ou «be ob kg/em?. At ‘peed to be deer Nive pward correc sau d correlationg S Soil, Even developed on he used of y t reflected by. ley are used ¢ field value (6) effect of 7 value ina sessing the one with a : (which is alues at t shallow To allow | and LORATION re P= effective over, : Figure 19.7 giye, wee ed only from Fi joa condition, Thea beg! and If the overburde; 8 the y, 8.19.7 Breater deny Ea, eased, while at tion, with a m, T Pressure too—_| ses ssa, shal isin With» hich WV value ia ‘measured, in from f etm F< 0.25 kgfem?, Cy should be Bla) whic Bives high values of Cy for is, when oTHig. SS HilbatG, wil bo ogealig 1.0 for sy ee the observes field values of Vkgiem' ), the observed values need 'y Value, 2 Effective vertical overburden pressure, ‘im fectiveBASIC AND APPLIE Cr) erly cleaned before the test is (e) The hottom of the borehole must be Properly Cie te ae bed ant out. If this is not done, the test gets carri not in the undisturbed soil (f When a casing is used in a just short of the level at whic (@) When the test is carried out in a sandy soil below the watee a) slight ensured that the water level in the borehole is alws a aie owen hae the ground water level. If the water level in the ce loislore ae water level, ‘quick’ condition may develop in the soil and very be recorded. 3 In spite of all these imperfections, SPT is alee used hooray es simple and relatively economical. It is the only test that provides representa both for visual inspection in the field and for natural moisture ee tests In the-taboratory. Because of its wide usage, a number of ti a el between N value and soil parameters are available, mainly for cohesionless soi design charts for shallow foundations resting on cohesionless soil have been deve the basis of IV values. These have already been discussed in Chapter 15. The us ; values for cohesive soil is limited, since the compressibility of such soil is not ref : N value SPT values obtained in the field for sand have to be corrected before in empirical correlations and design charts. IS: 2131-1981 recommends th of N be corrected for two effects, namely, (a) effect of overburden press dilatancy yhat the casing is yhould be ensured t : pris to paceman Otherwise, 1 1m of the easing, (a) Correction for overburden pressure Several investigators have found that t! 0 granular soil is influeneed by the overburden pressure. If two granular g same relative density but having different confining pressures are higher confining pressure gives a higher N value, Since the eo directly proportional to the overburden re) incre 1 shallow depths are underestimated and the N values at larger depths : Hence, i T no correction is applied to recorded N values, the relative d depths will be underestimated and at higher dep its, they will be ov. for this, N-vatu ome trom field tests at different effective ovey corrected to a standard effective overburden pressure. ‘The corrected N value is given by fhe penetration resista aa Nn Cy in which N’ = corrected value of observed N Cy = correction factor for overburden Pressure ‘The i equation "°° Proposed by Peck, Hanson and 20 0.77 logy, 22 105shear e for most m of ent, ot ee ot EXPLORATION 3 he test en) Used k os OMY i a split-barrel of create » coupling. TS: AS Tpygr ee jriefly stated below: et 'st in Ing ~ Samp), lia and many other countries sages a ) which consists of a driving Procedarg ally eplit into two parts and OF carrying out the test, It ig ty ven? Atl the bottom cleaned At the ieee rods of required length is (a) The borehole i agy, 1 split-spoon g, Spoon sa, lowered into the (c) The splits mpl e le bore Ty attach, penetration i ber f dopth ofthe bate et gat 7 tie fr th a 00 mm ane Pyprried ts the velue at that pertiones penetration, called the seating qt! ONS Teauired ta eft the far pa of 1) The split-spoon gai " * The split-barel i isons ihren and is detacked from the drill rods, sample collected inside the agit 2 SUN shoe an he coupling The cl it is taken away to the laboratory. The SPT is carried out at every 0.75 m vertical intervals in a borehole. ‘This can be sed to 1.50 m if the depth of borehole is large. Due to the presence of boulders or rocks, it may not be possible to drive the sampler to a distance of 