lOMoARcPSD|49551950

Meteorology notes

aviation meteorology (East African School of Aviation )

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METEOROLOGY NOTES

written by

sunrise aviation services

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Chapter 1 – The Atmosphere

ISA

Mean Sea Level (MSL) Temperature 15°C

Pressure 1013.25 hPa
Density 1225 gm-3
From MSL to 11 km (36 090 ft) Temperature decreases at 6.5°C per km
(1.98°C per 1000 ft)
From 11 km to 20 km (65 617 ft) Temperature constant at –56.5°C
From 20 km to 32 km (104 987 ft) Temperature rises with height at 1°C per km
(0.3°C per 1000 ft)

Composition

Nitrogen 78.09%
Oxygen 20.95%
CO2 0.03%
Argon 0.93%
Rest rare gases

Troposphere Depth varies with latitude and season. Temperate latitudes up to 11 Km

Tropopause Boundary between the Troposphere and the Stratosphere.
Temperature becomes Isothermal.
The height of the tropopause varies with latitude, season and surface
temperature

Latitude Height Temperature

Equator 55 000 ft 17 Km -75°C
50° 35 000 ft 11 Km -55°C
Pole 25 000 ft 7 Km -45°C

In Equatorial regions flights take place below the tropopause; in temperate regions flights are
above the tropopause.

Stratosphere 11 – 50 Km. Initially Isothermal becoming an inversion

CB can penetrate well into the Stratosphere
Stratopause Boundary between the Stratosphere and the Mesosphere
Mesosphere 50 – 80 Km
Mesopause Boundary between the Mesosphere and the Thermosphere
Thermosphere 80 Km upwards

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Troposphere In immediate contact with the earth.

Contains 80% of the atmosphere, with ½ the mass in the first 18 000 ft
Contains more than 90% of all water vapour – most of the weather found in the Troposphere.
Water vapour is the most important constituent in the atmosphere from a weather stand-point.

Inversion Temperature increase with height

Isothermal Temperature remains constant with height
Advection The horizontal motion of air
Subsidence The vertically downwards motion of air.
Air warms adiabatically in the descent
Convection The upward motion of air
Air cools adiabatically in the ascent.
Convergence The inward horizontal motion of air
Convergence at height means high pressure at the surface
and little or no cloud.
Divergence The outward horizontal motion of air
Divergence at height means falling pressure at the surface
and the likely formation of convective cloud

Heating of the Atmosphere The radiation of the sun heats the surface of the earth, which
heats the air in the troposphere from below.

Insolation INcoming SOLar radiATION. The solar radiation striking Earth or

another planet.

Heat distributed by:

 Convection - Greatest overland in the mid-afternoon in summer.
 Conduction
 Radiation
 Latent Heat of Condensation
 Advection
 Turbulent mixing
 Absorption of long wave radiation

Two most important factors are convection and the Latent Heat of Condensation

Diurnal Variation The daily fluctuation of temperature. The diurnal variation in

temperature:
 Is highest when the sky is clear and the wind is weak
 Is lowest when there is cloud cover and a strong wind

Maximum Temperature 2 hours after 1200 LMT

Clear sky, light wind
Minimum Temperature ½ hour after dawn
Clear sky, light wind

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Conversion of Metres per second to Knots

Double the speed in metres per second to get the speed in knots
20 mps ~ 40 knots

Temperature Calculations
Use the ISA Lapse Rate 2°C/1000 ft or 0.65°C/100 metres
Kelvin °K = °C + 273

Example 1 The 0ºC isotherm is forecast to be at FL 50. At what FL would you

expect a temperature of -6ºC?
Need to lose 6°C which is the equivalent to 3000 ft
Answer FL 80

Example 2 The temperature at 10 000 FT in the ICAO Standard Atmosphere is:

Surface Temperature in ISA +15°C
Lapse for 10 000 ft (2 x 10) -20°C
Answer ISA Temperature (+15 – 20) -5ºC

Example 3 An outside air temperature of -35ºC is measured while cruising at FL

200.
What is the temperature deviation from the ISA at this level:
Surface Temperature in ISA +15°C
Lapse for 20 000 ft (2 x 20) -40°C
ISA Temperature (+15 – 40) -25ºC

Actual temperature -35°C

Temperature is 10°C lower than ISA
Answer ISA Deviation -10°C

Example 4 The temperature on the 300 hPa chart is -48ºC, the tropopause is at
FL 330. What is the most likely temperature at FL 350?
Remember that the temperature becomes isothermal at the
Tropopause
300 hPa ~ 30 000 ft
Actual temperature at 30 000 -48°C
Calculate to FL 330 using ISA lapse rate
3 x -2 -6°C
Answer Temperature -54°C

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Chapter 2 – Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure decreases with height.

Definitions

QFE Pressure at an airfield reference point

On the airfield, the altimeter reads zero with QFE set
With QFE set reference is - Height
QFF QFE reduced to mean sea level using the actual temperature
Used on Synoptic Charts – surface weather charts
Measured to one decimal place
QNH QFE reduced to mean sea level using ISA
On the airfield, the altimeter reads airfield elevation with QNH set
Rounded down to the nearest hPa
With QNH set reference is - Altitude
QNE Landing altimeter setting
1013 hPa set ATC gives the pilot the reading of the altimeter when
landing
SPS 1013.25 hPa
With SPS set refer to – Flight Level

Isallobar An imaginary line or a line on a chart connecting the places of equal change
of atmospheric pressure within a specified time
Isallobaric Low A pressure fall centre
Isallobaric High A pressure rise centre

QFF and QNH Relationship

Above msl Below msl

Warmer than ISA QFF < QNH QFF > QNH
Colder than ISA QFF > QNH QFF < QNH

If the air temperature is not available then the calculation is not possible.

At 0 ft amsl QFF = QNH = QFE

Air Density
High Density Cold air, high pressure
Low Density Warm air, low pressure

Pressure the dominant factor so density decreases with height

Dry air more dense than moist air

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Pressure and Height

Equivalent Levels

Pressure Level Flight Level

1000 hPa Sea Level
850 hPa FL 50
700 hPa FL 100
500 hPa FL 180
400 hPa FL 240
300 hPa FL 300
250 hPa FL 340
200 hPa FL 390
150 hPa FL 450

Height Change for 1 hPa

Mean Sea Level 27 ft 8m

18 000 ft 5500 m 50 ft 15 m
38 000 ft 100 ft 32 m

Pressure Systems

Isobar Lines of equal pressure at a

given level.
On a surface chart reduced to
msl - QFF
High Anticyclone
Pressure at its highest in the
centre
Wind clockwise round a high
Low Depression or cyclone
Pressure at its lowest in the
centre
Wind anticlockwise round a low

Ridge Extension of a high

Trough Extension of a low
Col Region between two highs and two lows
Area of light winds due to the slack pressure gradient

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To Calculate QNH from QFE or Vice Versa Elevation only is required. The difference
between QFE and QNH is always the same.

Above msl Below msl

QNH = QFE + hPa difference QNH = QFE - hPa difference
QFE < QNH QFE > QNH

Example 1 If the QFE at Locarno (200 metres above sea level) is 980 hPa, what
is the approximate QNH?
Calculate the hPa difference for Locarno (200 ÷ 8)
25 hPa
Airfield is above sea level so
QNH = QFE + hPa difference
Answer 980 + 25 = 1005 hPa

Example 2 An aircraft lands at an airport (airport elevation 1240 FT,

QNH 1008 hPa). The altimeter is set to 1013 hPa. The
altimeter will indicate:

Think of the altimeter, you increase pressure you add altitude.

If you landed with 1008 hPa set the altimeter would read the
elevation. 1240 ft
The aircraft landed with 1013 hPa set.
5 hPa difference which is an increase on the QNH.
5 hPa ~ +135 ft
Answer 1375 FT.

