DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Data Transmission/communication:
It is the process of transferring data through networked computers. It involves the
transmission or passing of data and information from one computer (or device) to
another.
For transmission to occur, there must be the following:
- Sender
- Transmission media
- Receiver
Transmitted data can be in analogue or in digital form.
- Digital Data: Data is in discrete value, that is, in ones and zeros. Digital data
has the following advantages:
 Digital data produces high quality output.
 It is easier to represent.
 Rebooting is easier
 Data is compressed and therefore takes less disc storage space
 In some

- Analogue Data: Data is in continuously varying form, e.g. human voice. This is
difficult to handle as it will be in form of waves. Sensors collect data in
analogue form, eg. 67, 93 are all analogue data

Transmission Media
Transmission media refers to the path through which data is transferred from one
point to another. Transmission media can be either guided or unguided.

Guided Transmission Media

In guided transmission media, data follows a physical path during transmission, e.g.
through a coaxial cable. The two connection points should be linked together by a
physical communication pathway. Some of the guided communication media are:
- Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable
- Fibre optic cable
- Coaxial cable

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair: These are cables with two copper wires of about 1
millimetre thick. The wires are twisted to avoid crosstalk. Twisted pair is very cheap
to buy and offer good performance over short distances.
Disadvantages of twisted pair: Twisted pair is very cheap to buy. Has big
attenuation. Has low bandwidth

2. Coaxial cable: It is a stiff copper wire surrounded by an insulating material.

- Allows for both baseband and broadband transmission

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 - has less attenuation than twisted pair,
- has high bandwidth and
- Has low error rates.
- Can transmit analog and digital signals
- Ensures accurate data transfer.
- However, coaxial cable is expensive to buy and is stiff, making it difficult to
handle.
- They are suitable for short distance communication on a LAN
- Application: Used for TV distribution (connecting decoders with the antenna
on the satellite dish); long distance telephone transmission; short run
computer system links, Local area networks

3. Fibre optic: A media that uses light to transmit data. Used in Wan and Man
networks. Its benefits are:-
 It has less attenuation and therefore fewer repeaters are needed,
 has very high bandwidth and cannot corrode (not affected by corrosion),
 it is thin and therefore has less weight.
 It allows very fast data transfer,
 has no electromagnetic interference,
 is physically secure.

Fibre optics is in two forms, multimode and monomode. Multimode fibre optic cable
carries 2 or more signals at a time, each at a slightly different reflection angle. This is
used over short distances. Monomode (Single mode) cable carried one signal at a
time and is appropriate for long distance communication.
However, fibre optics is very expensive to buy and is uni-directional (travels in one
direction only). Cable cannot bend around tight corners. It is also difficult to
interface with computers.

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Unguided Transmission
Wireless Transmission media
1. Bluetooth (Refer to presentations)
2. Radio (refer to presentations)
3. WIFI (Wireless Fidelity)
It is a Wireless LAN(A local area network) that uses high frequency radio
signals to transmit and receive data over distances of a few hundred feet;
using Ethernet protocol. it is a set of standards that set forth the
specifications for transmitting data over a wireless network. There must be a
wireless router which enables wireless devices to connect to the network
and to the internet.

- Range: Wi-Fi provides local network access for around a few hundred metres
- Speed: maximum of 54 Mbps,
- Provides local area network
- Limited to one subscriber
- Can be used where cables cannot run
- Wireless network adaptors are inbuilt withion most devices like laptops,
therefore cheaper and easier to get.
- Tend to be slower if more devices are added to the network
-
4. WIMAX (World Wide Inter-operability for Marking Access)
- a single WiMAX antenna is expected to have a range of up to 30 Kilometres
- Speed: with speeds of 70 Mbps or more. As such, WiMAX can bring the
underlying Internet connection needed to service local Wi-Fi networks
- Can accommodate many subscribers
-
5. Infra-red waves: Refers to data transmission in form of waves as through
some remote controls of televisions. It has enormous bandwidth. However,
infrared waves do not travel through obstacles like buildings, they only work
for very short distances, affect eyes and consume a lot of power.
6. Satellite transmission: These include earth stations which communicate
with geostationary satellites (36 000 to 80 000 km above the earth. These
have high bandwidth and support very long distance communication.
However, they have big attenuation and are slow in sending messages.

- This is a method of networking computers and computer devices without the use
of cabling, e.g. using bluetooth, radio, satellite and infra-red.
- The devices that are used in wireless technology include:
 3G (Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)) mobile phones / cellphone
/ remote keypad/remote control/remote keyboard.
 Infra-red mouse.
 Multimedia mobile handsets and
 Notebooks.
 GPRS (general packet radio service) modems.

