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Cell: The Unit of Life

1. INTRODUCTION
What makes an organism living?
• The presence of the basic unit of life “the cell” in all living organisms.
2. WHAT IS A CELL?
• Cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living
organisms. Anything less than a complete cell does
• All organisms are composed of cells. not ensure independent living
• Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and described a living cell

CELL THEORY
• In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined a large number of plants and • Rudolf Virchow explained that new cells arise from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula)
observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the tissues of the and finally modified the cell theory as;
plant. At the same time, Schwann (1839) a British Zoologist, reported that animal cells had a (i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells
thin layer called plasma membrane. He concluded that plant cells have cell walls. Schleiden (ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

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and Schwann together formulated the “cell theory” but this theory did not explain as to
how-new cell are formed.

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AN OVERVIEW OF CELL

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While egg of an ostrich is the largest isolated single cell. Nerve cells are some of the longest cells

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• The cytoplasm is main arena of cellular activities in both plant and animal cells. • Animal cells contain another non-membrane bound organelle called centrosome which

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• Ribosomes are non-membrane bound organelles found in both eukaryotic & prokaryotic helps in cell division.

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cells. Apart from cytoplasm, they are also found in mitochondria, chloroplast and on rough ER. • Cells that have membrane bound nuclei are called eukaryotic cells that lack a membrane

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bound nucleus called prokaryotic cells.

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PROKARYOTIC CELLS

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• Lack membrane bound cell organelles. • In addition to genomic DNA. many bacteria have small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA
called plasmids. Plasmid DNA confers certain unique phenotypic characters to such bacteria One
• Are represented by bacteria, blue green algae. Mycoplasma or PPLO
such character is resistance to antibiotics. Plasmid DNA is used to monitor bacterial transformation
• All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane (except Mycoplasma) with foreign DNA.

Cell envelope & its modifications Ribosomes and Inclusion bodies

• Most prokaryotic cells have cell envelope. which is tightly bound three layered structure.
• Ribosomes are 70s, has subunits 50s and 30s. Several ribosomes may attach to a single
• The outermost glycocalyx followed by cell wall and then the plasma membrane
• Glycocalyx may be a loose sheath called slime layer or thick and tough called capsule. mRNA and form a chain called polyribosome or polysome
• The cell wall prevents bacteria from bursting or collapsing. • The ribosomes of a polysome translate the mRNA into proteins.
• Extension of plasma membrane into the cell in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae • Reserve material is stored in the form of inclusion bodies in prokaryotic cytoplasm
are mesosomes. It helps in cell wall formation. DNA replication, distribution of daughter cells
Eg. phosphate granules, cyanophycean granules and glycogen granules.
respiration, secretion process and increase the surface area of plasma membrane
• In cyanobacteria, chromatophores contain pigments. • Gas vacuoles are found in blue green algae and purple and green photosynthetic bacteria.
• Each layer of cell envelope performs distinct function, they act together as a
protective unit The plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature and Interact
with the outside world. It is structurally similar to that of eukaryotes.
• Bacteria may be motile or non-motile If motile they have flagella, composed of three oarts
filament, hook and basal body.
• Pill and fimbriae play role in motility.
• Bacteria on the basis of the differences in the cell envelope can be Gram positive or
Gram negative.

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

• Besides the nucleus eukaryotic cells have other membrane • The eukaryotes include all the protists. Plants, animals • Ribosomes are of 80s (in cytoplasm) Small subunit
bound structure called organelles like ER, Golgi complex etc. and fungi. Plant cells have large vacuole, animal cells is 40s and large is 60s subunits.
have centrioles which are absent in plant cells.

• Chemical studies on the cell membrane, especially in human • Membrane is selectively permeable Many molecules can move across
RBC enabled scientists to deduce the possible structure of plasma the membrane without any requirement of energy is called passive
membrane. transport. Movement of water by diffusion is called osmosis. Many

CELL • Cell membrane is mainly composed of proteins and lipids

(mainly phospholipids).
molecules require energy/ATP for their transport called active transport,
eg. Na+/K+ pump.

MEMBRANE
• Phospholipids consist of polar head (outward) and non-polar tail • The quassi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral movement of proteins within
(hydrophobic) inner side. In human RBC 52% is proteins and 40% the overall bilayer. This ability to move within the membrane is measured
lipids as its fluidity.
• Membrane proteins can be integral or peripheral. • Polar molecules cannot move through the non polar lipid bilayer.
• Most accepted model for structure of cell membrane is fluid • The fluid nature of membrane is important for functions like cell growth,
mosaic model given by Singer and Nicolson (1972). formation of intercellular junctions, secretion, endocytosis. ceil division etc.
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CELL
• Non-living rigid structure called the cell wall forms an outer • Algae have cell wall made up of cellulose, galactans. mannans
covering of the plasma membrane In fungi and plants. The cell and calcium carbonate. In plants It consists of cellulose, hemicellulose,
wall of a young plant cell, the primary wall is capable of growth pectin and protein.
which gradually diminishes as the cell matures and the
secondary wall is formed on inner side (towards membrane) of
the cell. The middle lamella is mainly made up of calcium pectate.
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ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM
While each of the membranous organelles is distinct in terms of its structure and function,
many of these are considered together as an endomembrane system because their
functions are coordinated.

