to
atmosphere.

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The Portion of water that reaches the ground, enters the earth’s surface
infiltrating various strata of soil. This process enhances the moisture content
as well as the water table.

Vegetation sends a portion of water from the earth’s surface back to the
atmosphere through the process of transpiration. Once water percolates and
infiltrates the earth’s surface, runoff is formed over the land, flowing through
the contours of land heading towards river and lakes and finally joins into
oceans after many years. Some amount of water is retained as depression
storage.

Further again the process of this hydrological cycle continues by blowing of

cool air over the ocean, carrying water molecules, forming into water vapor
then clouds getting condensed and precipitates as rainfall. Similarly, the
water percolates into the soil, thus increasing the water table and also the
formation of runoff waters heading towards water bodies. Thus the cyclic
process continues.

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Water balance Equation
As per the water balance equation, the sum of inflow waters = sum of outflow
waters. Out of the three processes precipitation, runoff, and evaporation,
inflow is precipitation. Runoff and evaporation comes under outflow, then
the water balance equation can be written as,

Precipitation – runoff = Evaporation

That gives,

Precipitation (P) = Evaporation (E) + Runoff (R)

RAIN GAUGE

Selection of site for rain gauge:

While selecting the site for the installation of rain gauge the following points should
be take kept in mind.

1. The site should be on level ground and other types of the ground like
hilltops, hill slopes, etc undulation type of slope is not suitable.
2. The site should be an open space.
3. The nearest object from the rain gauge should be kept at a distance of
twice the height of the object.
4. Sad should be away from continuous wind forces.
5. Other metrological instruments and the fencing of the site should maintain
step 3 above.
6. The site should be easily accessible.
7. The gauge should be truly vertical.
8. 10% of the total number of rain gauge stations in any basin should be self-
recording.
9. The observer must visit the site regularly to ensure its proper reading
readiness for measurements.

Types of rain gauges

The precipitation is measured by a hydrological instrument called a rain gauge. A
rain gauge is also variously known as a hydrometer, Ombrometer, or
Pluviometer. Rain gauges are mainly of two types.

1. Non-recording or ordinary rain gauges.

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 2. Recording type or automatic rain gauges.

1. Nonrecording or original rain gages:

The non-recording gauge (original gauge) extensively used in the world is
the Symon’s gauge. Non-recording gauges don’t record the rain but only collect the
rain. Once the rain is collected, then it is measured by using a graduated cylinder.

The volume of rain measured in the measuring cylinder directly represents the
rainfall volume in cm of water depth i.e. the volume of water collected in cm/3
divided by the area of the aperture (hole i.e. opening that admits light) of the gauge
in cm2 is equal to the depth of rainfall in cm.

Fig. Symon’s rain gauge

The receiver (connecting bottle) has a capacity of 175 mm of rain. In a region of

heavy rainfall, rain gauge with receivers of 375 mm or 1000 mm capacity to
measure rainfall depths may be used.

Nonrecording rain gauges give the amount of rainfall only. This type of rain gauge
cannot provide information regarding when exactly the rain commenced, the rain

7
ended, what is the intensity of rainfall, and how much intensity of rainfall varies
within the duration of the storm.

In order to record the beginning and end of the rain and to measure the intensity of
rainfall, a continuous recording of rainfall with time is required, for this purpose, we
have to use the recording rain gauges.

In Symon’s rain gauge there are concrete block sizes for the foundation are 600
mm x 600 mm x 600 mm and other dimensions are in mm as shown in the figure
above.

2. Recording type automatic rain gauges:

In the recording gauge, it plots the rainfall against time. From that plot of data, we
can easily extract information about the intensity and duration of rainfall, on the
basis of which we may make a hydrological analysis of storms.

• Recording-type rain gauges are those rain gauges, which can give for
permanent automatic rainfall records without any bottle reading.
• In this type of rain gauge, no man is required to measure or read the amount
of rainfall from the rain gauge.
• The record was started and gets recording was recorded automatically on
graph paper.
• The gauge, focuses on a record of humidity range versus (VS) time, in the
form of a graph, which is known as the mass curve of rainfall.

The figure below shows the mass curve of rainfall.

