AVIACONS HYDERABAD

GROUND CLASSES
FOR
COMMERCIAL PILOT LICENSE

CLASS NOTES
AVIATION METEOROLOGY

PREPARED BY
GROUP CAPTAIN MIKE KALIM (RETIRED)

NOTES ON METEOROLOGY : ATMOSPHERE

 Meteorology is branch of science dealing with earths atmosphere and the physical processes
occurring in it.
 Definition of the Atmosphere
  The spheroidal gaseous envelope surrounding a heavenly body.
 Atmosphere of the earth is an envelop of homogeneous mixture of gases called Air
 Properties of Atmosphere
 It surrounds the earth
 It is attached to earth due to gravity
 It moves along with earth rotation at same speed and direction
 It is about 480 Kms thick
 80% of gasses of atmosphere lies within lower 16 kms
 The atmosphere thins with height until merges with outer space
 Atmosphere has weight and hence exerts pressure
 It is compressible and expandable
 It is mobile and thus transfer heat and moisture
 It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity
 Percentage of Nitrogen and Oxygen - by weight
 Nitrogen 75.51, Oxygen 23.14
 Percentage of Nitrogen and Oxygen - by Volume
 Nitrogen 78.09, Oxygen 20.95
 Ratio of Nitrogen: Oxygen
 By Weight 3:1
 By Volume 4:1
 Atmosphere is called Homosphere up to 80 Km, beyond which is Hetrosphere
 Variable Gasses
 Water vapor, carbon mono oxide, Sulphur-di-oxide, Nitrogen-di-oxide and methane found
in varying amount
 Variable gasses allow solar radiation but absorb terrestrial radiation thus keeps the earth
warm
 Increase in variable gasses is causing Global Warming
 Saturated Air
 Amount of WV held by air depends on air temp
 Higher air temp can hold more WV
 Air can hold as much as 4% of WV by volume
 This occurs in tropical region
 At 4% WV, the RH is 100% and air is Saturated
 Unsaturated Air
 WV content is air less than 4%, RH is less than 100%
 The air is unsaturated called Dry Air
 Ozone O3
 Forms in upper atmosphere between 10 and 50 km
 Maximum ozone found 20 to 25 km
 It protects us from harmful effect of Sun UV rays
 Ozone Hole
 Considerable gaps have formed in ozone layer mainly over poles
 Ozone holes increases the risk of harmful UV rays
 Vertical Distribution of Air Mass with Height
 Below 6 km ½
 Below 10 Km ¾
 Below 35 Km 99%
 Heating of Air Mass
 Solar radiation heats the earth
 The earth in turn heats the Air Mass
 Process of heating
 Conduction - occurs when there is a temperature gradient within a material, causing heat
to flow from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature
 Convection - movement of heat through a fluid (liquid or gas) due to the bulk motion of
the fluid itself
 Radiation - thermal energy is emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic waves,
without the need for a medium to carry the heat
 Release of Latent Heat by
 Evaporation – Heat is absorbed from surrounding
 Condensation – Heat is released to surrounding
 Sublimation – Heat is releases to surrounding
 The earth atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally with
 Pressure
 Temperature
 Density
 Humidity
 Properties of Troposphere
 It is the lowest portion of Atmosphere
 Extends 16 to 18 kms over equator and 8 kms over poles
 Air Temp falls with height
 75% of Atmospheric Mass and 99% of WV in this layer
 Most of the weather occurs in this layer
 Lapse Rate is the rate at which air temp fall with height
 In ISA Lapse Rate is assumed to be 1.98 C/ 1000 ft or 6.5 C/ Km
 When Air Temp rises with height is called Inversion
 Inversion is basically –ve Lapse Rate
 When Air Temp remains constant with height is called Isothermal
 Classification of Troposphere
 Lower Troposphere Surface to 2.1 Km
 Middle Troposphere 2.1 to 7.6 km
 Upper Troposphere 7.6 km to Tropopause
 Tropopause (TP) is the boundary between Troposphere and Stratosphere
 Height of TP controlled by
 Surface temp
 Latitude
 Season
 Land-sea distribution
 Synoptic situation
 Height of TP higher over equator than poles
 Breaks/ Folds
 The sudden and abrupt change in the height of TP is called Breaks/ Folds
 Occurs prominently at two distinct regions, 40 and 60 degree latitudes
 Jet streams are associated with Folds
 It divides TP into three sections
 Polar TP
 Occurs at 300 hPa level
 Poleward from 45 to 60 deg Lat
 Polar Jet Stream occur at southern end of this Fold
 Middle TP
 Lies between Polar and Tropical TPs
  Occur at 200 hPa Level at approx. 11.5 Km
 Located approx. over 23 deg Latitude in winters
 Subtropical Jet stream occur southern end of this Fold
 Tropical TP
 Occur at 100 hPa Level at a height of 16 to 16.5 km
 Extends from equator to 35 to 40 deg Lat
 Importance of TP
 Indicates the maximum height the clouds may reach
 Existence of Jet Streams, maximum wind speed
 Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)
 Stratosphere: Properties and Features
 Extends from TP to 50 Km height
 Temp in initial 8 to 10 km is isothermal
 Temp rises gradually and then sharply towards upper end of Stratosphere
 This Inversion is produced because absorption of UV rays
 Inversion in Troposphere is unstable but stable in Stratosphere due to absence of
moisture
 Nacreous clouds or Mother of pearl cloud observed at higher latitude in winter
 Stratopause is the boundary between Stratosphere and Mesosphere
 Mesosphere: Properties and Features
 Extends from Stratopause to a height of 80 Kms
 Temp fall with height due to
 Lack of absorption of solar radiation
 Negligible vertical mixing of Air
 Noctilucent cloud observed at upper mesosphere over Poles
 Temp stops falling with height, -90 to 100 C
 Mesopause is the upper boundary
 Thermosphere: Properties and Features
 Extends from Mesopause to end of Atmosphere
 Temp increases with height
 Above 700 km, Exosphere exists
 Very few air molecules causing negligible heat
 Ionosphere: Properties and Features
 Atmosphere above 60 Kms is also called Ionosphere
 Not a separate atmospheric layer
 Presence of ions help in Radio wave propagation
 Serious radio interference also likely during solar disturbances
 ICAO ISA Atmosphere
 Air is Dry
 Temp at MSL 15 C
 Pressure at MSL 1013.25 hPa
 Density at MSL 1225 gm/cubic m
 Acceleration due to gravity 980.665 cm/ sq sec
 Lapse rate upto 11 Km 6.5 C/ km or 1.98 C/ 1000 ft
 Temp is assumed constant -56.5 C (11 to 20 Km)
 Temp rise rate 1 C/Km (20 to 32 Km)
 Temp -44.5 C at 32 Km
 ISA Deviations
 Deviation is the Actuals atmospheric conditions compared to ISA conditions
 ISA Deviation = Actual - ISA
  Important to measure Aircraft performance

