Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Integrated power characteristic study of DFIG and its frequency converter in wind
power generation
Shuhui Li*, Timothy A. Haskew, Jeff Jackson
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Alabama, 317 Houser Hall, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) is a variable speed induction machine. It is a standard, wound
Received 26 April 2008 rotor induction machine with its stator windings directly connected to the grid and its rotor windings
Accepted 22 July 2009 connected to the grid through a back-to-back AC/DC/AC PWM converter. The power generation of a DFIG
Available online 13 August 2009
includes power delivered from two paths, one from the stator to the grid and the other from the rotor,
through the frequency converter, to the grid. The power production characteristics, therefore, depend not
Keywords:
only on the induction machine but also on the two PWM converters as well as how they are controlled.
Wind power
This paper investigates power generation characteristics of a DFIG system through computer simulation.
Doubly fed inductor generator
PWM converter The specific features of the study are (1) a steady-state model of a DFIG system in d–q reference frame, (2)
d–q vector control a simulation mechanism that reflects decoupled d–q control strategies, (3) power characteristic simu-
Modeling lation for both generator and converter, and (4) an integrative study combining stator, rotor and
Simulation converter together. An extensive analysis is conducted to examine integrated power generation char-
acteristics of DFIG and its frequency converter under different wind and d–q control conditions so as to
benefit the development of advanced DFIG control technology.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction characteristics depend strongly on the d–q control approaches

applied to the rotor- and grid-side converters. Those specific
A doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) is an adjustable-speed regularities must be considered in the steady-state study of a DFIG
induction machine widely used in modern wind power industry system.
[1,2]. Wind turbine manufacturers are moving to variable speed The purpose of this paper is to investigate steady-state power
concepts because of the following reasons: (1) a higher energy characteristics of integrated DFIG and its frequency converter
yield, (2) a reduction of mechanical loads and a simpler pitch under general d–q control strategies so as to benefit the develop-
control, (3) an extensive controllability of both active and reactive ment of advanced control technology. Different from conventional
powers, and (4) less fluctuation in output power [2,3]. steady-state studies [7–9], the main features of this paper are (1)
However, the performance of a DFIG depends not only on the steady-state models of a DFIG system in d–q reference frame, (2)
induction machine but also on the two back-to-back AC/DC PWM a steady-state simulation mechanism that reflects general decou-
converters as well as how they are controlled. In order to pled d–q control strategies, (3) power simulation for both the
comprehend DFIG power generation characteristics under generator and the converter, and (4) integrative power character-
different control conditions, various techniques have been devel- istic study of DFIG stator, rotor and converter together under
oped. This can be divided into two categories: (1) transient different wind and d–q control conditions.
approaches [4–6], and (2) steady-state techniques [7–9]. Transient In the sections that follow, the paper first introduces the oper-
approaches are essential to study DFIG dynamic performance in ation of a DFIG, its back-to-back PWM converter, and the funda-
a short time period. But, steady-state techniques are important to mental converter control principles. Then, steady-state models in
examine DFIG characteristics in a broader spectrum. Unlike d–q reference frame are developed. Simulation studies are per-
a conventional fixed-speed induction machine, a DFIG delivers formed to investigate the power generation regularities of a DFIG
power to the grid from both the stator and rotor paths, and its and its frequency converter under different d–q control conditions.
Then, the models of the two parts are combined together for an
integrative study by considering wind power extraction charac-
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +205 348 9085; fax: +205 348 6959. teristics. Finally, the paper concludes with the summary of the main
E-mail address: sli@eng.ua.edu (S. Li). points.

0960-1481/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2009.07.016
 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51 43