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GPS - A navigational system involving satellites and computers that can determine
the latitude and longitude of a receiver on earth by computing the time difference
for signals from different satellites to reach the receiver

Advantages of wireless communication include:

- Cheaper as no wires are needed for networking.
- Ensures fast wireless Internet access, depending on the technology being used.
- Wireless LAN is faster than a modem or mobile.
- Wireless LAN enables working at home.
- Users can create and send multimedia messages to mobiles or e-mail while in
transit.
- Users can send greetings from mobiles to mobiles/PCs.
- Ensures instant transmission.
- Users can download e-mail and file attachments while on mobile.
- Users can watch live web cast on mobile.
- Users can listen to streaming video on mobile.
- Users can watch news, weather, sport, games while on the move.
- Users can access information from mobile anytime.
- Users can send, receive, delete e-mail while on the move.
- Users can view business appointments while out of office on mobile.
- Users can send corporate e-mail while out of office - even behind a firewall on
mobile.
- Users can use wireless internet connection from chat rooms for discussions with
colleagues while on the move.

Disadvantages of Wireless Technology:

- Wireless LAN speeds are slower than Net access at work due to narrow
bandwidth.
- Anyone within the Wireless LAN nodes range with an appropriate device can use
your Wireless LAN and broad band link.
- Anyone who walks past your house or WLAN linked into a corporate system can
access sensitive information like credit card details.
- 3G phones are not compatible with 2G phones.
- Blue tooth has limited range.
- Signals can be blocked, distorted or will be weak.
- Can lead to health problems from microwaves

Synchronous and asynchronous Transmission

Synchronous Transmission:
- This is whereby data is sent in blocks (packets) at any given time, and uses
control characters.
- This method is faster in transmitting data.
- Data transfer is timed by the clock pulse
- There is no need for start and stop bits since the timing signals are used to
synchronise transmission at sending and receiving ends.
- Mostly used in local area networks
- Many transmission errors are bound to occur.

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Asynchronous Transmission:
- This is whereby data is send character by character over a transmission
channel.
- This is much slower as compared to synchronous transmission.
- A start bit and two stop bits marks the beginning and ending of a character
respectively.
- The start and the stop bit are always different.
- The start bit alerts the receiving end and synchronises its clock, ready to
receive the character. The baud rate of the two devices is set to be similar so
as to correctly receive the data.
- A parity bit is included to check against incorrect transmission.
- Each character is send as soon as it becomes available rather than waiting for
the clock pulse

Serial data transmission

- Data is send one bit at a time over a single wire from source to destination,
until all data has been send.
- A system in which one bit is send at a time along the same data line until the
whole data has been send.
- Suitable for long distance communication since less cabling is needed.
- Very reliable form of transmission
- Can be fast using fibre optic cable

Parallel data transmission

- All the bits (byte) of a character are send simultaneously along separate data
lines.
- Several bits are send simultaneously over a number of parallel lines linking
the sender and the receiver.
- This is faster in data transmission
- Suitable for short distance communication, i.e, inside the computer system
using buses, e.g. from processor to hard drive, processor to printer, etc.
- A parallel port is used to link external devices like printer to the processor.
- Bits can arrive at the destination at different times since the cables may have
different speeds if the distance is too long. This is called skew. This is
prevented by using short distance transmission.
- It becomes expensive in long distance communication system systems since
too much cabling is required.
- It is more reliable over very short distances

Baseband Vs Broadband transmission

Baseband transmission
- This is a one-channel transmission system whereby the whole bandwidth is
dedicated to one data channel.
- This is whereby a channel carries one signal at a time (either 1 or 0),
meaning the presents or absence of voltage in the channel.
- Fast in transmission
- Suitable mostly for short distances

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 - For long distances, repeaters or boosters are required

Broadband transmission
- This is a multi-channel system where several channels are combined into one
carrier signal, where the bandwidth is shared by different channels.
- Broadband carries multiple signals on a fixed carrier wave.
- Bandwidth is shared by different channels.
- It offers faster transmission rates
- Enables transmission of voice, video, computer data, etc simultaneously.
- Broadband is expensive to install and maintain
-
Transmission Modes
Transmission modes include Simplex, Duplex (Full duplex) and Half Duplex

Simplex Mode: This is a mode of data transmission in which data travels only in
one direction. Thus one computer acts as the sender and the other as a receiver at
any given time. A good example is teletext service. See diagram below:

Half Duplex: This is a transmission mode in which data travels in both directions
but not simultaneously. The receiver waits until the sender has finished sending
data in order for him to respond. Examples include police radios, uses ‘Over’ to
allows time for other to transmit

Duplex/Full Duplex: This is a transmission mode in which transmission is possible

in both directions simultaneously. See diagram B above. There is no need for one to
wait until the channel is free from data. Used by high speed mainframes on the
internet.

