A djembe is a goblet-shaped hand drum that originated in West Africa and

is a staple of world percussion:

 Appearance

A djembe is traditionally carved from a single piece of African hardwood

and has a rawhide drumhead. The drum is rope-tuned and played with
bare hands.

 Size

Djembes come in various sizes, but an average-sized one weighs about

15–20 pounds.

 History

The djembe is believed to have originated in the 12th century by the

Mandinke tribe in the Malian Empire. It's an important part of ritualistic life
in West African countries like Mali, Guinea, and Senegal.

 Name

The name djembe comes from the Bambara saying "Anke djé, anke bé",
which translates to "everyone gather together in peace".

 Players

A djembe player is called a "djembefola".

A djembe or jembe (/ˈdʒɛmbeɪ/ JEM-bay; from Malinke jembe [dʲẽbe],

[1]
N'Ko: ]2[ߋߓ ߋ߲߰ߖ) is a rope-tuned skin-covered goblet drum played with bare
hands, originally from West Africa. According to the Bambara
people in Mali, the name of the djembe comes from the saying "Anke djé,
anke bé" which translates to "everyone gather together in peace" and
defines the drum's purpose. In the Bambara language, "djé" is the verb for
"gather" and "bé" translates as "peace."[3]

The djembe has a body (or shell) carved of hardwood and

a drumhead made of untreated (not limed) rawhide, most commonly
made from goatskin. Excluding rings, djembes have an exterior diameter
of 30–38 cm (12–15 in) and a height of 58–63 cm (23–25 in). The majority
have a diameter in the 13 to 14 inch range. The weight of a djembe
ranges from 5 kg to 13 kg (11–29 lb) and depends on size and shell
material. A medium-size djembe carved from one of the traditional woods
(including skin, rings, and rope) weighs around 9 kg (20 lb).

The djembe can produce a wide variety of sounds, making it an extremely

versatile drum. The drum is very loud, allowing it to be heard clearly as a
solo instrument over a large percussion ensemble. The Malinké people say
that a skilled drummer is one who "can make the djembe talk", meaning
that the player can tell an emotional story (the Malinké never used the
djembe as a signaling drum).

Traditionally, the djembe is played only by men, as are the dunun that
always accompany the djembe. Conversely, other percussion instruments
that are commonly played as part of an ensemble, such as the shekere (a
hollowed-out gourd covered with a net of beads), karignan (a tubular bell),
and kese kese (a woven basket rattle), are usually played by women. Even
today, it is rare to see women play djembe or dunun in West Africa, and
African women express astonishment when they do see a female djembe
player.[4]

Origin

[edit]

Mali Empire c. 1350 AD

There is general agreement that the origin of the djembe is associated

with the Mandinka caste of blacksmiths, known as Numu. The wide
dispersion of the djembe drum throughout West Africa may be due to
Numu migrations during the first millennium AD. [5] Despite the association
of the djembe with the Numu, there are no hereditary restrictions on who
may become a djembefola (literally, "one who plays the djembe"). This is
in contrast to instruments whose use is reserved for members of
the griot caste, such as the balafon, kora, and ngoni.[6] (The djembe is not
a griot instrument.)[7] Anyone who plays djembe is a djembefola—the term
does not imply a particular level of skill.

Geographically, the traditional distribution of the djembe is associated

with the Mali Empire,[8] which dates back to 1230 AD and included parts of
the modern-day countries of Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ivory
Coast, Gambia, and Senegal. However, due to the lack of written records
in West African countries, it is unclear whether the djembe predates or
postdates the Mali Empire. It seems likely that the history of the djembe
reaches back for at least several centuries and possibly more than a
millennium.[6]

The goblet shape of the djembe suggests that it originally may have been
created from a mortar. (Mortars are widely used throughout West Africa
for food preparation.)[9]

Recent history

[edit]

Prior to the 1950s and the decolonization of West Africa, due to the very
limited travel of native Africans outside their own ethnic group, the
djembe was known only in its original area.