NOTES ON METEOROLOGY: ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by the atmosphere on any surface in
contact with it
 Pressure is considered as the weight of a column of air of unit cross-sectional area above a
surface
 Types of Pressure
 Static Pressure
 Dynamic Pressure
 Static Pressure – The pressure exerted by molecules of air at rest. It is also referred to as
Barometric Pressure
 Dynamic Pressure – when air in motion, the surface experience additional pressure (apart
from static pressure) due to the airflow
 Pressure decreases with height
 Unit of Pressure as adopted by ICAO is Hecto-pascals hPa
 1 hPa = 1000 dynes
 Other Units are Millimeter and Inches
 1013.25 hPa = 760 mm = 29.92 Inches
 Conversion of hPa to Inches and mm
 Conversion hPa to mm hPa X 0.7500
 hPa to Inches hPa X 0.02953
 Pressure Vs Altitude
 Pressure decreases with height
 Decreases at decreasing rate
 SL to 600 m @ 4%
 600 m to 1.5 km @ 3%
 1.5 to 3.0 Km @2.5%
 6.0 Km – half of SL pressure
 100 km – pressure is negligible
 Vertical variation of pressure
 Change in height with 1 hPa varies with height
 Height change in feet at any level is given by Formula 96T/p
 T is temp in Kelvin, p in hPa
 T = 300 K and P = 1000 hPa, Ht Change per hPa = 96x300/1000 = 28.8 feet
 Roughly, 1 hPa gives change of height as
 MSL = 27 feet
 2000 ft = 30 feet
 20000 ft = 50 feet
 40000 ft = 100 ft
 Vertical variation of pressure in warm/ cold air
 Air warmer than ISA, more height changes per hPa
 Air colder than ISA, less height changes per hPa
 Horizontal variation of pressure
 Cold air is denser than warm air
 The fall of pressure with height is faster in cold column of air
 Pressure at given height is higher in warm air than in cold air
 Isobars - Line joining places of equal pressure
 The Isobar would dip down when going from warm to cold air
 Diurnal variation of pressure
 Atmosphere follows daily variation with two highs and lows
 Associated with air temperature variation during 24 hours period
 High Pressure observed at 1000 and 2200 hrs LMT
 Low Pressure observed at 0400 and 1600 hrs LMT
 Higher Max Pressure at 1000 hrs
 Lower Min pressure at 1600 hrs
 Max difference High and Low 3-5 hPa over equator, negligible at pole
 Types of instruments to measure atmospheric pressure
 Mercury Barometer
 Aneroid Barometer
 Barograph
 Height/ Altitude/ Flight Level
 Mean Sea Level (MSL) : it is a reference taken as the average of High and Low tides
 Altitude: It is a vertical distance from Mean Sea Level
 Height: It is a vertical distance from a specific datum
 Elevation: The vertical distance of a point on surface of the earth from MSL
 Transition Altitude (TA): This is the highest altitude below which an aircraft will always fly
on local QNH. At or below TA the vertical position is controlled with reference to height
above the aerodrome
 Transition Level (TL): It is the lowest Flight Level above which an aircraft will always fly
on standard QNH 1013.2 hPa. Above TL, the vertical position of an aircraft is from the
datum 1013.2 hPa. TL is expressed in 100s of feet
 Transition Layer: It is the airspace between TA and TL
 Flight Level (FL): these are level of constant pressure at or above TL separated by
pressure intervals corresponding to 500 ft with MSL pressure as 1013.25 hPa
 Pressure Altitude: when the altimeter sub scale is set 1013.25 hPa, the altimeter
indicated Pressure Altitudes. The pilot does not require to update QNH
 True Altitude: It is the altitude of an aircraft measured from ground as per actual existing
atmospheric pressure
 Altimeter Corrections
 The correction applied to the Indicated Altitude to obtain True Altitude
 Used when flying over mountainous terrain and in vicinity of obstructions
 Types of Pressure
 QFE
 It is the measures existing pressure at the ARP, highest point on the runway
 When set on altimeter, it reads zero
 Also called as zero setting
 QFF
 It is barometric pressure of aerodrome reduced to mean sea level using ISA
conditions
 Used by Met staff to plot synoptic charts and drawing Isobars
 QNH
 It is the station level pressure reduced to MSL using ISA conditions
 When set on altimeter sub scale, the altimeter reads elevation of the station
 Used for vertical separation between aircraft, aircraft and terrain
 Updated periodically as temp and pressure changes with time
 It is also called Absolute Altitude
  Regional QNH
 This is the forecast value of lowest QNH in a considered region
 Ensures adequate terrain clearance
 Issued every hour and valid for one hour
 QNE
 It is the altitude indicated when sub scale is set to 1013.2 hPa
 Used for high altitude flying above Transition Level
 Altitude indicated is referred to as Fight Level
 Relationship between QNE and QNH
 QNH > 1013, Indicated Altitude < True Altitude
 QNH < 1013, Indicated Altitude > True Altitude
 Under/ Over reading of Altimeter when travelling in a pressure difference
 Isobars DIPS from High to Low pressure and RISES from Low to High
 Altimeter OVER REDS when pressure falls during a flight
 Altimeter UNDER READS when pressure rises during a flight
 H-O-L-U-H
 Under/ Over reading of Altimeter when travelling in a temperature difference
 Altimeter UNDER READS when temp rises during a flight
 Altimeter OVER REDS when temp falls in flight during a flight
 Altimeter OVER READS in air colder than ISA
 Altimeter UNDER READS in air warmer that ISA
 Contour Charts - Constant Pressure Charts or Contour Chart is a chart where the
pressure is constant everywhere.