Transmission impairments
This refers to change in signal form as it propagates through the transmission
channel. Transmission impairments include:

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Attenuation: The loss of signal power as it moves through the transmission
channel.
Noise: Occurs when an unwanted signal from other sources than the transmitter
enters the transmission channel.
Distortion – means that the signals are deformed a more or less different signal as
it propagates through the medium

Multiplexing
This is a method of allowing multiple signals to share the same channel, reducing
too much cabling, as shown below:
A multiplexer is used in
multiplexing. A multiplexer
is a device that joins two or
more channels into one
channel while the de-
multiplexer is responsible
for splitting a channel into a
number of them for easy
transmission to the
intended destination.

Bandwidth
Refers to the carrying capacity of a transmission channel. It is generally the volume
of data that a communication channel can carry at a given time. It is the difference
between the lowest and the highest (range) amount of data that a channel can
transmit. It determines the amount of data a channel can transmit at a given period
of time. Fibre optic cables have high bandwidth and therefore transmits data faster
than coaxial cables, which have low bandwidth.

Baud rate: the amount of bits that can be send of a channel per second. It is a key
measure of data transfer rate. One baud = one bit per second

Signal routing methods

Circuit switching:
- A signal routing method in which the path (route) is first established from
sender to receiver immediately before transmission can start. An end-to-end
path is established before communication can occur. Thus a circuit must be
established first.
• The circuit is maintained for the whole duration of transmission. Thus
provides a dedicated communication path between two stations and offers
bandwidth that cannot be infringed upon by other users.
• Circuit switching has the following major phases:
i. Circuit establishment – a station to station circuit established.
ii. Data transfer – data is now sent over the dedicated channel.
iii. Circuit disconnect – connection termination.
- There is no need for waiting period for data.

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 - Continuous transmission ensures better utilisation of the channel’s
bandwidth.
- Sender and receiver must send and receive data at the same rate
- The transmission path remains open (connected) until transmission is
complete.
- After transmission, the path can now be released for others to use.
- If no path is established, transmission cannot occur
- Similar to normal telephone systems whereby a specific line is routed from
point A to point B and is dedicated but not necessarily used all the time.
- Data is not necessarily split, thus is send as it is.
- Data signals are received in the same order they are send, therefore no need
for processing at the receiving end.
- Advantages Circuit switching (CS)
o no congestion.
o dedicated transmission channel with guaranteed data rate.
o More effective transmission
o Less transmission errors
- Disadvantages Circuit switching (CS)
o Channel reservation for duration of connection even if no data are
being transferred is an inefficient media use process.
o Long delays in call setup.
o Designed for voice traffic (analog).

Packet switching:
- Data is first split into smaller chunks called packets (or datagrams) which
may take different routes and then reassembles to the original order at their
destination.
- Packets are routed to the next (intermediate) node along an appropriate
route, which can store and transmit the packet until the destination.
- Each packet takes its own convenient path and then re-assembled at the
receiving end.
- Packets do not necessarily arrive at the same time or in correct order.
- At the destination, packets are re-grouped to the original message.
- Packets can be of fixed size
- Each packet has the following data: source address, destination address,
error control signal, packet size, packet sequence number, etc.

Benefits of packet switching:

- Makes more efficient use of lines
- Cheap as cost depends on number of packets send, not distance, so all data
can be transmitted at local call rates
- Less likely to be affected by network failure since an alternative route is used
from each node.
- Security is better since packets follow different routes
- No call set-up is required.
- Fast and suitable for interactive applications

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NB: A virtual circuit must be established between the sender and the receiving end.
Virtual circuit – A temporary 'dedicated' pathway between two communicating
points on a Packet Switched System before sending of packets. bandwidth is
allocated for a specific transmission pathway.