Example 3 The QFF at an airfield located 400 metres above sea

level is 1016 hPa. The air temperature is 10ºC higher
than a standard atmosphere. What is the QNH?

Use the table on Page 4

Answer More than 1016 hPa

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Chapter 3 – Altimetry

Pressure Altitude and True Altitude

The pressure altitude is equal to the true altitude only if standard atmospheric conditions
occur.

The density altitude is equal to the true altitude only if standard atmospheric conditions occur.

High to Low look out below

Example An aircraft is flying over the Alps on a very cold winter's day. The
regional QNH is 1013 hPa. During the flight, The aircraft circles
around a mountain at an altitude of its summit. What reading will the
aneroid altimeter give, compared to the elevation of the summit?

Answer A higher altitude than the elevation of the summit due to the pressure
dip at the top of the mountain.

Minimum Usable Flight Level

Lowest usable flight level when conditions are
 Lowest value of QNH and the highest negative temperature deviation from ISA.
 Safest when the temperature is ≥ ISA; QNH ≥ 1013 hPa

Lies at the same height or greater than the minimum safe altitude when the conditions are:
 At a temperature greater than or equal to that of the ISA and where the QNH is
greater than or equal to 1013.25 hPa

Altimeter Readings
 After a front has passed pressure increases – altimeter reading decreases
 Before a front passes the pressure falls slightly – altimeter reading increases
 Where there is a weak pressure gradient there will be no change in the altimeter
reading

Altimeter Calculations

+ ISA add Pressure greater than 1013 hPa

Temperature greater than ISA (+15°C)
- ISA subtract Pressure less than 1013 hPa
Temperature less than ISA (+15°C)

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For all calculations:

 Correct for barometric error first 1 hPa ≈ 27 ft ≈ 8 m
 If QNH is the start point then barometric error does not need to be corrected for
 For Temperature Error use a correction of:
4% for every 10°C deviation

Example 1 If atmospheric conditions exist such that the temperature is ISA

+10ºC in the lower troposphere up to 18 000 FT, what is the actual
layer thickness between FL 60 and FL 120?
In ISA conditions the layer thickness
6000 ft
Deviation is ISA +10, 4% correction needed
+ ISA so add the correction +240 ft
Answer 6240 ft

Example 2 Whilst flying at FL 180 in the northern hemisphere an aircraft

experiences right drift. What effect, if any, will this have on the
aircraft's true altitude?

Use Buy’s Ballots Law to determine where the low pressure is.

LOW

Right Drift

HIGH

High to Low – Look out below

Answer The True Altitude decreases

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Example 3 An aircraft is flying from Point A to Point B on the upper level contour
chart. The altimeter setting is 1013.2 hPa.

First decide on the pressure systems at A and B

With the direction of the wind both are Low Pressure
Elongate the wind arrow – It is obvious now that A is a higher
pressure than B.

Answer The true altitude will be higher at A than at B

Example 4 The QNH of an airport at sea level is 983 hPa and the temperature
deviation from ISA is -15ºC below FL 100.
What is the true altitude of FL 100?

983 hPa less than 1013 hPa Subtract Barometric Error

Temperature deviation –15°C Subtract Temperature

Error

FL 100

10 000 ft

983 hPa

30 hPa ~ 810 ft

1013 hPa

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Correct for Barometric error first

10 000 ft
hPa difference, 30 hPa ~ -810 ft
9190 ft
Correct for Temperature Error
ISA –15°C ~ 6% correction of 9190 ft -551 ft
Answer 8639 ft

Example 5 You plan a flight over a mountain range at a true altitude of 15 000
FT/AMSL.
The air is on an average 15ºC colder than ISA, the pressure at sea
level is 1003 hPa.
What approximate indication should the altimeter (setting 1013.2
hPa) read?

Read the question!! It is not asking for the True Altitude but the
reading on the altimeter with 1013 hPa set for the aircraft to be safe.
Reverse the corrections for Barometric and Temperature Error.

Correct for Barometric Error 15 000 ft

1003 hPa is 10 hPa difference to 1013 hPa
Changing from 1003 to 1013 will add altitude
+270 ft
15 270 ft

Correct for Temperature Error

-15°C deviation is a 6% correction +916 ft
Answer 16 186 ft

Example 6 During a flight at FL 100 from Marseille (QNH 1012 hPa) to Palma de
Mallorca (QNH 1015 hPa), an aircraft remains at a constant true
altitude. The reason for this is that:

In ISA conditions the column of air at Marseille would be of less

height than the column of air at Palma.

The only way that column of air can change height is by increasing or
decreasing the temperature.
Answer The air at Marseille is warmer than that at Palma de
Mallorca or the air at Palma de Mallorca is colder than
the air at Marseille.

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Example 7 You are flying at FL 130, and your true altitude is 12 000
ft. What is the temperature deviation from the standard
atmosphere at FL 130 (QNH 1013,2 hPa)?

A reversal of the Temperature Error will give the answer

Difference between FL 130 and 12000 ft
1000 ft

Work out what percentage 1000 ft is of 12 000 ft

8.33%

4% is 10°C deviation
8% is 20°C deviation
Because the True altitude is less than the Pressure Altitude it must
be -ISA
Answer ISA -20ºC

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Chapter 4 – Thermodynamics, Adiabatic Processes and Stability of the Atmosphere

Adiabatic Process During an adiabatic process heat is neither added nor lost

Dewpoint The temperature to which a mass of air must be cooled in order to reach
saturation.
To get dew, fog or cloud the temperature must be cooled further.
Dewpoint can only be equal to, or lower than, the temperature of the air mass

Dewpoint Spread The difference between the OAT and dewpoint

Large Spread Low humidity

Small Spread High humidity

The amount of water vapour that air contains depends upon air temperature.

Humidity Mixing Ratio (HMR) The HMR is the ratio of the mass of water vapour present
relative to the mass of dry air in the air parcel. Expressed as g/kg of dry air.

The HMR will remain constant as long as the moisture content of the air parcel does not
change. Even as the parcel expands or contracts the total mass of water vapour remains the
same thus the HMR will remain the same.

Relative Humidity Relative Humidity depends on moisture content and temperature of

the air.
 Ratio between the actual mixing ratio and the saturation mixing ratio x 100
 Constant pressure and temperature, RH increases with increasing water vapour
content. RH decreases with decreasing vapour content
 Increase in temperature decreases RH if no other variables change. Dewpoint will
remain the same.
 Decrease in temperature increases RH if no other variables change. Dewpoint will
remain the same
 Descending air warms adiabatically – Relative humidity decreases as the moisture
content remains the same

High Relative Humidity means: Low Relative Humidity means:

Low evaporation rate High evaporation rate
Reduced Latent heat absorption Increased Latent Heat absorption
Small wet/dry bulb difference Large wet/dry bulb difference

Relative Humidity Changes

Morning High RH
Afternoon Low RH
Descending Air Warms on descent – reduces RH
Ascending Air Cools on ascent – increase in RH

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Stability
If a parcel of unsaturated air is lifted to just below the condensation level and then returned to
its original level the surface temperature will return to the same starting temperature.

Stable Air The vertical motion of rising air tends to become weaker and disappears

Stability When
 Warm air is advected into the upper part of a column of air
 Cold air is present in the lower layer.

Unstable Air The vertical motion of rising air tends to become stronger

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate DALR 3°C/1000 ft 1°C/100 m

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate SALR 1.8°C/1000 ft 0.6°C/100 m
Dewpoint Lapse Rate DPLR 0.5°C/1000 ft
ISA Lapse Rate 2°C/1000 ft 0.65°C/100 m
Environmental Lapse Rate ELR Varies with time and gives the actual
conditions within the atmosphere

SALR is less than DALR due to the release of Latent Heat due to condensation

Height

SALR 1.8°C/1000 ft
0.6°C/100 m
DALR 3°C/1000 ft
1°C/100 m S – Stable
U CI S U – Unstable
CI – Conditional Instability

Surface Temperature

Temperature

A layer is conditionally unstable if the air is unstable for saturated air and stable for dry air.