NOTES ON METEOROLOGY: ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE

 Temperature is measure of heat

 Measures by thermometer in deg C or K or F
 Conversion of temperature
 F = (9C/5) + 32
 C = 5/9 (F-32)
 K = C +273
 Surface Temperature: The temp measures at a height of 4 feet above ground in shade
 Ambient Temperature: The temp of the surroundings
 Specific Heat: the amount of heat required to raise of unit mass of a substance by 1 C
 Latent Heat: The amount of heat absorbed or released during change of its state
 Vertical Distribution of temperature
 Atmosphere heated by earth surface upwards
 Heating effect diminishes with height
 Lapse Rate - The rate at which temperature falls with an increase in height is called the
Lapse Rate.
 ISA lapse rate is 0.65°C/100 m (1.98°C (2°) per 1000 ft.
 Isotherm If temperature remains constant with height it is called an isothermal layer
 Inversions Where the temperature increases with an increase in height
 Types of Inversion
 Radiation Inversion - On a night of clear skies, the air close to ground are cooler than the
air above. This result in a temperature inversion above the surface.
 Subsidence Inversion - In an area of high atmospheric pressure, air descends at the
centre. As the air descends it will be heated. The warm air above cause inversion.
 Transfer of Heat
  Conduction: Heat is transferred by the molecules in contact. Occurs very close to the
ground
 Convection: Physical transfer of heat from hot part to the cold part of a substance or an
air mass
 Free Convection – by intense solar heating
 Forced Convection – by topography. Hot air lifts up and transfer heat in upper air
 Radiation – Heat is transferred from a substance by way of radiation without any medium.
Eg sun heats the earth surface without affecting earth atmosphere
 Other Methods of Heat Transfer
 Advection: Horizontal transfer of heat by wind movement
 Latent Heat : Heat release to / absorbed from surrounding air when substance changes
its state
 Turbulence – Irregular and abrupt eddies of winds redistribute heat
 Vertical Movement of Air – Condition leading to spread of heat through up/ down
movement of air
 Heating of Atmosphere
 The main source of heat for the troposphere is the sun
 Solar Radiation. Radiation from the sun is of short wave-length (λ) and passes through
the troposphere almost without heating it at all.
 The process whereby the surface is heated by solar radiation is called insolation
 Terrestrial Radiation - The process of earth radiating its own temp thereby loosing heat
in form of invisible and mostly IR radiation
 Earth receives heat in short wave from sun and loses in long wave to atmosphere
 Solar radiation
 Scattered by earth atmosphere 30%
(Air 6%, clouds 20%, earth surface 4%)
 Absorbed by ozone layer 19%
 Absorbed by earth 51%
 Total 100 %
 ALBEDO is the power of the earth to reflect 30% of solar radiation
 Heating of atmosphere through Conduction
 Air lying in contact with the earth’s surface by day will be heated by conduction.
 At night air in contact with the earth’s surface will be cooled by conduction
 Heating of atmosphere through Convection
 Air heated by conduction will be less dense and will therefore rise. This will produce up
currents called thermals or convection currents.
 These will take the warm air to higher levels in the troposphere.
 Convection and terrestrial radiation are the two main processes heating the troposphere
 Heating of Atmosphere through Condensation
 As the air is lifted it will cool, water vapour in the air will condense out as visible droplets
forming cloud.
 As this occurs latent heat will be released by the water vapour, this will add to the heating
of the troposphere
 Temperature variations -
 Latitude Effect, Seasonal Effect, Diurnal Variation and effects due to cloud and wind
 Latitude Effect.
 At the Equator only a small area is heated by the sun’s radiation and therefore will be
subject to the greatest heat/unit area.
 At the poles the sun’s rays will cover a larger area and there will be the least heat/unit
area.
 Seasonal Variation
 Equator region heats higher during Mar and September
 Northern Hemisphere heats higher in June and least in December.
 Diurnal Variation
 Diurnal variation is least over sea (1 C), Diurnal variation over land high (up to 20 C)
 Near the coast diurnal variation would depend on direction of wind
 Diurnal variation is maximum when wind is calm and least when strong
 Minimum temp occurs ½ to 1 hour after sunrise, Maximum temp occurs during noon
 Effects of cloud on temperature
 Clouds during day, reflects significant solar radiation. Max temp of surface is low
 Clouds during night, absorb most of the outgoing radiation increases surface temp
 Cloudy days are cooler and cloudy nights are warmer
 Lower the clouds, less is the diurnal variation
 Effects of Wind on Temperature
 By day, wind will cause turbulent mixing of the warm air at the surface with cold air above,
reducing T max
 Wind will also reduce the time the air is in contact with the warm ground
 By night, there will normally be an inversion above the surface. Wind will cause cold air to
be turbulently mixed with warm air above thus increasing T min
 Diurnal variation of temperature over Sea
 The sea takes a long time to heat (and cool) and has a very small DV
 The difference in DV values between land and sea is the cause of sea breezes
 When the angular elevation of the sun is low, much solar radiation is reflected back to the
atmosphere
 Diurnal variation of temperature over Land
 On land, bare rock, sand, dry soil, tarred roads and concrete runways attain a higher
temperature by insolation
 Higher temperature surfaces provide strong up currents called thermals or convection
 Snow does not prevent the earth from radiating its heat, the surface air temperatures over
snow will become colder day by day
 Diurnal variation of temperature due to Location
 Air in a valley will tend to be more static than air in an exposed position. Therefore by
night the air is in contact with the ground, temperature is lower than on a hill.
 Cold air tends to sink from the hills above at night, causing lower temperatures.
 It is for these reasons that mist and fog tend to form firstly in valleys.
 Wind blowing down the hill at night is called Katabatic Winds
 Over Oceans. Sea has very small DV, in winter the sea is warmer than the land
 There is an opposite tendency in summer