National ballets

[edit]

Les Ballets Africains in Bonn, Germany, 1962

The djembe first came to the attention of audiences outside West Africa
with the efforts of Fodéba Keïta, who, in 1952, founded Les Ballets
Africains. The ballet toured extensively in Europe and was declared
Guinea's first national ballet by Guinea's first president, Sékou Touré, after
Guinea gained independence in 1958, to be followed by two more national
ballets, the Ballet d'Armee in 1961 and Ballet Djoliba in 1964. [9]
Touré's policies alienated Guinea from the West and he followed
the Eastern Bloc model of using the country's culture and music for
promotional means.[10] He and Fodéba Keïta, who had become a close
friend of Touré, saw the ballets as a way to secularize traditional customs
and rites of different ethnic groups in Guinea. The ballets combined
rhythms and dances from widely different spiritual backgrounds in a single
performance, which suited the aim of Touré's demystification program of
"doing away with 'fetishist' ritual practices". [4][11]

Touré generously supported the ballets (to the point of building a special
rehearsal and performance space in his palace for Ballet Djoliba) and, until
his death in 1984, financed extensive world-wide performance tours,
which brought the djembe to the attention of Western audiences. [12]
[13]
Other countries followed Touré's example and founded national ballets
in the 1960s, including Ivory Coast (Ballet Koteba), Mali (Les Ballets
Malien),[14] and Senegal (Le Ballet National du Senegal), each with its own
attached political agenda.[15]

Emigration

[edit]

In the United States, Ladji Camara, a member of Ballets Africains in the

1950s, started teaching djembe in the 1960s and continued to teach into
the 1990s. Camara performed extensively with Babatunde Olatunji during
the 1970s, greatly raising awareness of the instrument in the US. [16]

After the death of Sekou Touré in 1984, funding for the ballets dried up
and a number of djembefolas (who were never paid well by the ballets [17])
emigrated and made regular teaching and performance appearances in
the west, including Mamady Keïta (Belgium, US), Famoudou
Konaté (Germany), and Epizo Bangoura (France, US, and Australia). [18][19] A
number of other djembefolas—M'bemba Bangoura, Abdoulaye
Diakité, Bolokada Conde, Mohamed "Bangouraké" Bangoura, and Babara
Bangoura, among others—followed their example, establishing a sizeable
population of expatriate performers and teachers in many Western
countries.

Film

[edit]
 Djembefola DVD cover

The 1991 documentary Djembefola[12] by Laurent Chevallier depicts

Mamady Keïta's return to the village of his birth after a 26-year absence.
Upon release, the movie won the Wisselzak Trophy and Special Jury Award
at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam, and the
Audience Award at the Marseille Festival of Documentary Film, and
brought the djembe to the attention of a wide audience. [20][21]

A 1998 follow-up documentary, Mögöbalu[22] (also by Chevallier), contains

concert footage uniting four master drummers (Soungalo Coulibaly,
Mamady Keita, Famoudou Konaté, and Doudou N'Diaye Rose) on stage.

The Oscar-nominated 2007 drama The Visitor ensured that the djembe
was noticed internationally by mainstream viewers.

Western music

[edit]

The djembe has been used by many western artists, including Paul
Simon, Cirque du Soleil, and Tool, raising awareness of the instrument with
western audiences.[23][24]

Recordings

[edit]

Recordings of the djembe far surpass the number of recordings of any

other African drum. Beginning in the late 1980s, a slew of djembe-centric
recordings was released, a trend that, as of 2014, shows no sign of
abating. This is significant because these recordings are driven by the
demand of western audiences; there are almost no djembe recordings
within African markets.[6]

Educational material

[edit]

Among the earliest educational resources available to a student of the

djembe were an educational VHS tape by Babatunde Olatunji released in
1993,[25] as well as books by Serge Blanc, Famoudou Konaté, and Mamady
Keïta.[9][26][27] In 1998, these were supplemented by a three-volume VHS set
by Keïta[28] and, in 2000, by a VHS tape by Epizo Bangoura. [29] Since then,
the market for educational materials has grown significantly. As of 2014,
dozens of educational books, CDs, and videos are available to an aspiring
player.

