CELL STRUCTURES, FUNCTIONS AND CELL DIVISION

Cells

- cells undergo cell differentiation which the cells

become efficiently organized in tissues with
specialized functions and usually changing
their shapes
o basic unit of the human body
o human cells (30 trillion) Ribosome
 80% RBC → most abundant cell
in the body - important in the production of proteins
 Neurons → 100 billion → 86 - attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum
billion or free-floating in the cytoplasm
o human cells + bacteria cells = 68 - ribosomes assemble polypeptides from amino
acids on tRNA molecules in a sequence
trillion
specified by mRNA.
- Robert Hooke
- engages in protein synthesis
o the first scientist to discover the cell,
specifically the plant cell, he observed
cell walls in cork tissues.

Plasma Membrane

- also called as “cell membrane (plasmalemma)”

- functions as selective barrier
o regulating the passage of materials
entering and exiting the cell
o also facilitates the transport of a
specific molecules
- membrane proteins are essential for:
o recognition and signaling function
o interactions between the cell and its Endoplasmic Reticulum
environment - a site for synthesis of proteins, as well as lipids
- Membrane phospholipids are amphipathic, - Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts: o membranous tubules and flattened
o Polar head → Hydrophilic (water-loving, sacs with attached ribosomes
contains a phosphate group) o synthesizes proteins and transports
 located on the outside them to Golgi apparatus
o 2 non-polar tails → Hydrophobic (water- o site for synthesis of most membrane-
repelling, long-chain fatty acids) bound proteins for:
 Saturated fatty acid (straight)  secretion
 Unsaturated fatty acid (bent)  incorporation into the plasma
 located on the inside membrane
- embedded in the phospholipids are:  function as enzymes within the
o Proteins that act as transport carriers. lysosomes
o Cholesterols are present, which: - Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
 restrict movement within the o membranous tubules and flattened
membrane sacs with no attached ribosomes
 modulate the fluidity of all o manufactures lipids and carbohydrates
membrane components  lipid, phospholipid, and steroid
o Channel pores allow for the entry and synthesis
exit of substances.  carbohydrate metabolism
o Glycocalyx, mainly composed of o detoxifies harmful chemicals
carbohydrates, has several functions: o stores calcium
 prevents microbial attack.  releasing calcium ions for
 serves as a delicate cell muscle contraction (in the
surface coating sarcoplasmic reticulum)
 responsible for cell adhesion
and cell recognition
Is composed of:
 Glycolipids (outer lipids with
oligosaccharide chains)
Golgi Apparatus
 Glycoproteins (proteins linked
with sugar chains)
 - flattened membrane sacs stacked on each o Microfilaments → smallest diameter,
other determine cell shape, and are involved
- modifies, packages, and distributes proteins in cell movement
and lipids for secretion or internal use
o completes the post-translational Nucleus
modification of proteins produced in
- large organelle that houses most of a cell’s
the RER
DNA
- has 2 distinct functional sides:
- contains chromatin
o cis → receiving region
- is the control center of the cell
o trans → shipping region
- DNA within the nucleus regulates protein
synthesis and therefore the chemical reactions
Lysosome of the cell

- membrane-bound vesicle pinched off Golgi

apparatus ₊✩‧₊˚౨ৎ˚₊✩‧₊
o contains about 40 hydrolytic enzymes
o particularly abundant in phagocytic
activity CELL DIVISION
 phagocytosis → carried out by
cells such as macrophages and
neutrophils
- contains digestive enzyme
o site of intracellular digestion and
turnover of cellular components

Proteosome

- tubelike protein complexes in the cytoplasm

- break down proteins in the cytoplasm
o degrade denatured or nonfunctional - major goal: formation of 2 daughter cell from a
polypeptides single parent cell through the processes of
- responsible for removing proteins that are no mitosis and meiosis
longer needed by the cell - each cell contains 46 chromosomes
- recognize proteins with attached ubiquitin o 22 pairs → genetic characteristics
molecules o 1 pair → sex chromosome