Stable Air Stratiform clouds

The ELR is less than the SALR
Unstable Air Convective clouds
The ELR is greater than the DALR

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Conditional Instability The ELR is between the DALR and the SALR
Dry air is stable; saturated air is unstable

Neutral Stability Where the rising airmass temperature is the same as the
environmental temperature. Air neither rises nor descends.

States

Sublimation Solid to gas Latent Heat absorbed

Melting Solid to liquid
Evaporation Liquid to gas

Deposition/Sublimation Gas to solid Latent Heat released

Condensation Gas to liquid
Freezing Liquid to solid

Inversions Clear skies with light winds. Large area with haze, mist. Promote strong
vertical windshear especially at night – low level nocturnal jet.

Ground Inversion Terrestrial radiation on a clear night with no or very

light winds. Prevalent at night.

Subsidence Inversion High pressure areas where air does not get to the
surface

Inversions are an indication of Absolute Stability.

Foehn Wind Occurs when a deep layer of prevailing wind is forced over a
mountain range (Orographic lifting). As the wind moves upslope, it expands and cools,
causing water vapour to precipitate out.

This dehydrated air then passes over the crest and begins to move downslope.

As the wind descends to lower levels on the leeward side of the mountains, the air
temperature increases adiabatically as it comes under greater atmospheric pressure creating
strong, gusty, turbulent, warm and dry winds with clear skies and good visibility.

There will be little or no condensation on the lee side of the mountain.

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Meteorology Data Sheet

High Pressure Pressure values decrease

Chapter 5 – Pressure Systems
with distance from the centre of the high or axis of
the ridge. Subsidence occurs. Divergence at the
surface, convergence aloft .

Isobars widely spaced – light winds. Subsidence

inversions possible.

Visibility
Winter Poor, especially where there has been
radiation cooling and fog formed. Strong winds will
form SC/ST
Summer Moderate to poor visibility in HZ with
little cloud

Cloud None or patchy SC/ST

Precipitation None

Low Pressure Roughly circular in shape. Trough a V shaped wedge away from the centre.
Isobar value decreasing towards the low. Convection occurs with rising air. Convergence at
the surface, divergence aloft.

Deepening Low Pressure Divergence greater than convergence

Filling Low Pressure Convergence greater than divergence

Surface winds where the isobars on the weather map are very close together are strong and
flow across the isobars towards the low pressure

Visibility Good out of showers

Cloud Convective Activity Leads to CU and CB. Over land in mid-latitudes

convective activity is greatest in summer in the afternoon.

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Precipitation Showers

Wind In the lower layers of the atmosphere due to friction

the wind changes direction towards the low pressure area because
wind speed decreases and therefore Coriolis force decreases.

Because of surface friction the surface wind in the Northern

H Hemisphere is backed and:
 Flows away from a high pressure
 Flows into a low pressure

In the Southern Hemisphere the wind is veered.

L Secondary Depression Forms in the circulation of the

primary low. It tends to move round the primary low in a cyclonic
sense

Warm Core High Pressure surfaces bulge upwards in all levels

Azores High
Warm Core Low Pressure decreases slowly with height
Cold Core High Cold air mass where the pressure decreases rapidly.
The lower situated pressure surfaces bulge upward and the higher
situated pressure surfaces bulge downward
Siberian High
Cold Core Low Pressure lower than the surroundings at all heights

Blocking Anticyclone A blocking anticyclone in the northern hemisphere is a warm

anticyclone/quasi stationary anticyclone situated between 50ºN and 70ºN

Thermal Low Lows formed due to temperature difference on land or sea. Common over
Europe in summer during the late afternoon.

Extensive cloud and precipitation is often associated with a non frontal thermal depression
because of surface convergence and upper level divergence causing widespread ascent of
air in the depression

Cold Air Pool Recognised as a low pressure area aloft either on the 500 hPa or 700 hPa
chart. Most evident in the circulation and temperature fields of the middle troposphere and
may show little or no sign on a surface chart.

The weather encountered during the summer, over land, in the centre of a cold air pool is
showers and thunderstorms.
.
Example 1 An aircraft flying in the southern hemisphere at 2000 feet, has to turn
to the right in order to allow for drift. In which direction, relative to the
aircraft, is the centre of low pressure?

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Draw a diagram
Turning right to allow for drift means that the wind is from the right.
Wind blows clockwise around a low pressure in the Southern Hemisphere

Answer In front

Example 2 A stationary observer in the northern hemisphere is situated in front

of a depression. The centre of the depression passes from west to
east and south of the observer. For this observer the wind

L L L

Answer It Backs

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Chapter 6 – Wind

Wind is caused by differences in surface pressure.

Direction always given in °T and speed in:

 KT knots
 KMH kilometres per hour
 MPS metres per second

Magnetic direction only for the spoken wind by ATC.

Strongest winds are generally found in the transition zone between two air masses

Wind speed will increase during the day being strongest at the time of maximum local
heating. Decrease at night due to the increased friction caused by dense cold air.

Buys Ballots Law If an observer stands with his back to the wind, then the lower
pressure is on the left in the Northern Hemisphere. In other words, wind travels anti-clockwise
around low pressure zones in the Northern Hemisphere. The opposite in the Southern
Hemisphere.

Geostrophic Wind The wind blowing above the surface friction layer under the influence
of the Coriolis Force. Wind does not flow directly from High to Low pressure due to the effects
of Coriolis.

Flows where the isobars are parallel and the pressure gradient force is constant. Geostrophic
wind occurs when the Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) balances the Geostrophic Force (GF or
Coriolis)

PGF = GF = 2 ω ρ V sinΦ

V Geostrophic Wind Speed

ω Angular velocity of the Earth
ρ Air density
Φ Latitude

The stronger the PGF, the closer the isobars, the stronger the wind.

For the same pressure gradient, the geostrophic wind speed will be greater at a lower
latitude, for example greater at 30ºN than at 60ºN.

Near the Equator there is no Coriolis

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Gradient Wind The wind that blows around curved isobars. The effects of centrifugal force
have to be taken into effect.

P PGF
C GF
Coriolis Force
Z Centrifugal Force
V Geostrophic Wind

For a Low Pressure The Centrifugal

Force acts against the PGF which reduces
the Gradient Wind in respect of the
Geostrophic Wind

For a High Pressure The Centrifugal Force acts with the PGF which increases the
Gradient Wind in respect of the Geostrophic Wind

Comparison of Wind Speed

When comparing the airflow velocity for the Geostrophic Wind and the Gradient Wind
VST <VHIGH>VLOW

VST Wind speed with straight isobars

VLOW Wind speed around a low pressure system
VHIGH Wind speed around a low pressure system

Friction Layer Below the Friction Layer the wind is affected by Friction, the speed is
decreased and Coriolis Force is also decreased.
In the Northern Hemisphere the wind is backed and decreased in speed. Assume the Friction
Layer to be 2000 ft for the JAA examination.
In the Northern Hemisphere:

2000 ft to the surface Wind backs and decreases

Surface to 2000 ft Wind veers and increases

The opposite occurs in the Southern Hemisphere.

Above the Friction Layer the wind is assumed to be Geostrophic with no friction effect.

The friction layer depends on:

 Stability
 Wind speed
 Roughness of surface

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Local Winds Generally Northern Hemisphere winds at 5000 FT/AGL are south-
westerly while most of the surface winds are southerly. Friction between the air and the
ground results in the Northern Hemisphere in backing of the wind and a decrease of wind
speed at the surface. The opposite occurs in the Southern Hemisphere

Effect of Friction
Deflection of Surface Wind Speed of Surface wind as a
from 2000 ft wind % of the 2000 ft wind

Over the Sea 10° 70%

Over the Land by Day 30° 50%
Over the Land by Night 40° 25%

Katabatic Wind A mountain breeze (katabatic wind) blows down the slope during the
night.