Tourism

[edit]

Starting in the 1980s, a number of Guinean djembefolas (Epizo Bangoura,

Famoudou Konaté, Mamady Keïta) started hosting study tours to Guinea,
allowing djembe students to experience Guinean culture first-hand. Many
other djembefolas followed suit; as of 2014, a potential visitor can select
from tens of djembe tours each year. Djembe tourism created a market for
djembefolas in Guinea that previously did not exist. Young djembefolas try
to emulate the success of their predecessors and cater to the needs of the
tourists, leading to change and commodification of the original djembe
culture.[4][30]

Commercially produced instruments

[edit]

Most djembes from Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso, and Senegal are still hand
carved from traditional species of wood, using traditional tools and
methods. In the 1990s, djembes started being produced elsewhere, such
as in Ghana, Nigeria, South Africa, and Indonesia, often using modern
machinery and substitute species of wood, such as tweneboa (Cordia
platythyrsa) or mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni or Toona sureni).
However, these woods, being softer and less dense, are not as suitable as
the traditional woods.[31] A number of western percussion instrument
manufacturers also produce djembe-like instruments, often with fibreglass
bodies, synthetic skins, and a key tuning system. [7]

Women djembefolas

[edit]

The traditional barriers against women djembe and dunun players have
come down over time.

 In 1998, Mamoudou Conde, director of the ballets Les Percussions

de Guinée, Les Ballets Africains, and Ballet Djoliba, began to explore
the idea of including women djembe and dunun players in ballet
performances, against considerable initial resistance from male
 performers.[32][33] Despite this, he included two female djembe
players in the 2000 American tour of Les Percussions de Guinée.
Based on positive feedback from that tour, Conde decided to form
an all-female ballet group called Amazones: The Women Master
Drummers of Guinea (renamed Nimbaya! in 2010). The group first
toured the US in 2004 and continues to perform, with tour dates
scheduled out to 2014.[34]

 There are several notable female djembefolas, including Salimata

Diabaté from Burkina Faso (lead djembefola of Afro Faso Jeunesse),
[35]
Monette Marino-Keita from San Diego (winner of the 1st National
"Hand Drum-Off" Competition in 2001),[36] Anne-Yolaine Diarra from
France (djembefola with Sokan),[37] and Melissa Hie from Burkina
Faso (lead djembefola of Benkadi).[38][39]

Sound and beating technique

[edit]

Djembe sound sample

Duration: 13 seconds.0:13

Djembe at medium pitch

Problems playing this file? See media help.

For its size, the djembe is an unusually loud drum. The volume of the
drum rises with increasing skin tension. On a djembe tuned to solo pitch,
skilled players can achieve sound pressure of more than 105 dB, about
the same volume as a jackhammer.[40]

Djembe players use three basic sounds: bass, tone, and slap, which have
low, medium, and high pitch, respectively. These sounds are achieved by
varying the striking technique and position. Other sounds are possible
(masters achieve as many as twenty-five distinctly different sounds),
[27]
but these additional sounds are used rarely, mainly for special effects
during a solo performance (djembe kan, literally, "the sound of the
djembe"). A skilled player can use the sounds to create very complex
rhythmic patterns; the combination of rhythm and the differently pitched
sounds often leads an inexpert listener to believe that more than one
drum is being played.
The bass sound is produced by striking the drum with the palm and flat
fingers near the center of the skin. Tone and slap are produced by striking
the drum closer to the edge; the contact area of the fingers determines
whether the sound is a tone or a slap. For a tone, most of the area of the
fingers and the edge of the palm contact the skin whereas, for a slap, the
contact area is limited to the edge of the palm and the fingertips. The
basic sounds are played "open", meaning that the hands rebound
immediately after a strike, so the contact time with the skin is as short as
possible.

Acoustically, a djembe is a Helmholtz resonator: the frequency of the bass

is determined by the size and shape of the shell and independent of the
amount of tension on the skin. In contrast, the pitch of tones and slaps
rises as the tension of the skin is increased. The bass has a frequency of
65–80 Hz. Depending on the size of the drum and the amount of tension
on the skin, tone frequency varies from 300 Hz to 420 Hz and slap
frequency from 700 Hz to 1000 Hz, with audible overtones reaching
beyond 4 kHz.[40][41][42][43]

 Different vibrational modes of a djembe skin

(0,1) vibrational mode created by a bass or tone

(1,1) vibrational mode created by a tonpalo

(2,1) vibrational mode created by a slap

 

(0,2) vibrational mode created by a slap

(1,2) vibrational mode created by a slap

(0,3) vibrational mode created by a slap

Basic sounds of the djembe

Duration: 5 seconds.0:05

Djembe bass, tone, tonpalo (third slap), and slap

Problems playing this file? See media help.

