EET445: ELECTRIC VEHICLES

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 HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (HEV)

Hybrid Vehicle - vehicle with at least two sources of power

Technical Committee (Electric Road Vehicles) of the International Electrotechnical Commission, an HEV is a
vehicle in which propulsion energy is available from two or more types of energy sources and at least one of
them can deliver electrical energy

Based on this general definition, types of HEVs:

▪ the gasoline ICE and battery

▪ diesel ICE and battery
▪ battery and FC
▪ battery and capacitor
▪ battery and flywheel
▪ battery and battery hybrids.

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 Most commonly,
An electric power source is added to the conventional internal combustion engine (ICE),
which helps to improve the fuel economy through load sharing and regenerative braking

In conventional engine-driven vehicle:

i. Much of the heat generated by combustion cannot be used for work because:
a. some heat is lost through cylinder walls before it can do work
b. some fuel is burned at less than the highest possible pressure
c. fuel is also burned while the engine is experiencing negative load (during braking) or
when the vehicle is coasting or at a stop, with the engine idling
ii. Engines are sized to provide high levels of peak power for the acceleration capability expected by
consumers
a. the engines are operated at most times at a small fraction of peak power and at these
operating points they are quite inefficient
b. A large engine increases the amount of fuel needed to keep the engine operating when
the vehicle is stopped or during braking or coasting
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c. increased losses due to the added weight of the engine
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 iii. Engines have the optimum fuel efficiency in the middle speed and high torque range. But, the
efficiency is low in the low-speed/low-torque region - relatively inferior performances in urban
driving with many stop-go situations

Energy Saving Potential of Hybrid Drivetrains

I. Power Assist or Power Split: Electric power-train produce high torque naturally in the low-speed region and
have a fairly high-efficiency in overall operating region. If the vehicle is propelled by a motor in a low-speed
region, the overall fuel economy will be improved significantly. The motor can also force the engine to
operate in an optimal condition independently of load.
II. Reduced Engine Size: Engine can be sized for the continuous load at higher fuel efficiency
III. Idle Off: Idle off means that the engine shuts down during even brief stops
IV. Regenerative Braking: Electric motors can retrieve the vehicle’s kinetic energy in the form of electrical
energy during deceleration

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HEVs are typically grouped into five categories based on extend of hybridization:

1. Idle-off capability
2. Regenerative braking capacity A. Micro Hybrid

3. Power assist and engine downsizing B. Mild Hybrid

4. Electric-only drive C. Full Hybrid

5. Extended battery-electric range D. Plug-In Hybrid

The major design targets of HEVs are

✓ maximum fuel economy
✓ minimum emissions
✓ minimum system costs
✓ good driving performance

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 There are many available patterns of combining the power flows to
meet load requirements:
1. powertrain 1 alone delivers power
2. powertrain 2 alone delivers power
3. both powertrain 1 and 2 deliver power to load at the same
time
4. powertrain 2 obtains power from load (regenerative braking)
5. powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain 1
6. powertrain 2 obtains power from powertrain 1 and load at the
same time
7. powertrain 1 delivers power simultaneously to load and to
powertrain 2
Fig 1: Generic Hybrid Drivetrain 8. powertrain 1 delivers power to powertrain 2 and powertrain 2
delivers power to load
9. powertrain 1 delivers power to load and load delivers power
to powertrain 2.

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In HEV one powertrain favours steady state operation, such as an ICE or fuel cell. The other powertrain
(electric) in the HEV is used to supply the dynamic power

This hybrid drivetrain concept can be implemented by different configurations as follows:

▪ Series configuration
▪ Parallel configuration
▪ Series-parallel configuration
▪ Complex configuration

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 Parallel hybrid
Series hybrid

Complex hybrid
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Series-Parallel hybrid Fig 2
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Series Hybrid System:

Conceptually, it is an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV).