The following are some of the commonly used recording rain gauges:

1. Tipping (or tilting) bucket type

2. Siphon float type
3. Weighing bucket type

1. Tipping or tilting bucket-type rain gauges:

The tipping or tilting bucket-type rain gauge design principle is very simple. A
container is taken and divided into two vertical compartments and is balanced in an
unstable equilibrium about a horizontal axis. In its normal position.

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 Fig.3. Tipping bucket type rain gauge
The instrument arrangement is in the given ways:

• It does not produce the mass curve of rainfall.

• It consists of a 30 cm diameter sharp-edge receiver.
• Sad the end of the receiver, a funnel is provided.
• A pair of buckets are pivoted on the funnel in such a way that when one
bucket receives 0.2 mm of precipitation it tips, discharging its contents
into a tank and bringing the other bucket under the funnel.
• The teaching of the work completes an electric circuit coming to the
movement of a pen to mark on a clock-driven revolving drum that carries a
record sheet.

Disadvantages of the Tipping or tilting bucket type rain gauges:

1. When tipping of pockets takes place, rainfall at that instant is not

recorded.
2. Very high-intensity of rainfall gives close signals, which can make it
difficult to record the number of tips and.
3. Calibration of tips may change due to rusting and dirt accommodation.

Syphon ( Float) type automatic rainfall recorder

The working principle of float-type rain gauge is similar to the waiting bucket-type
rain gauge. The reason water enters into the container of the gauge through the
funnel. A float is provided at the bottom of the container as shown in the figure
below. This float is lifted off by the rainwater which is collected in the container.

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 Fig.4. Float type Rain gauge

• This type of recording rain gauge is also known as a float type gauge.
• Here, rainfall collected by funnel-shaped collection is led into a float chamber
causing the upload to rise.
• When the float rises, a pen (pointer) attached to the float through a level
system records the elevation of the float on a rotating drum driven by a
clock mechanism.
• When the float has reached a preset maximum level, the siphon arrangement
empties the float chamber.

All types of information about the storm can be obtained from the accumulator plot
of graph paper. The beginning and end of the storm, its intensity, duration,

10
distribution of rain, and the depths of total storm precipitation can easily e be
obtained from the plot of the graph.

Disadvantages of syphon type automatic rainfall recorder:

• Cost instruments than other recording-type instruments.

• Mechanical defects sometimes give enormous results.

Waiting bucket type rain gauges:

This type of rain gauge can be used for recording rainfall as well as snowfall.

Rain is collected in a receiver vacate supported on a spring balance. A mechanical

lever arm of the balance is connected without pain which touches a clock-mounted
drum with the graph paper. As it rains, the weight of the bucket gradually increases,
which changes the position of the pen of the balance. With the time the pen marks a
line Cu continuously moves graph paper. The recorded shows the accumulation of
precipitation our time. The recording can be chicken after 24 hours or 7
days depending on the clock and drum size.

Fig. 5. Weighting bucket type rain gauge

These gases are generally used in the USA and are becoming increasingly popular
but not used in India and South Asia.

Disadvantages of waiting bucket type rain gauges:

• When very heavy precipitation occurs, there is a good chance that the
bucket will overflow and
• Expensive instruments are used

Errors in measurement of rainfall:

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The error in measurement of rainfall are given below:

1. The main likely serious of errors in measuring rainfall are,

2. In general rain gauge underestimates the rainfall that would have fallen on
the ground in the absence of a gauge.
3. The measuring value difference of the type of gauge, the height of the rim
of the gauge above the ground surface, the intensity of rainfall, the wind
speed, etc.
4. Improper reading of measuring cylinder, the spilling of some of the water
when transferring it.
5. To the measuring jar and the inability to transfer all the water from the
receiver to the measuring jar.

Double mass curve method of adjustment:

The recorded data from rain gauge inconsistency of record is measured by the
double mass curve technique.

In the mass curve method of adjustment, the recorded data come from the same
parent population are consistent.

The double mass curve technique is used to test the consistency of rainfall
data records at any rain gauge station which if suspended contains certain
discrepancies. The inconsistencies in the rainfall data of a station may be due to
various reasons. The rain gauge station might have been installed at different sites
in the past that is there is a long and continuous rainfall record. The data obtained
are not homogeneous with respect to the present location of the rain gauge.

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 Fig. 6.
A typical example of mass curve for adjustment of Rain fall data
The consistency and accuracy of the data are tested by double mass curve analysis
and the double mass curve also gives a correction factor to assure that the data is
homogenous throughout its period and is related to an unknown site.