Message Switching
 This is whereby the whole message may be routed by any convenient route.
 No physical/dedicated path is established in advance between sender and
receiver
 Data is stored at a hop (which may be router) then forwarded one hop later.
 Each block is received in its entity form, inspected for errors
 Data is not transmitted in real time.
 Blocking cannot occur
 Delays are very common
 Sender and receiver need not be compatible since sending will be done by
routers, which can change data format, bit rate and then revert it back to
original format on receiving or submit it in different form.
 Storing data solves congested networks since data can be stored in queue and
forwarded later when channel becomes free
 Priorities can be used to manage networks
 Very slow if the number of nodes is many since each node stores before
forwarding the data
 In message switching, whole message is routed in its entirety, one hop at a
time.
 Now implemented over packet or circuit switched data networks.
 Each message is treated as a separate entity.
 Each message contains addressing information, which is used by switch for
transfer to the next destination.
 Also called a store and forward network
 Used in e-mails and in telex forwarding
 There is often no real limit on the message / block size.

Advantages
• more devices can share network bandwidth
• reduced traffic congestion
• one message can be sent to many destinations through broadcast addresses
Disadvantages
• often costly – must have large storage devices to hold potentially long
messages
• not compatible with most real time applications

Transmission protocols

A protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is transferred in a network. It

defines the rules on how network devices communicate, e.g the TCP/IP. This
includes:

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  how to interpret signals
 how to identify 'oneself' and other computers on a network
 how to initiate and end networked communications

A network communication protocol: a standard method for transmitting data from

one computer to another across a network. Some of the protocols are:
i. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
This is a protocol that defines the process of identifying, requesting and
transferring multimedia web pages over the internet. It is used for
transferring data across the internet, usually between servers and computers
on the internet. It is based on the client –server relationship. It uses TCP/IP
to transmit data and messages
ii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
it is a protocol used to transfer data from one computer to another. It is often
used to download software from the internet, and it uses the TCP/IP protocol
in doing this. However, FTP has no security to data as the data is not
encrypted prior to its transmission.
iii. TELNET
This is a network protocol that allows a computer user to gain access to
another computer and use its software and data, usually on a LAN and on the
Internet. It allows users to access data stored on servers from their
terminals. Telnet allows computers to connect to each other and allows
sharing of data and files. Telnet has security problems especially on the
internet.
iv. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
It is a method of using the internet to make ordinary voice telephone calls.
Thus it is a way of having phone conversations using the internet as a way of
communication. By VoIP, international and long distance calls are of the same
price as local calls and sometimes are for free. However, the system does not
offer emergency calls. An example of VoIP is Skype.

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

 protocol governing the transmission of data

 data is divided into packets to which addressing information, error
correction code and identification are added
 the packets travel to their destination over the network and the receiving PC
checks for mistakes and pieces the data together in the right order
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol)
TCP: It ensures that data is transmitted accurately
IP: It ensures that data is transmitted to its correct address (IP address).
Every device on the internet has its IP address. It also ensures that packets
are rearranged to the original message on arrival of their destination.

2. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)

This is a model of communication designed by the International Standards
organization (ISO). The OSI model allows computers from different manufacturers
or origin to be connected together. The idea is that suppliers must produce

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hardware or software to implement any of the seven layers while other suppliers
provide those of other layers. This promotes standardization. The seven layers are:

 Application Layer – defines how user applications interface or access

communication services, initiates or accepts a request, provide network
applications like data transfer, messaging, operating system functions, etc
 Presentation Layer – deals in how information is presented, e.g ASCII, adds
formatting or data transformation,(e.g. from ASCII to Unicode), data
compression and data encryption.
 Session Layer – creates and terminates sessions, e.g. login session, file
transfer session, adds traffic-flow control information, etc.
 Transport Layer - allows error correction during transmission, maintains
flow control, allows data recovery, allows routing, addressing and
multiplexing of signals.
 Network Layer - adds sequencing and address information, sets logical
protocols, creating frames (consisting of address fields, control filed, date,
and error control field)
 Data Link Layer - provides error-checking and formats data for physical
transmission, type of network and packet sequencing is defined, used for
syncronisation.
 Physical Layer – level of actual hardware. define physical characteristics of
ntwork e.g connections, wiring, voltage signals, etc

At each level, additional information is added to allow service to be provided. This

layered model is also called protocol stack

NETWORKING
Types of networks
i. LAN (Local Area Network
A LAN is a privately owned connection of computers on a very small geographical
area for sharing of data and files by users of the network, for example, within an
single room. Usually connected using cables of radio connections.