2. Doubly fed induction generators and controls

A doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) is a standard, wound

rotor induction machine with its stator windings directly con-
nected to the grid and its rotor windings connected to the grid
through a frequency converter (Fig. 1) [2]. In modern DFIG designs,
the frequency converter is built by two self-commutated current-
regulated voltage source PWM converters, rotor- and grid-side
converters, with an intermediate DC voltage link. The two back-to-
back PWM converters are controlled independently through
decoupled d–q vector control approaches [10,11].
The rotor-side controller consists of a reactive power controller
and an active power (or torque) controller [4,10,11]. It operates in
Fig. 2. DFIG rotor-side controller.
either stator-flux or stator-voltage-oriented reference frame [12–14].
Fig. 2 shows an active and reactive power based control mechanism in
a stator-flux-oriented frame, in which the q-axis current component
components of the space vectors of stator and rotor voltages,
is for active power control and the d-axis component is for reactive
currents, and fluxes; and us and ur are the angular frequencies of
power control [11]. The d–q voltage control signals, the final control
stator and rotor currents. Eqs. (1) and (2) can be combined into
action applied to the converter, are obtained by comparing the d- and
complex equations using space vectors as shown by Eqs. (4) and (5).
q-current setpoints to the actual rotor d- and q- currents, as shown by
the second stage controller in Fig. 2. ! d! !
!
vs ¼ Rs i s þ l þ j us l s (4)
The grid-side controller is also a two-stage controller operating dq dq
dt s dq dq
in a grid AC voltage reference frame (Fig. 3) [10,15]. Traditionally,
the d-axis current is used for active power or DC-link voltage ! d! !
!
vr ¼ Rr i r þ l þ jur l r (5)
control and the q-axis current is for reactive power control. The dq dq
dt r dq dq
d and q voltage control signals, generated by comparing the d- and
q-current setpoints to the actual d- and q-currents to the grid Under steady-state condition and considering ur ¼ s$us, Eqs. (6)
(Fig. 3), are final control actions applied to the converter [10,15]. and (7) are obtained from Eqs. (3)–(5). Note that, throughout the
paper, lowercase letters represent instantaneous time dependent
3. DFIG d–q steady-state model variables and capital ones stand for steady-state values.
! ! ! ! ! 
A commonly used transient model for an induction machine is Vs dq ¼ Rs I s dq þ jus Lls I s dq þ j us L m Is dq þ Ir dq (6)
the Park model. Using the motor convention, the space vector theory
yields stator and rotor voltage and flux equations in the form [16]: !
V r dq Rr ! ! ! ! 
         ¼ I þ jus Llr I r þ jus Lm Is þ Ir (7)
vsd isd d lsd 0 1 lsd s s r dq dq dq dq
¼ Rs þ þ us (1)
vsq isq dt lsq 1 0 lsq The d–q steady-state equivalent circuit (Fig. 4) can then be
         obtained from Eqs. (6) and (7). Using the motor convention, the
vrd ird d lrd 0 1 lrd stator real and reactive power is (8). The rotor loss power is (9). The
¼ Rr þ þ ur (2)
vrq irq dt lrq 1 0 lrq air gap power is (10). There is an additional complex power item
(11), which is absorbed by the rotor from the rotor-side converter.
0 1 0 10 1
lsd Lls þ Lm 0 Lm 0 isd The air gap power (10) is composed of the power converted to
B lsq C B Lm C B C mechanical form (Pconv), the rotor copper losses (9), and the power
B C ¼ B 0 Lls þ Lm 0 CB isq C
@ lrd A @ Lm 0 Llr þ Lm 0 A@ ird A absorbed by the injected rotor voltage source. Thus, (12) allows
lrq 0 Lm 0 Llr þ Lm irq computation of the power converted to mechanical form based
(3) upon the defined sign conventions. In Eqs. (8)–(12), and throughout
this paper, passive sign convention is applied to the stator, rotor,
where Rs, Rr, Lls, and Llr are the resistances and leakage inductances and rotor-/grid-side converters. Hence, positive real or reactive
of the stator and rotor windings; Lm is the mutual inductance; vsd, powers imply that the induction machine is absorbing from the
vsq, vrd, vrq, isd, isq, ird, irq, lsd, lsq, lrd, and lrq are the d and q grid by the stator path, the rotor path, or the converters. Negative

Fig. 1. Configuration of a DFIG wind turbine. Fig. 3. DFIG grid-side controller.

44 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51

! ! d! !
Is_dq Rs Lls
Ir_dq Llr Rr Rr(1-s)/s v dq ¼ R$ i dq þ L i dq þ jus L$ i dq þ !
v dq1 (15)
1 2 1 2
dt

+ + ! ! ! !
1
Vr_dq
V dq ¼ R$ I dq þ jus L$ I dq þ V dq1 (16)
Lm Ems_dq The d–q steady-state equivalent circuit of the grid-side
Vs_dq
converter system, Fig. 6, is obtained from Eq. (16). From the grid
2
Vr_dq(1-s)/s !
- - point of view, the converter injects a voltage, V dq1 , into the grid.
Using the PWM converter average model, the d and q components
Fig. 4. DFIG dq steady-state equivalent circuit. of the injected voltage, Vd1 and Vq1, are linearly proportional to the
d and q control voltages, Vd1* and Vq1*, as shown in Fig. 3 [16]. To
maintain a constant DC-link voltage, the control function should
values imply that the real or reactive power is generated by the make the real power outputted from one converter (rotor-/grid-
generator or the converters and delivered to the grid. side converter) equal the power entered in another converter
(grid-/rotor-side converter) if assuming no loss in the converters.
If the d-axis of the reference frame is aligned along the grid-
! !* ! !
Ps þ jQs ¼ V s dq Is dq (8) voltage position, V dq ¼ Vd þ j0. Assuming V dq1 ¼ Vd1 þ jVq1 ,
then, the current flowing between the grid and the converter can be
obtained by
PRCL ¼ Ir2 dq $Rr (9)
! !
! V dq  V dq1 Vd  Vd1  jVq1
h!  
!* i I dq ¼ ¼ (17)
PAG ¼ Re E ms (10) R þ jXL R þ jXL
dq Ir dq
in which XL stand for the grid filter reactance.
! !* Using the passive sign convention, the power absorbed from the
Pr þ jQr ¼ V r dq I r dq (11)
grid can be achieved from the fundamental complex power equa-
! ! !
tion, i.e., Pgrid þ jQgrid ¼ V dq I *dq ¼ Vd I *dq . By solving this
Pconv ¼ PAG þ Protor  PRCL (12) complex power equation together with Eq. (17), Eqs. (18) and (19)
are obtained.