A double mass curve enables the data to be estimated for the missing periods or to
be extrapolated beyond the existing length of record on the basis of the
neighborhood data.

Procedure of Mass curve:

The main procedures of the double mass curve are as follows:

1. A Minimum five number of stations (5 as usually minimum and 5 to 10

base stations) with reliable data of approximation the same length and in
the same climate region is selected as a base station.
2. The best stations should not have any e inconsistencies.
3. The average of the annual rainfalls at the base stations is computed for
every year and cumulatively added beginning with the last year.
4. A double mass curve graph is placed between the accumulator with
rainfall of the base station abscissa and the cumulative rainfall of station X
(i.e. Neighborhood problem station) as the ordinate.

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PRECIPITATION
Precipitation is known as all states of water that reach the earth from the
atmosphere. The usual precipitation is rainfall, hail snowfall frost, and dew.
Among these, all types of precipitation, rainfall and snowfall contribute a
significant amount of water. Rainfall is the predominant form of
precipitation. It is used synonymously with precipitation. It is usually
expressed as depth either mm or cm. The magnitude of precipitation
varies with the location, season, and time

Fig1. Causes and process of Precipitation

In the process of precipitation, there is a sequence process of the lifting of an air

mass in the atmosphere where it cools and some of its moisture condenses forms
precipitation.

The three main mechanisms of atmosphere lifting are frontal lifting where warm air
is lifted over cooler air by the frontal passage; orographic lifting. In which air mass
rises to pass over the mountain ranges and convective lifting where the air is drawn
upward by convective action. Such as in the center of the thunderstorm cell,
convective cells are initiated by surface heating.

Which causes a vertical instability of moist air and is sustained by the heat of
transformation of vaporization given up as water vapor rises and condenses. The
condensation process increase in the size of the droplet becomes heavy (= 0.1 mm

14
dia.) some of them (droplets) increase in size by impact and aggregation and larger
drops (= 0.1-3 mm) form and then precipitation starts to fall.

Forms of Precipitation are:

Some of the common forms of precipitation are rainfall, snowfall, drizzle, sleet, and
hail.

• Rain : A form of Precipitation in the form of water drops of size more than
0.5 mm, Maximum size of raindrop is approximately 6 mm.

Type Intensity

Light rain Trace to 2.5 mm/hr

Moderate rain 2.5 mm/hr to 7.5 mm/hr

Heavy rain >7.5mm/hr

1. Snow : Consist of ice crystal which usually combiner to form flakes. , Initial
density varying form 0.06 to 0.15 gm/cm3.
2. Drizle : Fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size <0.5 mm. ,
Intensity less than 1mm/hr, Water drop appears to float in the air due to
small size.
3. Glaze : When rain or drizzle cons in contact with cold ground 0 0C. the
water drop freezes to form an ice coating called glaze or freezing rain.
4. Sleet : Frozen raindrops of transparent grains.
5. Hail : Showery precipitation having the irregular form of pellets or lumps of
ice of size ranging from 5mm to 50mm or above. The density of the hail is
normally 0.8 gm/cm

Causes of precipitation :
1. Cooling of air to the dew point temperature to produce saturation
condition.
2. Being a condensation of moist air masses.
3. Growth of droplet.
4. Accumulation of moisture of sufficient intensity to account for the
observed rates of rainfall.

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OR, When the water is evaporated and diffused into the atmosphere. Moist air
masses get cool to form condensation. After condensation tiny water drops formed
and precipitation occurs.

Types and Classification of Precipitation :

According to the factor responsible for the lifting of the air mass, precipitation is
often classified. In nature, the effects of the various types of cooling causing
precipitation are often inter-related and the resulting precipitation cannot always be
identified as being of any one type.

Precipitation is classified by the type of mechanism that produces it. Each type of
precipitation has characteristics that have important hydrological consequences.
Three types of precipitation are distinguished.

1. Convective Precipitation:
• It is the precipitation resulting from the upward movement of air that is
warmer from the surrounding air. The air close to the warm earth gets
heated and rises because of its lesser density. The effect may be caused
by the difference between land and taken hot bare field and cool woods.
Streets and roof of city warmer.
• Cooler air replaces the warmer surrounding convective cell.
• Warmer air continuously rises up undergoes cooling and results in
precipitation.
• Aerial extent is small limited to diameter (ø) about 10km.