The difference in pitch of the sounds arises because the different striking
techniques selectively emphasize specific vibrational modes of the drum
head.[44][45] A tone emphasizes the (0,1) mode while suppressing the bass
(Helmholtz resonance) and higher-order modes as much as possible. A
slap emphasizes the (2,1), (0,2), (3,1), (1,2), and (0,3) modes (as well as
higher-order modes) while suppressing the Helmholtz resonance and the
(0,1) and (1,1) modes.[40] Skilled players can also produce a medium-
pitched sound (between a tone and slap) that is variously called third
slap, tonpalo, or lé; this sound emphasizes the (1,1) mode while
suppressing all other modes as much as possible. [46]

 Spectrum analysis for bass, tonpalo, tone, and slap

 

Spectrum analysis of a bass. The big hump is the Helmholtz resonance.

Spectrum analysis of a tone. The pair of spikes at 343 Hz and 401 Hz are
the (0,1) mode.

Spectrum analysis of a tonpalo (third slap). The tallest spike is the (1,1)
mode.

Spectrum analysis of a slap. The spike at 812 Hz is the (2,1) mode,

followed by higher-order modes.
Famoudou Konaté: Sofa

Duration: 25 seconds.0:25

Differently pitched slaps due to selective emphasis of different harmonics.

[47]

Problems playing this file? See media help.

By slightly varying striking and finger position, skilled players can

selectively emphasize different slap harmonics and create melodies of
differently pitched slaps.[47]

Role in the traditional ensemble

[edit]

Duration: 1 minute and 46 seconds.1:46Djembe and konkoni

ensemble in the village of Nafadié, 85km northwest of Bamako, Mali,
recorded January 2008.

Traditionally, the djembe forms an ensemble with a number of other

djembes and one or more dunun. Except for the lead (or solo) djembe, all
instruments play a recurring rhythmic figure that is known as
an accompaniment pattern or accompaniment part. The figure repeats
after a certain number of beats, known as a cycle. The most common
cycle length is four beats, but cycles often have other lengths, such as
two, three, six, eight or more beats. (Some rhythms in the dundunba
family from the Hamana region in Guinea have cycle lengths of 16, 24, 28,
or 32 beats, among others.) Cycles longer than eight beats are rare for
djembe accompaniments—longer cycles are normally played only by
the dununba or sangban.

Each instrument plays a different rhythmic figure, and the cycle lengths of
the different instruments need not necessarily be the same. This interplay
results in complex rhythmic patterns (polyrhythms). The different
accompaniment parts are played on djembes that are tuned to different
pitches; this emphasizes the polyrhythm and creates a composite overall
melody.
 Khassonka player in Mali

The number of instruments in the ensemble varies with the region and
occasion. In Mali, a traditional ensemble often consists of one dunun
(called konkoni) and one djembe. The konkoni and djembe are in a
rhythmic dialog, with each drum taking turns playing accompaniment
while the other instrument plays improvised solos. If a second dunun
player is available, he supplements the ensemble with a khassonka
dunun, which is a bass drum similar in build to a konkoni, but larger. [48]

In Guinea, a typical ensemble uses three djembes and three dunun,

called sangban (medium pitch), dundunba (bass pitch), and kenkeni (high
pitch, also called kensedeni). If an ensemble includes more than one
djembe, the highest pitched (and therefore loudest) djembe plays solo
phrases and the other djembes and dunun play accompaniment.

An ensemble may have only two dunun, depending on whether a village

has enough dunun players and is wealthy enough to afford three dunun.

A djembe and dunun ensemble traditionally does not play music for
people to simply sit back and listen to. Instead, the ensemble creates
rhythm for people to dance, sing, clap, or work to. The western distinction
between musicians and audience is inappropriate in a traditional context.
A rhythm is rarely played as a performance, but is participatory:
musicians, dancers, singers, and onlookers are all part of the ensemble
and frequently change roles while the music is in progress. [49]

Musicians and participants often form a circle, with the centre of the circle
reserved for dancers. Depending on the particular rhythm being played,
dances may be performed by groups of men and/or women with
choreographed steps, or single dancers may take turns at performing
short solos. The lead djembe's role is to play solo phrases that accentuate
the movements of the dancers. Often, the aim is to "mark the dancers'
feet", that is, to play rhythmic patterns that are synchronized with the
dancers' steps. Individual solo dances are not choreographed, with the
dancer freely moving in whatever way feels appropriate at that moment.
Marking a solo dancer's feet requires the lead djembefola to have strong
rapport with the dancer, and it takes many years of experience for a
djembefola to acquire the necessary rhythmic repertoire.