4. Grid-side converter d–q steady-state model ðVd  Vd1 ÞR  Vq1 XL

Pgrid ¼ Vd $ (18)
R2 þ XL2
Fig. 5 shows the schematic of the grid-side converter system,
which has a DC-link capacitor on the left and a three-phase grid
voltage on the right. The voltage balance across the inductor (grid ðVd  Vd1 ÞXL þ Vq1 R
Qgrid ¼ Vd $ (19)
filter) is R2 þ XL2
2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
va ia ia va1 The real power absorbed by the converter Pconv is the real power
4 vb 5 ¼ R4 ib 5 þ L d 4 ib 5 þ 4 vb1 5 (13) absorbed from the grid Pgrid minus the loss power of the grid filter
dt as shown by Eq. (20).
vc ic ic vc1
where L and R are the inductance and resistance of the grid filter. In 2
Pconv ¼ Pgrid  Idq $R (20)
a d–q reference frame, Eq. (13) becomes Eq. (14) where us is the
angular frequency of the grid voltage.
          5. DFIG power characteristics
vd id d id iq v
¼ R þL þ us L þ d1 (14)
vq iq dt iq id vq1
A DFIG has two paths to deliver its real and/or reactive power
The steady-state model of the grid-side converter system is to the grid: (1) from the stator to the grid, and (2) from the rotor,
developed from Eq. (14) by combining the matrix equation into through its frequency converter, to the grid. To investigate DFIG
!
a complex Eq. (15) using space vectors in which ! v dq i dq , and power characteristics for various d–q control conditions,
!v dq1 are space vectors of grid voltage, line current, and converter a steady-state simulation system is developed using the stator-
output voltage. In a steady-state condition, Eq. (15) becomes voltage orientation frame, i.e., the d-axis of the reference frame is
!
Eq. (16). aligned along the stator-voltage position. Therefore, V s dq ¼ 1 þ
j0 p:u: if the voltage applied to the stator winding is constant at
!
1 p.u. For an applied rotor voltage, V r dq ¼ Vrd þ jVrq p:u:, in the

R jX Idq
A 1 2 B

Vdq
Vdq1

Fig. 5. Grid-side converter schematic. Fig. 6. Grid-side converter d–q equivalent circuit.
 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51 45

stator-voltage-oriented frame, a DFIG can be simulated according

a 30
to Fig. 4, and the characteristics of the stator and rotor power can
be obtained from Eqs. (8)-(12). The DFIG data used in the 20 Vrq = 0 p.u.
simulation is presented in Table 1 [17]. It is important to specify

Stator Real Power (p.u.)

that a feasible region for a DFIG on each individual characteristic 10
curve as shown in the following sections should be those
segments that are within the rated conditions. The following
0
summarizes the main stator and rotor power properties. Detailed
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
characteristic study is given in [17].
-10

5.1. Stator power characteristics -20

Vrq = -0.16p.u.
Vrq = 0.28p.u.
Stator power of a DFIG includes real and reactive powers sent to -30
the grid through its stator path. For a constant stator-voltage, it is Slip
obtained that the controls of Vrd and Vrq (1) result in multiple
25
characteristic curves, rather than one curve as for a traditional b
20
fixed-speed induction machine (Fig. 7a and b); (2) can shift DFIG
V rd = 0 p.u.
generating mode from over synchronous speed region (above usyn) V rd = -0.1p.u. 15

Stator Real Power (p.u.)

to sub-synchronous speed region (below usyn); (3) below usyn, Vrd is 10
more effective for speed and power generation control while Vrq is 5
primarily used to compensate the generating reactive power 0
caused by Vrd (Figs. 7b and 8); (4) above usyn, Vrq is more effective -0.1 -0.050 0. 0. 05 0.1
-5
for speed and power generation control while Vrd is mainly used to
compensate the absorbing reactive power resulted from Vrq (Figs. -10

7a and 8). -15

Unlike a conventional fixed-speed induction machine, a DFIG -20 V rd = 0.1p.u.
exhibits different stator reactive power characteristics. (1) As Vrq -25
increases positively, the stator gradually absorbs more reactive Slip
power for all slip values. As Vrq increases negatively, the stator
gradually absorbs less reactive power for all slip values or even to Fig. 7. Stator real power characteristics (a) Vrq ¼ 0.16 to 0.28 p.u., DVrq ¼ 0.04 p.u.,
Vrd ¼ 0 p.u; (b) Vrd ¼ 0.1 to 0.1 p.u., DVrd ¼ 0.02, Vrq ¼ 0 p.u.
a point of generating reactive power (Fig. 8a). (2) As Vrd increases
positively, the stator absorbs more reactive power above usyn but
generates more reactive power below usyn (Fig. 8b). As Vrd increases (1) Depending on Vrq and Vrd as well as the slip, the rotor may
negatively, the stator generates more reactive power above usyn but generate or absorb an additional real power to or from the rotor-
absorbs more reactive power below usyn. (3) By comparing Figs 7 side converter (Fig. 9). (2) There is also reactive power transmitted
and 8, the following are obtained. For power generation below usyn, between the rotor and the rotor-side converter (Fig. 10). Although
Vrd control alone can result in an excessive reactive power gener- the reactive power is not delivered to the grid, it may cause the
ation, requiring Vrq control to absorb the extra reactive power so overall apparent power exceeding the converter rated power and
that within the limitation of the rated stator power more real thus influence DFIG control effectiveness. (3) The rotor reactive
power can be produced. For power generation above usyn, however, power can be absorbing or generating depending on the d and q
Vrq control alone can result in a large reactive power consumption, controls. The coordination between Vrd and Vrq is important so that
requiring Vrd control to generate an extra reactive power to the rotor reactive power caused by the decoupled d and q controls
improve DFIG power factor. can be cancelled by each other (Fig. 10).