NOTES ON METEOROLOGY: PRESSURE SYSTEMS

 Low Pressure LP
 Area enclosed between closed isobars with lowest value at the centre
 In low pressure systems isobars are close together, change is pressure with distance
(pressure gradient) is greater in a low-pressure system than in a high-pressure system
 LP indicate bad weather
 Trough
 Intrusion of low-pressure isobars in to areas between two highs
 High Pressure HP
  High value isobars indicate high pressure, area enclosed between closed isobars with
highest value at centre
 It has got gentle pressure gradient
 High Pressure indicates good weather
 Ridge
 Isobars protruding from a high pressure into an area between two lows
 Cols
 Areas between two highs and two lows.
 Weather in Col synonymous with calm conditions
 Isallobars
 Lines joining places of equal pressure change or pressure tendency during the three
hours preceding the time of observation
 Regions of falling pressure are shown by closed concentric –ve value isallobars called
Isallobaric lows.
 Closed concentric positive value isallobars – regions of rising pressure called Isallobaric
highs
 Pressure Gradient
 Difference in pressure between consecutive isobars divided by the distance between them
indicates strength of pressure variation over a region
 Tightly spaced isobars – strong pressure gradient.
 The greater the pressure gradient the stronger the winds.
 High pressure system – isobars are far apart – lighter winds
 Rate of change of pressure decreases with increase in altitude
 Cold air causes pressure to decrease more rapidly with height than hot air
 High pressures are found above warm air.
 Low pressures are found above cold air.
 QFF - It is the existing aerodrome pressure reduced to MSL using actual/ prevailing
temperature and assuming isothermal condition
 Cold air has larger pressure lapse rate, ie. sea level pressure will be higher.
 Warm air has smaller pressure lapse rate, ie sea level pressure will be less.
 Surface synoptic chart is plotted using QFF values

NOTES ON METEOROLOGY: ATMOSPHERIC DENSITY

 It is defined as mass of air contained in a unit volume and unit is Gm/ cu m or Kg/ cu m
 Density Altitude: it the altitude above MSL at which a given atmospheric density would
occur in ISA conditions
 Pressure Altitude and Density Altitude are same in ISA condition
 Effect of Changes of Pressure on Density
 As pressure is increased, the air will be compressed which reduces the volume and
increases the density
 Density is directly proportional to pressure
 Effect of Change of Temperature on Density
 If a volume of air is heated it will expand and the mass of air contained in unit volume will
be less. Thus, density will decrease with an increase in temperature
 Density is inversely proportional to Temperature
 Effect of Changes in Humidity on Density
 Water vapour is lighter than nitrogen and oxygen, more water vapour means less of
nitrogen and oxygen, total mass of air reduces hence density reduces
 Density is inversely proportional to Humidity
 Effect of Change of Altitude on Density
 In the troposphere as altitude increases both temperature and pressure decrease
 Though they have opposite effects on density, the effect of pressure is much greater
than the effect of temperature
 Density decreases as altitude increases
 In the ISA ρ = 100% at sea level, 50% at 20000 ft, 25% at 40000 ft and 10% at 60000 ft
 Density will change by 1% for a 3 degree change in temperature or a 10 hPa change in
pressure
 Effect of Change of Latitude on Density
 Latitude increases - Temperature decreases – Density increases
 Air density lowest at equator and highest over poles
 This trend is applicable up to 8 km, above 8 km, the reverse happens

NOTES ON METEOROLOGY: ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY

 Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in a unit volume of air

 Water vapour is always present in air, exists in three forms, Gas – water vapor, Liquid –
rain, drizzle, shower, Solid – snow or hail
 Quantity of WV can be held by dry air depends mainly on-air temperature and less on-air
pressure
 Warmer air can hold more WV
 Evaporation is the main cause of WV in air
 Absolute Humidity is the weight of water vapour in unit volume of air. Absolute Humidity
is usually expressed in g/m3.
 Humidity Mixing Ratio (HMR) is the weight of water vapour contained in unit mass of dry
air and is expressed in g/kg.
 In unsaturated air, HMR remains constant during ascent while temperature and pressure
decreases.
 Saturation Mixing Ratio (SMR) is the maximum amount of water vapour a unit mass of
dry air can hold at a specified temperature.
 Relative Humidity (RH). The ratio HMR to SMR × 100%
 RH 100%, the air is fully saturated
 Dry Air – the air that does not hold any WV. May occur upper troposphere or stratosphere
 Moist Air – the air that we breath. Also called as unsaturated air at the existing temp and
pressure
 Saturated air – the parcel of air that cannot hold more WV at given temp and pressure
 Vapour Pressure (VP) – the partial pressure exerted by the WV content in the air
 Saturation Vapour Pressure (SVP) – it is the pressure exerted by air when it is saturated
 Instruments to measure Humidity
 Psychrometer and Hygrometer
 Recorded in hygrograph
 Wet Bulb Temp – it is the lowest temp to which the air would attain by evaporating water
into it to saturate it
 Dew Point Temp – it is the lowest temp to which the air should be cooled at a constant
pressure to saturate it
 Cooling beyond would cause condensation
 Dew Point is affected by change of water content
 RH is affected by change in water content and temp both
 Dew Point is higher if water content is more
 Dew point does not change with cooling or heating, RH does
 Frost Point – it is the temp to which ice must be cooled to saturate
 Cooling beyond would cause formation of Hoar Frost
 Diurnal Variation of Humidity
 By day, as the temperature increases, RH will decrease
 After 1500 hrs, the temperature falls, the RH will increase.
 The higher RH at night is the reason for the formation of mist and fog
 RH is maximum 30 min after sunrise