2) Cyclonic Precipitation :
Precipitation associated with cyclones (Low-pressure region surrounded by a larger
pressure region) is termed as cyclonic precipitation. It results from the lifting of air
converging into the low-pressure of the cyclone. Cyclonic move at the rate of about
30 to 50 km/hr and give medium to high-intensity rainfall over a larger area. It may
result in heavy precipitation and damages enough life and properties.

(i) Frontal Precipitation :

If the line of demarcation between cold and warm air is sharp. It is called a front in
case of temperature contrast heavy precipitation is usually located near fronts. The
precipitation along and associated with the front is known as frontal precipitation.

(ii) Non frontal Precipitation :

In the case of the non-frontal precipitation. The moist warm air mass is stationary
and the moving cold air mass meets it. Thus due to the lightness of warm air, there

16
is the passive ascent of warm over cold air owing to the active undercooling. When
the warm air cools down at a higher altitudes Precipitation occurs.

Fig.2.
Precipitation due to Orographic features

3) Orographic Precipitation:
The moist air masses may get lifted-up to higher altitudes due to the presence of
topographic barriers as mountains and consequently undergo cooling condensation
and precipitation. Such a type of precipitation is known as orographic precipitation.

Precipitation is heavier on windward slops and lighter on leeward slopes.

AVERAGE RAINFALL
To compute the average rainfall over a catchment area or basin, rainfall is
measured at a number of gauges by suitable type of measuring devices. A
rough idea of the number of the needed rain gauges to be installed in a
practical area is depending on experience of the hydrologist although this
was determined by the regulation of the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO).

In areas where more than one rain gauge is established, following methods
may be employed to compute the average rainfall:

➢ Arithmetic average method

➢ Weighing mean method or Thiessen polygon method
➢ Isohyetal method.

Arithmetic Average Method:

This is the simplest method of computing the average rainfall over a basin. As
the name suggests, the result is obtained by the division of the sum of rain

17
depths recorded at different rain gauge stations of the basin by the number
of the stations.

If the rain gauges are uniformly distributed over the area and the rainfall
varies in a very regular manner, the results obtained by this method will be
quite satisfactory and will not differ much than those obtained by other
methods. This method can be used for the storm rainfall, monthly or annual
rainfall average computations.

Thiessen Polygon Method

Rainfall recorded at each station is given a weightage based on the area
closest to the station

Consider a catchment area with say, 3 raingauge stations. Let there be 3

stations outside the catchment, but in its neighborhood.

The catchment area is drawn to scale and the position of these 6 stations are
plotted on it. These 6 stations are joined so as to get a network of triangles.

Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to each of the sides of these triangles.

These bisectors form a polygon around each station.

If the boundary of the catchment cuts the bisectors, then the boundary is
taken as the outer limit of the polygon. These bounding polygons are called

18
Thiessen Polygons. The area of these polygons is measured with a planimeter
or by grid overlay.

This method is considered superior to the arithmetical averaging method

since some weightage is assigned to each raingauge station.

Even raingauge stations located outside the catchment are used in computing
mean precipitation

Figure: Thiessen Polygon

Isohyetal Method
• Isohyet – It is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude
• The catchment area is drawn to scale and the raingauge stations are marked on
it

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 • The recorded rainfall values for which areal average is to determined are
marked at the respective stations
• Neighbouring stations outside the catchment are also considered
• Taking point rainfall values as the guide, isohyets of different rainfall values are
drawn (similar to drawing contours based on spot levels)

Figure: Isohyets of a storm

The area between adjacent isohyets is measured using a planimeter.

• If isohyets go out of the catchment, the catchment boundary is used as the

bounding line. It is assumed that the average value of rainfall indicated by two
isohyets acts over the inter isohyetal area
• This method is considered superior to the previous methods when the number
of raingauge stations are large

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RUNOFF

Components of Runoff
Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation
from a catchment area through a surface channel enters into
a stream channel. It represents the output from catchment in
a given unit of time. Fig. 18.1 shows components of runoff.