6. DFIG converter power characteristics

5.2. Rotor power characteristics
The power absorbed or released by the grid-side converter
The rotor of a DFIG absorbs or generates real and reactive power depends on the voltage injected to the grid by the converter
from or to the rotor-side converter. It is important to know how the (Section 4). To maintain a constant DC-link voltage, the
rotor real and reactive power characteristics are affected by power passed to the rotor-side converter from the generator
different d–q control conditions for an integrated DFIG system should equal to the power transferred to the grid from the grid-
study. side converter when neglecting the converter losses. Thus, while
a real power flows from the induction machine to the rotor-side
converter, the grid-side converter should operate as an inverter
Table 1
Typical DFIG data used in the simulation study.
and controlled in such a way to deliver the same amount of the
real power to the grid. While a real power flows from the rotor-
Parameter Value Units side converter to the generator, the grid-side converter should
kVA (rated) 1500 KVA operate as a rectifier and controlled in such a way to receive the
Rated voltage 690 V
same amount of the power from the grid.
R1 (stator resistance) 0.0043 p.u.
X1 (stator reactance) 0.0809 p.u. The power control characteristics of the grid-side converter are
R2 (rotor resistance referred to stator side) 0.0048 p.u. investigated through simulation based on Fig. 6. Under the decou-
X2 (rotor reactance referred to stator side) 0.0871 p.u. pled d–q control condition, the real power absorbed by the converter
Xm (magnetizing reactance) 3.459 p.u. and the reactive power absorbed from the grid are affected by Vd1
Frequency 60 Hz
and Vq1. On the other hand, the converter linear modulation requires
46 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51

a 60 a 1.2
50
Stator Reactive Power (p.u.)

1
Vrq = 0.28p.u. 40

R e al P o wer (p.u.)
Vrq =0 p.u. 0.8
30 Vrq = 0.07p.u. Vrq = 0p.u.
20 0.6

10 0.4
0
0.2
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
-10
0
-20
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-30 -0.2
Vrq = -0.16p.u.
-40 -0.4 Vrq = -0.04p.u.
Slip S l ip

Vrq = -0.04 to 0.07p.u., ΔVrq =0.01p.u., Vrd =0p.u.

b 40

30 b 4
Stator Reactive Power (p.u.)

Vrd = -0.08p.u. 3.5

20
3

R e al P o wer (p.u.)
10
2.5 Vrd = 0.4p.u.
0 2
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 Vrd = 0p.u.
-10 1.5
Vrd = 0p.u.
1
-20
Vrd = 0.28 p.u. 0.5
-30
Slip 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
-0.5
Fig. 8. Stator reactive power characteristics (a) Vrq ¼ 0.16 to 0.28 p.u., DVrq ¼ 0.04,
Slip
Vrd ¼ 0 p.u.; (b) Vrd ¼ 0.08 to 0.28 p.u., DVrd ¼ 0.04, Vrq ¼ 0 p.u.
Vrq =0 to 0.4p.u., ΔVrd =0.05p.u., Vrq =0p.u

that the amplitude of the converter injected voltage to the grid must Fig. 9. Rotor real power over speed characteristics.

not exceed the maximum allowable converter output voltage as

indicated by Eq. (21) where Vconv is the phase rms voltage of the
injected voltage, Vdc is the DC-link capacitor voltage or reference DC- characteristics of the generator and converter together for
link voltage set value, and ma (ma  1) is amplitude modulation ratio a study. Fig. 12 gives a partial flowchart for power simulation of
of the grid-side converter [18]. the integrated DFIG system. First, for an operating slip of a DFIG
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi and a voltage applied to the rotor due to the decoupled d–q
Vd12 þ V2 control of the rotor-side converter (Fig. 2), compute the real and
q1 Vdc Vdc
Vconv ¼ ¼ ma pffiffiffi  p ffiffiffi (21) reactive powers absorbed by the stator and the rotor, respec-
3 2 2 2 2 tively. Second, calculate voltage Vd1 and Vq1 of the grid-side
Fig. 11 shows the per-unit power characteristics of the grid-side converter that balance the real power at rotor- and grid-side
converter under combined Vd1 and Vq1 control in a 3D domain. It converters and compensates overall DFIG reactive power as much
also shows the amplitude of the injected voltage versus Vd1 and Vq1. as possible. Third, based on Vd1 and Vq1, compute the real and
The grid filter has a resistance of 0.012 U and an inductance of 2 mH reactive powers absorbed by the grid-side converter from the
[15,19]. The base line voltage is 690 V and the base power is grid.
500 kW. In general, the reactance of the grid filter is much larger Traditionally, the control goals of the grid-side converter are (i)
than its resistance. Under such a condition, it is found that Vq1 is maintaining a constant DC-link voltage, and (ii) compensating the
more effective for real power control (Fig. 11a) and Vd1 is more reactive power absorbed from the grid by the converter completely.
effective for reactive power control (Fig. 11b). According to Fig. 11b, However, under the limitation of Eq. (21), it may be impossible to
the larger positive Vd1 is and the larger negative Vq1 is, the smaller find Vd1 and Vq1 that satisfy both control objectives at the same
the reactive power is absorbed from the grid. But, selection of Vd1 time. Hence, it is appropriate to define that the primary control goal
and Vq1 should also consider the real power balancing between the of the grid-side converter is to maintain a constant DC-link voltage,
rotor- and grid-side converters. When considering converter linear i.e., keeping the power absorbed by the rotor through the rotor-side
modulation limitation, the maximum allowable values for Vd1 and/ converter (Pr) equal to the power absorbed by the grid-side
or Vq1 are even smaller. converter from the grid (Pconv) when neglecting the converter
losses, and the secondary control goal is to keep the resultant
reactive power absorbed from the grid by the DFIG system as small
7. Integrated DFIG power characteristics as possible.
The real and reactive powers absorbed by the grid-side
For optimal evaluation of a DFIG system that includes both the converter from the grid, obtained from Eqs. (18)–(20), are shown by
generator and the converter, it is important to integrate the Eqs. (22) and (23), respectively.
 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51 47

