2.

2 Circuit Diagram and Proposed Model

F igure 3 : Circuit Diagram Figure 4 Proposed Model of Automatic

Street Lights

2.3Advantages
• Complete elimination of manpower
• Reduced energy costs
• Reduced green house gas emissions
• Reduced maintenance costs
• Higher community satisfaction
• Fast payback

2.4Applications
• Balcony / stair case / parking Lightings
• Street lights
• Garden Lights
2.5 Future Aspects

• Pole damage detection with the addition of a suitable sensor.

• Taxi call buttons o n lamp posts to signal to the network management centre to generate a
Taxi call to the appropriate location.

• If the system has traffic speed sensors t hen this information could be use d to manage
traffic speed via the dimming of the streetlights. If the average traffic speed is too fast
during evening and night hours, this could be used to trigger a slight dimming of the
streetlights. The level of dimming would be imperceptible to motorists but they would
slow down, regardless, in response to the slightly diminished lighting. A five percent
light reduction slows traffic but is not noticeable to motorists.

• With the added intelligence in the lamp, you can add further features to increase HID
lamp life, such as softer start-up and protection against re-igniting an already hot HID
lamp, since this shortens the lamp life.

• Information management
Pin 1:
Grounded Terminal:
All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal.
Pin 2: Trigger Terminal:
This pin is an inverting input to a comparator that is responsible for transition of
Flip-flop from set to reset. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external
trigger pulse applied to this pin.
Pin 3:
Output Terminal:
Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways inwhich a load can be connected
to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground pin (pin 1)or between pin 3 and supply
pin (pin 8).
The load connected between pin 3 and ground supply pin is called the normally on load and that
connected between pin 3 and ground pin is called the normally off load.
.
Pin 4:
Reset Terminal:
To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this pindue to which it is referred to as
reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for reset purpose,it should be connected to + VCC
to avoid any possibility of false triggering.

Pin 5:
Control Voltage Terminal:
The function of this terminal is to control the threshold and trigger levels. Thus either the
external voltage or a pot connected to this pin determines the pulse width of the output
waveform. The external voltage applied to this pin can also be used tomodulate the output
waveform. When this pin is not used, it should be connected to groundthrough a 0.01 micro
Farad to avoid any noise problem.

Pin 6:
Threshold Terminal:
This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1,which compares the voltage applied to
the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 VCC. The amplitude of voltage applied to this
terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-flop.

Pin 7:
Discharge Terminal:
This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistorand mostly a capacitor is connected
between this terminal and ground. It is called dischargeterminal because when transistor
saturates, capacitor discharges through the transistor. When thetransistor is cut-off, the capacitor
charges at a rate determined by the external resistor and capacitor
Fig.5
IC555:

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation,
and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time delays, as an oscillator, and as
a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to four timing circuits in one package.

DESIGN :
The IC was designed in 1971 by Hans R. Camenzind under contract to Signetics, which was later
acquired by Dutch company Philips Semiconductors (now NXP).

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes 25 transistors, 2 diodes and
15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8).[2] Variants
available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s on one chip), and the two 558 &
559s (both a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with DIS & THR connected
internally, and TR is falling edge sensitive instead of level sensitive).

Pins:

Pinout diagram Fig.6

The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:

Pin Name Purpose

1 GND Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V)

The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts

when this input falls below 1/2 of CTRL voltage (which
2 TRIG
is typically 1/3 VCC, CTRL being 2/3 VCC by default if
CTRL is left open).

This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V

3 OUT
below +VCC, or to GND.

A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to

RESE GND, but the timing does not begin again until
4
T RESET rises above approximately 0.7 volts.
Overrides TRIG which overrides THR.

Provides "control" access to the internal voltage

5 CTRL
divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).

6 THR The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the voltage
at THR ("threshold") is greater than that at CTRL
(2/3 VCC if CTRL is open).
 Open collector output which may discharge a
7 DIS
capacitor between intervals. In phase with output.

