DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)

Engineering Mechanics (ES102)

DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

CHAPTER3: FRICTION

3.1 FRICTIONAL FORCE: It is the resisting force which oppose the movement the body, it
always acts opposite the movement of the body.

Fig 3.1

Where P= applied force

F=frictional force
W= weight of the bodyR= normal reaction.
Classification of the friction:
The frictional forces are classified into two types:
(i) Static friction
(ii) Dynamic Friction

STATIC FRICTION:
It is the friction experienced by a body when it is at rest, or in other words, it is the friction when the
body is tends to move.

DYNAMIC FRICTION:
It is the friction experience by a body when it is in motion. It is also called kinetic friction. The Dynamic
friction is further divided into two types
(i) Sliding friction: It is the friction experienced by a body when it slides over another body.
(ii) Rolling friction: It is the friction experience by a body when it rolls over another body.

LIMITING FRICTION:

53
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
The maximum friction that can be generated between two static surfaces in contact with each other.
Once a force applied to the two surfaces exceeds the limiting friction, motion will occur. For two dry
surfaces, the limiting friction is a product of the normal reaction force and the coefficient of limiting
friction.

NORMAL REACTION:

Whenever a body, lying on a horizontal or an inclined surface, is in equilibrium, its weight acts
vertically downwards through its centre of gravity. The surface, in turn, exerts an upward reaction on
the body. This reaction, which is taken to act perpendicular to the plane, is called normal reaction and
is, generally, denoted by R or (Rn)

If weight is the only vertical force acting on an object lying or moving on a horizontal surface, the
normal reaction force is equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction to the weight. It is always acting
perpendicular to the plane.

Rn Rn

X‟ X α w

Horizontal plane Inclined plane

Fig 3.2
ANGLE OF FRICTION:

It is the angle between the normal reaction and resultant force of normal reaction and frictional
forces or limiting friction. This angle is generally specified by θ.

54
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Fig 3.3
ANGLE OF REPOSE:

It is an angle of the inclined plane at which the body is tends to slide downwards. This angle is
generally specified by α

Fig 3.4

COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION:

It is the ratio of limiting friction or frictional force and normal reaction. It is generally denoted by µ
(mu).

In mathematically:
µ=F/R =tan φ or F=µR
Where φ= Angle of friction
F= Frictional force R= Normal reaction
µ= Coefficient of friction.

LAWS OF FRICTION:
There are two types of laws of friction.
(i) Laws of Static friction, and
(ii) Laws of dynamic or kinetic friction.

LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION:

1. The force of friction always acts opposite of the applied force or body tends to move.
2. The magnitude the frictional force is exactly equal to the applied force.
3. The magnitude of limiting friction bears constant ratio to the normal reaction between thetwo
surfaces. Mathematically,
F/R=constant

55
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
Where F= Limiting Friction and R= Normal reaction.
4. The force of friction is independent of the area contact between the two surfaces.
5. The force of friction depends upon the roughness of the surfaces.

56
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
LAWS OF KINETIC OR DYNAMIC FRICTION:
1. The force of friction always acts in a direction, opposite to that in which the body is moving
2. The magnitude of kinetic friction bears constant ratio to the normal reaction between the two
surfaces. But this ratio is slightly less than that in case of limiting friction.
3. For moderate speeds, the force of friction remains constant. But it decreases slightly with the
increase of speed.
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:

•
Friction is responsible for many types of motion
•
It helps us walk on the ground
•
Brakes in a car make use of friction to stop the car
•
Asteroids are burnt in the atmosphere before reaching Earth due to friction.
•
It helps in the generation of heat when we rub our hands.
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION:

• Friction produces unnecessary heat leading to the wastage of energy.

• The force of friction acts in the opposite direction of motion, so friction slows down the
motion of moving objects.
• Forest fires are caused due to the friction between tree branches.
• A lot of money goes into preventing friction and the usual wear and tear caused by it by
using techniques like greasing and oiling.

3.2 EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES ON LEVEL PLANE

EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH HORIZONTAL PLANE:

We know that a body, lying on a rough horizontal plane will remain in equilibrium. But whenever a
force is applied on it, the body will tend to move in the direction of the force. In cases equilibrium of
the body is studied first by resolving the forces horizontally and then vertically.

Now the value of the force of friction is obtained from the relation:
F=µR
Where
µ= Coefficient of friction and R=Normal reaction.