Fig. 18.1.Components of runoff.(Source: Subramanya,

2008)

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Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation. For a
given precipitation, when the evapotranspiration, initial
loss, infiltration and detention storage requirements are
satisfied, the excess precipitation moves over the land
surfaces to reach smaller channels. This portion of runoff is
called overland flow and involves building up of storage
over the surface and draining off the same.Flows from
several small channels join bigger channels and flows from
these in turn combine to form a larger stream, and so on, till
the flow reaches the catchment outlet. The flow in this
mode, where it travels all the time over the surface as
overland flow and through the channels as open-channel
flow and reaches the catchment outlet is called surface
runoff.
A part of the precipitation that infilters moves laterally
through upper crusts of the soil and returns to the surface at
some locations away from the point of entry into the soil.
This component of runoff is known variously as interflow,
through flow, storm seepage, subsurface flow or quick
return flow.

Depending upon the time delay between the infiltration and

the outflow, the interflow is sometimes classified into
prompt interflow, i.e. the interflow with the least time lag
and delayed interflow.

Another route for the infiltered water is to undergo deep

percolation and reach the groundwater storage. The time lag,

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i.e. the difference in time between the entry into the soil and
outflows from it is very large, being of the order of months
and years. This part of runoff is called groundwater runoff
or groundwater flow.

Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the

runoff, the runoff is classified into two categories; as (a)
Direct runoff (b) Base flow.
a) Direct runoff
It is the part of runoff which enters the stream immediately
after the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt
interflow and rainfall on the surface of the stream. In the
case of snow-melt, the resulting flow entering the stream is
also a direct runoff. Direct storm runoff and storm runoff
are also used to designate direct runoff.

b) Base flow
The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as
groundwater flow is called base flow.

Factors Affecting Runoff

The main factors affecting the runoff from a catchment area
are:
a) Precipitation characteristics
b) Shape and size of catchment

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c) Topography
d) Geologic characteristics
e) Meteorological characteristics
f) Storage characteristics of a catchment

.1Precipitation Characteristics
Precipitation is the most important factor, which affects
runoff. The important characteristics of precipitation are
duration, intensity and areal distribution.
Duration Total runoff depends on the duration of
rainstorm. For a given rainfall intensity and other
conditions, a longer duration rainfall event will result in
more runoff.
Intensity Rainfall intensity influences both rate and volume
of runoff. The runoff volume and also runoff rate will be
greater for an intense rainfall event than for less intense
event.
Areal Distribution It also influences both the rate and
volume of runoff. Generally, the maximum rate and volume
of runoff occurs when the entire watershed contributes.
2 Shape and Size of Catchment
The runoff from a catchment depends upon the size, shape
and location of the catchment. The following are the general
observations:

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a) More intense rainfall events are generally distributed
over a relatively smaller area, i.e., larger the area lower will
be the intensity of rainfall.
b) The peak normally decreases as the area of the basin
increase. (peak flow per unit area)
c) Larger basins give a more constant minimum flow than
the smaller ones. (effect of local rains and greater capacity
of the ground-water reservoir)
d) Fan shaped catchments give greater runoff because
tributaries are nearly of same size and hence time of
concentration of runoff is nearly same. On the contrary,
discharges over fern leaf arrangement of tributaries are
distributed over long period because of the different lengths
of tributaries.

Fig. 18.2a.Fan shaped catchment. Fig. 18.2b.Leaf shaped

catchment.(Source: Subramanya, 2008)
3 Topography
The runoff depends upon surface condition, slope and land
features. Runoff will be more from a smooth surface than

25
from rugged surface. Also, if the surface slope is steep,
water will flow quickly and adsorption and evaporation
losses will be less, resulting in greater runoff. On the other
hand if the catchment is mountainous, the rainfall intensity
will be high and hence runoff will be more.
18.2.4 Geologic Characteristics
Geologic characteristics include surface and sub-surface soil
type, rocks and their permeability. Geologic characteristics
influence infiltration and percolation rates. The runoff will
be more for low infiltration capacity soil (clay) than for high
infiltration capacity soil (sand).

18.2.5 Meteorological Characteristics

Temperature, wind speed, and humidity are the major
meteorological factors, which affect runoff. Temperature,
wind speed and humidity affect evaporation and
transpiration rates, thus soil moisture regime and infiltration
rate, and finally runoff volume.

18.2.6 Storage Characteristics of a Catchment

Presence of artificial storage such as dams, weirs etc. and
natural storage such as lakes and ponds etc. tend to reduce
the peak flow. These structures also give rise to greater
evaporation.