Positive supply voltage, which is usually between 3

8 VCC
and 15 V depending on the variation.

Modes
The IC 555 has three operating modes:

1. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger – the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.
2. Monostable mode – in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce-free switches, touch
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM)
and so on.
3. Astable (free-running) mode – the 555 can operate as an electronic oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security
alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555 can be used as a simple ADC,
converting an analog value to a pulse length (e.g., selecting a thermistor as timing
resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor and the period of the output
pulse is determined by the temperature). The use of a microprocessor-based circuit can
then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration
means.

IR SENSOR

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects
of the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as
detects the motion.These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather
than emitting it that is called as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared
spectrum, all the objects radiate some form of thermal radiations. These types of
radiations are invisible to our eyes, that can be detected by an infrared sensor.The
emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an
IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength as that emitted
by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, The resistances and these
output voltages, change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

Fig.7

IR Sensor Circuit Diagram and Working Principle

An infrared sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor module in an
electronic device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can
be used to detect obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real
time.This circuit comprises of the following components

 LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair

 Resistors of the range of kilo ohms.
 Variable resistors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode).

IR Sensor Circuit Fig.8

IR sensors:
An infrared detector is a detector that reacts to infrared (IR) radiation. The two main types of
detectors are thermal and photonic (photodetectors).

The thermal effects of the incident IR radiation can be followed through many temperature
dependent phenomena. Bolometers and microbolometers are based on changes in
resistance. Thermocouples and thermopiles use the thermoelectric effect. Golay cells follow
thermal expansion. In IR spectrometers the pyroelectric detectors are the most widespread.
The response time and sensitivity of photonic detectors can be much higher, but usually these
have to be cooled to cutthermal noise. The materials in these are semiconductors with narrow
band gaps. Incident IR photons can cause electronic excitations. In photoconductive detectors,
the resistivity of the detector element is monitored. Photovoltaic detectors contain ap-n
junction on which photoelectric current appears upon illumination.

A few detector materials:

 Mercury cadmium telluride (MCT)

 Indium antimonide
 Indium arsenide
 Lead selenide
 QWIP
 QDIP.

Types of Infrared Receivers

There are many different kinds of infrared receivers and at Future Electronics we stock many of
the most common types categorized by supply voltage, carrier frequency, transmission distance,
power dissipation, packaging type and supply current. The parametric filters on our website can
help refine your search results depending on the required specifications.

The most common sizes for carrier frequency are 36 kHz, 37.9 kHz, 38 kHz and 40 kHz. We
also carry infrared receivers with carrier frequency up to 56 kHz. The transmission distance can
range from 8 m to 45 m,the most common infrared receivers having a transmission distance .

Applications for Infrared Receivers:

Infrared receivers can often be found in consumer products such as television remote controls or
infrared ports such as PDAs, laptops, and computers. They are also present in devices such as
home theatres, cable or satellite receivers, VCRs, DVD and Blu-Ray players and audio
amplifiers. Infrared receivers can also be found in the industrial, military, aerospace and
photography markets.
Choosing the Right Infrared Receiver:

When you are looking for the right infrared receivers, with the FutureElectronics.com parametric
search, you can filter the results by various attributes: by Supply Current (5 uA, 450 uA, 1.5 mA,
…), Transmission Distance (8m, 12 m, 35 m,…) and Supply Voltage (up to 32 V) to name a few.
You will be able to find the right chip for your USB IR receiver, IR receiver circuit, IR receiver
for PC, IR receiver cable, IR receiver IC, IR remote receiver, wireless IR receiver or any other
IR module.

Infrared Receivers in Production Ready Packaging or R&D Quantities

If the quantity of infrared receivers required is less than a full reel, we offer customers many of
our programmable infrared receiver products in tube, tray or individual quantities that will avoid
unneeded surplus.

LDR SENSOR :
A photoresistor (or light-dependent resistor, LDR, or photocell) is a light-controlled
variable resistor. The resistance of a photoresistor decreases with increasing incident light
intensity; in other words, it exhibits photoconductivity. A photoresistor can be applied in light-
sensitive detector circuits, and light- and dark-activated switching circuits.