a 0.8 a
0.6

0.4 Vrq_sv = 0.09p.u.

Reactive Power (p.u.)

2
Vrq_sv = 0p.u.

Real power (pu)

0.2
1
0
-0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.10 .3 0.5 0
-0.2
1
-1
-0.4 0.5
-2 0
-0.6
1
0.5 -0.5
-0.8 0
-0.5 -1
Slip -1 Vd1
Vq1
Vrq =0 to 0.09p.u., ΔVrq =0.01p.u., Vrd =0 p.u.

b
b 5

4 3
3 Vrd_s v = 0.4p.u.
2.5

Reactive power (pu)

Reactive Power (p.u.)

Vrd_s v = 0p.u. 2
2
1
1.5
0
-0 .8 -0 .6 -0 .4 -0 .2 00 .2 0.40 .6 0.8 1
-1
0.5
-2
0
-3
1
-0.5 0.5
-4 1
0.5 0
0 -0.5
-5 -0.5 -1
-1
Slip Vd1
Vq1
Vrd =0 to 0.4p.u., ΔVrd =0.05p.u., Vrq =0 p.u.

Fig. 10. Rotor reactive power over speed characteristics. c

Converter injected voltage amplitude

1   1.5
2 2
Pconv ¼  RV d1  RV q1 þ RVd V d1  X L Vd Vq1 (22)
R2 þ XL2
1  2
 1
Qgrid ¼ 2 XL V  X L Vd V d1 þ RVd V q1 (23)
(pu)

d
R þ XL2
0.5
Under the primary and secondary control goals defined above,
the solution of Vd1 and Vq1, that satisfies the requirements of (1)
balancing active power at rotor- and grid-side converter, (2) mini- 0
mizing the resultant reactive power sending to the grid, and (3) 1
being within the converter rated current and linear modulation 0.5 1
0.5
constraints, becomes a nonlinear programming problem illustrated 0
0
below. -0.5 -0.5
Minimize: -1 -1
Vq1 Vd1
1  2

jQgrid  Qs j ¼ XL V d  XL Vd V d1 þ RVd V q1  Qs Fig. 11. (a) Grid-side converter real power characteristics; (b) characteristics of reactive
R2 þ XL2
power absorbed from the grid; and (c) amplitude of the injected voltage to the grid by
grid-side converter.
Subject to:
 
1
2  RV 2 þ RV V
 RVd1 modulation limit. The grid filter resistance and inductance are the
R2 þXL2 q1 d d1  XL Vd Vq1 ¼ Pr
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2 2
ffi same as those used in Fig. 11. The DC-link voltages are 3, 4, and 5 p.u.
Id2 þIq2 Vd1 þVq1
3  Irated ; Vconv ¼ 3  pVffiffidcffi (grid phase voltage as the base), respectively, meaning that the
2 2Vtri
maximum allowable per-phase injected voltage to the grid by the
The integrated DFIG power characteristic study considers the grid-side converter are 1.06, 1.41, and 1.77 p.u.
nonlinear programming configuration. Fig. 13 presents the resultant From the integrated power simulation study, the following
DFIG real and reactive power characteristics compared to the stator regularities are obtained. (1) When the real power absorbed or
real and reactive power characteristics for a typical Vrd and Vrq generated by the DFIG rotor is high and the DC-link voltage is low,
control condition applied to the rotor. The voltage Vd1 and Vq1 of the the control of the grid-side converter is unable to balance the real
grid-side converter are obtained according to the nonlinear power needed by the rotor (Fig. 13a). (2) When the rotor absorbs
programming formulation. Data are only presented for those DFIG real power from the grid, the stator power includes the captured
operating slips that do not cause the converter going over the linear wind power plus the power passed to the stator from the rotor.
48 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51

a 0.5
0
Specify an injected DFIG rotor voltage (V q & Vd) -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 -0.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6

Real Power (p.u.)

Specify a dc link voltage (V dc)
-1
-1.5
Simulation of DFIG -2
Calculate DFIG stator and rotor P & Q -2.5
Stator real power
-3 Resultant: Vdc=3pu
-3.5 Resultant: Vdc=4pu
Calculate Vd1 and Vq1 Resultant: Vdc=5pu
-4
Slip

Converter injected voltage to the grid b 20

Stator reactive power
V dq 1 = V d1 + jV q1 15 Resultant: Vdc=3pu

Reactive Power (p.u.)