NOTES ON WINDS

 Wind is air in horizontal motion

 Wind is caused by atmospheric horizontal pressure difference
 Moves from High to Low pressure
 Components of Wind Velocity (W/V)
 Speed – measured in Knots, kmph etc.
 Direction – measured with respect to True North
 Wind direction is always given as the direction from which the wind is blowing
 Wind direction given to a pilot by ATC will be given in degrees magnetic
 Winds given in METAR, Met reports are degrees True
 Veering is a change of wind direction in a clockwise direction.
 Backing is a change of wind direction in an anticlockwise direction.
 This applies in both hemispheres.
 In a Low, in NH wind Backs and in a High wind Veers
 1 Kt is 1 Nm per hour
 Wind speed reported in interval of 5 Kts
 0 to 2 Kts reported as Calm winds
 3 to 7 Kts is reported as 5 Kts
 8 to 12 Kts is reported as 10 Kts
 Types of Winds
 Gusts - A gust is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction lasting
less than one minute and it is a local effect.
 A gust will only be reported or forecast if 10 kt or more above the mean wind speed.
 A lull is a sudden decrease in wind speed.
 Squalls - A squall is a sudden increase in wind speed, often with a change in direction.
Lasting for one minute or more and can cover a wide area.
 It is often associated with cumulonimbus cloud and cold fronts.
 Gale - A gale exists when the sustained wind speed > 33 kt, or gusts exceed 42 kt
 Hurricane - A hurricane force wind exists when sustained wind speed > 63 kt
 The ICAO requirement is that the wind vane and anemometer should be positioned 10 m (33
ft) above aerodrome level and located clear of buildings and obstructions
 An anemograph keeps records of wind speed and direction
 Surface Winds
 Both are located at a height of 10 m
 Wind is averaged for 10 mins
 For T/O & Ldg, it is averaged for 2 mins
 Upper winds measured by RAWIN, hydrogen filled balloon tracked by radar or visually
 Cross Winds
 Runways are oriented along most prevailing wind direction of that area
 Due to prevailing weather, wind direction may be from cross direction
 Wind at 90 degrees to the runway in use is called Cross wind component
  Cross wind affects T/O and Ldg manoeuvres especially light aircraft
 Buys Ballot’s Law
 States that, if we stand with our back to the wind in the Northern Hemisphere low
pressure is on the left (right in the Southern Hemisphere)
 This implies that the wind does not flow directly from high pressure to low pressure but
parallel to the isobars
 In NH, winds blow anti-clockwise around a LOW (cyclone) and clock-wise around a HIGH
(anti-cyclone)
 Effects of Earth Rotation
 CORIOLIS FORCE (CF) is the force caused by the rotation of the earth.
 It acts 90° to the wind direction causing air to turn to the right or veer in the NH
 Turn to left or back in the SH
 Coriolis Force = 2 Ω ρ Vsinφ where,
 Ω = Angular Velocity of the Earth
 ρ = Density of air
 V = Wind Speed
 φ = Latitude
 Coriolis force is Maximum at poles and Minimum at equator
 Geostrophic Winds
 The Geostrophic Wind blows straight and parallel to straight isobars under influence of
 Pressure Gradient Force
 Coriolis Force
 If the wind blows a curved path, it cannot be considered as a geostrophic wind
 Curving would be caused by presence of centrifugal or centripetal forces.
 Such curved winds are gradient wind blowing under balance of pressure gradient,
Coriolis force and centrifugal force.
 For Geostrophic Wind,
 Pressure Gradient Force = Coriolis Force
 Speed of geostrophic wind (Vg) = Pressure Gradient Force/2 Ω ρ sinφ
 Speed of Geostrophic wind Vg inversely proportional to sine of latitude
 Vg is higher at lower latitude than higher latitude
 At equator, Sine 0 is infinity, which is not possible
 Formula holds good above 30 deg latitude
 Conditions for the wind to be Geostrophic
 Above friction layer
 At a latitude above 15 degrees
 When the pressure situation is not changing rapidly
 With the isobars straight and parallel
 Cyclostrophic Winds
 It is defined as the winds which are markedly curved along isobars and blows due to
balance between Pressure Gradient force and Centrifugal force
 Frictional forces are disregarded
 Coriolis force is negligible
 It can approximate the behaviour of the wind in the atmosphere near the Equator, where
the influence of the Coriolis force in the atmosphere is small
 Gradient Winds
 It is defined as the winds that blows parallel to the curved Isobars under balance of
Gradient, Coriolis and Centripetal forces
 Around LOW in NH, Centripetal C, Pressure gradient P is directed towards centre
 Balanced by Coriolis force f
  Frictional forces are disregarded
 In middle latitude, this is better approximation of winds than geostrophic winds
 Isallobaric Winds
 Isallobar: A line on a weather map or chart connecting points having equal pressure
changes or pressure tendencies
 When pressure changes rapidly, geostrophic and gradient rules do not apply - Isallobaric
force influences wind flow
 Directed from higher to lower isallobar
 Deflect winds towards lower the falling pressure
 The winds blow under balance of
 Pressure gradient force
 Coriolis force
 Isallobaric force
 Inertial Winds
 It is a frictionless flow of winds under the balance
 Centrifugal Force
 Coriolis Force
 There is no influence of Pressure Gradient force
 Inertial Flow is anti-cyclonic in both the hemispheres
 Turbulence
 Wind is seldom steady, it fluctuates
 Gusts – peak fluctuations of wind
 Lull – Least fluctuation of wind
 Degree of Gustiness – the width of fluctuations between Gust and Lull
 Types of Turbulence
 Frictional
 Thermal
 Frictional – At low speed, flow is smooth and laminar. At high speed, flow gets unstable,
eddies form, drift away into wind causing frictional turbulence.