A photoresistor is made of a high resistance semiconductor. In the dark, a photoresistor can have
a resistance as high as several megohms (MΩ), while in the light, a photoresistor can have a
resistance as low as a few hundred ohms. If incident light on a photoresistor exceeds a
certain frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy
to

jump into the conduction band. The resulting free electrons (and their hole partners) conduct
electricity, thereby lowering resistance. The resistance range and sensitivity of a photoresistor
can substantially differ among dissimilar devices. Moreover, unique photoresistors may react
substantially differently to photons within certain wavelength bands.

A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic semiconductor has its
own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, for example, silicon. In intrinsic
devices the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must have
enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have impurities,
also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band; since the
electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (that is, longer wavelengths and lower
frequencies) are sufficient to

trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms replaced by phosphorus atoms
(impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction. This is an example of an
extrinsic semiconductor.

DESIGN CONSIDERATION:
Photoresistors are less light-sensitive devices than photodiodes or phototransistors: the two latter
components are truesemiconductor devices, while a photoresistor is a passive component and
does not have a PN-junction.

The photoresistivity of any photoresistor may vary widely depending on ambient temperature,
making them unsuitable for applications requiring precise measurement of or sensitivity to light.

Photoresistors also exhibit a certain degree of latency between exposure to light and the
subsequent decrease in resistance, usually around 10 milliseconds. The lag time when going
from lit to dark environments is even greater, often as long as one second. This property makes
them unsuitable for sensing rapidly flashing lights, but is sometimes used to smooth the response
of audio signal compression.
 LDRs Fig.9

Solar Panel :
Solar panel refers to a panel designed to absorb the sun's rays as a source of energy for
generating electricity or heating.

A photovoltaic (in short PV) module is a packaged, connected assembly of typically 6×10 solar
cells. Solar Photovoltaic panels constitute the solar array of a photovoltaic system that generates
and supplies solar electricity in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by
its DC output power under standard test conditions, and typically ranges from 100 to 365 watts.
The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output – an 8%
efficient 230 watt module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. There are
a few solar panels available that are exceeding 19% efficiency. A single solar module can
produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules. A
photovoltaic system typically includes a panel or an array of solar modules, a solar inverter, and
sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and interconnection wiring.

The price of solar power, together with batteries for storage, has continued to fall so that in many
countries it is cheaper than ordinary fossil fuel electricity from the grid (there is "grid parity")
Theory & Construction :
Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through
the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules usewafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-

film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from
mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are
available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first used in space in 1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to
provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current off the modules
may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive [transition metals]. The cells must
be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular
terrestrial usage photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to facilitate easy
weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial module shading, to
maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.

Fig.10
SOLAR PANEL: -

A solar cell uses the photovoltaic effect to convert radiation from the sun into electrical energy.
The photovoltaic effect arises when a junction between a metal and a semiconductor or two
opposite polarity semiconductors is exposed to electromagnetic radiation, usually in the range
near ultra violate to infrared. A forward voltage appears across the illuminated junction and
power can be delivered from it to an external circuit. The p-n junction of whom the cell consists
has a relatively large surface area and relatively high efficiency (10.... 15 per cent). Solar cells
are fabricated mainly from silicon, gallium arsenide, selenium-cadmium sulphide, and thin-film
cadmium sulphide. As part of the radiation is reflected by the surface of the cell, an anti-reflect
layer is incorporated to minimize reflection. The absorption coefficient is large for short
wavelengths, and smaller for longer wavelengths. The efficiency of solar cells reduces by about
one half per cent for each degree centigrade rise in their body temperature, so that most cells
must be suitably cooled. Note, however, that this depends to a large extent on the material;
gallium arsenide/gallium phosphide, for instance, has optimum efficiency at well over 100°C .
The spectral response curve of a silicon cell indicates a useful range of wavelengths between
0.5µm and 1.0µm, peaking at about 800µm.

SOLAR CELLS

A device which gets heated by the sun’s energy is called solar heating device. All the solar
heating devices are designed in such a way that they help in collecting as much sunlight as
possible. The solar heating devices such as solar cooker, solar water h eater and solar cells have
greatly helped in solving the energy problem, its consumption and future energy demands of our
country. Solar energy also reduces our dependence on fossil fuel.