Example: 3.1. A body of weight 500N is lying on a rough horizontal plane having a coefficient of
friction as 0. Find the magnitude of the force, which can move the body, while acting at an angle
of 35° with horizontal.
R P
Solution: Data given: Weight of the body (w) =500N35°
57
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT w
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Coefficient of friction (µ) =0.3FInclined angle (α) =35°

Fig 3.5
Let

P= Magnitude of the force, which can move the body, andF=Frictional force.
Resolving the forces horizontally,
F= p × cos35° [F=µR]
µR= p × cos35° ---------------(i)
Resolving the forces verticallyR = W – P × sinα --
R = 500 - P × sin35° ---------------------(ii)
Now substituting the value of R in equation (i)µ (500 – p × sin35) = P × cos35°
0.3(500- P × sin35°) = p × cos35
0.3 × 500=0.3 × psin35 + p × cos35150=P (0.3 × sin35 + cos35)

P=151.3N

EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE:

Here the forces are applied in three ways that are
1. Force acting along the inclined plane.
2. Force acting horizontally.
3. Force acting at some angle with the inclined plane.

1. EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TOA

FORCE ACTING ALONG THE INCLINED PLANE:
Consider a body lying on arough inclined plane subjected force acting along theinclined plane

Fig 3.6
Let,
58
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
w= Weight of the body
α= Angle, which the inclined plane makes with the horizontalR= Normal reaction
µ= Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane,
φ= Angle of friction, such that µ=tan φ.

A little consideration will show that if the force is not there, the body will slide down the plane.Now
we shall discuss the above two cases:
Case 1.Minimum force (P1) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of
sliding downwards.
Resolving all the forces along the inclined plane:P1 + F=Wsinα

P1= Wsinα-F [F=µR] P1=Wsinα-µR…………….. (i)

Now resolving all the forces perpendicular to the plane:R= Wcosα………… (ii)

Substituting the value of R in equation (i)P1= Wsinα-µWcosα

�1 = W (�i�� − µ ��� �)

And now substituting the value of µ= tan φ in the above equation.P1= W (sinα-tan φ cosα)

Multiplying both sides of this equation by cosφP1cosφ=W (sinα cos φ- sin φ cos α)

Case 2: Maximum force (P2) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of
sliding upwards.

Resolving all the forces along the inclined plane:P2= Wsinα +µR……….. (i)

Now resolving all the forces perpendicular to the inclined plane:R= W cosα………… (ii)

Substituting the value of r in equation (i),P2= W sinα + µW cosα

=W (sinα + µ cosα)
And now Substituting the value of µ=tan φ in the above equation,P2= W (sinα + Tan φ cosα)

Multiplying both sides of this equation by cos φ,P2cos φ= W (sinα cos φ+ sin φ cosα)

P2cos φ=W sin (α + φ)

59
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

(ma
xim
um
forc
e
whi
ch
kee
p
the
bod
y in
equi
libri
um)

60
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
2. EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON A ROUGH INCLINED PLANE SUBJECTED TO A
FORCE ACTING HORIZONTALLY.

Considering a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting horizontally,
which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in fig 3.7 (a) and (b)

Fig 3.7

Let,
W- Weight of the body
α =Angle of inclination with horizontalR= Normal reaction
µ= Coefficient of friction between the body and the inclined plane
�=Angle of friction.
Case 1: Minimum force (P1) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of
sliding downwards.
Resolving the all the forces inclined plane:P1cosα =W sin α-µR
And now resolving all the forces perpendicular to the plane,R= W cos α + P1 sin α
Substituting this value of R in equation (i)P1cos α= W sin α-µ(W cos α+P1 sin α)
= W sin α-µW cos α-µP1 sin α
P1cosα + µP1 sin α = W sin α-µW cos αP1(cosα +µsinα)=W(sin α-µcos α)

61
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Case 2: Maximum force (P2) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at thepoint of
sliding Upwards
Resolving all the forces along the inclined plane,P2cosα=F+W sinα
P2cosα =µR+W sinα---------------(i)
Resolving all the forces perpendicular to the plane,R=W cosα + P2 sinα (ii)
Now substituting the value of R in equation (i)P2cosα=µ W cosα +P2 sinα+ W sinα
P2cosα- µ P2 sinα=µ W cosα + W sinαP2 (cosα- µsinα) = W (sinα + µ cosα)

3. EQUILIBRIUM OF A BODY ON AROUGH INCLIED PLANE SUBJECTED TO A

FORCE ACTING AT SOME ANGLE WITH THE INCLINED PLANE:

Considering a body lying on a rough inclined plane subjected to a force acting some angle withthe
inclined plane, which keeps it in equilibrium as shown in fig 3.8(a) and (b)

62
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Fig 3.8

Case 1. Minimum force (P1) which keep the body in equilibrium when it is at the point of sliding
downwards.