Hardware Requirements for a LAN

 Network Interface Card (NIC):- Each computer on the network must have
this as it allows computers to be linked and to be uniquely identified on the
network.
 Server:- to store software that controls the network, software and files and
also data that can be shared by all users of the network
 Hub or alternatively a Switch:-
A hub is a device that connects workstations together in order to make a
LAN. It receives signal/data from workstations, regenerates it and the sends
it to all ports on it. Thus all workstations connected to it will get the signal or
data packets. Hubs are less intelligent, they do not determine the exact

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 computer the data is addressed to and so they broadcast the signal. This is a
security risk. It is usually used on a star network or on a hybrid network. A
hub has many ports on which cables to all computers on the network are
connected.
A switch is a networking device that allows multiple devices and
workstations to be connected to each other on a LAN just as a hub does.
However, a switch is more intelligent than a hub. A switch directs traffic
across a LAN, enabling computers to talk to each other and share resources.
It joins computers on a LAN and is found at layer 2 of the OSI reference
model. It allows different nodes on the network to directly communicate with
each other. A switch runs in full duplex mode. It can recognise different
devices on the network using their MAC address so that data and signals can
be send to exact/intended devices. This is more secure than a hub. Switches
can be LAN switches or ATM switches which are used on WANs and MANs.
 Terminals:- these are computers that are connected to each other through a
server and cannot work without the server. Terminals can be dump or
intelligent. A dump terminal does not have neither processing nor storage
capabilities and thus wholly depends on the host computer for it to work. An
intelligent terminal has limited processing and or storage capabilities.
 Workstation:- these are the computers connected to the server and are less
powerful than the server
 Cables: - connects computers together and acts as pathway for data moving
from one workstation to another.

 Bridge: - this is a device that connects networks using the same

communication protocols. It is used to connect different parts of a LAN, thus
is used to connect different LAN segments together. However, it cannot
handle multiple paths for data. In general a bridge is used for:

 Increasing the number of workstations on the network

 Allows connection of different types of LANs
 Allows different segments to be treated as one network
 Allows easier management of the network
 Improves network security

ii. WAN (Wide Area Network)

WAN refers to connection of computers over a very large geographical area and
may cover the whole world. The internet is part of the WAN. A WAN is created by
joining several LANs together, for example, connecting different branches of a
company that are in different provinces or countries. Computers are usually
linked together using fibre optic cables, satellite links, telephone lines, etc.
Gateways are usually used to bridge the different networks.

Hardware Requirements for a WAN

 Routers:- this is a network device that connect different types of networks

together, for example, connects a school LAN to the internet (which is a
WAN). It can route packets of the same protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) over networks

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 with dissimilar architectures (e.g. Ethernet to token ring). It receives
transmitted messages and forwards them to their correct destinations over
the most efficient available route. A router is used to form complex networks
with multiple paths between network segments (subnets), each subnet and
each node on each subnet is assigned a network address.

A router is very intelligent. It uses network addresses and IP addresses of

other routers to create routes between two networks. They keep tables of
addresses that will be used in routing information. Routers are thus used for:

 Determining the path of data packets using destination addresses of

the packets.
 Used for packet switching

 Gateway: - a device used to connect different kinds of networks. Thy act as

link to different WANs. A gateway is a device that connects networks with
different architectures and different protocols. When packets arrive at a
gateway, the software strips all networking information from the packet,
leaving only the raw data. The gateway translates the data into the new
format and sends it on using the networking protocols of the destination
system. Thus it becomes a protocol converter.

 Modem (MOdulator DEModulator):- This is a device that converts digital

signal received from a computer into an analogue signal that can be sent
along ordinary telephone lines, and back to digital at the receiving end.
Mostly used to connect to the internet using the ordinary telephone line. The
speed of modems is measured in bits per second e.g. 56K bps. The following
parameters must be specified when a modem is installed:
 the telephone number of the ISP
 baud rate of modem
 number of data bits per block
 number of stop bits
 whether odd or even parity is used

Cable modems - employ broadband transmission across regular cable

television wires

Communication terms used on WAN networks

 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line – it is a digital telephone

service that provides fast, accurate data transmission over existing copper
telephone wiring, for internet connection. It is a set of communication
standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and
other network services over the traditional circuits of the public switched
telephone network. ISDN is a line that allows the transmission of digital
signals without them being changed into analogue which leads to improved