The conductivity of solar cells, that is ability to conduct electricity of semi conduct electricity of
semi-conductors increases if certain impurities like Boron and Arsenic are added to them. These
can be explained from following.
 Collection

Electric Current

Solar Raditions

Flow of Electrons

USE OF SEMI-CONDUCTORS IN SOLAR CELLS

Due to use of semi-conductors materials for making solar cells, efficiency of solar cells
has increased tremendously. The efficiency of Solar cells has increased tremendously. The
efficiency of solar cells, made from silicon, galium and germanium is limited upto 10% to 15%
that is they can convert about 10% to 15% of solar energy into electrical energy. Efficiency of
modern solar cells mode from selenium is upto 25% which is quite high.

CONSTRUCTION OF SOLAR CELLS

These days solar cells are usually made from semi-conductors like silicon, galium and
selenium.

To make a solar cells, wafer (think layer) of semi-conductor materials are arranged in
such a way that when the light falls on them, a potential difference is produced between the two
regions of wafer (See Fig. 2). When the sunlight falls on wafer of selenium, it is converted into
electricity due to emission of electrons.
 Solar Radiations Ctric
Current
Borona Major impurity Flow of Electrons. Arsenic Major impurity

Potential difference produced by a single solar cell of 4 sq cm size is about

0.4 volts and generates current of 0 milli-amperes.

Fig.11
Relay :
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically
operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays
are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by
one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they
repeated the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays
were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or
other loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts,
instead using a semiconductor device to perform switching.

Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used
to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".
Magnetic Latching Relays Magnetic Latching relays require one pulse of coil power to move
their contacts in one direction, and another, redirected pulse to move them back. Repeated pulses
from the same input have no effect. Magnetic Latching relays are useful in applications where
interrupted power should not be able to transition the contacts.
Magnetic Latching relays can have either single or dual coils. On a single coil device, the relay
will operate in one direction when power is applied with one polarity, and will reset when the
polarity is reversed. On a dual coil device, when polarized voltage is applied to the reset coil the
contacts will transition. AC controlled magnetic latch relays have single coils that employ
steering diodes to differentiate between operate and reset commands.

Basic design and operation:

Simple electromechanical relay. Fig.12

 Fig.13

Small "cradle" relay often used in electronics. The "cradle" term refers to the shape of the relay's
armature.

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron
yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one
or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke
and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so
that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition,
one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other
relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the
picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke.

This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the
circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off,
the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its

relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly.
 In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it
reduces arcing.

When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate
a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Such diodes were not widely
used before the application of transistors as relay drivers, but soon became ubiquitous as
early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge. Some automotive relays include
a diode inside the relay case.

If the relay is driving a large, or especially a reactive load, there may be a similar problem of
surge currents around the relay output contacts. In this case a snubber circuit (a capacitor and
resistor in series) across the contacts may absorb the surge. Suitably rated capacitors and the
associated resistor are sold as a single packaged component for this commonplace use.

If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), some method is used to split
the flux into two out-of-phase components which add together, increasing the minimum pull on
the armature during the AC cycle. Typically this is done with a small copper "shading ring"
crimped around a portion of the core that creates the delayed, out-of-phase component, which

Transformer : (12 volt)

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive
force across a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Commonly,
transformers are used to increase or decrease the voltages of alternating current in electric power
applications.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding.
This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive
force(EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use
of Faraday's Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core
properties, transformers can thus be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage
level to another within power networks.

Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become
essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electrical
energy. A wide range of transformer designs are encountered in electronic and electric power
applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in
volume to units interconnecting the power gridweighing hundreds of tons.

Basic Transformer Theory

Represents the essential elements for a transformer - a magnetic core, with a primary and
secondary coil wound on the limbs of the magnetic core. An alternating voltage (Vp) applied to
the PRIMARY creates an alternating current (Ip) through the primary. This current produces an
alternating magnetic flux in the magnetic core.
This alternating magnetic flux induces a voltage in each turn of the primary and in each turn of
the SECONDARY.