Resolving all the forces along the inclined plane,P1 cos θ=W sinα -F
P1 cos θ=W sinα -µR --------------(i)
Resolving all the forces along perpendicular to the inclined plane,R = W cos α -P1 sin θ(ii)
Substituting the value of R in equation (i)P1 cos θ=W sinα -µ (W cos α -P1 sin θ)
P1 cos θ-µP1 sin θ = W sinα -µW cos αP1 (cos θ-µ sin θ) = W (sinα -µ cos α)

Case 2: Maximum force (P2) which will keep the body in equilibrium, when it is at the point of
sliding Upwards.
Resolving all the forces along inclined plane,P2cos θ=W sinα +F
P2cos θ=W sinα +µR --------------(i)
Resolving all the forces along perpendicular to the inclined plane,R = W cos α -P2sin θ (ii)
Substituting the value of R in equation (i)
P2cos θ=W sinα +µ (W cos α -P2 sin θ) P2cos θ=W sinα +µW cos α -µP2 sin θ)
P1 cos θ+µP1 sin θ = W sinα +µW cos αP1 (cos θ+µ sin θ) = W (sinα +µ cos α)

63
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Example 3.2.A body of weight 500 N lying on a rough plane inclined at an angle of 25° with
horizontal. It is supported by an effort (P) parallel to the plane as shown in fig.Determine the
minimum and maximum, value of P,for which the equilibrium can exist, Ifthe angle of friction is
20°.

Fig 3.9

Solution: Data given, Weight of the body (W) =500 NAngle at which plane is inclined (α) =25° and

Angle of friction (�) =20°

Minimum value (P1):

We know that for the minimum valueP1, the body is at the point of sliding upwards. We also
know that when the body is at the point of sliding down wards, then the force.

64
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

3.3 APPLICATIONS OF FRICTION

1. Ladder friction

2. Wedge friction

3. Screw friction.

LADDER FRICTION

The ladder is a device for climbing or scaling on the roofs or walls. It consists of two long uprightsof
wood, iron or rope connected by a number of crosspieces called rungs. These running serve as
steps.Consider a ladder AB resting on the rough ground and leaning against a wall, as shown in figure
3.9.

Fig 3.13

65
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
As the upper end of the ladder tends to slip downwards, therefore the direction of the force of friction
between the ladder and the wall (Fw) will be upwards as shown in the figure. Similarly, as the lower
end of the ladder tends to slip away from the wall, therefore the direction of the force of friction between
the ladder and the floor (Ff) will be towards the wall as shown in the figure 3.13. Since the system is in
equilibrium, therefore the algebraic sum of the horizontal and vertical components of the forces must
also be equal to zero.

Note: The normal reaction at the floor (Rf) will act perpendicular of the floor. Similarly, normal reaction
of the wall (Rw) will also act perpendicular to the wall.

Example 3.6 A uniform ladder of length 3.25 m and weighing 250 N is placed against a smooth
vertical wall with its lower end 1.25 m from the wall. The coefficient of friction between the ladder
and floor is 0.3.What is the frictional force acting on the ladder at the
point of contact between the ladder and the floor? Show that the ladder will remain in
equilibrium in this position.

Fig 3.14

Solution. Given: Length of the ladder (l) = 3.25 m; Weight of the ladder (w) = 250 N;
Distance between the lower end of ladder and wall = 1.25 m andcoefficient of friction between the
ladder and floor (μf) = 0.3.
Frictional force acting on the ladder.The forces acting on the ladder.
Let Ff= Frictional force acting on the ladder at the Point of contact between the ladder andfloor, and
Rf = Normal reaction at the floor.
Since the ladder is placed against a smooth vertical wall, therefore there will be no friction at thepoint
of contact between the ladder and wall.

Resolving the forces vertically,Rf= 250 N

From the geometry of the figure, we find thatBC = √(3.25)– (1.25) = 3.0 m

66
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
Taking moments about B and equating the same,
Ff× 3 = (Rf× 1.25) – (250 × 0.625) = (250 × 1.25) – 156.3 = 156.2 N
Ff = 156.2= 52.1 N Ans.
3
Equilibrium of the ladder
We know that the maximum force of friction available at the point of contact between the ladderand
the floor
μRf= 0.3 × 250 = 75 N
Thus, we see that the amount of the force of friction available at the point of contact (75 N) is more
than the force of friction required for equilibrium (52.1 N). Therefore, the ladder will remaininan
equilibrium position. Ans.

Example 3.7 A ladder 5 meters long rests on a horizontal ground and leans against
asmooth vertical wall at an angle 70° with the horizontal. The weight of the ladder is 900
N and acts at its middle. The ladder is at the point of sliding, when a man weighing 750Nstands
on a rung 1.5metre from the bottom of the ladder.
Calculate the coefficient of friction between the ladder and the floor.

