ASSIGNMENT 2

NANOSIZED STRUCTURES

Submitted by:

Abhijith C S
M240269MT

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

National Institute of Technology Calicut

Methods for Fabricating 0-D Nanomaterials:
Zero-dimensional (0-D) nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles, quantum dots, and
nanospheres, are characterized by their nanoscale dimensions in all three spatial
directions. Their synthesis involves techniques that enable precise control over
size, shape, and composition. The below shown table comprises some common
methods for fabricating 0-D nanomaterials:

Method Process Shape Size Applications Type of

Capability Obtainable Material

Sonochemical - Rapid Spherical, 10 nm - 100 - Catalysis - Metal oxides

Processing nanoparticle irregular nm - Medical - Metal
synthesis using shapes applications (e.g., nanoparticles
ultrasonic drug delivery) - Polymers
waves. - Sensors
- High local
temperature
and pressure
from cavitation.

Inert Gas - High-purity Mostly 1 nm - 100 - Magnetic - Metals (e.g.,

Condensation nanoparticles in spherical nm materials Ag, Au, Fe)
a controlled - Energy storage - Alloys
environment. - Catalysis -
- Limited Semiconductor
scalability due
to vacuum
requirements.

Sol-Gel - Versatile, Spherical, 5 nm - 200 - Coatings - Oxides (e.g.,

Process low-temperatur porous, nm - Optoelectronic SiO₂, TiO₂)
e process. networked devices - Ceramics
- Precise - Sensors - Composite
control over - Catalysts materials
particle
composition
and size.

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Molecular Spontaneous Highly 1 nm - 100 -Nanomedicine - Organic
Self-Assembly organization of ordered nm - Electronics (e.g., molecules
molecules. structures (depends on semiconductors) - Polymers
- Requires (e.g., 2D/3D molecule - Drug delivery - Biomaterials
careful control arrays, size) systems (e.g., DNA,
of molecular spheres, or lipids)
interactions. rods)

Methods for Fabricating 1D Materials

The fabrication of 1D rod-like nanomaterials, such as nanowires and

nanorods, often resembles the processes used for nanoparticle synthesis,
especially in liquid-phase techniques. Many methods rely on self-assembly
or the anisotropic nature of certain molecular bonds, promoting the
formation of cylindrical structures instead of spherical ones. Amphiphilic
molecules can self-assemble into tube-like shapes, forming cylindrical
micelles, which are then treated with solvents or calcined to yield individual
nanowires. In addition, Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) has been adapted
to produce nanotubes and nanowires.

Common Techniques for 1D Nanomaterial Synthesis:

1. Spontaneous Growth

2. Template-Based Synthesis

3. Electrospinning

4. Lithography

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 The process capability of each method is described in the table below:

Method Sub-Method Description Materials Size Range

Produced

Spontaneous Evaporation-C Material is ZnO, MgO Thickness :~5 nm;

Growth ondensation evaporated nanowires Diameter: 20-30 nm
Growth and then
condensed on
substrate to get
deposited and
subsequent
growth.
Dissolution-C Growth species Selenium SeTe: Diameter ~60 nm;
ondensation dissolve, nanowires, Length <500 nm;
Growth diffuse, and Selenium-Tell ZnTe: Diameter: 30-100
deposit to form urium (SeTe) nm; Length: 500-1200 nm;
nanorods or nanorods, Other nanowires:
nanowires. ZnTe Diameter: 40-80 nm;
nanorods Length up to 150 µm

Vapor (or VLS Growth Catalyst directs Si, Ge Diameter: 20-50 nm;
Solution)-Liquid and confines nanowires; Length: Several
-Solid Growth crystal growth Semiconducto micrometers; GaN
(VLS/SLS) in specific r nanowires nanowires: Diameter:
orientations. (e.g., GaAs, 10-40 nm; Length: up to
GaP, ZnS, 500 µm
CdSe); IV-IV
alloys (e.g.,
SiGe)

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 SLS Growth Solution-phase InP, InAs,
version of VLS, GaAs Polycrystalline or
performed at nanowires near-single-crystal
lower nanowires: Diameter:
temperatures. 10-150 nm; Length:
Several micrometers;
Bulk Si nanowires:
Diameter: 4-5 nm;
Length: Several
millimeters

Stress-Induced Applying Metallic Diameter as small as 50

Recrystallizatio pressure at nanorods nm
n high
temperatures
induces
confined
growth of
nanowires or
whiskers.
Template-Base Electrochemic Deposition of Ni, Co, Cu, Au Diameter: 10-200 nm;
d Synthesis al Deposition solids through nanowires; Nanowires are true
oriented Superconduct replicas of template pores
diffusion of ing Pb
ions under an nanowires;
electric field, Semiconducto
commonly r nanorods
used for (CdSe, CdTe);
coatings. Hollow metal
tubules
Electrophoreti Deposits films TiO₂ Diameter: 40-175 nm;
c Deposition from colloidal nanowires Length: 2-10 µm or up to
dispersions, (anatase); 10 µm
stabilizing Perovskite
nanosized nanorods