As the flux is a constant e.g. the same in both primary and secondary: -

V = const N
V = const N
This equation shows that a transformer can be used to step up or step down an ac voltage by
controlling the ratio of primary to secondary turns. (Voltage transformer action).
It can also be shown that: -
Primary VoltAmperes = Secondary VoltAmperes
This equation shows that a transformer can be used to step up or step down an ac current by
controlling the ratio of primary to secondary turns. (Current transformer action) It will be noted
that there is no electrical connection between the primary and secondary windings. A transformer
therefore provides a means of isolating one electrical circuit from another. These features -
voltage/current transformation and isolation, cannot be obtained efficiently by any other means,
with the result that transformers are
used in almost every piece of electrical and electronic equipment in the world
B-H Curves
When the primary of a transformer is energized with the secondary unloaded, a small current
flows in the primary. This current creates a ’magnetizing force’ that produces the magnetic flux
in the transformer core The magnetizing force (H) is equal to the product of magnetizing current
and the number of turns, and is expressed as Ampere – Turns For any given magnetic material
the relationship between magnetizing force and the magnetic flux produced can be plotted, and
this is known as the

B-H curve of the material: -

From the B-H curve it can be seen that as the magnetizing force is increased from zero, the
flux increases up to a certain maximum value of flux. Above this level, further increases in
magnetizing force result in no significant increase in flux. The magnetic material is said to be
’saturated’. A transformer is normally designed to ensure that the magnetic flux density is below
the level that would cause saturation. The flux density can be determined using the following
equation: -

E = 4. 44 N B A f
B =N A f
∴E
4. 44
Where.. E represents the rms value of the applied voltage. N represents the number of turns of
the winding B represents the maximum value of the magnetic flux density in the core (Tesla)
A represents the cross sectional area of the magnetic material in the core (sq. metres) f represents
the frequency of the applied volts Note
1 Tesla = 1 weber/metre²
1 weber/m² = 104 gauss
1 ampere-turn per metre = 4_ x 10-3 Oersteds
In practice, all magnetic materials, once magnetized, retain some of their magnetization even
when the magnetizing force is reduced to zero.
This effect is known as ’remanence’ and results in the B-H curve for the material exhibiting a
response to a decreasing magnetizing force that is different to the response to an increasing
magnetizing force. In practice then real magnetic materials have a B-H curve as follows
The curve shown above is termed the ’hysteresis’ loop of the material, and represents the true B-
H response of the material.
(The B-H curve shown in figure 2 represented the average or mean of the true B-H loop
response). The slope of the B-H curve, the saturation level and the size of the hysteresis loop are
dependent on the type of material used, and on other factors. This is illustrated using the
following examples: -

Hysteresis loss
Hysteresis loss is the result of cycling the magnetic material along its B-H curve (as shown in
figure 3); it represents the energy taken as the applied voltage aligns magnetic dipoles first in one
direction and then in the other.
The loss increases with the area of the B-H curve enclosed. As the material is driven closer to
saturation, both the area within the curve, and the corresponding energy loss each cycle, increase
substantially.

Eddy Current loss

Eddy-current loss is caused by small currents circulating within the core material, stimulated by
the alternating flux in the core. The I2R power loss associated with these currents produces
heating of the core known as eddy current loss. In iron cored transformers, insulated iron sheets
known as laminations are used to minimise this effect, by restricting the path for circulating
currents. Ferrite cores restrict these paths even further
Such a transformer has the following characteristics:
 No losses
 Perfect coupling between all windings
 Infinite open circuit impedance (e.g. no input current when secondaries are
 open-circuited)
 Infinite insulation between winding In reality, practical transformers show characteristics
that differ from those of an ideal transformer. Many of these characteristics can be
represented by a
transformer equivalent circuit : -
Self Resonant Frequency
Practical inductive components are not perfect inductors; they have stray resistances and
capacitances associated with them. For certain components, especially those with a low
inductance value, the impedance of the stray capacitance can become significant when compared
to that of the inductance.
XL = 2πfL XC = ½ πfC
At a sufficiently high frequency, the capacitive impedance can dominate, making a measurement
of the inductance impossible. Under these circumstances, any measurement instrument may
report negative inductance values and measurement errors. Should these symptoms be observed,
reduce the test frequency to avoid problems. The frequency at which the inductive impedance
equals the capacitive impedance (XL = XC) is known as the self-resonant frequency (SRF) of the
component. At this point, the phase angle of the impedance (which can be measured using the
ANGL test) is zero. At test conditions where the frequency is low enough for problems with
capacitive impedance to be negligible, the phase angle will be positive and close to 90 degrees.
Therefore an ANGL test can be used during program development to confirm if measurement
problems are due to the chosen test frequency approaching
the SRF of the part under test. If the angle is significantly less than 90 degrees, consider reducing
the test frequency. Note that stray fixture capacitance will add to the capacitance of the
component and reduce the SRF. Performing compensation will remove the effect of stray fixture
CTY – Continuity