 Caused by surface friction and is less severe
 Thermal Turbulence: caused by convection current due to surface heating
 Heating occurs due to
 Earth Insolation
 Passage of Cool air over Warm air
 This is more severe than friction turbulence
 Factors affecting Turbulence
 The degree of turbulence is greater over buildings, trees and rugged country region
 Eddies created have vertical and horizontal velocities
 Eddies develop rapidly in steep lapse rate
 Thermal turbulence is less over cool surface and stable atmosphere
 Thermal turbulence is more marked during day than night time
 Eddies generated by thermal is larger and noticed until higher heights
 The effect of Friction may extend in the atmosphere up to 1km (height varies) depending
on
 Wind speed
 Lapse rate
 Roughness of surface
 This layer is called friction layer and within friction layer wind slows down and blow cross
isobaric
 Over Sea: Wind get deflected by 15° and speed reduces to 2/3
  Over land: Wind get deflected by 30°and speed reduces to 1/3 to ½
 Diurnal variation of surface Winds
 By Day - Convection due to ground heating creates eddies
 Eddies causes turbulence – stretch friction layer upwards – upper strong wind descends to
surface – makes S/W strong and gusty – it also veers in direction
 By Night – friction layer thins – upper strong wind unable to descend – S/W are weak and
backs– wind shear may be present at boundary of strong upper air and weak friction layer
air
 Effect of Diurnal variation of Temp – the variation over sea is less (1 C) – variation over land
is also less in continuous overcast sky – S/W is thus same 24 hours
 Diurnal variation is more prominent in Fine weather, Clear nights, Sunny days
 Diurnal Variation of surface wind aids the formation of radiation fog at night and early
morning, and its dispersal by day
 Wind Shear
 Wind shear is a difference in wind speed and direction over a relatively short distance
in the atmosphere
 Low level Wind Shear: Wind shear occurring at or near ground affecting Final
Approach, Runway, Take off path, Initial climb out path
 Vertical Wind Shear: Change in vertical wind vector with height
 Horizontal Wind Shear: Change in horizontal wind vector with distance
 Wind Changes due to Topography
 Anabatic Winds: An anabatic wind is a light wind of around 5 kt which blows up a hill or
mountain by day
 Warm sunny day hill slope becomes heated by Sun
 More prominent if it is a south facing slope.
 Air in contact with slope will be heated by conduction - rise up the hill
 Free cold air replaces the lifted air - light wind will blow up the hillside
 They are prominent when there is Funnel effect of a valley
 In such cases they are called valley winds
 Katabatic Winds: During night, slope is cooled by radiation - air in contact is also cooled –
becomes denser & heavier – flow down the slope
 More prominent when slope snow covered, sky is clear to assist radiation,
pressure gradient pressure is slack
 Speeds average 10 kt
 Flow of cold air into the valley helps frost and fog to form
 Air at higher levels is warmer and an inversion result
 Katabatic effect can occur by day when relatively warm air comes into contact with
snow covered slopes
 Most common In NE – cases Fog and TS in morning
 The Föhn Wind: it is a warm dry wind blows on the downwind side of a mountain range
 Moist air on windward side rises up in stable air
 Cools at DALR, reaches Dew Point DP – cloud base
 Cools further at SALR – ppt occur – loss of moisture – DP decreases
 Cloud base higher on leeward side – descending air will be warmer
 Descending warm air on leeward side is FOHN WIND
 Cloud base on windward will be lower than leeward
 Expect Low Clouds and ppt on windward, warm turbulent air on leeward side
 Comparison of Katabatic and Fohn Winds
 Both are down slope winds
 Katabatic wind is cold
  Fohn wind is Dry and Warm
 Ravine or Valley Winds
 Occurs in and near narrow valleys
 Existence of pressure difference between two sides of hills, air is impelled through ravine
by pressure gradient
 Winds are strong in the ravine and in area after leaving the valley mouth
 Sea Breeze
 During Day – Lands becomes warmer – air over land starts rising – upper air pressure
above land increases - Upper air pressure at adjacent sea is lower – upper air drifts
towards sea
 Surface pressure over land is lower than adjacent sea surface – surface winds blow from
sea to land called SEA BREEZE
 Avg sea breezes extend 8 to 14 NM either side of the coast with speed 10 kts
 In the tropics speed is 15 kts or more and the inland
 Direction of the sea breeze is more or less at right angles to the coast
 May vary under influence of the Coriolis Force
 Sea breeze is stronger than Land Breeze
 Land Breeze
 During Night - Land cools faster than sea – HP on land and LP over sea - Air will blow
from land to sea called LAND BREEZE
 The land breeze can be expected within about 5 NM of the coastline and with a maximum
speed of about 5 kt
 Thermal Winds
 Pressure changes in upper atmosphere controls upper winds
 The pressures at upper level are directly related to the temperature differences between
air masses
 In ISA, 500 hPa corresponds to 18000 ft, however for example
 In cold air, 500 hPa occurs at 17400 ft, in warmer air at 18500 ft
 The upper winds blowing under influence of pressure difference in upper air created by
surface temperature is called Thermal winds.
 It is the wind which must be added to the Geostrophic wind at lower levels to get the
Geostrophic wind at the upper levels
 Thermal winds blow parallel to isotherms (equal temp)
 Low temperature will be to the left of thermal wind in NH
 Speed is proportional to the temperature gradient
 Thermal wind is the vertical wind shear in a layer of air
 It is a fictitious wind blowing along mean isotherm

