27/08/2023

CELLULAR
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY

CELL BIOLOGY
• CELL – basic unit of structure and function of all living things.

• ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS :

✓ Metabolism

✓ Growth

✓ Irritability

✓ Adaptability

✓ Repair

✓ Reproduction

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PROTOPLASM

• Contains organic and inorganic compounds.

• 70-85% of water

• Water makes up approximately 55 -75% of a

person's total body weight, and for several
reasons is essential to life.

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CHEMICAL CONFIGURATION OF
CELLS
• ORGANIC COMP OUNDS – denote chemical substances
that contain carbon. The four major classes of
organic compounds found in cells include :

o Proteins

o Carbohydrates

o Nucleic Acids

o Lipids

▪ PROTEINS – (CHON) 15% of the cell. Are

found in all parts of the living cells.
Functions of proteins include: assisting in
growth, constructing new tissues and
repairing injured tissues.

Enormous amounts of proteins are located

in fingernails, hair, cartilage, ligaments,
tendons and muscles.

• Amino Acids - are the building blocks of

proteins. In humans there are 22 different
amino acids.

• Enzymes - act as an organic catalysts.

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LIPIDS

• Are comprise
approximately 2% of
the cell. Lipids
contain CHO.

CARBOHYDRATES
• CHO , 1% of the cell

• Predominantly in the liver and

muscles

• Subdivided into
monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides.

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• Largest known organic molecules.

• Nucleic acids are high-molecular- weight

polymers made from subunits –
NUCLEIC NUCLEOTIDES.

• NUCLEOTIDES - pentose sugar,

ACIDS nitrogenous bases, phosphate group.

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INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

• Mineral salts, the inorganic substance in the cell, are essential for
cell life.

• Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K) are examples of salts.

• Na and K maintain the osmotic pressure of the cell by maintaining

the correct proportion of water in the cell.

• Salts assist in producing cell energy and in conducting nerve

impulses.

CELL STRUCTURE
• Cell membrane, Cytoplasm, Organelles

• With the exception of mature red blood

cells, all human cells have a nucleus.

• The cytoplasm, organelles and nucleus are

enclosed by a cell membrane.

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Cell membrane
• Is considered to be selectively semi -
permeable.

• Lipids allow lipid- soluble materials to

difuse into or out of the cell.

• Proteins function as pores, enzymes or

antigens.

CYTOPLASM
• Composed of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates,
minerals, salts and water, is a watery solution.

• Catabolism

• Anabolism

• Metabolism

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The
Organelles
▪ Cell organelles,
located in the
cytoplasm, help with
the cell functioning.

ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM

- is a tubular network
that extends from the
nuclear membrane to
the cell membrane.

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MITOCHONDRIA

- aerobic reactions of
cell respiration take
place within the
mitochondria.

GOLGI APPARATUS

▪ Synthesized in the Golgi Apparatus

are carbohydrates.

▪ In order to secrete a
substance small portions of
the Golgi's membrane separate
and join the with the cell
membrane which allows the
substance to be released in the
exterior portion of the cell.

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LYSOSOMES

▪ Are single-membrane oval or

spherical bodies within the
cytoplasm which contain
digestive enzymes that digest
protein molecules.

NUCLEUS
• Most vital cell organelle

• DNA and protein are contained in the nucleus

• DNA and protein are arranged in long threads

called CHROMATIN

• When a cell divides, the chromatin contracts into

s hor t, rod -like structures called CHROMOSOMES.

• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)

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• Is a double- layered and has openings

NUCLEAR through which substances can travel

either from the cytoplasm to the nucleus,

MEMBRANE or from the nucleus to the cytoplasm

• It is continuous with the ER

▪ Each nucleus contains at least one

nucleolus.

NUCLEOLOUS ▪ Nucleolus contains ribosomes composed of

RNA and protein
AND ▪ Ribosomes can travel from the cell's nucleus
into the cytoplasm.
RIBOSOMES
▪ It is there trhat ribosomes assist in protein
synthesis

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DNA & RNA

Nucleotides are compose of :

• A phosphate group

• Sugar

• Nitrogenous base

DNA The structure of DNA looks

like a coiled ladder
The two strands of
nucleotides are labeled a
The sides of the ladder are
double helix (coil).
formed by the
The rungs of the ladder
alternating phosphate and
are formed by the
sugar molecules.
nitrogenous bases.