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 quality for the user. It requires a network adapter and a network termination
device (no modem required)
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ASDL) - offers Internet connection up to
30 times faster than dial-up modems still using traditional copper wires but
allocating more bandwidth to the data flow from the ISP to the PC than is
allocated from the PC to the ISP
 Dial-up networking: user pays for the amount of time spent using the
telephone link. It is less expensive. more appropriate for low-volume
applications requiring only occasional transmission
 Dedicated/leased line: the line is continually available for transmission and
the user pays a flat rate for total access to the line. It transmits data at higher
speeds. It is more appropriate for high volume transmission
 Value-added network (VAN):- This is a private, multipath, data-only, third-
party managed network. It is used by multiple organisations. It may use ISDN
lines, satellite links etc. it is set up by a firm in charge of managing the
network. Its subscribers pay a subscription fee and for data transmission
time. The cost of using the network shared among many users. subscribers
do not have to invest in network equipment or perform their own error
checking, routing and protocol conversion
 Electronic data interchange (EDI):-e.g. transmitting A level results to schools
using BT's CampusConnect . virtually instantaneous electronic transmission
of business data from one firm's computerised information to that of another
firm. It increases accuracy and eliminates delays.
 Internetwork:- This is created when two or more independent networks are
connected but continue to function separately e.g. Internet. In larger
networks it is common to supply multiple paths through the network to
provide fault tolerance

iii.MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

It is an extension of a LAN, but usually extends to a larger geographical area, usually
the whole city and is owned by a consortium of users. Different LANs are joined
together to provide service for the whole city or district. Organisations in the city
have their LANs linked together so that local users can access their databases for
services. Users can view their electricity bill, make payments and even receive
broadcasts pertaining to issues within their area. The network is only accessed by a
group of users as defined by the organisation, e.g students of a certain university. It
enables users to do researches, share files, libraries, local email and video
conferencing.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY (CONFIGURATION)

This refers to the shape/configuration of the network. This may refer to logical or
physical configuration. The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called
the physical topology of the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the
locations of nodes, and the interconnections between the nodes and the cabling. The
physical topology of a network is determined by the capabilities of the network

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access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired, and the cost
associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.

The logical topology is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way
that the data passes through the network from one device to the next without
regard to the physical interconnection of the devices. Logical topology is not
necessarily the same as its physical topology. For example, the original twisted pair
Ethernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus topology with a physical star
topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring topology, but is wired a physical star
from the Media Access Unit.

Common network topologies are Ring, bus, star, mesh and hybrid network
topologies.

1. Ring (Token ring) Network:

- Computers are connected together to form a circle and uses a token when
transferring data.
- It uses token ensure that there is no collision
- Only the computer with a token can transmit.
- When a computer wants to send data, it sends it together with the token. Every
computer on the network examines that data, if it is addressed to it, it
copies/removes it and passes it on, until it comes back to the sender.
- Data/information travels in one direction only.
- Information moves around the ring in sequence from its source to its destination.
- As data passes from one computer to another in the ring, each computer removes
any data relevant to itself and adds any data it wishes to send.
- The diagram below illustrates the physical configuration of a ring network:

Token passing

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  a small packet called a token is passed around the ring to each computer in
turn
 to send information, a computer modifies the token, adds address
information and sends it down the ring
 information travels around the ring until it reaches its destination or returns
to the sender
 when a packet is received by the destination computer, it returns a message
to the sender indicating its arrival

Advantages of Ring Network

- Data processing is faster as each computer processes its own processor.
- Has very high data transfer rates.
- Uses a token to avoid data collision or loss
- it is possible to create large networks using this topology
- If one computer breaks down, others will remain working as they have their own
processors and storage facilities.
- Performs better than star network when traffic is very heavy.

Disadvantages of Ring Network

- If one computer breaks down, the whole network is disrupted.
- a faulty connection between two stations can cause network failure
- Its requirements are expensive, that is buying several computers with processors
and storage facilities.
- It is difficult to link the computers together.
- Difficult to add another computer without disrupting the networking.
- Only the computer with the token is allowed to send data at a given time. One
may not send data when another node (computer) is still sending its own data.
- System is less secure as token together with data has to pass through other nodes
that do not concern it.