Anabatic Wind Caused by thermal effect. Light winds which blow towards and up a mountain
– day time only.

Sea Breeze Flow from sea to land caused by differential heating of the land
occurring only in the lower layers of the atmosphere in daytime. Occurs with a slack pressure
gradient and clear skies resulting in relatively high land temperatures.
By late afternoon after maximum heating time Coriolis will take effect and the wind tends to
parallel the coast.

Land Breeze Flows from land to water. The land-breeze blows during the night and
is weaker than the sea-breeze.

Example 1 If Paris reports a wind of 19015KT on the METAR, what wind velocity
would you expect to encounter at a height of 2000 feet above the
ground?
Use the table above
Surface to 2000 ft. Northern Hemisphere.
Wind veers and increases
Paris is over land so use a correction factor of:
30° direction
Double the speed
Answer 22030KT

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Chapter 7 – Upper Winds

Upper Winds are caused by a PGF, Coriolis does affect them.

Use contour charts at high level where Isohypses are used for a specific pressure value.

The wind tends to follow the contour lines (isohypses) above the friction layer because the
Coriolis force tends to balance with the horizontal pressure gradient force.

Isohypse A line joining points of equal elevation on a constant pressure chart.

Heights are in decametres or metres, 5700 m is 570 decametres.

 High contours are equivalent to high pressure areas

 Low contours are equivalent to low pressure areas

The wind at 2000 feet, the Friction Layer, is parallel to the isohypses and the surface wind
direction is across the isobars toward the low pressure and the surface wind is weaker.

The upper wind is the vector addition of the

Surface Wind and the Thermal Wind
Component (TWC).

The TWC is dependent on the horizontal

temperature gradient. The higher the gradient
the higher the thermal wind speed.

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Chapter 8 – Cloud, Fog and Other Visibility Reducing Phenomena

Clouds are formed by air lifting and cooling until the temperature and dewpoint are the same
(Lifting Condensation Level). At this point there is saturation and further lifting is required to
form cloud.

The height of the condensation level is determined by the temperature and dewpoint at the
surface.

SKC Sky clear

FEW Few 1 – 2 oktas
SCT Scattered 3 – 4 oktas
BKN Broken 5 – 7 oktas
OVC Overcast 8 oktas
OBSC Obscured Clouds hidden by dense fog, heavy snow,
blowing snow or sand

Cloud Types

Cirriform Ice crystals, little or no icing. Visibility greater than 1000 m.

Cumuliform Convective clouds formed in an unstable atmosphere
Cauliflower heads, icing and showers of precipitation
Large supercooled water droplets and turbulence.
Stratiform Formed in a stable atmosphere
Wide horizontal extent.
Normally small supercooled water droplets
However, icing is dependent on the type of cloud
Turbulence Turbulence must be sufficient to steepen the lapse rate in the friction
Cloud layer
Humidity must be great enough for the mixing condensation level to be
reached within the friction layer
The lapse rate within the friction layer must be stable - inversion

Cloud Base The cloud base is the lowest altitude of the visible portion of the cloud of any
amount.

Cloud Ceiling This is the height of the cloud base for the lowest broken or overcast cloud
layer.

Cloud Heights
The table is referenced to cloud base, not the vertical extent of the cloud.

Cloud Base
Low Surface to 6500 ft
Medium (Alto) 6500 ft to 23 000 ft
High (Cirro) 16 500 ft to 45 000 ft

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Cloud Classification

High Cloud
Cirrus CI White delicate cloud. Fibrous appearance
Cirrostratus CS Transparent white veil. Halo effect when
viewing the sun
Cirrocumulus CC White patchy sheet or layer cloud.
Gravity waves – mackerel sky
Medium Clouds
Altocumulus AC White or grey cloud
Altocumulus Castellanus ACC Towering altocumulus. Conditional instability –
the precursor of afternoon thunderstorms
Atocumulus Lenticularis Lens shaped cloud
Possibility of severe turbulence and icing
Indication of mountain waves
Altostratus AS Grey layer cloud
Low Clouds
Nimbostratus NS Grey layer cloud associated with warm fronts.
Can extend up to 20 000 ft and have a large
horizontal extent.
Icing can be moderate to severe.
Precipitation is continuous and can be moderate
to heavy.
Turbulence is rarely more than moderate.
Stratocumulus SC Turbulence cloud
A high probability for icing in clouds in a moist
atmosphere
Severe icing may occur in the upper part due to
accumulation of large droplets.
Dispersed by insolation
Stratus ST Thin grey cloud with little vertical extent
Formed by radiation during the night from the
earth’s surface in a moderate wind.
Precipitation in the form of drizzle.
Dispersed by insolation.
Cumulus CU Dense white cauliflower head cloud.
Tops can be limited by an upper level
temperature inversion.
Both up and down draughts

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Cumulonimbus CB Heavy dense cloud with an anvil which can

project into the stratosphere. Precipitation in the
form of showers.
CB implies moderate to severe icing and
turbulence.
Hail can fall.
Towering Cumulus TCU CB without the anvil
Roll Clouds Associated with mountain waves and gust fronts
from TS
Severe turbulence

Clouds such as CU, CB, TCU and NS can be given the classification of “clouds with large
vertical extent” because they may extend into more than one layer.

Cumulus Cloud Classifications

Cumulis Humilis Fair weather cumulus.

Flattened appearance
An indication of turbulence at and below the cloud
level
Cumulus Mediocris Moderate vertical extent.
Moderate protuberances from the top of the clouds
Cumulus Congestus Great vertical extent.
Cauliflower heads most apparent
Cumulus Calvus Start of the loss of cumuliform shape
Cumulonimbus Capillatus CB with a distinct anvil

Fog, Mist and Haze

Fog Mist Haze

Visibility < 1000 m > 1000 m Can be the same as
Upper limit 5000 m Fog
Upper limit 5000 m
RH 100% At least 80% N/A
Constitution Small water droplets in Small water droplets in Solid particles
suspension suspension

Radiation Fog Most likely to occur when:

 Clear skies with a slack pressure gradient
 Large amount of radiative cooling
 Moist airmass
 Light wind (1 – 5 knots)

Most likely to form just after dawn. Forms overland only. Vertical extent not more than 500 ft
normally. A stronger wind will raise the fog into low stratus.

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Dispersal of Radiation Fog

 Insolation
 Turbulent mixing and an increase in wind
 Dry air replacing the moist air
 Temperature fall below 0°C

Advection Fog Forms over land or sea. Warm moist air over a colder surface. Forms with
wind speeds up to 15 knots. Can appear suddenly by day or night.

Dispersal of Advection Fog Change of airmass.

Steam Fog, Arctic Smoke Formed by cold polar air flowing over a relatively warmer sea
mass. Air is quickly saturated and the appearance is of smoke rising from the surface.

Frontal Fog Formed up to 100 nm ahead of a warm front. Caused by the saturation of the
air in the continuous rain ahead of the front. Disperses on passage of the front. Occurs when
very humid warm air meets with very humid cold air.

Warm Front Frontal Fog will be found ahead of a warm front; Advection
Fog after the frontal passage

Hill Fog Air condensing as it rises over a land surface.