Resultant: Vdc=4pu
10 Resultant: Vdc=5pu

Calculate real and reactive power taken from the 5

grid by the converter path
0
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
-5
Fig. 12. Flowchart of the integrated DFIG simulation system.
-10
Slip

Fig. 13. Integrated DFIG active (a) and reactive (b) power characteristics under the
Therefore, the resultant generating real power is smaller than the
nonlinear programming formulation (rotor-side converter control: Vrd ¼ 0.4 p.u. and
real power outputted from the stator path (Fig. 13a). (3) Within the Vrq ¼ 0 p.u.).
converter linear modulation limit, if the stator absorbs reactive
power, it would be harder for the grid-side converter to compen-
sate the stator reactive power; if the stator generates reactive rotor blades [m2], Cp is the turbine performance coefficient, vw is
power, however, it would be easier for the grid-side converter to wind speed [m/s], Rblade is the radius of the rotor blades [m], and um
compensate the stator reactive power if the real power transferred is the angular speed of the blades. The performance coefficient, Cp,
on the converter path is moderate and the stator generating is a function of the tip-speed-ratio l, Eq. (25), and the pitch angle of
reactive power is not too high (Fig. 13b). (4) The higher the DC-link the rotor blades b. It is determined by aerodynamic laws and thus
voltage is, the wider is the slip range in which the stator and the may change from one wind turbine type to another. The relation-
grid-side converter reactive power can be cancelled by each other ship between ur, the generator rotor electrical speed, and um
under the nonlinear programming formulation condition follows from
(Fig. 13b). ur ¼ p$ngear $um (26)
where p is the generator pole pairs and ngear is the gear ratio from
8. DFIG system study in an integrative environment the high- to low-speed shaft of a wind turbine.
Fig. 14 shows the Cp curves for a 1.5 MW DFIG wind turbine [6].
As it can be seen from above sections, a DFIG for wind power The mathematical representation of the Cp curves is obtained
generation is affected by the following factors simultaneously: (i)
input power extracted by a DFIG from the wind, (ii) the d–q voltage
applied to the rotor at the generator level, and (iii) the d–q voltage 0.5
1
injected to the grid by the grid-side converter. Thus, for a compre- 3
hensive and accurate study, it is important to (1) examine DFIG 0.4
parametric data concurrently through an integrative approach, and 5
(2) consider various practical constraints in the integrative study,
0.3 7
such as the rated stator and rotor power, acceptable slip and
Cp

9
converter linear modulation limit.
0.2 11
The mechanical power extracted by a wind turbine from the 13
wind is expressed by the well-known cube law equation [20]:
0.1 15
1
Pw ¼ rair Ablade Cp ðb; lÞv3w (24)
2 0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
l ¼ Rblade um =vw (25) tip-s p eed-ratio

where rair is the air density [kg/m3], Ablade is the area covered by the Fig. 14. A 1.5 MW DFIG wind turbine Cp curves.
 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51 49

Computation of Generator

Rotor control voltage in stator-voltage-oriented-frame

Vrd 33.50 3V Vrq 5.9333 3V Vr_dq Vrd j Vrq

Find slip and rotational speed of the generator

Given
Vr_dq Vr_dq
Vth_dq Vth_dq
s1 1 s1 Vr_dq 1 s1 s1 Rblade syn 1 s1
Re Rr P0 Cp
1 s1 s1 s1 1 s1 ngear Vw
Zth Zr Rr Zth Zr Rr
s1 s1

s slip Find s 1 s slip 0.075538 m syn 1 s slip m 87.128 Hz

Rblade syn 1 s slip

8.713 Cp Cp Cp 0.4876
ngear Vw
Stator and rotor current space vectors Vr_dq
Vth_dq
1 s slip s slip
Zt Zth Zr Rr Ir_dq
s slip Zt

1 s slip Vr_dq Ems

Ems Ir_dq Zr Rr Ims_dq I s_dq Ims_dq I r_dq
s slip s slip Zm

Stator real and reactive power

Pstator Re Vs_dq Is_dq Pstator 1902.302 kW Qstator Im Vs_dq Is_dq Qstator 0.003 kW

Rotor real and reactive power

Protor Re Vr_dq Ir_dq Protor 157.216 kW Qrotor Im Vr_dq Ir_dq Qrotor 65.661 kW

Computation of Converter

Find injected voltage to the grid by the grid-side converter

Vdq Vdq1 Vdq Vdq1

Given Re V dq1 Protor Im Vdq Qstator 0
Zf Zf
2 2 Vdq1
Vdq1 Find Vdq1 Vdq1 687.252 172.481i V ma ma 0.964
3 Vdc
Current in the grid filter

Vdq Vdq1
Idq Idq 228.76 A Idq 228.76 0.004i A
Zf
Real and reactive power absorbed from the grid by the converter