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 particles. (e.g., BaTi,
Pb(Ti,Zr)O);
ZnO nanorods
Melt and Molten metal or In, Sn, Al; Bi nanowires: Diameter:
Solution solution fills Semiconducto 13-110 nm; High aspect
Filling template pores rs (Se, Te, ratio of several hundred
to form metallic GaSb); Au, Ag,
nanowires. Pt nanowires;
Ni nanorods
Chemical Deposits Ge nanowires, Varies by template and
Vapor nanowires in Pt nanowires process
Deposition templates via
vapor-phase
reactions.
Deposition by Fills templates PZT nanorod Controlled by template
Centrifugation using arrays; Silica and dispersion
centrifugal and titania characteristics
force, suitable nanorod
for mass arrays
production.
Electrospinning Uses electrical Porous titania Diameter: 20-500 nm;
forces to nanofibers Porous fibers: 20-200 nm
produce
nanofibers from
polymers or
precursors.
Lithography Electron Uses a focused Single-crystal Diameter <10 nm; Aspect
Beam electron beam silicon ratio: ~100
Lithography to define nanowires
patterns on a
resist.
Ion Beam Ion Beam Si nanowires, Diameter: <10 nm
Lithography Lithography complex

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 nanostructure
s
Photolithogra Single-crystal inimum feature size ~100
phy Uses silicon nm (resolution limit varies)
light nanowires
(UV-visibl
e range)
to
pattern
features
on
photosen
sitive
resists.

Deep UV Employs deep Nanowires Feature sizes: ~50 nm or

Lithography ultraviolet light from various smaller
(wavelengths materials
~248 nm or
lower) for
high-resolution
patterning.

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Methods For Making 2D Nanomaterials

Thin film deposition techniques are crucial in various fields, including electronics,
optics, and materials science. These methods allow for the creation of thin films
with specific properties by controlling the deposition process at the atomic or
molecular level. Below is a detailed summary of various deposition techniques,
their capabilities, and the materials they can produce.

1. Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)

PVD is a vacuum-based process where growth species are transferred from a

source to a substrate to form a film without significant chemical reactions.

Thermal Evaporation
● Process: Involves heating the source material to generate vapor.
● Materials:
● Single-Metal Films: Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Aluminum (Al), Titanium (Ti)
● Metal Oxide Films: Zinc Oxide (ZnO), Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂),
Aluminum Oxide (Al₂O₃)
● Semiconductors: Silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), transition metal
dichalcogenides (e.g., MoS₂).
● Thickness Range: Typically from 1 nm to 100 nm.

Electron Beam Evaporation

● Process: Uses a focused electron beam to vaporize materials in a vacuum.
● Materials: Similar to thermal evaporation but includes Platinum (Pt) and
Nickel (Ni).
● Thickness Range: Can produce films from 1 nm to 100 nm.

Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)

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 ● Process: Involves real-time structural characterization while depositing
atoms or molecules on a substrate.
● Thickness Range: Capable of producing films as thin as 0.3 nm up to
several hundred nanometers.

Sputtering
● Process: Utilizes energetic ions to eject atoms from a target material onto a
substrate.
● Materials: Includes metals like Copper (Cu) and Cadmium Sulfide (CdS).
● Thickness Range: Generally between 1 nm and several hundred
nanometers.

2. Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)

CVD involves chemical reactions of gaseous precursors that deposit solid films on
substrates.

Atmospheric Pressure CVD (APCVD)

● Process Capability: Operates at atmospheric pressure, suitable for
large-scale applications but may compromise film quality.
● Materials: Graphene, hexagonal boron nitride, transition metal
dichalcogenides.
● Thickness Range: A few nanometers to hundreds of nanometers.

Low Pressure CVD (LPCVD)

● Process Capability: Operates under lower pressures for better uniformity
and purity.
● Materials: Silicon-based materials and transition metal dichalcogenides.
● Thickness Range: Single atomic layers up to about 100 nm.

Ultrahigh Vacuum CVD (UHVCVD)

● Process Capability: Functions at very low pressures for ultra-pure films.

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 ● Materials: High-purity semiconductors like Gallium Arsenide.
● Thickness Range: Typically less than 10 nm.

Hot-Wire CVD (HWCVD)

● Process Capability: Employs a heated filament to decompose precursor gases,

facilitating low-temperature deposition. Provides elevated deposition rates,
though restricted to materials that can withstand heat.
● Thickness Variation: Thin films ranging from several nanometers to 100 nm.
● Materials include amorphous and nanocrystalline silicon, diamond-like carbon
(DLC) and metal nitrides.

Photo-Enhanced CVD (PECVD)

● Process Capability: Utilizes UV light to accelerate the reaction rate, facilitating

deposition at lower temperatures. Appropriate for materials that are sensitive to
elevated temperatures.
● Size Range: Thin films varying from several atomic layers (approximately 1 nm) to
50 nm.
● Materials include silicon oxides and nitrides, transition metal dichalcogenides, and
a range of dielectrics.