Where Used
The continuity test is available to be placed as the first test in the program to check that the
transformer has been inserted correctly into the test fixture. The test checks that every winding
has a resistance less than a user specified limit, with the same limit being applied to all windings.
The CTY test is an alternative to using an R (Winding Resistance) test on each winding
separately. The CTY test has the advantage of speed of execution; but with the R test, individual
limits can be applied to each winding, and manufacturing faults such as the use of the wrong
wire gauge can be identified. If you choose to use it, the continuity test will be quicker to execute
than a series of resistance tests applied to each winding.
Specifying the Test Limit
When specifying the test limit, remember that the same limit is applied to each winding, so you
must choose a value higher than the resistance of the biggest winding. For most transformers,
where the winding resistances are less than 1k, a test limit of 10kshould be used, as this
will give the quickest test execution.
R1, R2, and R3 represent the resistance of the copper wire used to wind the transformer. When
current flows in the windings the resistance causes losses in the windings (I2R losses), and
generates heat. In addition the winding resistances cause a voltage drop in the windings when
current flows, causing the output voltage to fall with increasing load.(This effect is known as
’Regulation’).

Where Used
The measurement of the resistance of all windings should generally be the first group of tests
carried out for any type of transformer.

It checks that the wire is of the correct diameter, and has not been over-tensioned during
winding. The measurement also confirms that the connections between the test fixture and the
transformer have been made properly. This is particularly important when Kelvin connections
are required, perhaps for a test to follow, as a resistance measurement will confirm that both the
power lead and
sense lead are making good electrical contact. To check that the resistance of a winding is
correct, the tester applies a constant current (dc) to the selected winding. Both the current
through and the voltage across the winding are measured; dividing the voltage by the current
gives the value of the resistance.
Rectifier:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, includingvacuum
tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor
diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically,
even synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers,
called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead
sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment,
require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications
the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a
steady current.

More complex circuitry that performs the opposite function, converting DC to AC, is called
an inverter.

Battery :

An electric battery is a device consisting of two or more electrochemical cells that convert
stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Each cell has a positive terminal, or cathode, and a
negative terminal, or anode. The terminal marked positive is at a higher electrical potential
energy than is the terminal marked negative. The terminal marked negative is the source of
electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external
device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit,electrolytes are able to move as ions
within, allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver
energy to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows
current to flow out of the battery to perform work. Although the term battery technically means a
device with multiple cells, single cells are also popularly called batteries.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode
materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline
battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable devices. Secondary(rechargeable
batteries) can be discharged and recharged multiple times; the original composition of the
electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in
vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and
wristwatches to battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby power for telephone
exchanges and computer data centers.

According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry generates US$48 billion in sales
each year, with 6% annual growth.

DIODE
Introduction

A diode is a dispositive made of a semiconductor material, which has two terminals or electrodes
(di-ode), that act like an on-off switch. When the diode is “on”, it acts as a short circuit and
passes all current. When it is “off”, it behaves like an open circuit and passes no current.