Pgrid Re Vdq Idq Pgrid 157.844 kW Qgrid Im Vdq I dq Qgrid 0.003 kVar

Integration of Generator and Converter

Total real and reactive power of DFIG system

Ptotal Pstator Pgrid Ptotal 1744.457 kW Qtotal Qstator Qgrid Qtotal 0 kVar

Efficiency
Ptotal
Pin P0 Cp 98.657 %
Pin

Fig. 15. Using Mathcad for integrated DFIG study (neglect rotational losses).
50 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51

through curve fitting as shown by Eq. (27) where aij coefficients are Table 2
given in [6]. The curve fit is a very good approximation for values of Maximum wind power extraction study for integrated DFIG generator and
converter.
2 < l < 13. Values of l outside this range represent very high and
low wind speeds, respectively, that are normally outside the Wind speed
continuous rating of the machine [6]. For each pitch angle, there is 7 m/s 8 m/s 9 m/s
an optimal tip-speed-ratio lopt under which Cp takes a maximum
Qs ¼ 0 Qs < 0 Qs ¼ 0 Qs < 0 Qs ¼ 0 Qs < 0
value, i.e., maximum power extraction from the wind for that pitch
Pmax (pu) 0.304 0.304 0.453 0.453 0.646 0.646
angle. sopt 0.412 0.412 0.328 0.328 0.244 0.244
4 X
X 4 Vr_dq (pu) 0.428 0.441 0.343 0.355 0.258 0.274
i j
Cp ðb; lÞ ¼ aij b l (27) Ps (pu) 0.516 0.515 0.673 0.673 0.852 0.850
i¼0 j¼0 Qs (pu) 0 0.202 0 0.232 0 0.402
Pr (pu) 0.216 0.215 0.224 0.225 0.213 0.215
Qr (pu) 0.142 0.236 0.124 0.210 0.104 0.218
The general procedures of the integrative approach are the ma 1.0 0.68 1.0 0.651 1.0 0.85
following. (1) For a wind speed and a blade pitch angle under Pgrid (pu) 0.217 0.219 0.224 0.229 0.213 0.223
a combined Vrd and Vrq control applied to the rotor, find generator Qgrid (pu) 0.025 0.202 0.03 0.232 0.023 0.402
slip by solving a nonlinear equation, i.e., power balance equation Ptotal (pu) 0.299 0.297 0.447 0.444 0.637 0.628
Qtotal (pu) 0.025 0 0.03 0 0.023 0
between the converted power, Eq. (12), and the turbine driving h 98.46% 97.64% 98.55% 97.84% 98.62% 97.24%
power Eq. (24). (2) Compute stator and rotor real and reactive
power. (3) Calculate Vd1 and Vq1 according to the nonlinear
programming formulation as shown in Section 7. (4) Compute
resultant real and reactive powers transferred to the grid by the consistent with the analysis shown in Section 7. In other words, the
integrated generator and converter system. For a demonstration integrated study suggests that a smart and optimal DFIG control
purpose, Fig. 15 shows a partial computation given by Mathcad for design is appropriate for enhanced and reliable DFIG system
a condition that makes the wind turbine operate at the maximum performance.
power extraction condition and zero stator reactive power. The
wind speed is 11 m/s, air density is 1.17 kg/m3, pitch angle is 1, the 9. Conclusions
rotor diameter of the turbine blade is 77 m, the gear ratio is 35, the
grid frequency is 60 Hz, the generator pole pairs is 4, and the DC- This paper presents a simulation study on the integrated power
link voltage is 1200 V. generation characteristics of a DFIG and its back-to-back PWM AC/
Table 2 presents the integrated DFIG system study for three DC/AC converter.
different wind speeds at 7 m/s, 8 m/s, and 9 m/s, respectively, The power characteristics of a DFIG depend on the d–q voltage
under the maximum wind power extraction condition. For all Vrq and Vrd applied to the rotor. Both d and q components of the
the three wind speed conditions, two different stator reactive rotor voltage can control DFIG speed and regulate the reactive
power regulation mechanisms are considered, i.e., zero and power. Below usyn, the rotor absorbs real power and Vrd is more
nonzero reactive power generated from the stator path. The effective for speed control in the stator-voltage-oriented frame
system parameters are the same as those used in Fig. 15. In the while Vrq is needed to compensate the generating reactive power
table, Pmax stands for the maximum available wind power, sopt caused by Vrd. Above usyn, the rotor generates real power and Vrq is
represents the generator slip for maximum power extraction, more effective for speed control in the stator-voltage-oriented
Vr_dq is the rotor d–q voltage amplitude, Ps, Qs, Pr, Qr, Pgrid and frame while Vrd is necessary to compensate the absorbing reactive
Qgrid are defined in Sections 3 and 4, Vdq1 is the amplitude of power resulted from Vrq.
the d–q voltage injected into the grid by the grid-side converter, The goal the grid-side converter control is to keep a constant
ma is the modulation ratio of the grid-side converter, Ptotal and DC-link voltage and to minimize the reactive power taken from the
Qtotal are real and reactive powers of the integrated DFIG grid. Due to the constraints of converter linear modulation and
generator and converter system, and h is the generator rated power, a nonlinear programming formulation results. The
efficiency. control performance of the grid-side converter depends on the real
The integrative study presents an important issue regarding the power transferred between the rotor- and grid-side converters and
behavior of the integrated DFIG generator and converter system as the DC-link voltage. The smaller the real power transferred
explained below. Traditionally, control of both the generator and the between the two converters and the higher the DC-link voltage, the
grid-side converter is designed to have zero reactive power absor- more effective it is for the grid-side converter to maintain
bed from the grid. However, Table 2 shows that, when the stator a constant DC-link voltage and minimize the resultant reactive
reactive power is zero, the grid-side converter may be unable to power absorbed from the grid.
completely compensate the reactive power transferred between the The integrated DFIG system study suggests that there is
converter and the grid due to the converter linear modulation a need for a smart and optimal DFIG control design that is
limitation. Hence, under the conventional zero reactive power different from conventional DFIG control strategies. In other
control rule, the grid-side controller would generate a control words, for optimal performance and stability of the integrated
voltage that is over the converter linear modulation limit, which DFIG generator and converter systems, the stator should
normally results in high unbalance and oscillation of the system generate a certain amount of reactive power and the grid-side
although the control signal is processed by a saturation function converter should operate by absorbing reactive power from the
[21]. Instead, for optimal performance and stability of the integrated grid.
DFIG generator and converter systems, the stator should generate
a certain amount of reactive power and the grid-side converter References
should operate by absorbing reactive power from the grid, which
makes the converter far below the linear modulation limit while [1] Zavadil R, Miller N, Ellis A, Muljadi E. Making connections: wind generation
challenges and progress. IEEE Power Energy Mag November 2005;3(No. 6).
maintaining a zero resultant reactive power with a small increase of [2] Muller S, Deicke M, De Doncker RW. Doubly fed induction generator systems
the voltage amplitude applied to the rotor (Table 2). This result is for wind turbines. IEEE Ind Appl Mag May/June 2002;8(No. 3):26–33.
 S. Li et al. / Renewable Energy 35 (2010) 42–51 51