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DNA Adenine always pair with

thymine
Guanine always pair with
cytosine
At The Grand Canyon

Unique genetic information

is carried by the DNA
located in the nuclear
chromosomes and genes.

• Is produced from the DNA in the cell

nucleus, but functions in the cell's
RNA cytoplasm.

• There are three varieties of RNA. This

includes the Messenger RNA, Transfer RNA,
Ribosomal RNA

• Messenger RNA - carries directions for

protein synthesis from the DNA

• Transfer RNA - carries amino acids

molecules from the cytoplasm to the
ribosomes for

• Ribosomal RNA- assists in the linking of

messenger to transfer RNA

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CHROMOSOMES
AND GENES

➢ Chromosomes carry genes, the genetic

material responsible for cytoplasmic
activity and delivering the cell's
hereditary information.

➢ Centromere - the center of the

chromosome.

➢ Sexually reproducing cells in animals are

classified as either germ cells or somatic
cells.

• Germ cells are called gametes: female gametes are termed

oocytes and male gametes are called spermatozoa.

• Chromosomes in somatic cells are paired - haploid.

• Chromosomes in germ cells are single or individual cells called -

diploid.

• In humans, somatic cells contain 46 chromosomes in the nucleus

• In female there are X,X chromosomes: in male X,Y chromosomes

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GAMETOGENESIS

CELL GROWTH AND DIVISION

• The two types of cell division are mitosis

and meiosis. Even though both types
include reproduction of the cell, their
purposes are not similar.

• MITOSIS - can be divided into two

discrete processes – the division of the
nucleus and the division of the cytoplasm.

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MITOSIS

• INTERPHASE – nondividing
cell.

• Gap 1 (G1) - resting

phase

• Synthesis (S) - replicates

its DNA in the part of the
interphase

• Gap 2 (G2) - prior the

mitosis

• Mitosis - PMAT

o PROPAHASE – Chromosomes two

chromatids; spindle fibers form that
extend across the cell's equator, nuclear
membrane begins to disappear, nucleolus

MITOSIS not visible.

o METAPHASE – The paired chromosome are

lined up in the equator. Spindle fibers
from each centriole attach to the
centromeres; Nuclear membrane has
entirely disappeared.

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• ANAPHASE – the centromeres divide and the sister chromatids

detach as they are pulled to an opposite pole. Each chromatid is
regarded as a separate chromosome, as there are two complete
and distinct sets.

• TELOPHASE - the sets of chromosomes become much longer,

thinner and indistinct as they reach the poles of the cell.
Formation of a new nuclear membrane; reappearance of
nucleolus; cytokinesis is almost complete.

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Metaphas Anaphas
Prophas e e Telopha
e se

G2 G1

Interpha
se

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MITOSIS

Molecular checkpoint
genes Cell-cycle progression is
controlled by a family of
molecular checkpoint genes.

Their function is to ensure the

correct order of cell-cycle
events.

Cells that lack checkpoint genes

are sensitive to radiation-
induced cell killing, and
carcinogenesis

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RADIATION
ANALYZED DURING METAPHASE
DAMAGE

Meoisis

• In the formation of germ cells, a unique type pf cell division

transpires in the gonads (ovaries, testes) of sexually matured
people.

• The names of the stages for meiosis and mitosis are the same.

• At the completion of the telophase, the original parent germ cell

has created two daughter cells - then go through a second
division of cellular material without the replication of the DNA or
duplication of the chromosomes.

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The cells of a tissue system are

identified by their rate of proliferation
and their stage of development.

Immature cells are called

CELLS AND undifferentiated cells, precursor cells,

TISSUES or stem cells.

As a cell matures through growth and

proliferation, it can pass through
various stages of differentiation into a
fully functional and mature cell.

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