2. Star Network:
Computers form a star shape with host computer at the centre.
The Server (host computer) manages all other computers/terminals on the
network.
If the terminals are not intelligent, they have to rely on the host computer for
everything.
This network is as shown below:

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  computers connected by cable segments to a central hub/switch
 a signal sent from a computer is received by the hub and retransmitted down
every other cable segment to all other computers on the network
 only the computer the signal is addressed to acts upon the data
 if one computer fails, the others are unaffected
 if the hub goes down, the whole network goes down

Advantages of Star Network

- If one terminal breaks down, the network is not disrupted.
- It is cheap in terms of requirements since only the host computer can have a
processor and storage facility.
- It is very easy to install.
- Management of data is easier as this is done centrally.
- It is very fast to process data.
- Easier to add new workstation without disrupting the network.
- No problem of collision of data since each terminal has its own cable to the host
computer.
- Gives consistent performance even when the network is heavily utilised.
- More secure than other network topologies
- it is easier to identify faults using this type of topology
- It is easy to expand this type of network
- If one terminal breaks down, others will remain working.

Disadvantages of a Star Network

- If the host computer breaks down, the whole network will be disrupted.
- If the host computer is down, all the terminals will not work as they depend on
the host for processing and storage.
- It requires a lot of cabling, which might be expensive.
- Can be slower if overloaded

3. Mesh Network

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- A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending
information to any other computer on the network.
- No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data
back and forth between computers.
- Thus, if any one computer is damaged or temporarily unavailable, information is
dynamically rerouted to other computers—a process known as self-healing

Advantages of Mesh Network

- If one computer breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one computer breaks down, the network is not disturbed.
- Computers have their own storage and processing capabilities.

Disadvantages of Mesh Network

- Expensive to buy computers with their storage and processing facilities.
- Too much cabling is involved, which may be expensive.

4. Bus (Linear/Multi-drop) Network:

Computers are connected together through one main cable and all computers all
signals transmitted by any computer connected to the network. Computers use
CSMA/CD when sending data.

 all components are connected via a backbone (a single cable segment

connecting all the computers in a line)
 entire network will be brought down by a single cable break
 terminator at the end of the line absorbs all signals that reach it to clear the
network for new communication
 data is sent in packets across the network and received by all connected
computers; only the computer with the packet destination address accepts
the data
 only one computer can send information at a time

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  Ethernet uses a collision system - carrier sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA-CD) - if transmitted messages collide, both stations abort
and wait a random time period before trying again.
 network performance degrades under heavy load

Definition of Terms
(a) Bus/Backbone: the dedicated and main cable that connects all workstations
and other computer devices like printers.
(b) Nodes: these are connection points for workstations and the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices that prevent data in the bus from bouncing back, causing
noise and prevents data from getting lost.

Advantages of Bus network

- If one workstation breaks down, others will remain functional.
- If one workstation breaks down, the network remains working.
- All computers have processing and storage capabilities.
- It is cheap to install due to less cabling.
- Easy to add workstation without disrupting the network.
- Requires less cabling than a star network.
- Less expensive network than the other systems

Disadvantages of Bus Network

- Computers cannot send data at the same time nor while there is data being
transferred in the bus.
- Can cause collision of data during transmission.
- It is slow in transferring data.
- Its requirements are expensive, that is computers with their own processors
and storage facilities.
- The system will be down if the main cable (bus) is disrupted at any point.
- Less secure.
- Performance worsens as new stations added

5. Hybrid

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This topology is a combination of two or more different network topologies into
one. When different topologies are connected to one another, they do not display
characteristics of any one specific topology.

Advantages of hybrid topology

1. Flexibility:- adding / removing other peripheral connections is easy.
2. More reliable: it is easier to isolate the different topologies connected to each
other and find the fault with the hybrid topology.
3. Speed: Speed is consistent, combines strengths of each topology and eliminates
weaknesses
4. Effective: The weaknesses of the different topologies connected are neglected
and only the strengths are taken into consideration.
5. Scalable: It is easy to increase the size of network by adding new components,
without disturbing existing architecture.

Weaknesses of hybrid topology

1. Since different topologies come together in a hybrid topology, managing the
topology becomes difficult.
2. It is also very expensive to maintain. The cost of this topology is higher as
compared to the other topologies. Cost factor can be attributed to the cost of the
hub/switch, which is higher, as it has to continue to work in the network even
when any one of the nodes goes down.
3. Costly Infrastructure: The cost of cabling also increases, as a lot of cabling has
to be carried out in this topology.
4. Installation and configuration of the topology is difficult since there are different
topologies, which have to be connected to one another.

NB: Point – to-Point Connection: Point-to-point topology is the simplest

connection, consisting of two connected computers.