Laser-Induced CVD (LICVD)

● Process Capability: Employs a laser to precisely heat the substrate and trigger
deposition, facilitating high spatial resolution.
● Size Range: Deposits films with thicknesses ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm,
incorporating nanoscale patterning capabilities.
● Materials include conductive metals such as gold, silver, and copper, along with
carbon-based materials and metal oxides.

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Direct Liquid Injection Chemical Vapor Deposition

● Process Capability: Provides liquid precursors in vapor form, allowing for accurate
control of composition. Optimal for precursors that are in solid form or exhibit low
vapor pressure.
● Thickness Variation: Thin films ranging from 10 nm to several hundred
nanometers.
● Materials include metal oxides, carbides, nitrides, and complex compounds.

Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)

● Process capability involves the utilization of metal-organic precursors, facilitating

accurate control over the composition of the film. Commonly employed in
semiconductor sectors for superior, epitaxial development.
● Size Range: Films measuring from several nanometers up to 100 nm.
● Materials include III-V semiconductors such as GaN and InGaAs, II-VI
semiconductors like CdTe and ZnO, as well as transition metal dichalcogenides
(TMDs).

Hybrid Physical-CVD (HPCVD)

● The process capability integrates physical deposition techniques, such as

sputtering, with chemical vapor deposition, thereby improving the control over film
characteristics, particularly for intricate materials.
● Thickness varies from a few nanometers to hundreds of nanometers.
● Materials include metal oxides, complex oxides, and transition metal
dichalcogenides.

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Rapid Thermal CVD (RTCVD)

● Process Capability: Employs swift heating and cooling feature size: 1–50 nm.
● Materials include silicon, transition metal dichalcogenides, hexagonal boron
nitride, along with a range of oxides and nitrides.

Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition

● The process utilizes plasma to initiate the reaction at reduced temperatures,

making it ideal for producing high-quality films on substrates that are sensitive to
heat.
● Thickness Range: Thin films measuring from several nanometers to approximately
100 nm.
● Materials include silicon nitrides and oxides, amorphous silicon, transition metal
dichalcogenides, and various other semiconductors.

High-Density Plasma CVD (HDP-CVD)

● Process Capability: Employs high-density plasma to attain elevated deposition

rates and superior quality films with minimal stress. Ideal for applying conformal
coatings to intricate designs.
● Size Range: Films measuring from a few nanometers to several hundred
nanometers.
● Materials: Dielectrics, carbides, nitrides, and oxides.

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Combustion CVD (CCVD)

● Process Capability: Employs a flame to activate precursors, making it appropriate

for large-area coatings at atmospheric pressure, typically exhibiting less precision
compared to alternative methods.
● Size Range: Films with thicker coatings typically have a thickness of a few
nanometers to several microns.
● Materials: Some catalytic materials and metal oxides (i.e., TiO₂ and AlO₃).

3. Advanced Deposition Technologies

These methods include innovative approaches that enhance control over film
characteristics.

Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)

● Process Capability: Self-limiting growth allows precise control over
thickness at the atomic level.

High Power Pulsed Magnetron Sputtering (HiPIMS)

Also known as High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering (HiPIMS), is an

advanced sputtering technique that leverages high-energy pulses to create dense
plasma with enhanced ionization. This technology enables the production of
high-quality thin films with superior physical and structural properties.

Process Capability Overview

● High-Energy Pulses: The process utilizes powerful pulses, often in the

megawatt range, delivered in short bursts to generate highly ionized
plasma. This results in films with improved adhesion, higher density, and
smoother, more uniform surfaces.

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 ● Substrate Advantages: The pulsed operation minimizes the heat transfer to
the substrate, making it suitable for temperature-sensitive materials.
Additionally, it allows for high deposition rates while maintaining uniformity
in the film structure.
● Can achieve deposition of layers ranging from just a few nanometers to
several hundred nanometers, depending on application requirements.

Materials Deposited

● Metals: Titanium (Ti), Aluminum (Al), Silver (Ag).

● Nitrides: Titanium Nitride (TiN), Aluminum Nitride (AlN).
● Oxides: Zinc Oxide (ZnO), Titanium Dioxide (TiO₂).
● Other Compounds: Carbides and various complex materials

Glancing Angle Deposition (GLAD)

● Process Capability: Manipulates angle and substrate rotation to create
nanostructured films with unique morphologies.
● Thickness: Films may vary from a few nanometers to several hundred nanometers,
influenced by the specific application and deposition parameters.
● Materials include various metals such as gold, silver, and platinum, as well as
metal oxides like titanium dioxide and silicon dioxide, along with other
compounds.

Conclusion

The various fabrication techniques outlined above provide essential tools for
creating 0D, 1D &2D nanostructures with tailored properties for numerous
applications. Each method has its unique advantages regarding material types,
thickness control, and film quality. Understanding these techniques is vital for
advancing technologies in electronics, photonics, and nanotechnology.

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