The two terminals are different and are marked as plus and minus in figure 1. If the polarity of
the applied voltage matches that of the diode (forward bias), then the diode turns “on”. When the
applied voltage polarity is opposite (reverse bias), it turns “off”. Of course this is the theoretical
behaviour of an ideal diode, but it can be seen as a good approximation for a real diode. A diode
is simply a pn junction (see ’Introduction into Semiconductor Physics’) with the following
characteristics:

• Under forward bias, it needs a small voltage to conduct. This voltage drop is maintained

during conduction.

• The maximum forward current is limited by heat-dissipation ability of the diode. Usually

it is around 1000 mA.

• There is a small reverse current.

The simplest semiconductor device is made up of a sandwich of P-type

semiconducting material, with contacts provided to connect the p-and n-type layers
to an external circuit. This is a junction Diode. If the positive terminal of the
battery is connected to the p-type material (cathode) and the negative terminal to
the N-type material (Anode), a large current will flow. This is called forward
current or forward biased.

If the connections are reversed, a very little current will flow. This is because under this
condition, the p-type material will accept the electrons from the negative terminal of the battery
and the N-type material will give up its free electrons to the battery, resulting in the state of
electrical equilibrium since the N-type material has no more electrons. Thus there will be a small
current to flow and the diode is called Reverse biased.

Thus the Diode allows direct current to pass only in one direction while blocking it in the
other direction. Power diodes are used in concerting AC into DC.

Diode equation

Reverse Bias

When the diode is reverse-biased, a very small drift current due to thermal excitation flows

across the junction. This current (reverse saturation current, I0) is given, according to the

Boltzmann equation, by the formula:

I0 = K0 e−eV0

kT

where K0 is a constant depending on the pn junction geometry and V0 is the built-in voltage

of the diode (see chapter “Semiconductor Materials: pn junction”).

Forward Bias

When the diode is forward-biased through a voltage V , a small drift current flows again

across the junction. In that case, however, there is an additional component, the diffusion
current Vd, given by the formula:

Id = K 0 e

e(V −V0)

kT

Types of diodes

We can distinguish the following types of diodes:

• Rectifier diodes are typically used for power supply applications. Within the power

supply, you will see diodes as elements that convert AC power to DC power;

• Switching diodes have lower power ratings than rectifier diodes, but can function better

in high frequency application and in clipping and clamping operations that deal with

short-duration pulse waveforms;

1This is the case in the so-called “constant-voltage-drop” or “0.7-V” model. In that model, the
current is

a step function of the voltage: if the forward voltage is less than 0.7 V, the current which flows
through the

junction is zero, if the forward voltage is greater than 0.7, then the voltage drop in the diode is
always 0.7 V (in

the case of silicon)

CAPACITOR:

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store electrical energytemporarily in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e. an insulator that can store energy by becoming polarized).
The conductors can be thin films, foils or sintered beads of metal or conductive electrolyte, etc.
The nonconducting dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. Materials
commonly used as dielectrics include glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, vacuum, paper, mica,
and oxide layers. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, an ideal capacitor does not dissipate energy. Instead, a
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between its plates.When there is
a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached across a battery),
an electric fielddevelops across the dielectric, causing positive charge +Q to collect on one plate
and negative charge −Q to collect on the other plate.

If a battery has been attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow
through the capacitor. However, if a time-varying voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, its capacitance. Capacitance is defined as the ratio of the electric charge Q on
each conductor to the potential difference V between them. The SI unit of capacitance is
the farad (F), which is equal to one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range
from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to about 1 mF (10−3 F).

The larger the surface area of the "plates" (conductors) and the narrower the gap between them,
the greater the capacitance is. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount

of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as the breakdown voltage.
The conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems, they stabilize voltage and power flow.

Theory of Operation :

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator.
Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductordepletion
region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and
isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The
conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, [14] and the dielectric
develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of
charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of

charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

Because the conductors (or plates) are close together, the opposite charges on the conductors
attract one another due to their electric fields, allowing the capacitor to store more charge for a
given voltage than if the conductors were separated, giving the capacitor a large capacitance.

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In
this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

PRESET

Preset resistors are used in circuits when it is necessary to alter the resistance. Dark/light and
temperature sensors usually have these components as the preset resistor allows the circuit to be
made more or less sensitive (they can be turned up or down - reducing or increasing resistance).
A small screwdriver can be used to turn the centre part of the preset resistor, altering the value of
the resistance.