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Endoplasmic Golgi Lysosome Vacuole

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reticulum (ER) apparatus

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The vacuole is the membrane

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Reticulum of tiny tubular These were named Golgi These are membrane bound vesicular
bound space found in the
structures scattered in bodies after discoverer structures formed by process of

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cytoplasm, membrane is

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the cytoplasm is called ER. name Camillo Golgi packaging in the Golgi apparatus.
called tonoplast.

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The ER which has ribosomes on They consist of cisternae, which are They are rich in hydrolytic enzymes Contain water sap, excretory product
concentrically arranged near the nucleus and other materials not useful for

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surface are called RER in absence (lipases, proteases carbohydrases),
with convex, cis or the forming the cell In Amoeba, contractile
of ribosomes they appear smooth face and concave, trans or the optimally active at acidic pH. vacuole is important for excretion
called SER. maturing face near plasma membrane

Principally performs the function These enzymes are capable

RER is involved in protein synthesis In many calls, as in protists, food
of packaging of materials. of digesting carbohydrates,
whereas SER is involved in vacuoles are formed by
It is important site for formation proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
lipid & steroid synthesis. engulfing the food parties
of glycoproteins and glycolipids

MITOCHONDRIA
Each mitochondria is a double Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic
Mitochondria unless specifically The outer membrane forms
respiration. They produce cellular energy in
membrane bound structure the continuous limiting
stained are not easily visible the form of ATP, hence called ‘power
with inner compartment called boundary of the organelle house of the cell’. The matrix has single
under microscope. circular DNA molecule, (a few RNA molecules),
matrix The two membranes and inner membrane forms ribosomes (70s) and the components
have their own species enzymes cristae required for the synthesis of proteins Here S'
(Svedberg’s unit) stands for sedimentation
coefficient It is an indirect measure
of density & size.

PLASTIDS
Plastids are found in all plant cells and in Euglenoids Based on the pigments plastids can be classified into chloroplasts, chromoplasts and leucoplasts.

The chloroplast contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments The leucoplast are colourless plastids. Amyloplasts, store carbohydrates eg. Potato.
Elaioplasts store oils and fats whereas the aleuroplast store proteins.

Chloroplast are also double membrane bound structure which has membranous sac like structure called thylakoids and the matrix is called stroma
It also contains small, ds circular DNA and ribosomes Carotenoid is fat soluble pigment eg., Carotene, Xanthophyll etc.

The ribosomes of the chloroplasts (70s) are smaller than cytoplasmic ribosomes.

Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana (singular-granum) Flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids
of the different grana.

Stroma contain required enzymes for carbohydrate and protein synthesis. Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.
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CYTOSKELETON CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLES

• An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures present in the cytoplasm • Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles.
is collectively referred to as the cytoskeleton. They are surrounded by amorphous pericentriolar materials and lie perpendicular to each other.
• It is involved in many functions such as mechanical support, motility, maintenance of • The central part of the proximal region of the centriole is proteinaceous called the hub. which
the shape of the cell is connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets (nine) by radial spokes made of protein.

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

• Cilia and flagella are hair like outgrowths of the cell membrane. Flagella are

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comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement.

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• The prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these are structurally different from

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eukaryotic flagella.

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• The central core is called axoneme and the arrangement of axonemal microtubules is

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referred to as the 9 + 2 array,

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• Both cilium and flagellum arise from centriole like structure called basal bodies. They

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are covered will plasma membrane.

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NUCLEUS

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• Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as early as 1831. Later the material of nucleus was given the name chromatin by Flemming.
• Interphase nucleus has chromatin, nuclear matrix and nucleolus. Nucleus has the membranes and the space between two membranes is perinuclear space
• Outer membrane usually remains continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum and also bears ribosomes on it.
• The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm contains nucleolus and chromatin.
• During different stages of cell division, cells show structures called chromosomes; Chromatin contains DNA, some basic histones, some non-histone protenis
and some RNA.
• Every chromosome has primary constriction called centromere on the sides of which disc shaped structures called kinetochores are present.
• Based on the position of centromere, the chromosome can be classified into four types:
1. Metacentric - Centromere is in the middle
2. Sub metacentric - Centromere slightly away from the middle
3. Acrocentric - Centromere situated close to one end
4. Telocentric - Centromere at terminal position
• Sometimes a few chromosomes have non staining secondary constrictions at a constant location This gives the appearance of a small fragment
called the satellite.
• Nucleolus is not a membrane bound structure and it is a site for active ribosomal RNA synthesis.