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1.5.5 Maximum Flood Discharge & Yield
Flood Estimation

Maximum flood discharge is required for spillway design. As by any method

exact amount and intensity of flood is difficult to predict, expected flood and
its consequent damages can only be judged and approximated. Hence
discretion and judgment of design engineer is utmost important.

Estimation of peak flow or flood can be made by following methods

1. By physical indication of past floods – ancient monuments on river
banks bear past flood marks. Old people in villages know maximum
water levels in past 35-50 years. Water line corresponding to high
floods can be drawn on c/s of river. From such c/s water flow area,
wetted perimeter and hydraulic mean depth can be computed.
Knowing longitudinal slope of the channel, mean velocity can be
calculated from Chezy’s or other suitable formula. This velocity can be
used to multiply probable area of water section at the time of past
flood to calculate flood discharge.
2. By empirical formulae – Many formulae have been derived for
estimating flood flows. They can be safely applied to the areas for
which they have been derived. As many variables are involved which
depends upon country, past flows, topography, geological
charactristics etc that can not be generalised.

Q = CA
n

Where Q= flood discharge, A = catchment area, n= flood index, C= flood

coefficient

C & n depends upon various factors such as size, shape & location of
catchment, topography of catchment, intensity & duration of rainfall.

Some of the empirical formulae are

Dicken’s formula – Q = CA
3/4 ( C=11.5 North India, C=14 to 19.5 Central India, C= 22 to 26 Western Ghats)

Ingli’s formula –

27
Fanning’s formula Q = CA
5/6

3. Determination of peak flood discharge using envelope curves

Data on Indian rivers was collected and two envelope curves, one for basins
in South India and the other for northern and central India was developed.
Here only drainage area is considered and other basin characteristics have
been ignored, hence results will not be precise, but can be used for
preliminary guidance. These curves should be revised time to time as more
and more data becomes available.

4. Flood frequency studies- Probability concepts are used to study probable

variations in flow so that design can be completed on calculated risk.

Flood frequency denotes likelihood of flood being equaled or exceeded.

Denoted by F.

Recurrence interval denotes the number of years in which a flood can be

expected once. This is denoted by Tr and is equal to Tr = /F
100

Determination of recurrence interval – If record of annual flood for N

number of years is given, arrange them in decreasing order of their
magnitude and mark their serial order. If a particular flood has serial no m in
above order then its recurrence interval can be found by

California method Tr= or Hazens method Tr= or Gumbel’s method Tr = where

C= Gambel’s correction factor.

To find any design flood of desired frequency, a plot of Q versus T r or (F) is

prepared on probability paper. From this plot unknown flood for any value
of Tr can be found out.

5. Determination by Unit hydrograph method

Hydrograph is a graph in which discharge and velocity is plotted along Y axis

and the time is plotted along X axis. The time may be in day, month or in
hour. From the flood hydrograph we can find out

1. Rate of flood at site at any time.

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2. Total volume of flood flow

3. Maximum rate of flow caused by flood.

The rise and fall of flood.

Yield

Yield is defined as the total quantity of water available from catchment area
at the outlet in period of one year. This quantity is expressed as volume in
units of Mm (Million meter cube 10 m ) or ha-m (hectare-meter 10 m ).
3 6 3 4 2

Yield can be estimated from either river gauging (mass curve analysis) or
rainfall analysis. Yield computation is important as storage capacity depends
upon it. While taking up any irrigation project, preliminary calculations are
made by using empirical formulae, once it is finalized exact calculations are
made by river gauging and correlating the rainfall run off, yield and verify
correctness of the yield assumed for planning purposes.

Dependable yield

Dependable yield represents that value of yield which will be available for a
given number of years per rainfall cycle. There are two methods of
calculating dependable yield. first by assuming certain dependability
percentage and second by adopting rainfall of an average bad year.

Dependability percentage - Suppose while designing a dam and a reservoir if

design is based on minimum value of yield it will lead to small height and

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low cost of dam but will not utilize the yield fully every year. Whereas if
design is based on maximum value of yield the height of dam will be large
and reservoir will be filled up to 5% of time and more investment will be
unnecessarily blocked.

For example if at a site minimum and maximum yield is 100 and 500 Mm in
3

50 years, then for economy and optimum utilisation of resources the design
should be based on dependability percentage (p) between 100% and 2% .
Small and medium reservoirs are designed for p=60% while larger ones are
designed for p=75%.

