Module: 1

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Karthiyaini S
 Areas of AI and Some
Dependencies
Knowledge
Search Logic Representation

Machine
Planning
Learning

Expert
NLP Vision Robotics Systems
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?

THOUGHT Systems that thinkSystems that think

like humans rationally

Systems that act Systems that act

BEHAVIOUR like humans rationally

HUMAN RATIONAL
 Systems that act like humans

• These cognitive tasks include:

– Natural language processing
• for communication with human
– Knowledge representation
• to store information effectively & efficiently
– Automated reasoning
• to retrieve & answer questions using the stored
information
– Machine learning
• to adapt to new circumstances
 The AI Includes
• Includes two more issues:
– Computer vision
• to perceive objects (seeing)
– Robotics
• to move objects (acting)
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?

THOUGHT Systems that thinkSystems that think

like humans rationally

Systems that act Systems that act

BEHAVIOUR like humans rationally

HUMAN RATIONAL
 Systems that act like humans:
Turing Test
• “The art of creating machines that perform
functions that require intelligence when
performed by people.” (Kurzweil)
• “The study of how to make computers do
things at which, at the moment, people are
better.” (Rich and Knight)
 Systems that act like humans

?
• You enter a room which has a computer
terminal. You have a fixed period of time to type
what you want into the terminal, and study the
replies. At the other end of the line is either a
human being or a computer system.
• If it is a computer system, and at the end of the
period you cannot reliably determine whether it
is a system or a human, then the system is
deemed to be intelligent.
 Systems that act like humans

• The Turing Test approach

– a human questioner cannot tell if
• there is a computer or a human answering his
question, via teletype (remote communication)
– The computer must behave intelligently
• Intelligent behavior
– to achieve human-level performance in all
cognitive tasks
 Systems that act like humans

• These cognitive tasks include:

– Natural language processing
• for communication with human
– Knowledge representation
• to store information effectively & efficiently
– Automated reasoning
• to retrieve & answer questions using the stored
information
– Machine learning
• to adapt to new circumstances
 The AI Includes
• Includes two more issues:
– Computer vision
• to perceive objects (seeing)
– Robotics
• to move objects (acting)
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?

THOUGHT Systems that thinkSystems that think

like humans rationally

Systems that act Systems that act

BEHAVIOUR like humans rationally

HUMAN RATIONAL
 Systems that think like humans:
cognitive modeling
• Humans as observed from ‘inside’
• How do we know how humans think?
– Introspection vs. psychological experiments
• Cognitive Science
• “The exciting new effort to make computers think
… machines with minds in the full and literal
sense” (Haugeland)
• “[The automation of] activities that we associate
with human thinking, activities such as decision-
making, problem solving, learning …” (Bellman)
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?

THOUGHT Systems that thinkSystems that think

like humans rationally

Systems that act Systems that act

BEHAVIOUR like humans rationally

HUMAN RATIONAL
 Systems that think ‘rationally’
"laws of thought"
• Humans are not always ‘rational’
• Rational - defined in terms of logic?
• Logic can’t express everything (e.g. uncertainty)
• Logical approach is often not feasible in terms of
computation time (needs ‘guidance’)
• “The study of mental facilities through the use of
computational models” (Charniak and
McDermott)
• “The study of the computations that make it
possible to perceive, reason, and act” (Winston)
 What is Artificial Intelligence ?

THOUGHT Systems that thinkSystems that think

like humans rationally

Systems that act Systems that act

BEHAVIOUR like humans rationally

HUMAN RATIONAL
 Systems that act rationally:
“Rational agent”
• Rational behavior: doing the right thing
• The right thing: that which is expected to
maximize goal achievement, given the
available information
• Giving answers to questions is ‘acting’.
• I don't care whether a system:
– replicates human thought processes
– makes the same decisions as humans
– uses purely logical reasoning
 Systems that act rationally
• Logic  only part of a rational agent, not all of
rationality
– Sometimes logic cannot reason a correct
conclusion
– At that time, some specific (in domain) human
knowledge or information is used
• Thus, it covers more generally different situations of
problems
– Compensate the incorrectly reasoned conclusion
 Systems that act rationally
• Study AI as rational agent –
2 advantages:
– It is more general than using logic only
• Because: LOGIC + Domain knowledge
– It allows extension of the approach with more
scientific methodologies
• Artificial
– Produced by human art or effort, rather than
originating naturally.
• Intelligence
• is the ability to acquire knowledge and use it" [Pigford
and Baur]
• So AI was defined as:
– AI is the study of ideas that enable computers to
be intelligent.
– AI is the part of computer science concerned with
design of computer systems that exhibit human
intelligence(From the Concise Oxford Dictionary)
From the above two definitions, we can see that
AI has two major roles:
– Study the intelligent part concerned with humans.
– Represent those actions using computers.
 Goals of AI
• To make computers more useful by letting
them take over dangerous or tedious tasks
from human
• Understand principles of human intelligence
 The Foundation of AI
• Philosophy
– At that time, the study of human intelligence
began with no formal expression
– Initiate the idea of mind as a machine and its
internal operations
 The Foundation of AI
 Mathematics formalizes the three main area of
AI: computation, logic, and probability
 Computation leads to analysis of the problems that
can be computed
 complexity theory
 Probability contributes the “degree of belief” to
handle uncertainty in AI
 Decision theory combines probability theory and
utility theory (bias)
 The Foundation of AI
• Psychology
– How do humans think and act?
– The study of human reasoning and acting
– Provides reasoning models for AI
– Strengthen the ideas
• humans and other animals can be considered as
information processing machines
 The Foundation of AI
• Computer Engineering
– How to build an efficient computer?
– Provides the artifact that makes AI application
possible
– The power of computer makes computation of
large and difficult problems more easily
– AI has also contributed its own work to computer
science, including: time-sharing, the linked list
data type, OOP, etc.
 The Foundation of AI
• Control theory and Cybernetics
– How can artifacts operate under their own control?
– The artifacts adjust their actions
• To do better for the environment over time
• Based on an objective function and feedback from the
environment
– Not limited only to linear systems but also other
problems
• as language, vision, and planning, etc.
 The Foundation of AI
• Linguistics
– For understanding natural languages
• different approaches has been adopted from the
linguistic work
– Formal languages
– Syntactic and semantic analysis
– Knowledge representation
• Artificial
– Produced by human art or effort, rather than
originating naturally.
• Intelligence
• is the ability to acquire knowledge and use it" [Pigford
and Baur]
• So AI was defined as:
– AI is the study of ideas that enable computers to
be intelligent.
– AI is the part of computer science concerned with
design of computer systems that exhibit human
intelligence(From the Concise Oxford Dictionary)
From the above two definitions, we can see that
AI has two major roles:
– Study the intelligent part concerned with humans.
– Represent those actions using computers.
 Search
• Search is the fundamental technique of AI.
– Possible answers, decisions or courses of action are structured into an
abstract space, which we then search.
• Search is either "blind" or “uninformed":
– blind
• we move through the space without worrying about
what is coming next, but recognising the answer if we
see it
– informed
• we guess what is ahead, and use that information to
decide where to look next.
• We may want to search for the first answer that satisfies our goal, or we
may want to keep searching until we find the best answer.
Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
• The second most important concept in AI
• If we are going to act rationally in our environment, then we must have
some way of describing that environment and drawing inferences from
that representation.
– how do we describe what we know about the world ?
– how do we describe it concisely ?
– how do we describe it so that we can get hold of the right piece of
knowledge when we need it ?
– how do we generate new pieces of knowledge ?
– how do we deal with uncertain knowledge ?
 Knowledge