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Fog Characterisitcs

Type of Fog Affected Areas Formation Dispersal Diversion

Radiation Fog Inland areas Cooling due to radiation on Solar radiation or increased High level or coastal areas
Mainly low lying ground clear nights turbulence
Wind less than 2 – 8 knots Cloud cover at night also
inhibits formation
Advection Fog
Over Land Widespread inland Warm air over cold ground Stronger winds low ST Lee of high ground
Forms up to 15 knots Dry air mass Well inland from the
prevailing wind
Over Sea Sea and adjacent coasts Warm air over a cold sea Dispersed inland by solar Inland aerodrome
heating
Frontal Fog Warm front up to 200 nm - Passage of the front Areas away from the front
ahead
Behind the cold front
Hill Fog High ground Low ST Movement of cloud or dryer Low level aerodromes
Stable air mass adiabatically air mass
cooled
Arctic Sea Smoke Polar areas Cold dry air passing over a Change of wind direction -
warm sea

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Chapter 9 – Precipitation

Drizzle Water droplets < 0.5 mm

Falls from ST
Visibility 500 - 3000 m
Drizzle will fall from stratiform clouds containing water droplets only.
Rain Steady precipitation falls from stratiform clouds with little or no
turbulence – NS, ST
Precipitation is usually steady and continuous
Can be moderate or heavy
Visibility:
Normally 3000 m – 10km
Heavy rain < 1000 m
Tropics as low as 10 m
Rain Showers Falls from cumuliform cloud
Showers last less than 1 hour
Virga Rain/ice that evaporates before hitting the surface
Snow Of all precipitation Snow decreases visibility the greatest
Will settle when the ground temperature is < 4°C
Visibility:
Moderate 1000 m
Heavy 50 – 200 m
Drifting < 2m above the surface
Blowing < 2 m above the surface
Sleet Mixture of rain and snow
Freezing Severe icing possible
Rain/Drizzle Rain from warm air aloft falls through a layer where temperatures are
below 0ºC – intersects the 0°C isotherm twice
Associated mostly with warm fronts in winter
Occurs in clear air ahead of the front
Best to turn away from the warm front away from the problem
Ice Pellets Melted rain that refreezes before impact
Ice pellets on the surface are an indication of freezing rain at a higher
altitude
Snow Grains Small and white with a diameter of less than 1 mm
Falls from SC
Snow Pellets 2 – 5 mm in diameter
Hail Formed in CB or TCU

Outside precipitation the visibility will be good where the atmosphere is unstable.

Formation of Clouds

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Warm Clouds Coalescence theory

Cold Clouds The Bergeron-Findeisen process is mainly based on the difference of

maximum vapour pressure over water and over ice of the same
temperature

The greatest reduction in visibility, in order is:

 Snow
 Sleet
 Drizzle
 RainHail

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Chapter 10 – Air Masses

An air mass acquires its basic properties by stagnation of the air for a long period of time over
areas having same characteristics such as:

 Temperature
 Humidity

In the transition zone between two air masses there are likely to be strong winds.

Air Masses that Affect UK

Tropical Tc Summer only

Continental Hot, dry air which stabilises on its travel north
Source regions the North of Africa and the Balkans/Near East
High temperatures with hazy conditions
Polar Continental Pc Winter only
Cold dry stable air
Source region the Siberian High
Extremely cold with good visibility if the air is from Scadinavia
Air from over Europe brings poor visibility
Subsidence inversions prevalent over Europe
Radiation Fog due to cooling
Long Sea Track Possibility of SC giving snow over
eastern coastlines. Severe icing in the moist cloud

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near the tops

Short Sea Track Little moisture picked up. More
likely to be Fog and poor visibility. Possibility of ST
with drizzle
Polar Maritime Pm Summer and winter
Cold, moist air
Source region Greenland and NE Canada
Cold and stable at source becoming unstable during the
movement south
CU and CB, with CB on coastal areas in winter travelling well
inland in summer
Tropical Maritime Tm Summer and winter
Warm , moist and unstable at source
Southwesterly flow
Best known as the warm sector of a polar front depression
Stabilises as it cools on its travel north
Winter Advection fog or low ST with drizzle
Summer Scattered SC overland
Arctic Maritime Am Winter only
Cold with little moisture at source
Low pressure over Scandinavia – High pressure over
Greenland
Cold stable air traveling south becomes unstable and picks
moisture up as it travels over the sea
Snow on exposed northern coastlines
Returning Polar Pmr Summer and winter
Maritime Cold, stable and moist at source
Polar low situated to the west of Ireland
Flow from Greenland travels south around the low pressure to
be returned towards Europe
Initially the air becomes more unstable on its travel south only
to stabilised in the lower layers on its return north
Possible Conditional Instability with TS in summer
Winter possible coastal fog

Equatorial airmasses do not affect Central Europe

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Chapter 11 – Frontal Systems

Stationary Front The isobars tend to parallel the frontal system

Arctic Front Separates cold arctic air from cold polar air
Apparent between Greenland and Norway in winter and spring
Polar Front Separates cold polar air from warm tropical air
Summer Newfoundland to North of Scotland
Winter Florida to SW England
Known as a westerly wave
Mediterranean Front Winter feature only
Found between the Mediterranean Sea and the Caspian Sea
Inter Tropical Equatorial Low
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) Called the ITCZ when over the oceans
FIT/ITF when over land
The meeting point of the NE and SE trade winds

Polar Front Depression

Frontal system associated with the polar front low.

Warm Front Warm air overrides the cold air

Cold Front Cold air undercuts the warm air

The atmospheric pressure of a polar front depression is normally lower in winter than in
summer because the temperature contrasts between arctic and equatorial areas are much
greater in winter.

Westerly Wave A family of polar front depressions crossing the Atlantic Ocean from
West to East.

Ahead of the Warm Front

Ahead of the Cirrus, CU and possibly CB with showers which will dissipate to SC as the cloud
cover increases.

Approach and Passage of the Warm Front

Cloud will increase as the warm front approaches.
 Cirrus up to 600 nm ahead of the front
 Cirrostratus 400 – 500 nm ahead of the front
 Altostratus 200 300 nm ahead of the front. Virga falls from AS
 NS 200 nm to the frontal passage. Continuous rain with moderate to severe
icing and moderate turbulence

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All precipitation is ahead of the warm front

Frontal fog, caused by saturation of the cold air ahead of the front. Frontal fog occurs up to
100 nm ahead of the front and will disappear as soon as the front passes.

Fractostratus may be found just ahead of a warm front or warm occlusion, or behind a cold
front.

Thunderstorms in exceptional circumstances can occur on a warm front if the warm air is
convectively unstable and the environmental lapse rate exceeds the saturated adiabatic lapse
rate.

Warm Sector
Winter SC and ST with drizzle or light rain.
Possible advection fog.

Summer Some SC with drizzle but generally fine conditions.

Visibility moderate to mpoor.
With wide warm sectors fair weather CU may be seen

Passage of the Cold Front

CB with showers. Moderate to severe icing and turbulence. Precipitation behind the front.

Behind the Cold Front

A clear area after frontal passage then increasing CU and possibly CB with showers

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Passage of a Frontal System

Warm Front Moves perpendicular to the front at 2/3 Geostrophic Wind
speed

Cold Front Moves perpendicular to the front at Geostrophic Wind speed

Squall lines may develop ahead of an active front (bands of
intensive TS with showers)

Depression In the direction of the warm sector isobars, or along the front
towards the east

Occlusions Move slower than a cold front but faster than a warm front

Wind will veer on the passage of any frontal system in the Northern Hemisphere. Opposite in
the Southern Hemisphere.
Warm Front Slope 1:150
Cold Front Slope 1:50

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Passage of a Polar Front Depression

Rear of the On Passage Warm On Passage Lifting Zone
Cold Front of the Cold Sector of the Warm ahead of the
Front Front Warm Front
Pressure Rising Just before No Change Just before Falling
the front the front
Falling Falling
Just after the Just after the
front front
Rising Pressure
stabilises
Altimeter Rise then fall Rise then
steady
Wind North- West – south South-
Direction westerly westerly westerly
Movement Veers both Veers both
of Wind above and above and
below the below the
Friction Friction
Layer Layer
Wind Speed Moderate to High - gusty Low to Moderate Moderate
high moderate
Temperature Just before Just before No change
the front the front
No change Falling
Slightly
Just after the Just after the
front front
Falling Rising
Precipitation Showers CB DZ or light Moderate to Light or
from CU rain heavy moderate
continuous
Visibility Very good Poor Moderate Poor Good out of
out of precipitation
showers
Cloud Base Medium Low Low to Base falling High as CI
medium as the front approaches
approaches reducing

Freezing rain can fall from warm fronts and warm occlusions in winter in Europe

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Occlusions

Warm Occlusion Warm occlusions more prevalent in winter.