NOTES ON VISIBILITY AND FOG

 It is the greatest horizontal distance at which a dark object can be recognized by an

observer with normal eyesight represented by Meteorological Optical Range (MOR) or at
which lights of specified candlepower (1000 Candelas) can be seen by night
 Distance up to which prominent objects can be seen by naked eye and recognized as
such under natural lights
 Ground visibility is the visibility of an aerodrome as reported by an accredited observer
 Visibility reported by Met Office is horizontal visibility at an airfield
 Different in different direction
 Differs from Vertical or Slant visibility reported by aircraft in flight
 During Day: around airfield - By seeing RW markings and objects of at known distance
 During Night: around airfield - Existing lights at known distances
 These are called Visibility Landmarks
 Runway Visual Range (RVR) : It is the range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the
centre line of runway can see the runway markings or light delineating the runway or
identifying its centre line
 Reported when visibility is less than 1500m
 RVR 1500m and 2000m are included in METAR as supplementary information
 HAZE: It is a suspension of very small particles of smoke, dust, water, sand
 Visibility is haze is 5000 M or less, milky appearance
 Dust Haze: Dust kicked and suspended in air up by strong winds – Desert 7 semi-arid areas
 Thicker during day than night – lighter winds at night reduces dust haze
 More in summer
 Wide spread phenomena
 Prominent in Northern India
 Vertical extent up to 6-8 kms
 Smoke haze: Smoke from industrial or domestic sources suspends in air at lower levels
 Strong when winds are calm and in Inversion layer
 Mist: suspension of water droplets in air
 Visibility between 1000 to 5000 M
 RH is almost 100%
 Fog: Suspension of water droplets or ice crystals in air
 Visibility < 1000 M
 RH is almost 100%
 Classified as Thick, Moderate and Light
 Basically, is a cloud sitting on ground
 Occurs due to condensation of air water vapour close to ground
 By cooling of air to DP or feeding moisture to air and saturate it.
 Smog: When Smoke and Fog coexists is called smog – severe visibility restriction affects T/O
and Ldg
 Dust Storm: When suspended dust in air is blown by wind is called Dust Strom. Visibility in DS
is less than 5000 M
 Sea Spray: Salt particles sprayed in the atmosphere encourage condensation
 Volcanic Ash: Consists of solid matter emerging from Volcano
 Precipitation: Visibility reduces in rain and depends on intensity of rain
 Slant and Vertical Visibility
 Haze and fog are limited to few thousand above ground
 Slant visibility is poor due longer depth of fog/ haze
 Vertical visibility is better due shorter depth of fog/ haze
 Instruments to measure visibility
 Scopograph or Transmissometer are used to measure RVR along different runways
 An electronic device - intensity of a light at a distance from a photo-electric cell gives an
indication of the equivalent daytime visibility.
 More accurate than MOR, constant measurement, but only small area is sampled
 RVR equipment installed along runways close to T/O and Ldg areas
 RVR is the maximum distance that a pilot 15 ft above the runway in the touchdown area can
see marker boards by day or runway lights by night when looking in the direction of take-off or
landing
 Observer placed at 76 M from the centre line of the R/W in the touchdown area to sight the
number of marker board or lights in the appropriate direction.
 RVR is reported when meteorological optical range (MOR) < 1500 M, or when shallow fog
is reported or forecast.
 Gold’s visibility meter
 Achieved by viewing lights of known candlepower from a known distance through a
variable filter.
 The filter is varied until the light is no longer visible and the reading will give an equivalent
of day light visibility.
 Types of Fog
 Radiation Fog
 Advection Fog
 Steaming Fog
 Frontal fog
 Radiation Fog
 Conditions necessary
 Clear sky - to increase the rate of terrestrial radiation
 High RH - so that a little cooling will be enough to cause saturation and condensation
 Light wind - of 2 - 8 kt – air mixing - causing turbulence - droplets kept suspended –
warm upper air brought down to contact cold ground – thickens fog
 It is formed by the radiation cooling of earth’s surface
 It occurs in night and dissipate well after sunrise - 2-3 hrs depending on fog depth
 It never forms over water surface
 Inversion layer exists above fog layer
 Radiation fog lifts to form stratus cloud before dissipating
 It forms along H pressure or Cols with weak Pressure Gradient
 Radiation Fog in India
 Considerable flight hazard during winter
 Generally, forms after passage of WD in N India
 Daily feature along Brahmaputra Valley during winter
 Sufficient moisture
 Ground cooling due Katabatic winds
 Vertical Extent – generally up to 1500 feet or max to 3000 feet
 Advection Fog
 Advection fog is formed by the movement of warm, moist air over a cold surface. The
surface can be land or sea
 Conditions for advection fog
 Winds up to 15 kt to move the air
 High RH - little cooling is required to produce saturation and subsequent
condensation
 A cold surface with a temp < Dew Point (DP) of the moving air to ensure
condensation
 Times of occurrence and location
 Over land areas in winter and early spring
 Over sea areas in late spring and early summer
 Can occur at any time of the year when tropical maritime air moves over sea areas
whose temperature is below the dew point of the air
 Steaming fog or Arctic Smoke or Sea Smoke occurs over sea in polar regions
 It is caused by cold air from a land mass moving over a warmer sea
 The small amount of evaporation from the sea is enough to cause saturation and
condensation
 Air must be very stable
 Fog can be persistent and up to 500 feet thick - may drift inland
Dispersed by an increase in wind speed or change of direction
Usually only significant in Arctic regions - may form at any latitude when cold air moves
over a wet surface.
 Frontal fog occurs at a warm front or passing over
 It forms due to saturation of air near surface in the area of continuous rain ahead of
front
 The main cause is precipitation lowering the cloud base to the ground
 Subsidiary causes are
 Evaporation of standing water on the ground
 Mixing of saturated air with non-saturated air below
 The fog can form along a belt up to 200 NM wide and travels with the front
 Increases by orographic lifting, presence of high ground
 Will be dispersed by the passing of the front