The lead djembefola also improvises to a rhythm at times when no-one is

dancing. While there is considerable freedom in such improvisation, the
solo phrases are not random. Instead, individual rhythms have specific key
patterns (signature phrases) that the soloist is expected to know and
integrate into his improvisation. A skilled soloist will also play phrases that
harmonize with the background rhythm (groove) that is created by the
other instruments.

Construction

[edit]

Shell

[edit]

Traditionally crafted djembes are carved from a single log of hardwood. A

number of different wood species are used, all of which are hard and
dense. Hardness and density are important factors for the sound and
projection of the djembe. The most prized djembe wood is lenke (Afzelia
africana), not because it necessarily sounds better than other woods, but
because the Malinké believe that its spiritual qualities are superior.
(Malinké traditional wisdom states that a spiritual energy, or nyama, runs
through all things, living or dead.[6]) Besides lenke, traditional woods
include djalla (Khaya senegalensis), dugura (Cordyla
africana), gueni (Pterocarpus erinaceus), gele (Prosopis africana),
and iroko (Milicia excelsa).[31]

Spiral pattern on the inside of a well-carved

djembe (djalla wood). The spine of the skin is clearly visible through the
hole in the waist.
Shells are carved soon after the tree is felled while the wood still retains
some moisture and is softer. This makes the wood easier to carve and
avoids radial splits that tend to develop in logs that are allowed to dry
naturally.[50] Carvers use simple hand tools, such as axes, adzes, spoke
shaves, and rasps to shape the shell.[51][52] A well-carved djembe does not
have a smooth interior but a texture of scallops or shallow grooves that
influence the sound of the instrument. (Djembes with smooth interiors
have tones and slaps with too much sustain.) Often, interior grooves form
a spiral pattern, which indicates a carver taking pride in his work.

Skin

[edit]

The djembe is headed with a rawhide skin, most commonly goatskin.

Other skins, such as antelope, cow, kangaroo, or horse can be used as
well. Thicker skins, such as cow, have a warmer sound with more
overtones in the slaps; thinner skins have a sharper sound with fewer
overtones in the slaps and are louder. Thick skins make it easier to play
full tones but more difficult to play sharp slaps; for thin skins, the opposite
applies. Thin skins are louder than thick ones. Thick skins, such as cow,
are particularly hard on the hands of the player and cause more callousing
than goatskins.

Skins from dry and hot-climate areas and poorly fed goats are preferred
for djembes because of their low fat content. Skins from cold-climate
goats with high-value nutrition have more than double the fat content;
they tend to sound dull and lifeless in comparison. Even though the fat
content of male goats is lower than that of female goats, [53] many players
prefer female skins because they do not smell as strongly and are reputed
to be softer.

The skin is mounted with the spine running through the centre of the
drum head, with the line of the spine pointing at the player, so the hands
strike either side of the spine. Animal skins are thicker at the spine than
the sides; mounting the skin with the spine centered ensures that the left
and right hand play symmetric areas of equal size and thickness. In turn,
this helps to minimize differences in pitch of the notes played by the left
and right hand. Normally, the head end of the spine points at the player,
so the hands strike the area of the skin that used to be the shoulders of
the goat. With thicker skins, such as from a cow or horse, the skin round is
usually taken from the side of the hide so it does not include the spine,
which is too thick for use on a djembe.

Skins may be shaved prior to mounting or afterwards, or may be de-haired

by liming. Liming weakens skins; some djembefolas also claim that limed
skins are harder on their hands and do not sound as good as untreated
skins.[54]

Factory-made djembes often use skins made from synthetic materials,

such as FiberSkyn.

Rope

[edit]

Modern djembes exclusively use synthetic rope, most commonly

of kernmantle construction, 4–5 mm in diameter. Low-stretch (static) rope
is preferred. Most djembe ropes have a polyester core with a 16- or
32-plait mantle and around 5% stretch. Very low-stretch (<1%) rope
materials, such as Vectran and Spectra, are used only rarely due to their
much higher cost.

Mounting system

[edit]

The mounting system for the skin has undergone a number of changes
over time.

Traditional mounting

[edit]

Traditional djembe used by the Kono people from

the Nzérékoré region in Forest Guinea. (From the collection of Musée de
l'Homme, Paris, added to the collection in 1938.)