Series hybrid electric drive trains potentially have the following operation modes:
1. Pure electric mode: The engine is turned off and the vehicle is propelled only by the batteries.
2. Pure engine mode: The vehicle traction power only comes from the engine-generator, while the batteries
neither supply nor draw any power from the drive train. The electric machines serve as an electric
transmission from the engine to the driven wheels.
3. Hybrid mode: The traction power is drawn from both the engine-generator and the batteries.
4. Engine traction and battery charging mode: The engine-generator supplies power to charge the batteries
and to propel the vehicle.
5. Regenerative braking mode: The engine-generator is turned off and the traction motor is operated as a
generator. The power generated is used to charge the batteries.
6. Battery charging mode: The traction motor receives no power and the engine-generator charges the
batteries.
7. Hybrid battery charging mode: Both the engine-generator and the traction motor operate as generators to
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charge the batteries.
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Fig 3: Configuration of a series hybrid electric drive train
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Advantages of series hybrid drivetrains:
a) mechanical decoupling between the ICE and driven wheels allows the IC engine operating at its very
narrow optimal region
b) nearly ideal torque-speed characteristics of electric motor make multigear transmission unnecessary
c) Simple control strategies may be used as a result of the mechanical decoupling provided by the
electrical transmission

Disadvantages of series hybrid drivetrains:

a) The energy is converted twice (mechanical to electrical and then to mechanical) and this reduces the
overall efficiency
b) The generator adds additional weight and cost (two electric machines)
c) The traction motor must be sized to meet maximum requirements since it is the only powerplant
propelling the vehicle.

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Parallel Hybrid System:
▪ allows both ICE and electric motor (EM) to deliver power to drive the wheels
▪ since both, the ICE and EM, are mechanically coupled to the drive shaft of the wheels via two clutches, the
propulsion power may be supplied by ICE alone, by EM only or by both ICE and EM
▪ EM can be used as a generator to charge the battery by regenerative braking or absorbing power from the
ICE when its output is greater than that required to drive the wheels

Fig 4: Configuration of a parallel hybrid electric drive train

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Different configurations:
i. Torque-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
a. Two-axle configuration
b. Two-shaft configuration
c. Pretransmission single-shaft torque combination parallel hybrid
d. Posttransmission single-shaft torque combination parallel hybrid
e. Separated axle torque combination parallel hybrid
ii. Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
a. parallel hybrid with speed coupling of planetary gear unit
b. parallel hybrid with speed coupling of electric transmotor
iii. Torque-Coupling and Speed-Coupling Parallel Hybrid Electric Drive Trains
a. Alternative torque and speed parallel hybrid
b. Integrated speed- and torque-coupling parallel hybrid (Toyota Prius)

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Advantages of parallel hybrid drivetrains:
a) both engine and electric motor directly supply torques to the driven wheels and no energy form
conversion occurs, hence energy loss is less
b) compactness due to no need of the generator and smaller traction motor

Disadvantages of parallel hybrid drivetrains:

a) mechanical coupling between the engines and the driven wheels, thus the engine operating points
cannot be fixed in a narrow speed region
b) The mechanical configuration and the control strategy are complex compared to series hybrid
drivetrain

Due to its compact characteristics, small vehicles use parallel configuration

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Series-Parallel System & Complex Hybrid System

• complex hybrid is similar to series-parallel hybrid, both needs an additional electric machine and a
planetary gear unit making the control complex
• the key difference is due to the bi-directional power flow of the electric motor in complex hybrid and
the unidirectional power flow of the generator in the series-parallel hybrid
• major disadvantage of complex hybrid is higher complexity

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 POWER FLOW CONTROL IN HEV CONFIGURATIONS

Due to the variations in HEV configurations, different power control strategies are necessary to regulate the
power flow to or from different components
Goals of control strategies:
✓ maximum fuel efficiency
✓ minimum emissions
✓ minimum system costs
✓ good driving performance
Considerations for the design of power control strategies for HEVs:
a. Optimal ICE operating point: optimal operating point on the torque-speed plane shall be based on
maximization of fuel economy, the minimization of emissions or a compromise between fuel economy
and emissions.
b. Optimal ICE operating line: optimal operating points to deliver different power demands
c. Safe battery voltage: battery voltage should not exceed the maximum voltage limit, nor should it fall
below the minimum voltage limit.
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 Power Flow Control in Series Hybrid

Mode 1, normal driving or acceleration Mode 2, light load

Mode 3, braking or deceleration Mode 4, vehicle at stop

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Operating modes in the series hybrid system based on the power flow:
i. Mode 1: During startup, normal driving or acceleration of the series HEV, both the ICE and battery deliver
electric energy to the power converter which then drives the electric motor and hence the wheels via
transmission.
ii. Mode 2: At light load, the ICE output is greater than that required to drive the wheels. Hence, a fraction of
the generated electrical energy is used to charge the battery. The charging of the battery takes place till
the battery capacity reaches a proper level.
iii. Mode 3: During braking or deceleration, the electric motor acts as a generator, which converts the kinetic
energy of the wheels into electricity and this, is used to charge the battery.
iv. Mode 4: The battery can also be charged by the ICE via the generator even when the vehicle comes to a
complete stop.