Cloud associated with both fronts.
Precipitation ahead of the occlusion

Cold Occlusion Cold occlusions more prevalent in summer

Cloud associated with both fronts
Precipitation on and behind the occlusion

The warm air is lifted above the surface in both occlusions

Orographic Effect When a front has to cross a chain of mountains, its activity
strengthens "upwind" of the mountains.

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Chapter 12 – Jet Streams

Length 1500 nm
Width 200 nm
Depth 12 – 18 000 ft
Speed Minimum of 60 kt
Height/Width Ratio 1/100

Approach of a jetstream can be indicated by a Cirrus trail.

JanuaryJuly

Altitude Season Latitude Speed

Arctic JS 20 000 ft Winter 80° 80 kt
Polar Front JS 30 000 ft All year Winter 50° Winter 200 kt
Summer 60° Summer 150 kt
Subtropical JS 40 000 ft All year Winter 30° 100 kt
Summer 35°
Equatorial JS 45 - 50 000 ft Summer 10°N Easterly
60 – 100 kt
Northern Hemisphere only across India and Africa

Jetstreams are at their strongest in winter due to the greater temperature gradients between
land and sea.

Maximum windspeed of a jetstream, 350 kt over the China/Japan coast in the Northern
Hemisphere winter.

Polar Front Jetstream Associated with the polar front depression. Stronger on the cold front
side by 20 knots.
The jetstream is in the warm tropical air mass just below the tropopause.
On a plan diagram it appears to be behind the cold front by about 200 nm and ahead of the
warm front by about 400 nm.

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The main cause for the formation of a polar front jet stream is the north-south horizontal
temperature gradient at the polar front

As a frontal system occludes the jet stream moves with the triple point as there is little or no
horizontal temperature across the occlusion.

Case 1 Flying above the core, above the tropopause, the temperature will
decrease because the tropopause temperature over the Polar
Maritime air is higher then the temperature of the tropopause over
the Tropical Maritime air.

Case 2 Flying through the core the temperature will remain the same.

Case 3 Flying beneath the core the temperature will increase as the aircraft
is flying from cold air to warm air.

Reverse answers for flying in the opposite direction in Cases 1 & 3

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) Worst area on the cold air side just below the core. A
secondary area can be found above the tropopause above the core. When looking down the
core in the Northern Hemisphere the area is to the left of the core.

Normally the most effective measure to reduce or avoid CAT effects is to change flight level,
normally by descending.

The most severe CAT is generally associated with a curved jet stream near a deep trough.

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CAT is turbulence encountered by aircraft when flying through air space devoid of clouds and
is caused by marked changes in wind speed and/or direction, either vertically or horizontally

Isotach Isotachs are lines joining equal wind speed

Condensation Trails (Contrails) Formed by water vapour release during fuel

combustion.

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Chapter 13 – Climatology

Pressure Systems

Ideal Flow

Heating at the Earth’s surface at the Equator causes

air to rise. Low pressure at the surface.

At the pole the air cools and descends causing a

High pressure zone.

Outflow from the poles converges at the Equator.

At height:
Equator A high pressure allows outflow towards the poles
Pole A low pressure is formed

Looks like an enormous sea breeze.

As the air at height flows away from the Equator it is affected by Coriolis.

Deflection to the right in the Northern Hemisphere

and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The
wind parallels the Equator at approximately 30°
latitude.

This air cools and descends to form the Subtropical

High (Horse Latitudes).

Outflow from the high to the Equator is modified

into the NE and SE trade winds. Towards the pole
the surface winds are SW in the Northern
Hemisphere and NW in the Southern Hemisphere.

The outflow from the subtropical high meets air

flowing from the poles and a low pressure belt is
formed (Polar Front).

Equatorial Area Low pressure

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30° Latitude High pressure

50° Latitude Temperate low pressure
Polar Regions High pressure

Trade Winds The Trade Winds blow from the Sub Tropical High towards the Equator in
both hemispheres. Very little weather activity is apparent until they converge at the ITCZ; they
flow between 3500 – 6500 ft under the trade wind inversion. They occur only in the lower part
of the troposphere and more pronounced over the oceans because the convergence over the
land is much more erratic.

Northern Hemisphere Northeasterly

Southern Hemisphere Southeasterly

In July the Southern Hemisphere trade winds cross the Equator and are deflected by Coriolis
from SE to SW

In January the Northern Hemisphere trade winds are deflected by Coriolis as they cross the
Equator from NE to NW

Doldrums The doldrums is a belt of very still air near the equator that stalled sailing
ships. The doldrums are located between 5°N and 5°S of the equator.

Northern Hemisphere Pressure Systems

Azores High Subtropical High, 30°N in winter, 35°N in summer
Icelandic Low Deepest in winter and situated over Iceland and Greenland
Siberian High High pressure zone which affects Asia and Europe
USA High High pressure zone which affects USA and Canada

Inter Tropical Convergence Zone

An area of convergence where the trade winds of the Northern Hemisphere meet those of
the Southern Hemisphere. Frequent and widespread thunderstorms are to be expected within
the area of the ITCZ.

In Equatorial regions there are two rainy seasons as the sun passes the Equator twice, April
to May and October to November.

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Upper Easterly Winds Near the Equator

In July 20°N to 10°S
In January 10°N to 20°S

Subtropical High 30° latitude. Arid desert area with subsiding air and subsidence
inversions.

Distrubed Temperate Low (Polar Front) 40° - 65°. Travelling depressions in both
hemispheres (westerly wave).

Local Winds

Bora Winter Cold Katabatic wind flowing off the

Dalmation coast onto the Adriatic Sea
Violent gusts up to 100 kt
Chinook Spring A warm dry Foehn wind formed from
descending air on the lee side of the
Rocky Mountains
Harmattan Winter Dry, dusty NE wind in west Africa
November to April Originates from the NE trade wind and
causes visibility problems up to 8000 ft.
Visibility can be reduced down to 100 m
at times
Monsoon Winter Starts in December
NE winds
Dry and hazy conditions
Transition to SW Monsoon in February,
March, April
Summer Starts in June
SW winds
Convective activity due to the long sea
track
TS with heavy showers
Transition to NE Monsoon in September,
October, November
Pampero July to September Violent outburst of cold polar air over
Chile and Argentina.
Squall lines give associated TS and
showers
Associated with frontal depressions
moving from the south west to northeast

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Sirocco Winter Sirocco – Morocco and Algeria

Ghibli – Libya
Khamsin – Egypt
Southerly wind blowing in front of a
depression traveling across the
Mediterranean Sea from west to east
Traveling over the sea it picks up
moisture and stabilises giving low cloud
and drizzle in Italy and France.
Mistral Winter Valley and katabatic wind that blows
down the Rhone Valley
Northerly, cold and strong wind with gusts
up to 70 kt

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Chapter 14 – Icing

Icing occurs at temperatures below 0°C and where supercooled water droplets are found.

Cloud temperature and size of supercooled water droplets have the greatest influence on the
type of icing. Snow, hail and ice do not give airframe icing.

Supercooled Water Droplet (SCWD) A super-cooled droplet is a droplet still in liquid state
at a temperature below 0ºC. They can be encountered above the freezing level at any time of
year.