[3] Kling WL, Slootweg JG. Wind turbines as power plants. In: Proceedings of [12] Hopfensperger B, Atkinson D, Lakin RA. Stator flux oriented control of
the IEEE/Cigré workshop on wind power and the impacts on power systems, a cascaded doubly-fed induction machine. IEEE Proc Electr Power Appl
17–18 June 2002, Oslo, Norway. November 1999;146(No. 6):597–605.
[4] Bonnet F, Vidal PE, Pietrzak-David M. Dual direct torque control of doubly fed [13] Morel L, Godfroid H, Mirzaian A, Kauffmann J. Double-fed induction machine:
induction machine. IEEE Trans Ind Electron October 2007;54(No. 5):2482–90. converter optimization and field oriented control without position sensor.
[5] Slootweg JG, de Haan SWH, Polinder H, King WL. General model for repre- IEEE Proc Electr Power Appl July 1998;145(No. 4):360–8.
senting variable speed wind turbines in power system dynamics simulations. [14] Leonhard W. Control of electrical drives. 2nd ed. Berlin, Germany: Springer-
IEEE Trans Power Syst February 2003;18(No. 1). Verlag; 1996.
[6] Miller Nicholas W, Price William W, Sanchez-Gasca Juan J. Dynamic modeling [15] Mullane Alan, Lightbody Gordon, Yacamini R. Wind-turbine fault ride-through
of GE 1.5 and 3.6 wind turbine-generators. GE Power Syst October 27, 2003. enhancement. IEEE Trans Power Syst November 2005;20(No. 4).
[7] Smith S, Todd R, Barnes M, Tavner PJ. Improved energy conversion for doubly- [16] Mohan N. Advanced electric drives – analysis, modeling and control using
fed wind generators. IEEE Trans Ind Appl November 2006;42(No. 6):1421–8. Simulink. MN: Minnesota Power Electronics Research & Education, ISBN
[8] Cadirci I, Ermis M. Double-output induction generator operating at sub- 0-9715292-0-5; 2001.
synchronous and supersynchronous speeds: steady-state performance opti- [17] Li S, Haskew TA. Simulation and analysis of DFIG characteristics under general
misation and wind-energy recovery. IEEE Proc Electr Power Appl September d–q control strategies in stator-voltage-oriented frame. Int J Power Energy Syst
1992;139(No. 5):429–42. 2009;29(No. 2).
[9] Vicatos MS, Tegopoulos JA. Steady state analysis of a doubly-fed induction [18] Mohan N, Undeland TM, Robbins WP. Power electronics: converters, appli-
generator under synchronous operation. IEEE Trans Energy Convers cations, and design. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons Inc.; October 2002.
September 1989;4(No. 3):495–501. [19] Xu L, Wang Y. Dynamic modeling and control of DFIG based wind turbines
[10] Pena R, Clare JC, Asher GM. Doubly fed induction generator using back-to-back under unbalanced network conditions. IEEE Trans Power Syst
PWM converters and its application to variable speed wind-energy genera- 2007;22(1):314–23.
tion. IEEE Proc Electr Power Appl May 1996;143(No 3). [20] Freris LL. Wind energy conversion system. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
[11] Hansen AD, Iov F, Sørensen P, Blaabjerg F. Overall control strategy of variable Hall; 1990.
speed doubly-fed induction generator wind turbine. In: Grid integration and [21] Li S, Haskew TA, Jackson J. Comparative study of PWM converter controls for
electrical systems of wind turbines and wind farms (CD-ROM). Nordic wind grid integration of renewable energy. In: Proceedings of IEEE international
power conference 2004 (NWPC 04), Göteborg (SE), 1–2 Mar 2004. Göteborg: conference on sustainable energy technologies (ICSET 2008), Singapore,
Chalmers University of Technology; 2004. p. 7. November 24–27, 2008.