450 mm. In such a the V value can be recorded for the first 300 mm penetration. The boring nd the test is halted if, . (2) 50 blows are required for any cine ae (ii) 100 blows are require eae ee (iii) 10 successive blows produce oe enetration test is anything | ance The standard p ved if proper precauti Some of the pitfalls can be avoided are as follows: (a) The driand water is necessary. In trial areas, industrial waste products dumped at i ssi industrial are’ c age consible for corrosive action in the foundations. These waste yy also be respons analysed chemically. TS (EE FIELD TESTS VIS-A-VIS LABORATORY TES ee age of testing the soil in si ests in field have the advantage =H here oa Mey cal the other hand, make ude of RE Te Eater ten Donte 0 ‘ough samplers and therefore carl ie ocieat on the quality ofthe so called ‘undisturbed samples. Further, obtaining und pamplee from non cohesive, granular eotl is nob aay ssi ommon practice to rely more on laboratory tests where cohesiv ‘ a sical he field tests being short duration tests, fail to yield nee d settlement data in any case. Where the subsoil strata are essenti 1 : is most definitely towards field tests. The data from field tests character, the bia or : lations to predict settlement of foundations. in empirical, but time-tested correl ts commonly used in subsurface investigation are: 1. Penetration test 2. Pressuremeter test 3. Vane shear test Plate load test Geophysical methods The plate load test has already been discussed in Section 15.6 test in Section 10.5. The vane shear test is perhaps the only field test 0 soft, sensitive clay deposits. Under such soil conditions, undisturbed impossible and the vane shear test provides a satisfactory solution t ¢stimating the undrained shear strength and sensitivity, For eati however, one has to use the laboratory consolidation teste, The penetrometer tests, pressuremeter test and the geoph described in the following sections, FESO) Penerrometer TES ie There are three penetrometer tests in common use, These are: (a) Standard penetration test: (SPT) (6) Dynamic cone penetration test. (OCPT) (c) Static 1e penetration test (CPT) = andara Penetration test is carried out in, p borehole, All th the soil strata to i ar. Vaehl atin 19 Penetration by a penetrometer Penetration resistance and soil properties za avi iatcholes or Sl. Type of foundation No. Depth of exploration covering - | @ h corner G Isolated spread footing or raft ‘One and a half times the width B (Fig. 19.6) trial pit ') | Adjacent footings with clear spacing| One and a half times the length (L) of the oundls less than twice the width footing (Fig. 19.6) n a grid | (ii) | Adjacent rows of footings (Fig. 19.8) ‘ing the iv) | Pile and well foundation ‘To a depth of one and a half times t | ‘of structure from the b pile or bottom of wel w) (a) Road cuts () Fill _| | GROUND WATER OBSERV The location and the probable ee : foundation work, deep excavation’ eT ton table can be estimated through Om swat Boreholes ean also be used #05 fe take time to reach an. ed after boring and compar boreholes, at the end ° recorded after 24 how by piezometers ¥BASIC AND APPLIED SOIL, hen slided over the ty nife or trowel. An open ended box is t! e 9 Roca Sante me tho side of the box and the sample is filled with dry. nee he space betw ° meee box is sealed with paraffin wax. onde Chunk samples are not sutabl, if these are to be traneported to long diam because these are likely to be disturbed during trans | samples may also be obtained by means of a sampling tube of 10) yy ilGinator rithe utting edge. The soil surrounding the outside of the tube showy internal diameter, with a cu 7 beeareflly removed while the tube is being pushed in. BEAN NUMBER AND DISPOSITION OF TRIAL PITS AND BORINGS x ation, as discussed earlier, is to provide the designer with com, Bele aie es pret TT disposition and the numbe tral pits and borings should be such as to reves! any major changes in thickness, depthe properties of the strata at the site and immediate sumodines The number and 5 ‘les or trial pits would depend upon the extent of site, uniformity of strata, nature ure and the loading diagram, Many a time — particularly in a site of large ological study of the site