Can occur in fog, cloud and precipitation.

Types of Icing

Clear Ice 0°C to –10°C

Large SCWD which flow back over the aerofoil
Most dangerous
Hard to remove and see
CU, CB, TCU and NS. ACC will give moderate clear ice
Mixed Ice Transition from Clear Ice to Rime Ice
-10°C to -15°C
Rime Ice -15° to –40°C
Small SCWD that freeze on impact and do not spread out
Rough and opaque in appearance
Easy to remove
Layer clouds

A vertical temperature profile indicates the possibility of severe icing when the temperature
profile intersects the 0ºC isotherm twice

Cumulonimbus
0°C to –20° Severe icing. Large SCWD can be carried to higher levels
due to the updraughts in the cloud.
-20°C to –45°C No severe icing as there will only be small SCWD

Orographic Effect Where clouds are pushed against a hill the icing will usually be more
severe due to the extra lifting and condensation.

Aerofoil Shape A sharp wing profile will experience more icing than a wing with a
thick profile.

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Reporting of Icing

Light Icing Conditions less than moderate icing.

Change of heading or altitude not considered necessary
Moderate Icing Conditions in which change of heading or altitude may be
considered desirable
Severe Icing Conditions in which immediate change of heading or altitude is
considered essential

Freezing Fog Occurs when the droplets in the fog are supercooled.

Hoar Frost Hoar frost forms on an aircraft as a result of water vapour turning directly into
ice crystals on the aircraft surface. Can occur on the ground or in the air.

Hoar frost is most likely to form when taking off from an airfield with a significant ground
inversion (sky clear) or a supercooled aircraft flying through a warm moist layer on descent.

All icing and frost deposits must be removed from the aircraft before flight.
Icing in Minor Clouds

Cirriform No icing
AC and AS Ice accretion low
SC Light or moderate
Can be severe in winter in N Europe
ST Light

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Chapter 15 – Turbulence and Windshear

Definitions

Windshear Variations in wind along the aircraft flight path of a pattern and
intensity and direction that displace an aircraft abruptly from its intended path such
thatsubstantial control action is required.

Turbulence Variations in the wind along the aircraft flight path of a pattern,
intensity and duration that disturb the aircraft’s attitude about its major axis but do not
significantly alter its flight path

Windshear
Strong low level inversions promote vertical windshear. Low level wind shear is likely to be
greatest at the top of a marked surface-based inversion.

The degree of clear air turbulence experienced by an aircraft is proportional to the intensity of
vertical and horizontal wind shear.

The most dangerous low level wind shears are encountered when strong ground inversions
are present and near thunderstorms

Vertical wind shear is a change of horizontal wind direction and/or speed with height.

Horizontal windshear is horizontal variations of the wind component

Measurement:

Vertical Windshear kt/100 ft

Horizontal Windshear kt/1000 ft

Frontal Windshear Sharp change in wind direction with the front moving at a
speed of 30 kt or more. There must be at least a 5°C temperature difference across the
frontal surface
Warm Front Windshear ahead of the front.
Not as severe as windshear on a cold front but will last
longer.
Cold Front Windshear on passage of the front.

Turbulence On a clear summer day, turbulence caused by solar heating is most

pronounced during the early afternoon.

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Turbulence Effects

Incidence Occasional Less than 1/3 of the time

Intermittent 1/ to 2/3 of the time
3

Continuous More than 2/3

Intensity Aircraft Reaction Reaction Inside the Aircraft
Light Conditions less than moderate Occupants may feel slight strain
turbulence. against seat belts or shoulder straps.
Changes in accelerometer readings Unsecured objects may be displaced
less than 0.5g at the aircraft’s C of G slightly.
Food service may be conducted and
little or no difficulty is encountered in
walking.
Moderate Condition in which moderate changes Occupants feel definite strains
in aircraft attitude and/or altitude may against seat belts or shoulder straps.
occur but aircraft remains in positive Unsecured objects are dislodged,
control at all times.
Food service and walking are difficult.
Usually, small variations in air speed.
Changes in accelerometer readings
greater than 1.0g at the aircraft’s C of
G
Severe Condition in which abrupt changes in Occupants are forced violently
aircraft attitude and/or altitude occur, against seat belts or shoulder straps.
aircraft may be out of control for short Unsecured objects are tossed about.
periods.
Food service and walking impossible.
Usually, large variations in air speed.
Changes in accelerometer readings
are greater than 1.0g at the aircraft’s
C of G

If a zone of strong convection currents is encountered during a flight decrease the speed and
try to climb above the zone of convective currents if aircraft performance parameters allow.

Mountain Waves

Formation

Wind Speed More than 20 kts at the crest

Direction 90° (± 30°) to the ridge
Wind Change No more than a 30° change of wind dirction with height
Stability Stable air at ridge height with less stable air above and below

Flight with headwind toward high ground is likely to be more hazardous than flight with
tailwind toward high ground.

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Most severe turbulence in the first rotor zone downwind.

The most severe downdraught is on the lee side of the range.
The most severe updraught in the upward motion of the first wave.

Altocumulus Lenticularis Lenticular cloud in the peak of a wave.

Probability of severe icing and turbulence as the cloud is constantly refreshed with
moisture by the motion of the wind.

Rotor Streaming Rotor streaming is a turbulence hazard which occurs in the lee of
mountains forming rotor clouds. It is sometimes, but not always, associated with closed,
recirculating eddies.

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Chapter 16 – Thunderstorms

Conditions Required
 Need moisture, with instability through a deep layer (conditional instability).
 Environmental lapse rate greater than saturated adiabatic lapse rate through a great
vertical extent
 High relative humidity and an initial lifting process

Trigger Actions
 Surface heating
 Orographic uplift
 Frontal lifting
 Lifting due to convergence
 Differential advection

Types of TS
Airmass Heat TS which are generally isolated, thermal lows over land in
summer, producing mid-afternoon storms, or advection of cold air
over a warm sea, generally isolated
Frontal Cold front or squall line
Orographic Forced ascent over hills

Frontal TS move the quickest. Isolated TS move with the 10 000 ft wind (700 hPa).

Precursor of a TS can be Altocumulus Castellanus which shows mid level instability.

Stages of a TS

Cumulus The initial stage with updraughts only

No precipitation
Lasts about 20 minutes
Mature Updraughts and downdraughts
Precipitation
Possibility of the gust front and microburst – the time of greatest intensity
Lasts about 20 minutes
Dissipating Downdraughts only
Light precipitation
Lasts about 20 minutes

Downburst A concentrated downdraft with high speeds and a lower temperature than the
surrounding air. Occur during the Mature Stage.

Gust Front Leads the TS up to 24 to 32 km ahead

Well defined area of cold air that affects aircraft up to 6000 ft
Rotor winds and roll clouds possible with the associated severe icing and
turbulence

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Microburst A concentrated downburst of cold air 5 km diameter and lasts between 1 to 5

minutes.
Downdraught speeds of up to 60 kts, which cause wind speed changes up to
90 kt

Squall Line A line of intensive thunderstorms, near whose advancing edge squalls occur
along an extensive front. Found ahead of an active cold front.

Hail Damaging hail up to 45 000 ft

Temperate latitude TS over continents in summer provide the conditions for
most severe hail.

Lightning Between 10°C and –10°C (± 5000 ft of the 0°C isotherm)

During a lightning strike the aircraft is temporarily part of the lightning
trajectory.
 Composite materials may get severe damage
 Crew may be blinded temporarily
 Temporary hearing loss may occur

Tornadoes Most prevalent in the USA in spring and summer associated witth severe TS
with Mammatus clouds.
The diameter of a typical tornado is 100 to 150 metres but some may be up
to 1000 m in diameter.