Average bad year – For small project where detailed data is not available,
design may be based on rainfall of average bad year. A bad year is one in
which the rainfall is less than 80% of the average annual rainfall. Thus
rainfall for an average bad year will be equal to 80% of average annual
rainfall and yield available from this rainfall will be dependable yield. This
method is more approximate than earlier.

Stream Gauging

Stream gauging means to determine the characteristics of stream flow. It

includes determining discharge ( Q = A x V) that means area and velocity of
flow.

Following are the common methods to determine discharge of river, canal or

channel

Area-velocity method

Weir method

Chemical method

Venturi flume method

In determining area of a stream we’ll consider two factors of it namely width

and depth.

Width Measurement – To determine width of a open channel having width

up to 150m a wire rope is stretched across the channel and segments are
marked on the wire rope by means of pendants. Precaution for sag

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correction is taken. For more than 150m width, pivot point method based on
similar triangles is used.

Depth measurement –

By Sounding Rod – In this method a graduated wooden rod 5-8 am in

diameter, enameled steel pipe or flat gauge is used. Graduations are in
meters and centimeters. The bottom of sounding rod is fitted with 10-15cm
diameter disc, to prevent its sinking in bed. The depth is directly measured
by lowering sounding rod in the channel. This method is used for shallow
channels.

By lead line – For deeper channels having high velocity, observations are
done with the help of weighted lead line or log line which essentially consists
of copper cores covered with hemp and weight fixed at one end. These lines
do not shrink when wet, neither they stretch when under weight and also
remain free from knots. The lead weight is in shape of frustum of a cone 5-
10 kg depending upon velocity of flow.

By echo sounder – This method is based on principle of electricity . Echo

sounder transmits sound waves from the water surface to the bed of
channel. When these sound waves reflect back from the bed they are

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arrested by the transmitter. Time of transmission and time of reception is
plotted on a graph. The depth of channel is worked out from these records.
This method is generally adopted by ships to determine depth of channel.

Measurement of velocity

To obtain average velocity of the channel, 3 to 4 velocities are taken. Velocity

of flow can be determined by one of the following methods.

By surface floats – These are usually wooden discs 7.5 to 15cm in diameter.
Its weight and shape is such that it is least affected by disturbing forces such
as eddies, winds etc. They are painted or flag is fitted at top in order to
distinguish it from distance. Three wire ropes PQ, RS & XY are stretched at
15m apart across the channel as shown in fig over poles. The width of
channel is divided into eight/ten equal parts by handing pendants. Another
wire rope say AB is stretched at about 7m upstream of PQ. Floats are release
from AB from the middle of each part and their timing from PQ to RS is
recorded using stop watch. Floats shall be picked up at XY. Surface velocity
of current is then calculated by

Mean velocity is obtained by multiplying the coefficient 0.8.

By velocity rods – Velocity rods are are wooden or steel tubes of 2.5 to 5cm
in diameter. Length of velocity rod is kept 0.94D where D is depth of
channel. Weights are provided at the bottom, so as to keep rods in vertical
position with 2.5cm part above water. To facilitate visibility flag is provided at
top. As depth of channel is varying, rods of different lengths are required.
The velocity rods are released in the same way as floats and time taken in
travelling from one section to another is noted and velocities at each section
is calculated. Velocity rods give direct mean velocity of the channel.

Double or subsurface floats - In this method two floats are used one on the
surface and another at distance 0.2m D distance from bed.

By current meter – Current meter mainly consists of a wheel carrying series

of cups that revolves on a vertical axis by the force of the current, contact
breaker, tail vane and the counter weights. A chart known as rating chart is
supplied with current meter, which gives the relation between the velocity of
the water and the number of revolutions of the wheel per minute.

When the current meter is suspended in water, the velocity of flow causes
the wheel to rotate. Current meter is fitted with a device to record number

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of revolutions of the horizontal wheel due to velocity of flow. Generally
velocities at 0.2D and 0.8D are determined and average value is taken as
mean velocity.

N=No of revolutions made by wheel per second, a & b are constant given by
manufacturer.

The boat is generally used for small velocities but for higher velocities and
rough waters boat is generally anchored.

N.B. - Weir and venturi flume method is not discussed as same has been
covered under hydraulics.

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