will be useful in deciding the number of boreholes or guideline, IS: 1892-1979 recommends that for a compact building site out 0.4 hectare, one bore hole or trial pit in the centre and one at e: ate. For smaller and less important buildings, even one borehole erie will be adequate. For larger areas, it may be usefull to ash cnetration tests at a spacing of 50 m to 100 m by dividing’ ereafter, the number of boreholes or trial pits is decided by n penetration resistance. £2M@R DEPTH OF EXPLORATION The depth of exploration in any foundat soil investigation should extend ‘on material and inelude all soil strata which are likely to load of the structure. This depth, ealled th significant depth oft on the type of structure, size, shape and disposition of loaded areas, soil profile and soil Properties, As a general rule, unless bed rock is enc should be carried out to such depth that the net increase in soil the structure is less than 10 per cont of the average contact pressure, structure for less than 5 per cent of the effective stress in the g orarurden (Task Committee Report, 1972), In the case of square of 10 per cent intensity of londing at: foundation level extenta toad Width of foundation below the base of foundation. It is, therefore subsoil to a depth of atleast, twice the width of the antici ited below the base of foundation, a totherE 2 gol EXPLORATION | ton sampler consists of, api a ‘two sey he piston which is actuated gen Parate pa During the driving ay fits tightly inreet Ulinder ang h with the nd Ut the st Yin the sample, «24. ston ay sintained fu cut itt i ng edge of the samp nln the ston is fixed in rel he piston 18 relation to the Sampler. Aj ependently, cutting a ga Sround and + At the propos © piston is nde ting eae dna ple out of the Per indo nai det, ple which holds hack the a operation, « negate lind slides ae sat mples durin Pressure develope ha e the mushed to the required depth, both LAR % th the sample inside the canta Sampler cylinder and pista the sampler cylinder a ; cylinder, Non system are withdrawn } Piston sampler is useful in sami ae pling sat, cannot be sampled by open-drive samplers, mt 884 Other Sf and wet sg | pler | \ rotary sampler is a double-walled tube i sampler with an i E st re sig bars poe wea Re e arrel is rotated. The inner tube which is stationary, slides over the cylindrical sample cut by the outer rotating barrel. The sample is collected in the inner liner. Rotary samplers are useful for sampling in firm to hard cohesive soil and particularly in rocks. The rock quality can be estimated from the core recovery ratio termed as rock juality designation, R@D (Peck, et. al., 1974). The ratio of the total length of ce recovered > the length of sampler advanced on a given run, expressed as per cent, is the value of D. While determining the length of core recovered, only thos are atleast 100 mm long, hard and sound, are considered. Breals sred, The diameter of the core should preferably be ble to assess the in situ the rock mass (gp) based on the corres tests on rock cores. ‘Table 19.3 Relation betwee!M45 x3 apn 4) 84: thread Al dimensions in mm (©) Cuting shoe Square threads to Bult’A' of coupling Ball. 425, Ball 8254 noles, $10 Pin. §8 22 ( = Sera bree ce a Pagtletl| a sent (©) Head All dimensions i (©) Spitbody Fig. 19.5 During th tained flush piston is rpendently, ¢ ‘ight fitting pist mail indet ‘eple which nvshed to the Te Pith the sample Piston sa which eannot b rotary Sample A rotary samp sater tube oF @ ring when theb sample cut by Rotarys in rocks. The quality designeoi. EXPLORATION 3 into three Tape NSS categories, namely, (a) open mpler essen tin —. “aml ris sampler essentially eg she tube i8 connected throym ts fa mes tothe anand steel tube with a cutting edge ee Tod. The sampler head is provided with 'mpling and also a ball check-valve i walled, Th z id tube or a split & lick-walled samplers are Ta oc ceore ies og 7 ae = on w 2 shows a split © est The sample Dy TRS He Samer is used in the standard penetration ational ht walled sampler by the repeated blows of a falling “Ss Thin wall samplers ily Bele ers are used for obtaining undisturbed samples, The area rato is (19.4) a 7 Per Cent. Thin-walled tubes are cold-drawn seamless