Media Access Methods

A. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA): CSMA is a contention access method in
which each station first listens to the line before transmitting data. It first of all
checks if there is data in the transmission channel before transmitting. Thus it
cannot transmit while another device is transmitting.
a) CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
This is an access method in which a station transmits whenever the transmission
medium is available and retransmits when collision occurs. A device first listens
before transmitting, and if the channel is idle, it sends the data. If the channel is
busy, it continues listening until the channel is no longer busy.
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However, two device (stations) may be listening at the same time and then transmit
simultaneously when they detect that the channel is idle. This causes collision. The
transmitting devices detects that collision has occurred, and they cancel all the data
in transmission, broadcast a message to other channels that collision has occurred.
These channels are then given a random period of time to start listening again in-
order to re-transmit.

CSMA/CD control software is relatively simple and produces little overhead.

CSMA/CD network works best on a bus topology with burst transmission

Disadvantages
• CSMA/CD protocols are probabilistic and depends on the network (cable)
loading.
• Considered unsuitable for channels controlling automated equipment that
must have certain control over channel access. (This could be OK for different
channel access).
• We can set priorities to give faster access to some devices (This is, probably,
not an issue in some applications)

b) CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)

It is an access method in which collision is avoided.

Refers to Class Presentation by Nicole- ofr CSMA-CD/CSMA-CA, Token

passing and Contention
c) Token passing
• In token-passing systems, a small frame (the token) is passed in an orderly
fashion from one device to another.
• A token is a special authorising message that temporarily gives control of the
channel to the device holding the token.
• Passing the token around distributes access control among the channel's
devices.
• Each device knows from which device it receives the token and to which
device it passes the token.(see fig.)
• Each device periodically gets control of the token, performs its duties, and
then retransmits the token for the next device to use.
• System rules limit how long each device can control the token.
• Whenever the network is unoccupied, it circulates a simple three-byte token.
• This token is passed from NIC to NIC in sequence until it encounters a station
with data to send.
• That station waits for the token to enter its network board. If the token is
free the station may send a data frame.
• This data frame proceeds around the ring regenerated by each station.
• Each intermediate station examines the destination address, if the frame is
addressed to another station, the station relays it to its neighbor.
• If the station recognizes its own address, copies the message, checks for
errors, and changes four bits in the last byte of the frame to indicate address
recognized and frame copied.

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 • The full packet then continues around the ring until it returns to the station
that sent it.

Advantages
• Even though there is more overhead using tokens than using CSMA/CD,
performance differences are not noticeable with light traffic and are
considerably better with heavy loads because CSMA/CD will spend a lot of
time resolving collisions.
• A deterministic access method such as Token Ring guarantees that every
node will get access to the network within a given length of time. In
probabilistic access method (such as CSMA/CD) nodes have to check for
network activity when they want to access the network.

Disadvantages
• Components are more expensive than for Ethernet or ARCnet.
• Token Ring architecture is not very easy to extend to wide-area networks
(WANs).
• Token Ring network is much more expensive than Ethernet. This is due to
the complex token passing protocol.

d) Contention
• With contention systems, network devices may transmit whenever they
want.
• No referee mandates when a device may or may not use the channel.
• This scheme is simple to design
• The scheme provides equal access rights to all stations.
• Stations simply transmit whenever they are ready, without considering
what other stations are doing.
• Unfortunately, the "transmit whenever ready" strategy has one important
shortcoming.
• Stations can transmit at the same time.
• When this happens, the resulting co-mingling of signals usually damages
both to the point that a frame's information is lost.
• This unhappy event is called a "collision."

Polling Access Method

• Polling is an access method that designates one device (called a "controller",
"primary", or "master") as a channel access administrator.
• This device (Master) queries each of the other devices (“secondaries”) in
some predetermined order to see whether they have information to transmit.
• If so, they transmit (usually through the master).
• Secondaries may be linked to the master in many different configurations.
• One of the most common polling topologies is a star, where the points of the
star are secondaries and the master is the hub.
• To get data from a secondary, the master addresses a request for data to the
secondary, and then receives the data from the secondary sends (if
secondary sends any).

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 • The primary then polls another secondary and receives the data from the
secondary, and so forth.
• System limits how long each secondary can transmit on each poll.

Advantages
• Polling centralizes channel access control.
• Maximum and minimum access times and data rates on the channel are
predictable and fixed.
• Priorities can be assigned to ensure faster access from some secondaries.
• Polling is deterministic and is considered suitable for channels controlling
some kinds of automated equipment.

Disadvantages
• Polling systems often use a lot of bandwidth sending notices and
acknowledgments or listening for messages.
• Line turnaround time on a half- duplex line further increases time
overhead.
• This overhead reduces both the channel's data rate under low loads and its
throughput.

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