Originally, the skin was attached by wooden pegs that were driven
through holes in the skin and the shell near the playing edge. Four to five
people would stretch the wet skin over the drum to apply tension while
the pegs were driven into the bowl. The shrinkage of the skin while it dried
then applied sufficient additional tension for the skin to resonate. [55] A
similar mounting technique is still used by the Landouma (a subgroup of
the Baga people) for a djembe-like drum known as a gumbe.[56] This
mounting technique most likely goes back hundreds of years; the exact
period is unknown.

Up until the 1980s, the most common mounting system used twisted
strips of cowhide as rope. The skin was attached with rings made of
cowhide; one ring was sewn into the perimeter of the skin and a second
ring placed below it, with loops holding the skin in place and securing the
two rings together. A long strip of cowhide was used to lace up the drum,
applying tension between the top ring and a third ring placed around the
stem. To apply further tension, the vertical sections of the rope were
woven into a diamond pattern that shortens the verticals. Wooden pegs
wedged between the shell and the lacing could be used to increase
tension still further.[55]

The pitch of these traditional djembes was much lower than it is today
because the natural materials imposed a limit on the amount of tension
that could be applied. Prior to playing, djembefolas heated the skin near
the flames of an open fire, which drives moisture out of the skin and
causes it to shrink and increase the pitch of the drum. This process had to
be repeated frequently, every 15–30 minutes.[7]

Modern mounting

[edit]

Djembe with modern two-ring mounting system

The modern mounting system arose in the early seventies, when touring
ballets came into contact with synthetic rope used by the military. Initially,
the synthetic rope was used to replace the twisted cowhide strips.
However, the rope could now be tightened to the point where it tore
through the skin; in response, drum makers started using steel rings
instead of twisted cowhide to hold the skin in place. [55] Despite objections
from many djembefolas, the modern mounting system gradually displaced
the traditional one and, by 1991 had completely replaced it. [7]

The skin is held in place by being trapped between the top ring, called
the crown ring, and the ring below it, called the flesh ring. A third ring
(the bottom ring) is placed around the stem. The rings are commonly
made from 6–8 mm (¼–⅓ in) rebar. A series of cow hitches on the crown
ring and bottom ring form loops. Through these loops, a length of rope
connects the crown ring and the bottom ring; tightening this rope applies
tension. As the vertical rope is tensioned, the cow hitches on the crown
ring press the skin against the flesh ring below; this attaches the skin to
the flesh ring very securely and stretches the skin over the bearing edge
of the drum.

 Mounting systems

Schematic of two-ring skin mounting

Schematic of three-ring skin mounting

 Fibreglass djembe with synthetic skin and lug tuning
system

A variation of this technique, introduced in the early 2000s, uses three

rings instead of two. The idea of this technique is to increase the number
of friction points trapping the skin to make it less likely for the skin to slip
between the rings as tension is applied. There is no firm consensus in the
djembe community as to whether the benefits of this mounting are worth
the extra weight and added complexity.[57][58]

To prevent damage to the rope from rust flakes, as well as for aesthetic
reasons, the rings are often wrapped with strips of colored cloth.

Factory-made djembes (often from synthetic materials, such as fiberglass),

use a similar system. However, instead of by vertical ropes, the top ring is
pulled against the flesh ring by mechanical lugs that are tightened with a
wrench.

Tuning

[edit]

 Mali weave


 1st and 2nd row of twists on a djembe

3rd and 4th row of twists on a djembe

After initial tightening of the verticals, a djembe is tuned by creating twists

in the verticals to shorten them (Mali weave). With more than one
completed row of twists, the vertical rope forms diamond shapes that can
be quite decorative. Well-applied Mali weave keeps the rope that runs
across the verticals horizontal, without gradually climbing up in a spiral
pattern.

Three completed rows of Mali weave

The amount of tension that can be applied this way is considerable. A

djembe tuned to solo pitch has a tone frequency of around 400 Hz.[40] For
a drum with a 31 cm (12.2 in) playing surface, this equates to an overall
pull force of around 455 kg (1,000 lb), or 15,000 newton per meter (N/m)
of tension.[44][59]

Decoration

[edit]
 Djembe decorated with folded-over skin, sege sege, rope

wrap, and metalwork Djembe decorated with extensive

carvings on the stem and bowl, with folded-over skin

Instead of trimming the skin off above the crown ring, the drum maker can
fold the skin over so it covers the crown ring. This is done for aesthetic
purposes; the fold-over does not serve to hold the skin in place.