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 Power Flow Control in Parallel Hybrid

Mode 1, start up Mode 2, normal driving

Mode 3, braking or deceleration Mode 4, light load

Fig 6
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Operating modes in the parallel hybrid system based on the power flow:
i. Mode 1: During start up or full throttle acceleration; both the ICE and the EM share the required power to
propel the vehicle. Typically, the relative distribution between the ICE and electric motor is 80-20%.
ii. Mode 2: During normal driving, the required traction power is supplied by the ICE only and the EM remains
in off mode.
iii. Mode 3: During braking or deceleration, the EM acts as a generator to charge the battery via the power
converter.
iv. Mode 4: Under light load condition, the traction power is delivered by the ICE and the ICE also charges the
battery via the EM.

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 Power Flow Control Series-Parallel Hybrid

Classified into two categories: the ICE dominated and the EM dominated

Operating modes of ICE dominated system are:

i. Mode 1: At startup, the battery solely provides the necessary power to propel the vehicle and the ICE
remains in off mode.
ii. Mode 2: During full throttle acceleration, both the ICE and the EM share the required traction power.
iii. Mode 3: During normal driving, the required traction power is provided by the ICE only and the EM
remains in the off state.
iv. Mode 4: During normal braking or deceleration, the EM acts as a generator to charge the battery.
v. Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving, the ICE delivers the required traction power and also charges
the battery. In this mode the EM acts as a generator.
vi. Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill, the ICE can deliver power to charge the battery via the EM

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 Mode 1, start up Mode 2, acceleration Mode 3, normal drive

Mode 4, braking or deceleration Mode 5, battery charging during driving Mode 6, battery charging during standstill
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Fig 7: Power Flow Control Series-Parallel Hybrid - ICE dominated system
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Operating modes of EM dominated system are:
i. Mode 1: During startup, the EM provides the traction power and the ICE remains in the off state.
ii. Mode 2: During full throttle, both the ICE and EM provide the traction power.
iii. Mode 3: During normal driving, both the ICE and EM provide the traction power.
iv. Mode 4: During braking or deceleration, the EM acts as a generator to charge the battery.
v. Mode 5: To charge the battery during driving, the ICE delivers the required traction power and also charges
the battery. The EM acts as a generator.
vi. Mode 6: When the vehicle is at standstill, the ICE can deliver power to charge the battery via the EM

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 Mode 1, start up Mode 2, acceleration
Mode 3, normal drive

Mode 4, braking or deceleration Mode 5, battery charging during driving Mode 6, battery charging during standstill

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Fig 8: Power Flow Control Series-Parallel Hybrid - EM dominated system
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 Power Flow Control Complex Hybrid Control
Complex hybrid vehicle configurations are of two types:
Front hybrid rear electric & Front electric and rear hybrid

Both the configurations have six modes of operation:

i. Mode 1: During startup, the required traction power is delivered by the EMs and the engine is in off mode.
ii. Mode 2: During full throttle acceleration, both the ICE and the front wheel EM deliver the power to the front
wheel and the second EM delivers power to the rear wheel.
iii. Mode 3: During normal driving, the ICE delivers power to propel the front wheel and to drive the first EM
as a generator to charge the battery.
iv. Mode 4: During driving at light load, first EM delivers the required traction power to the front wheel. The
second EM and the ICE are in off sate.
v. Mode 5: During braking or deceleration, both the front and rear wheel EMs act as generators to
simultaneously charge the battery.
vi. Mode 6: A unique operating mode of complex hybrid system is axial balancing. In this mode, if the front
wheel slips, the front EM works as a generator to absorb the change of ICE power. Through the battery, this
power difference is then used to drive the rear wheels to achieve the axle balancing. 15-Oct-22 25
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 PLANETARY GEARS

One of the most common matching elements used in hybrid electric

vehicles is the epicyclic, or planetary, gear set.
(The power split device in series-parallel)

➢ Epicyclic gear or Planetary gear, is a three-port

mechanical component used as a speed summing device

➢ Most designs rely on a dual input and single output

where one input source is the ICE and the second input
comes from an electric M/G.

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 PLANETARY GEARS

➢ Consists of sun gear, planetary gear, and ring gear

✓ Sun gear (S) is located in the center,
✓ Ring gear (R) is positioned in the outer shell,
✓ Planetary Carrier (C) is made by clustering the pinions in the middle.