Declarative Procedural

• Declarative knowledge deals with factoid questions

(what is the capital of India? Etc.)
• Procedural knowledge deals with “How”
• Procedural knowledge can be embedded in
declarative knowledge
 Planning
Given a set of goals, construct a sequence of actions that achieves
those goals:
– often very large search space
– but most parts of the world are independent of most other parts
– often start with goals and connect them to actions
– no necessary connection between order of planning and order of
execution
– what happens if the world changes as we execute the plan and/or
our actions don’t produce the expected results?
 Learning
• If a system is going to act truly appropriately,
then it must be able to change its actions in
the light of experience:
– how do we generate new facts from old ?
– how do we generate new concepts ?
– how do we learn to distinguish different
situations in new environments ?
Interacting with the Environment

• In order to enable intelligent behaviour, we will

have to interact with our environment.
• Properly intelligent systems may be expected to:
– accept sensory input
• vision, sound, …
– interact with humans
• understand language, recognise
speech,
generate text, speech and graphics, …
– modify the environment
• robotics
 Periods in AI
• Early period - 1950’s & 60’s
– Game playing
• brute force (calculate your way out)
– Theorem proving
• symbol manipulation
– Biological models
• neural nets
• Symbolic application period - 70’s
– Early expert systems, use of knowledge
• Commercial period - 80’s
– boom in knowledge/ rule bases
 Periods in AI cont’d
• ? period - 90’s and New Millenium
• Real-world applications, modelling, better evidence,
use of theory, ......?
• Topics: data mining, formal models, GA’s, fuzzy logic,
agents, neural nets, autonomous systems
• Applications
– visual recognition of traffic
– medical diagnosis
– directory enquiries
– power plant control
– automatic cars
 Fashions in AI
Progress goes in stages, following funding booms and crises: Some examples:
1. Machine translation of languages
1950’s to 1966 - Syntactic translators
1966 - all US funding cancelled
1980 - commercial translators available

2. Neural Networks
1943 - first AI work by McCulloch & Pitts
1950’s & 60’s - Minsky’s book on “Perceptrons” stops nearly all work on nets
1986 - rediscovery of solutions leads to massive growth in neural nets research

The UK had its own funding freeze in 1973 when the Lighthill report reduced AI work
severely -Lesson: Don’t claim too much for your discipline!!!!
Look for similar stop/go effects in fields like genetic algorithms and evolutionary computing.
This is a very active modern area dating back to the work of Friedberg in 1958.
 Symbolic and Sub-symbolic AI
• Symbolic AI is concerned with describing and
manipulating our knowledge of the world as explicit
symbols, where these symbols have clear relationships to
entities in the real world.
• Sub-symbolic AI (e.g. neural-nets) is more concerned with
obtaining the correct response to an input stimulus
without ‘looking inside the box’ to see if parts of the
mechanism can be associated with discrete real world
objects.
• This course is concerned with symbolic AI.
 AI Applications
• Autonomous Planning
& Scheduling:
– Autonomous rovers.
 AI Applications
• Autonomous Planning & Scheduling:
– Telescope scheduling
 AI Applications
• Autonomous Planning & Scheduling:
– Analysis of data:
 AI Applications
• Medicine:
– Image guided surgery
 AI Applications
• Medicine:
– Image analysis and enhancement
 AI Applications
• Transportation:
– Autonomous
vehicle control:
 AI Applications
• Transportation:
– Pedestrian detection:
 AI Applications

Games:
 AI Applications
• Games:
 AI Applications
• Robotic toys:
 AI Applications
Other application areas:
• Bioinformatics:
– Gene expression data analysis
– Prediction of protein structure
• Text classification, document sorting:
– Web pages, e-mails
– Articles in the news
• Video, image classification
• Music composition, picture drawing
• Natural Language Processing .
• Perception.