Fig 3.15

Solution. Given: Length of the ladder (l) = 5 m; Angle which the ladder makes with the horizontal
(α) = 70°; Weight of the ladder (w1) = 900 N; Weight of man (w2) = 750 N and
distancebetween the man and bottom of ladder = 1.5 m.
Forces acting on the ladder are shown in Fig.
Let μf = Coefficient of friction between ladder and floor andRf = Normal reaction at the floor.
Resolving the forces vertically,Rf = 900 + 750 = 1650 N ...(i)
∴ Force of friction at A
Ff = μf× Rf= μf× 1650 ...(ii)
Now taking moments about B, and equating the same,
Rf× 5 sin 20° = (Ff× 5 cos 20°) + (900 × 2.5 sin 20°)+ (750 × 3.5 sin 20°)

67
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
= (Ff× 5 cos20°) + (4875 sin 20°)
= (μf× 1650 × 5 cos 20°) + 4875 sin 20°
and now substituting the values ofRfandFf from equations (i) and (ii)1650 × 5 sin 20° = (μf× 1650 × 5
cos 20°) + (4875 sin 20°)
Dividing both sides by 5 sin 20°,1650 = (μf× 1650 cot 20°) + 975
= (μf× 1650 × 2.7475) + 975 = 4533 μf+ 975

∴ µ= 1650 – 975 =0.15 Ans.

4533

WEDGE FRICTION:
A wedge is, usually, of a triangular or trapezoidal in cross-section. It is, generally, used
forslightadjustments in the position of a body i.e. for tightening fits or keys for shafts. Sometimes,
awedge is also used for lifting heavy weights as shown in fig.3.16

Fig 3.16

It will be interesting to know that the problems on wedges are basically the problems of equilibrium on
inclined planes. Thus, these problems may be solved either by the equilibrium method or by applying
Lami’s theorem. Now consider a wedge ABC, which is used to lift the body DEFG.
Let W = Weight fo the body DEFG,
P = Force required to lift the body, and
μ = Coefficient of friction on the planes AB, AC and DE such thattan φ = μ.
It will be interesting to know that the problems on wedges are basically the problems of equilibrium on
inclined planes. Thus, these problems may be solved either by the equilibriummethod or by applying
Lami’s theorem. Now consider a wedge ABC, which is used to lift thebody DEFG.
Let W = Weight of the body DEFG,
P = Force required to lift the body, and
μ = Coefficient of friction on the planes AB, AC and DE such thattan φ = μ.
68
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024
A little consideration will show that when the force is sufficient to lift the body, the sliding will take
place along three planes AB, AC and DE will also occur as shown in Fig. 3.17 (a) and (b).

Fig 3.17
The three reactions and the horizontal force (P) may now be found out either by graphicalmethod or
analytical method as discussed below:
GRAPHICAL METHOD
1. First of all, draw the space diagram for the body DEFG and the wedge ABC as shown
inFig.3.18 (a). Now draw the reactions R1, R2 and R3 at angle f with normal to the faces
DE, AB and AC respectively (such that tan φ = μ).
2. Now consider the equilibrium of the body DEFG. We know that the body is in equilibrium-
under the action of
(a) Its own weight (W) acting downwards
(b) Reaction R1 on the face DE, and
(c) Reaction R2 on the face AB.
Now, in order to draw the vector diagram for the above mentioned three forces, take some suitable point
l and draw a vertical line lm parallel to the line of action of the weight(W) and cutoff lm equal to the
weight of the body to some suitable scale. Through l draw a line parallel to the reaction R1.
Similarly, through m draw a line parallel to the reactionR2, meeting the first line at n as shown in Fig.
3.18(b).

69
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata
DIPLOMA IN ME/CE/CSE/RA (1ST Semester)
Engineering Mechanics (ES102)
DME/DCE/DCSE/DRA
2023-2024

Fig 3.18

3. Now consider the equilibrium of the wedge ABC. We know that it is equilibrium under the
action of
(a) Force acting on the wedge (P),
(b) Reaction R2 on the face AB, and
(c) Reaction R3 on the face AC.
Now, in order to draw the vector diagram for the above mentioned three forces, through m draw a
horizontal line parallel to the force (P) acting on the wedge. Similarly, through n draw a line parallel to
the reaction R3 meeting the first line at O as shown in Fig.3.18 (b).
4. Now the force (P) required on the wedge to raise the load will be given by mo. to the scale.

EXAMPLE 3.8 A block weighing 1500 N, overlying a 10° wedge on a horizontal floor and leaning
against a vertical wall, is to be raised by applying a horizontal force to the wedge. Assuming
the coefficient of friction between all the surface in contact to be 0.3, Determine the minimum
horizontal force required to raise the block.

70
ARNAB DAS SARMA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Brainware University, Kolkata