Djembefolas frequently attach one to four metal rattles to their drum,

known as sege sege (Malinké) or sesse (Susu), also called ksink ksink. The
rattles serve as decoration as well as to create a richer sound. Sege sege
are not a status symbol or indicative of playing skill. Anyone can attach
sege sege to their djembe, regardless of their ability or whom they are
playing with, without causing offence or breaking etiquette. [60]

Ropes of different color can be wrapped around the bowl of the drum as
decoration. (To tune the drum, the rope wrap must be removed.) Djembes
may also be decorated with cowrie shells, coloured paint, decorative
tacks, or other metalwork.

Traditionally, carvings on djembes (if any) are limited to the foot.

Depending on the country of origin, different patterns are used; traditional
carving styles are usually quite plain and restrained. In the 2000s, western
demand and competition among carvers resulted in more and more
elaborate carvings that can cover all of the foot and, in some cases,
include the bowl of the drum.
 Cowrie shell and tire decoration on the foot of a djembe

Timing belt decoration on the foot of a djembe (purchased

in Conakry in 2001)

Particularly in Guinea, drum makers often fit motorcycle tires to the foot of
a djembe, both for decoration and to prevent the drum from slipping when
playing seated on a slippery floor. This trend started in the late 1990s and
evolved from the practice of attaching timing belts to the foot of djembes
as a decoration.[61]

Study

[edit]

Traditionally, as today, in Africa an individual needs to spend many years

accompanying his master in ceremonies and other festivities before
becoming a real djembefola (djembe player). Today in the communities of
western civilization learning to play the djembe generally involves finding
a master drummer and having private lessons or lessons for small groups
of people. Players generally need to learn the basic sounds and traditional
rhythm samples (4/4 and 12/8) to be able to follow classes. Many years of
playing and learning are needed to be able to produce a sound that is
comparable in its quality to that of a master drummer.

Written transcriptions of rhythms tend to be imprecise. Usually only the

basic idea of the rhythm is transcribed but the real feeling that it carries
can't be easily put down on paper.[9] This is due to the nature of the West
African music—the different types of swing (at least four of them) that are
not easily expressible with western notation. For this reason, written
material for advanced players is still scarce if not unavailable, while
general and informational literature can be easily obtained.
With the advent of musical software such as Percussion Studio,
transcribing and reproducing rhythms has become easier. Musical
software can be useful for people who don't have a group to practice with,
as individual tracks can be isolated or tempo changed to assist with
playing along and learning/practising. A competent user is able to
reproduce material learnt in a workshop for later use. Notwithstanding its
utility as a basic transcription tool, Percussion Studio cannot reproduce the
intonation and microtiming of a skilled player and has limited value,
therefore, for transcribing solo. The drum machine software Hydrogen
(software) contains Djembe, dunun and bell sound files that can be used
to study as described above.

Notable djembefolas

[edit]

Bolokada Conde

Mamady Keïta

 Abdoulaye Diakité (Senegal)

 Hani Naser (Jordanian-American)

 Latyr Sy (Senegal)
  Mamady Keïta (Guinea)

 Famoudou Konaté (Guinea)

 Bolokada Conde (Guinea)

 Yamadu Bani Dunbia (Mali)

 Soungalo Coulibaly (Mali)

 Drissa Kone (Mali)

Selected recordings

[edit]

Rhythmen Der Malinke CD cover

 Famoudou Konaté (1991). Rhythmen Der Malinke. Museum

Collection Berlin: CD 18.
Field recordings from Guinea, with extensive liner notes by Johannes
Beer (in German and French). One of the early djembe-centric
recordings, and widely considered to be one of the best recordings
of the traditional Guinean style.

 Les Ballets Africains (1990). Les Ballets Africains: Guinea. Musique

du Monde, Buda Records.
Recording of the first national ballet of Guinea, illustrating how the
traditional music was arranged and choreographed to adapt it for
presentation on stage.

 Jaraba Jakite, Yamadu Bani Dunbia, Jeli Madi Kuyate (2007). The Art
of Jenbe Drumming (Mali Tradition Vol. 1). bibiafrica. Companion CD
to The Jenbe Realbook.[48]
Recordings of the traditional village style of playing, with just one
djembe and one konkoni, performed by acknowledged masters.