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Chapter 17 – Tropical Revolving Storms

Most tropical revolving storms are found in the north-west Pacific, affecting Japan, Taiwan,
Korea and the Chinese coastline.

The main energy source of a tropical revolving storm is latent heat released from condensing
water vapour. From the earth's surface up to the tropopause the core of the tropical revolving
storm is warmer than its surroundings

The most dangerous zone is in the clouds of the wall of the eye. Most severe turbulence and
strongest winds.

Rare for tropical revolving storms to be found in the South Atlantic. Reason:
 Water temperature too cold
 ITCZ never ventures into the South Atlantic

The presence of a tropical revolving storm is characterised by the approach of dense CI.

Easterly Wave An easterly wave is a wave in a trade wind belt, moving from east to
west, with severe convective activity.

The movement of the trough (Easterly Wave) is from the west of Africa towards the
Caribbean. The troughs gain strength and flow in towards the Gulf of Mexico or Florida
turning NE as they reach the Caribbean.

Humidity is gathered in the travel west.

TS and rain are prevalent on an Easterly Wave.

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Chapter 19 – Weather Charts

Symbols

Data on the Significant Weather Chart The significant weather forecast for the time
given on the chart. Includes information on:
 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)
 Maximum wind speed – jetstream
 Tropopause
 Significant weather – CB and TS which indicate moderate or severe icing and
turbulence
 Freezing level

Flight Levels All levels on the chart are Flight Levels

Wind Velocity and Temperature Where two pressure charts are given then
interpolation must be used to get the correct wind velocity and temperature for the equivalent
height.

Wind velocity/Temperature charts are for the same pressure level.

Symbols for Significant Weather

Thunderstorms Drizzle

Tropical Cyclone Rain

Severe Squall Line Snow

Moderate Turbulence Shower

Severe Turbulence Hail

Mountain Waves Widespread Blowing Snow

Moderate Icing Severe Sand or Dust Haze

Severe icing Widespread Sandstorm or Dust

Storm

Widespread Fog Widespread Haze

Volcanic Eruption Widespread Mist

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Visible Ash Cloud Widespread Smoke

Freezing Precipitation Radioactive Materials in the

Atmosphere
Fronts and Convergence Zones

Cold Front at the Surface

Warm Front at the Surface

Occluded Front at the Surface

Quasi-stationary Front at the Surface.

Winds are parallel to the front.
Convergence Line

Trough
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

Where the symbols are not filled in then the front is above the surface.

Jet Stream

Wind arrows indicate the maximum speed in the jet stream and the flight level at which it
occurs.
Significant changes are marked by a double bar across the jet stream
 Change in speed of ± 20 knots or more
 Change in flight level of ± 3000 ft

Other Symbols

Freezing Level

Tropopause High

Tropopause Low

Tropopause Level

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Significant Weather and Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)

Scalloped Line indicates Significant Weather

Where XXX is used:

 Below a height then the base is below the height
of the chart
 Above a height then the tops are above the
height of the chart
In the example to the left;
 Individual CBs embedded in layers of other
clouds or concealed by Haze
 Tops FL 450 the base below the reference height
of the chart.
Heavy broken Line indicates Clear Air Turbulence – The area
is always associated with a jet stream and is given a number
(in this case 2). See below….

CAT areas are numbered and are next to the administration

box.

CAT Area 2
Moderate turbulence between FL 320 and FL 420

Cumulonimbus (CB)

ISOL Isolated Individual CBs

OCNL Occasional Well separated CBs
FRQ Frequent CBs with little or no separation
EMBD Embedded CBs embedded in layers of other clouds or
concealed by Haze

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Chapter 20 – Meteorological Information

METAR Actual weather report at an aerodrome issued every 30 minutes and is valid
at the time of observation

Observations Taken over a period of 10 minutes before the report.

Wind Measured values from an anemometer from a mast 6-10 m above the runway.
Direction is given in °T unless it is a wind given by ATC and then it is reported in °M.

Gusts reported when the gust is 10 kt or more over the mean wind speed.

Visibility Prevailing visibility from a 360° scan from the observing station.

Runway Visual Range (RVR) Reported when actual visibility falls below 1500 m. RVR is
generally greater than the meteorological visibility. RVR reported is always the value for the
touchdown zone. Only reported in a METAR not a TAF.

Cloud Cloud base reported is above the aerodrome reference point.

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Weather

Qualifier Weather
Intensity or Proximity Descriptor Precipitation Obscuration
1 2 3 4
- Light MI Shallow DZ Drizzle BR Mist
Moderate (no qualifier) BC Patches RA Rain FG Fog
+ Heavy DR Drifting SN Snow FU Smo
VC In the vicinity; adjacent to BL Blowing SG Snow Grains VA Volca
but not at the aerodrome SH Showers IC Diamond Dust DU Wide
Within 8 KM Dust
TS Thunderstorm PL Ice Pellets SA Sand
FZ Supercooled (freezing) GR Hail HZ Haze
PR Partial GS Small Hail
Covering part of the < 5mm
runway Diameter
and/or
snow pellets

MI Shallow. Less than 2 m above the ground.

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CAVOK (Visibility, cloud and present weather conditions better than prescribed values
or conditions) CAVOK used in place of the visibility, RVR, weather and cloud groups when
all of the following conditions apply:

 Visibility is 10 km or more.
 There is no cloud below 5000 ft or below the highest Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA),
which ever is greater, and no CB.
 No significant weather phenomenon at or in the vicinity of the aerodrome

Temperature Rounded to the nearest whole number. 0.5°C is rounded up to the nearest
whole number.

Example 1.5°C Rounded up to 2°C

Where –0.5°C Rounded up to M00

QNH Rounded down to the nearest hPa

Trend Forecast Landing forecast placed after the QNH on a METAR or SPECI and is
valid for 2 hours.

Runway Conditions 8 figure group at the end of the METAR. The last two figures are the
braking action.

SPECI A special aerodrome weather report, issued when a significant change of the
weather conditions have been observed.

TAF Aerodrome forecast. Validity time given in the text.

FC TAF 9 hrs
FT TAF 18 – 24 hours

TEMPO Conditions forecast to last no more than 60 minutes for half the time of the
TEMPO.

BECMG Permanent change from conditions before the group to the ones after. The
change cannot be predicted.

JAA Examinations Where a question uses the words lowest or minimum then use the
TEMPO to find the answer.

Where the words most likely or forecast are used ignore the TEMPO when finding the
answer.

Probability PROB 30 30% chance of the conditions occurring

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PROB 40 40% chance of the conditions occurring

NOSIG No significant change. Does not refer to RVR in a METAR.

SIGMET A SIGMET is a warning of dangerous meteorological conditions for all aircraft

for the cruise.

The SIGMET is issued for the route ahead for up to 500 NM or 2 hours flying time for one or
more of the following:
 Thunderstorm – including squall lines
 Hail
 Tropical cyclone
 Freezing rain
 Severe turbulence (not associated with convective cloud)
 Severe icing (not associated with convective cloud)
 Severe mountain waves
 Heavy sand or dust storms
 Volcanic ash cloud

Abbreviations used in Both SIGMET and AIRMET

OBSC Obscured SEV Severe

EMBD Embedded HVY Heavy
FRQ Frequent MOD Moderate
SQL Squall Line OCNL Occasional
MTW Mountain wave WSPD Surface windspeed
SFC Surface WKN Weakening
VSP Vertical windspeed COT Coastal
FCST Forecast BTN Between
STNR Stationary INTSF Intensifying
NC No change LAN Inland
LOC Localised

ATIS ATIS information contains meteorological and operational information.

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Meteorology Data Sheet

Chapter 21 – Satellite Information

Satellites Used to locate fronts in areas with few observation stations

Radar Detects zones of precipitation, particularly liquid-state precipitation, and also

the intensity. Wet hail can be detected by a weather radar. Detects areas of turbulence were
dry hail may be found.

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