The range of resistance varies, for example:

0 to 100 ohms
0 to 1M ohms
 Fig.14

Light-emitting diode

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a p–n junction

diode, which emits light when activated.[4] When a suitable voltage is applied to the leads,
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the
semiconductor.

An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components
may be used to shape its radiation pattern.[5]

Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, [6] the earliest LEDs emitted
low-intensity infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting
elements in remote-control circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide
variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs were also of low
intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across the visible,
ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing
small incandescent bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the
form of seven-segment displays, and were commonly seen in digital clocks.

Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task

lighting. LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller
size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are now used in applications as
diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general lighting,
traffic signals, camera flashes and lighted wallpaper. As of 2015, LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting remain somewhat more expensive, and require more
precise current and heat management, than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are also used in advanced
communications technology.

Resistance :

Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of opposing the flow of electric

charge. This opposition is due to the collisions between electrons that make up the materials.
This physical property, or ability to resist current, is known as resistance and is represented by
the symbol R. Resistance is expressed in ohms (after Georg Simon Ohm), which is symbolized
by the capital Greek letter omega (_). The schematic symbol for resistance or resistor , where R

.
stands for the resistance of the resistor The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to
resist the flow

of electric current; it is measured in ohms (_).

The resistance of any material is dictated by four factors:

1. Material property—each material will oppose the flow of current differently.

2. Length—the longer the length _, the more is the probability of collisions and, hence, the larger
the resistance.

3. Cross-sectional area—the larger the area A, the easier it becomes for electrons to flow and,
hence, the lower the resistance.

4. Temperature—typically, for metals, as temperature increases, the resistance increases.

Thus, the resistance R of any material with a uniform cross-sectional area A and length is
directly proportional to the length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. In
mathematical form,where the Greek letter rho r is known as the resistivity of the material.

The cross section of an element can be circular, square, rectangular, and so on. Because most
conductors are circular in cross-section,The resisitivity r varies with temperature and is often
specified for room temperature.

Table 2.1 presents the values of r for some common materials at room temperature (20°C). The
table also shows that materials can be classified into three groups according to their usage:
conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. Good conductors, such as copper and aluminum,
have low resistivities. Of those materials shown in Table 2.1, silver is the best conductor.

However, a lot of wires are made of copper

because copper is almost as good and is much cheaper. In general,

the resistance of a conductor increases with a rise in temperature. Insulators,

such as mica and paper, have high resistivities

P.C.B. :- It is printed circuit board , it is used to fix the small components like transistors,
resistors etc. easily.

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic
components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets
laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. Components — capacitors, resistors or active devices
— are generally soldered on the PCB. Advanced PCBs may contain components embedded in
the substrate.

PCBs can be single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer
(outer and inner layers). Conductors on different layers are connected with vias. Multi-layer
PCBs allow for much higher component density.

FR-4 glass epoxy is the primary insulating substrate. A basic building block of the PCB an FR-4
panel with a thin layer of copper foil is laminated to one or both sides. In multi-layer boards
multiple layers of material are laminated together.
Conclusions

This project of AUTOMATIC STREET LIGHTS is a cost effective, practical, ecofriendly and
the safest way to save energy. It clearly tackles the two problems that world is facing today,
saving of energy and also disposal of incandescent lamps, very efficiently. According to
statistical data we can save more that 40 % of electrical energy that is now consumed by the
highways. Initial cost and maintenance can be the draw backs of this project. With the advances
in technology and good resource planning the cost of the project can be cut down and also with
the use of good equipment the maintenance can also be reduced in terms of periodic checks. The
LEDs have long life, emit cool light, donor have any toxic material and can be used for fast
switching. For these reasons our project presents far more advantages which can over shadow the
present limitations. Keeping in view the long term benefits and the initial cost would never be a
problem as the investment return time is very less.
The project has scope in various other applications like for providing lighting in industries,
campuses and parking lots of huge shopping malls. This can also be used for surveillance in
corporate campuses and industries.