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 PLANETARY GEARS
http://www.thecatalystis.com/gears/

𝑅𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
➢ Epicyclic Basic Ratio or Gear Ratio, 𝑘 =
𝑅𝑠𝑢𝑛
where Rx is the radius of ring and sun gears (can also be defined in terms of number of gear teeth)
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 PLANETARY GEARS

The governing equation for an epicyclic gear in terms of the basic ratio and speed
𝑁𝑠 + 𝑘𝑁𝑟 − 𝑘 + 1 𝑁𝑐 = 0
Three independent variables, Ns, Nc, and Nr.
Therefore, the planetary gear has two degree of freedom, i.e., it accommodates two independent shaft speeds

1 𝑘
𝑁𝐶 = 𝑁 + 𝑁
𝑘+1 𝑆 𝑘+1 𝑟

The torque balance and power balance conditions in the steady-state are
𝑇𝐶 = 𝑇𝑆 + 𝑇𝑟
𝑇𝑐 𝑁𝐶 = 𝑇𝑆 𝑁𝑆 + 𝑇𝑟 𝑁𝑟
(inertial forces of gears are omitted and the gear efficiency is assumed to be unity)
𝑇𝐶 = (1 + 𝑘)𝑇𝑆

1
𝑇𝐶 = (1 + )𝑇𝑟
𝑘
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 PLANETARY GEARS

1 𝑘
𝑁𝐶 = 𝑁 + 𝑁
𝑘+1 𝑆 𝑘+1 𝑟
Geometrically, above equation appears to be a straight line as shown in diagram, and it is called a
lever diagram.

𝑁𝑆
1 𝑘
𝑵𝑪 = 𝑁𝑆 + 𝑁
𝑘+1 𝑘+1 𝑟 𝑁𝑟

𝑘
Lever diagram for the planetary gear system

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 PLANETARY GEARS

Schematic drawing of the Toyota Hybrid System employing a

planetary gear as the input power split device
(an example)

The engine is controlled to operate along the optimal operation line (OOL) by controlling the generator speed
and motor torque. That is, power flow to wheels is controlled seamlessly while the engine operates in the
vicinity of the optimal operating line. This improves the overall vehicle fuel economy.
The engine can remain directly connected to the transmission for all speeds.

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EET: ELECTRIC VEHICLES

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 ELECTRIC VEHICLE (EV)
The configuration of EV is flexible due to following reasons:
▪ The energy flow in EV is mainly via flexible electrical wires rather than bolted flanges or rigid shafts. Hence,
distributed subsystems in the EV are achievable.
▪ The EVs allow different propulsion arrangements such as independent four wheels and in wheel drives.

The EV has three major subsystems:

➢ Electric propulsion
➢ Energy source
➢ Auxiliary system

Fig 9: General Configuration of a Electric Vehicle

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Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic controller provides proper
control signals to switch on or off the power converter which in turn regulates the power flow between the
electric motor and the energy source. The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this
regenerative energy can be stored provided the energy source is receptive.

The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control regenerative braking and its
energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the
energy source.

The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels for all EV auxiliaries,
especially the temperature control and power steering units.

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Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Drivetrain Configuration

EV configuration with clutch, gearbox EV configuration without clutch EV configuration with clutch,
and differential and gearbox gearbox and differential

EV configuration with two EM EV configuration with in wheel EV configuration with in wheel

motor and mechanical gear motor and no mechanical gear

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Fig 10: Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Drivetrain Configuration
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Six alternatives Based on Drivetrain Configuration are:
i. It consists of an EM, a clutch (C), a gearbox, and a differential (D). The clutch enables the connection or
disconnection of power flow from EM to the wheels. The gear consists of a set of gears with different gear
ratios. With the use of clutch and gearbox, the driver can shift the gear ratios and hence the torque going to
the wheels can be changed. The wheels have high torque low speed in the lower gears and high-speed low
torque in the higher gears.
ii. The advantage of this configuration is that the weight of the transmission is reduced. However, this
configuration demands a more complex control of the EM to provide the necessary torque to the wheels.
iii. It is a transverse front EM front wheel drive configuration. It has a fixed gearing and differential and they are
integrated into a single assembly.
iv. In this configuration the differential action of an EV when cornering can be electronically provided by two
electric motors.
v. In order to shorten the mechanical transmission path from the EM to the driving wheel, the EM can be
placed inside a wheel. This configuration is called in-wheel drive. This configuration in which fixed planetary
gearing is employed to reduce the motor speed to the desired wheel speed.
vi. By fully abandoning any mechanical gearing, the in-wheel drive can be realized by installing a low speed
outer-rotor electric motor inside a wheel.