tubes made out of brass, aluminium or any other suitable material having adequate strength, durability and i while tance to corrosion. IS: 2132-1972 has laid down requirements for thin-walled sampling bes (Table 19.2). The sampling tube for sampling of soil is pushed into the soil in a ame ntinuous rapid motion without impact or twisting, fice to Table 19.2 Requirements of Sampling Tubes (Inside diameter, mm Outside diameter, mm ce Minimum effective length ad : paula = (that is, length available for soil samp! eters ie 5 eee i inside and outside diameters specified oh f soil Note 1 The inside the 38, 70 Of "41.8 and 124 per cent for respectively: + cohesion, sampler cannot pene’BASIC AND APPI inside diameter of sampling tube outside diameter of sampling tube \ Pa ge oe eant to reduce friction between the soil sam pl uensidesclesrancs os by allowing for elastic expansion. If the j ote Sele ee TI tare wil bo oo much of lateral expansion, Outside clearang open OF clearance is too lar : we ee eae help reduce friction w dri mri hes after the sample is callected a IS: 1892-1979 recommends that the inside clearance, C; should ie oa venta cent. The outside clearance should not be much greater than the inside clearaneg vores value usually lies between 0 and 2 per cent. Also, the area ratio A, should be keptas ae possible, consistent with the strength requirements of the drive shoe ond sally og ee sos to reduce sample disturbance, Is value should not be greater than about 20 per, | solid 100 for stiff formations, whereas for soft sensitive clays, an area ratio of 10/per cent — ee preferred. ae Another parameter which is an index of sample disturbance is the recovery ratio, 1, T ee 1, ~ —Tecovered length of the sample _ usually ae = Denetration length of the sampler brass L, = 1 indicates a good recovery. L, < 1 indicates that the soil is compres resistat L,> 1 meafS that the soil has swell tubes ( continy Further, to reduce wall friction, the sampling tube should have a smooth should be properly oiled before use. The non-return valve should have a large allow the air and water to escape quickly and easily when driving the sampler, ‘Types of Samples Required in the Laboratory While routine laboratory tests such as water content, density, specifie size distribution and Atterberg limits are conducted on all types of soil, cohesive, tests for determining engineering properties such as consol and shear strength parameters are usually performed on cohesive soil, samples required for different laboratory tests are given in Table 19,1, Natural water content Density Specific gravity Grain size distribution Atterberg limits Coefficient of permeability Consolidation p te Undisturbed or Undisturbedsoil samples, in genera} he soil a Can be Ne Cuttings 4g the aad undisturbed sample Disty oe gets modified or destroyeg qu ories, namely, disturbed samples Se Pana ag hn te ad wm ral, moisture cont he sampi etural ent and Ping ope Those are called representative geet gptt#9n Wid stabs recent fe al constituents can be preserved addition to alteration iy, ples, ey ina i UNueh they are date or the mineral constituents go ¢1;6.08! Sol tiuene MY at dist 2 r,t At disturbed samples, Where, ssentite th ro: Sil fom other layers get mixed up Representative samples arp usagi ‘dentine called nn-eprsentoc er are virtually of no use, ification tests but, ‘NOn-representative samples ed s20se where the origina structure is preserved and ain as Sr Aleration or modification: Such samples sin aa even the m i of cutting of sample from the parent material jnvol¥er a changsinsreu cman mae ; n soil structure, For all practical purraoes se ; considered as one in which the material has been that it is still suitable for all laboratory tests including shear strength and consolidation tests. The extent of disturbance to the sample dueto the sampler depends on three features ofits design. These are: (a) cutting edge, (b inside wall friction and (c) non-turn valve, ‘The following ratios related to the dimensions of the cutting edge and the sampler Fig. 19.4) are useful: (a) Inside clearance, (a) Outside elearanee (a) Area ratio, whereof the hole. The bit is attached to the lower end of a hollow ona a" S “st suitable chuck. Drilling mud (usually bentonite solution wi admit oo i! ir Is. The mud returning upwards i 1 samples, continuously forced down the hollow drill rods. chroag soit samples etd ae between the drill rods and the side of the hole brings the cuttin, oy Sod undistul surface, The method is also known as mud rotary drilling. ets mé ? fatural mois 2 \ These are ca / \ ty addition Derick —sf/ \ ae ff \\ Representati } \ wee virt Undis Tee to be replaced the material NE mania Sea ne ee 7 Shan casng oo \ jn soil stru considered ¢ : that it is sti Hh a UL weigt or ving arn oa To mestene ties: ee ‘Casing —» Is replaced by sampling of its desigt som Lager ale To |) lecaitgetng ru Wash pipe _ (dill rods) Chopping bit, by sampling spoon ‘uring sampling ‘operations Fig. 19.3 Set-up for wash boring Core barrels with diamond bits are also used in rotary simultaneous obtaining of rock cores, The method is known diameter holes (over 150 mm), shot drilling is used. The {ypes of core drilling because the coarser cuttings do not accumulated in a chip immediately above the bit, Chi instead of the drilling head.2 | Me 7 ecole Stiga | “coramg nae sition opty me, Of Wap tt | *.d to add weight to th, Condit; Wate, | u: © be: Mitiong fil in & hole. The soil vied when full. Boring ig ye a y augering and the shell je spate baer ‘tripod and te pulley, hich may be rotated or moved upeanes mm dil ed The lower end of the drill rod, ited with a5 or chopping bit, euts the soil. The sl thangs axed with water and flats up through the annlas een between the casing pipe and the drill red (Fig 19.3) the (eo | flowing out provides an indication of the soil type, i The change in soil strata can be surmised from the rate of curing ss and the slurry flowing out, In this method, heavier particles of different sol layers remain under suspension in the casing pipe and get mixed up. Because of this, the samples recovered from the wash 7 water are of no value. Samples of the soil should be obte after the borehole has been cleaned below Wash boring can be cone used even of soil except hard soil or roc sion Boring ing is carried out by Boring by sion drill a ring by percus! ns nia pt for a limited ae iS pulverized slurry is bailed out t= are likely to cave in, a easine a drilling, drill rods are © y This is the onlyh, Where the conditions are contrary to the jhallow dept! and elaborate. rock is available at a s! be quite extensive 1 exploration has to EEEN MetHops oF BORING Making and advancing of boreholes is known as boring. ‘The four differ it aon SETy used for boring are discussed in the follow! ng subsections) Tila with any particular method of boring depends mainly on the mature of sol al Hi cceorene table, the ease and accuracy with which ch wate en sed +2 add we sa ereiarmined and the likely disturbance of soil samples that have to be niin a hole Ps ptied when Helical auger: between the \ : Extension slurry flowin; auge’ || rostnoe agen Hand o swidcyenn eeSoil Exploration INTRODUCTION of subsoil condit; 40ns at a site j ? tructure elements, The felt See Prerequisite for safe and economical a ary information about the suhsail qe ety Studies carried out for obtaining sable, are termed as soil explanation, saa In view of the complexity of natural deposits, no single method of exploration is d for all situations, The choice depends on the nature of subsoil, their extent, and the e Foundations _' yrp0se of the exploration programme. In discussing the various methods of soil exploration, a hapter provides guidelines for selecting depth, location and method of soil exploration forgeneral types of buildings. y of Shallow [EE] METHODS OF EXPLORATION ly carried out in two stages, undationand Tre subsoil explorations are usual detailed : ; logical 7, Part I. pp. Preliminary exploration consist ee occa oo reonnaissance. During the site vist ees Tike streams, fl drainage pattern and other natural - cal methods and te During preliminary investigations. geophysical ani sounding rods ean be Ver PSST sina Detailed investigation follows tr shickness out to determine the nature, STEN the posi Variation, their physical properte to detailed sampling are usually i aso form a part of the deta” Detailed soil exploratio® eratic in distribution, © ‘ad inexpensive or