Mitochondria Interphase

- An organelle found in large numbers in most - the period between cell divisions when
cells where biochemical processes of chromosomes are not visible under a light
respiration and energy production occur; it has microscope. It is divided into several phases:
a double membrane with the inner membrane o G1 Phase: Cells accumulate enzymes
folded inward to form layers called cristae and nucleotides required for DNA
- known as the powerhouse of the cell replication.
- major site for ATP synthesis o S Phase (Synthesis): DNA replication
occurs, histone synthesis is observed,
Cytoskeleton and centrosome duplication begins.
o G2 Phase: The gap between DNA
- provide support
duplication and the next mitosis. It is a
- holds organelles in place
relatively short phase focused on
- enables cell to change shape
preparing for the next mitosis.
o basically determines the shape of the
o G0 Phase: Cell cycle activities may be
cells and play an important role in the
temporarily or permanently suspended.
movements of organelles in
cytoplasmic vesicles and also allow the
movement or the entire cells
- composed of:
o Microtubules → largest diameter,
provide cell structure, form cilia and
flagella
o Intermediate filaments → larger
diameter than microfilaments,
responsible for maintaining cell shape
Mitosis Reproductive Cell Division

- period of cell division, cell cycle phase that can - mechanism that produces gametes, the cells
be routinely distinguish with the use of the light needed to form the net generation of sexually
microscope reproducing organisms
- cell division occurring in all cells except sex - consists of a special two step division called
cells, where the parent cell divides, and each of meiosis, in which the number of chromosomes
the two daughter cells receives a chromosomal in the nucleus is reduced by half
set identical to that of the parent cell
- subdivided into 4 major stages (PMAT):
o Prophase
Mitosis vs Meiosis
 ± 1 hour
 chromatin condenses into - Mitosis
chromosomes o applies to somatic cells
 centrioles move to opposite o involves only 1 division
end o Interphase → PMAT
 nucleus disperses o DNA is copied/produced during the
chromosomes Interphase
o Metaphase o cell division that produces 2 diploid
 less than 1 hour cells
 chromosomes align on the  lacking synapsis and DNA
equatorial plate recombination, mitosis yields 2
o Anaphase genetically identical cells
 30 minutes - Meiosis
 chromatids separate, forming o applies to gametes
two sets of chromosomes o involves 2 divisions
 chromosomes move towards o Prophase I → Metaphase I → Anaphase I
the centrioles → Telophase I → Prophase II → Metaphase
o Telophase II → Anaphase II → Telophase II
 minutes o DNA is copied/produced only during
 chromosomes disperse
Interphase I
 where nuclear envelope and
o produces 4 haploid cells
nucleoli forms
o involves 2 cell division and produces 4
 Cytokinesis → formation of
haploid cells
cleavage furrow, cytoplasmic
 involves meiotic crossing over,
division, creating two separate
leading to new gene
and equal portions of the
combinations and each haploid
cytoplasm
cell being genetically unique
 cytoplasm divides to form 2
cells
- components of mitosis:
o chromatid → 2 strands of chromosomes
that are genetically identical
o centromere → the region where two
chromatids are connected
o centrioles → small organelles composed
of nine triplets of microtubules

₊✩‧₊˚౨ৎ˚₊✩‧₊
 Apoptosis

Central Dogma

- programmed cell death

- a normal process for adjusting and controlling
- flow of genetic information cell numbers
- occurs in 3 stages - removes extra tissues and eliminates excess
o DNA Replication cells, including:
o Transcription → RNA o damaged cells
o Translation → Protein o potentially harmful cells
o Importance for Gene Expression: o virus-infected cells
 information in DNA directs o potential cancer cells
protein synthesis. - Phagocytosis → the process of cell "eating"
 proteins provide the code for where dead or dying cells are engulfed and
gene expression removed
o gene expression uses the:
 Transcription
 DNA is read in the
nucleus.
 produces mRNA
(messenger RNA)
 mRNA produces codons
 Codons are sets of 3
nucleotide bases that
code for a particular
amino acid (e.g., Start
codon AUG)
 Translation
 mRNA is converted into
an amino acid
sequence at the
ribosome
 produces proteins
 mRNA codons pair with
tRNA anticodons
 Anticodons are carried
by tRNA (e.g., Stop
codons: UAG, UAA,
UGA)

DNA

- double helix structure located in the nucleus.

- composed of nucleotides, the building blocks of
DNA
o each nucleotide consists of a sugar, a
nitrogenous base, and a phosphate
group