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Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Power Source Configuration
(Hybridization of Energy Sources)

EV configuration with EV configuration with EV configuration with battery

battery source two battery sources and fuel cell sources

EV configuration with EV configuration with battery EV configuration with battery

multiple energy sources and capacitors sources and flywheel sources

Fig 11: Electric Vehicle (EV) Drivetrain Alternatives Based on Power Source Configuration 15-Oct-22 38
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Six configurations are:
i. Configuration 1: It is a simple battery powered configuration. The battery should have both high specific
energy and specific power because high specific power governs the driving range while the high power
density governs the acceleration rate and hill climbing capability.
ii. Configuration 2: Instead of two batteries, this design uses two different batteries. One battery is optimized
for high specific energy and the other for high specific power.
iii. Configuration 3: In this arrangement fuel cell is used. The battery is an energy storage device, whereas the
fuel cell is an energy generation device. The hydrogen gas used by the fuel cell can be stored in an on-board
tank whereas oxygen gas is extracted from air. Since fuel cell can offer high specific energy but cannot
accept regenerative energy, it is preferable to combine it with battery with high specific power and high-
energy receptivity.
iv. Configuration 4: Rather than storing it as a compressed gas, a liquid or a metal hydride, hydrogen can be
generated on-board using liquid fuels such as methanol. In this case a mini reformer is installed in the EV to
produce necessary hydrogen gas for the fuel cell.
v. Configuration 5: In this configuration a battery and supercapacitor combination is used as an energy source.
The battery used in this configuration is a high energy density device whereas the supercapacitor provides
high specific power and energy receptivity. Usually, the supercapacitors are of relatively low voltage levels,
an additional dc-dc power converter is needed to interface between the battery and capacitor terminals.
vi. Configuration 6: A battery and flywheel combination is used for energy sources.
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The requirements of Electric Motors used in Electric Vehicles (and Hybrid Vehicles) are:

a. High torque density and high power density

b. Very wide speed range including constant-torque region and constant-power region
c. High efficiency over wide torque and speed ranges
d. Frequent start/stop capability
e. High rate of acceleration and deceleration
f. High reliability and robustness
g. Low cost
h. High efficiency during regenerative braking
i. Good voltage regulation in wide speed generation
j. Capable of being integrated with a IC engine

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The major differences with respect to industrial motors in load requirement, performance
specification and operating environment are:

i. EV motors need to produce the maximum torque that is four to five times of the rated torque for
acceleration and hill climbing, while industrial motors generally offer the maximum torque that is twice of
the rated torque for overload operation.
ii. EV motors need to achieve four to five times the base speed for highway cruising, while industrial motors
generally achieve up to twice the base speed for constant power operation.
iii. EV motors require high power density as well as good efficiency map (high efficiency over wide speed
and torque ranges), while industrial motors are generally optimized to give high efficiency at a rated
point.
iv. EV motors desire high controllability, high steady-state accuracy and good dynamic performance.
v. EV motors need to be installed in mobile vehicles with harsh operating conditions such as high
temperature, bad weather and frequent vibration, while industrial motors are generally located in fixed
places.
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 ELECTRIC COMPONENTS

Control electronics uses power to process information and Power electronics uses information to process power

The power electronics is an electrical

matching element in much the same
manner that a gearbox processes
mechanical power to match the engine to
the road load requirements.

Power Electronic circuits are mainly,

a. Rectifier (AC to DC converter)
b. DC Chopper (DC Voltage level
changer) The power inverter matches the dc source to the mechanical system
c. Inverter (DC to AC converter) regardless of torque or speed level, provided these quantities are
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 ELECTRIC COMPONENTS

The power processing capability of power inverters is directly related to the dc input voltage available.

The throughput power versus the voltage

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✓ All power electronics inverters for hybrid propulsion use IGBT device technology.
✓ Power semiconductor device range in voltage withstanding capability from 3kV to 6.5kV and current
magnitudes from 3kA to 4.5kA.
✓ Thyristors have the highest kVA rating but are generally slow switching.
✓ The gate turn off thyristor (GTO) is capable of handling 3kA at 4.5kV but is limited to less than 700Hz.
✓ The IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor) have made enormous progress in both the voltage and
current ratings, with some IGBTs being capable of handling 6.5kV and 3.5kA and have switching
frequency up to 100kHz. (e.g. ultra-thin or Non-punch-through, NPT or ‘motor-drive’ IGBTs)

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