NOTES ON CLOUDS AND VERTICAL MOTION

 Clouds are indicators of weather to be - Source of several aviation hazards

 Turbulence
 Poor visibility
 Precipitation
 Icing
 Lightning
 Wind Shear
 Important to recognize cloud and identify hazard
 Cloud Amount
 FEW 1 to 2 OKTAS
 SCT 3 to 4 OKTAS
 BKN 5 to 7 OKTAS
 OVC 8 OKTAS
 Types of Vertical Motions
 Localised Vertical Motion caused by
 Surface Friction
 Terrain
 Convection
 Sea/ Land breeze, Katabatic/ Anabatic winds, valley winds
 Confined to few Kms except Thunder Strom
 Localised Vertical Motion
 Surface Friction. Disturbs smooth flow – form eddies – grow in horizontal, vertical or slant
– may reach up to 1 Km in unstable layer
 Terrain. Airflow rises on windward, descend on leeward side – aggravates in unstable,
dampen by inversion layer – mountain wave in leeward side – eddies on both sides – may
extent up to stratosphere levels
 Convection. Heating of ground – air rises as convection cells called Thermals – causes
bumpy rides – leads to formation of convection clouds CU, CB having strong up and down
draughts
 Large Scale Vertical Motion caused by
 Pressure system
 Upper air trough and ridges
 Mountains
  Extend to 100s of Kms and to great heights
 Large Scale Vertical Motion
 Pressure Systems. Lows, Cyclone, Anti-cyclone cause large air mass to ascend or
descend over wide area – generate weather – affect aviation – also cause Convergence or
Divergence
 Frontal Zones: Fronts are zones of interference of two different air masses – creates
sloping surface – wind rises – Along cold front, abrupt and sharp upward motion – leads to
convection, TS and squally weather
 Wind Shear: vertical WS produces strong eddies and turbulence – CAT associated with
Jet Stream cause by vertical wind shear – more severe when over mountains due
mountain waves
 Terminologies Associated with Clouds
 Cloud: It is an aggregate of visible water droplets or ice particles
 Cloud Formation: Air is adiabatically lifted and cooled until water vapour condenses as
droplets or deposits as ice crystals
 The height at which this occurs is called Lifting Condensation Level (LCL)
 Deposition: Process by which vapour directly changes to ice Crystals
 Clouds continuously form and decays
 Recognition and identification of clouds and its hazard is essential
 Cloud base: The height of base of cloud above aerodrome level
 Cloud base in Feet = (Surface Dry bulb temp – Dewpoint) X 400
 Cloud Ceiling: The height above aerodrome level of the lowest layer of cloud of covering
more than 4 Oktas of sky
 Measurement of Cloud Base by Day
 Balloon with a known rate of ascent is released
 Time between release and the disappearance of the balloon into cloud noted.
 Cloud base is calculated
 Measurement of Cloud Base by Night
 An alidade is positioned a known distance from a searchlight
 It measures the angle above the horizontal of the searchlight glow on the base of the
cloud.
 The height of the cloud base is then calculated by trigonometry
 Types of Clouds
 Based on Form and Height it exists, 10 major genres of clouds
 Based on Form
 Stratiform - cloud is a layered type – more horizontal extent - little vertical extent
 Cumuliform - cloud is heaped cloud - marked vertical extent of different height
 Cirriform - cloud which is fibrous, wispy or hair-like – found at high levels of
troposphere
 Base on Height
 High Clouds – 16 tp 18 Kms in Tropics
 Consists of ice crystals
 May cause precipitation
 Advance indication of approaching weather
 Cirrus (CI), Cirrostratus (CS), Cirrocumulus (CC) are High Clouds
 Medium Clouds – 2 to 8 Kms in Tropics
 Contains water droplets and ice crystals
 Cause snow and rain
 Altocumulus (AC), Altostratus (AS) are Medium Clouds
 Low Clouds
  Forms below 2 Kms
 Contains water droplets or ice crystals
 Stratus (ST), Stratocumulus (SC), Nimbostratus (NS) are Low Clouds
 Stratus (ST)
 Generally, a grey, layered cloud with a fairly uniform base
 May produce drizzle, or light snow
 The vertical extent from a few hundred feet up to several thousand feet
 Lowest of all cloud types
 Hazard associated with stratus
 Poor visibility - covers high ground - concealing hill tops
 Thin stratus, sun can be clearly seen through the stratus layer.
 Stratocumulus (SC)
 Most common form of cloud in the skies
 It appears grey, or whitish, but usually has distinct dark parts
 It can be seen as patches, or in a continuous layer
 Usually no more than 2000 to 3000 ft thick, rarely 5000 to 6000 feet
 The cloud base is between 1000 ft and 4500 ft.
 Nimbostratus
 It is a dense, dark-grey, rain-bearing, stratiform cloud
 Extensive and long-lasting continuous or intermittent precipitation
 Usually cloud base from surface to 6500 ft above ground
 NS is generally found at the warm front in polar front depressions.
 Cumulus (CU)
 Most common form of convective cloud, being classified as heaped cloud
 Indicated presence of Thermals
 Flight below Cumulus cloud base is turbulent
 Above this cloud tops, the air is likely to be very smooth
 It forms mounds, domes or towers, of which the upper parts often like cauliflower
 The sunlit parts of cumulus clouds are brilliant white, bases are relatively dark
 They can grow rapidly, when the atmosphere is unstable
 Lack of inversion, may develop into cumulonimbus clouds, tops may reach tropopause
 Usually, the cloud base is between 1000 ft and 5000 ft
 Cumulonimbus (CB)
 All aviators should avoid.
 It consists of vigorous convective cloud cells of great vertical extent
 Upper parts consist of super-cooled water droplets and ice crystals
 The base is often very dark, with ragged cloud appearing beneath the main cloud
 Usually, base is between 2000 ft and 5000 ft
 Turbulence is moderate to severe - very strong up-currents and downdraughts
 Produces severe precipitation in the form of showers of rain and hail, lightning and static
discharge - may lead to airframe damage, erroneous instrument readings
 Condition for CB formation
 Atmospheric instability, High RH and Triggering mechanism
 Three phases: Growing, Mature, Dissipating
 Large anvil indicates dissipating phase
 Altocumulus (AC)
 White or grey cloud at medium level
 Appear as rounded masses of fibrous or diffuse aspect
 Two forms of altocumulus
  Altocumulus lenticularis - also known as lenticular cloud, is found downwind of
mountainous or hilly areas – indicate presence of mountain wave activity – moderate
to severe turbulence
 Altocumulus castellanus - is a “bubbly” form of normal altocumulus - The “towers”
that form in altocumulus castellanus are like battlements on castles – shower and
thunder may be present - a feature of summer weather in temperate latitudes.
 Altostratus
 It is a grey or bluish sheet, or layer cloud, which can be fibrous or uniform in appearance
 May cover entire sky, it gives a “ground glass” effect around the sun or moon.
 It can be from around 2000 ft to 8000 ft thick but not dense
 Sun is perceptible through the cloud layer
 Cirrus (CI)
 It is the highest of all the cloud types and is composed entirely of ice crystals
 It takes form of white delicate filaments, in patches or narrow bands
 They may also be described as fibrous or hair-like
 Indicate approaching warm front.
 Cirrostratus (CS)
 It is a transparent, whitish cloud-veil of fibrous or smooth appearance
 May cover sky partially or fully totally
 It is made up of ice crystals
 Indicated approaching warm front
 In tropics, CS is associated with the presence of tropical revolving storms
 CS often produces a halo around the sun or the moon
 Cirrocumulus (CC)
 It is probably the cloud which is least often seen in the sky
 It is thin, white and patchy layer of cloud, with ripples, more or less regularly arranged
 Cirrocumulus consists of ice crystals.
 Very High Clouds
 Nacreous Cloud
 They resemble Cirrus, Altocumulus lenticularis
 Composed of ice crystals and super cooled water droplets
 Found in upper stratosphere
 Noctilucent Cloud
 They are bluish, silvery, and sometimes orange to red in colour
 Found in upper mesosphere in summers
 Visible just after sunrise and just before sunset
 They consist of ice particles
 Contrail Levels
 Mintra Level
 Below mintra level no condensation trails form
 It is approximately at level where temperature is -45°C for 100% RH for jet aircraft
 Drytra Level
 Contrails form when temperatures are very low even when RH is 0%
 Moisture from exhaust sufficient to produce saturation
 This is known as drytra level and is 2km above Mintra level
 Maxtra Level
 The level lies in the stratosphere above which no contrails form

NOTES ON ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

 Isothermal process – Heat is allowed to enter or leave a system to maintain temp constant
 Adiabatic Process
 The process in which there is no exchange of heat with surroundings
 An adiabatic temperature change occurs when a gas is compressed or expanded with no
external exchange of heat
 In the atmosphere, if a parcel of air is forced to rise - it will expand - cool by the adiabatic
process - Similarly air is forced to descend - it will compress heat will rise
 Adiabatic processes determine the vertical distribution of temperature
 Air can hold limited amount of water vapour before it reaches saturation.
 Warm air can hold more water vapour than cold air
 This is due to greater distance between air molecule in warm air – more room for W.V
molecules
 The rate at which air cools or warms as it forced to rise or fall depends upon the moisture
content of the parcel of air. This is called Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 Lapse Rate
 It is the rate of fall in temperature with height in atmosphere
 It is +ve when temp falls with height
 Average LR is 6.5 C/KM or 1.98 C/ 1000 feet
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the lapse rate for rising dry (i.e. unsaturated) air. It
has a constant value of 1°C/100 m (about 3°C/1000 ft) or 9.8 C/ KM
 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) Saturated air, when forced to rise will cool - but
as it cools condensation of moisture occurs - latent heat is released - slows rate of air
cooling
 SALR is the LR for rising air which is saturated (RH 100%)
 SALR = 5 C/ KM, 0.5 C/100 M
 Unlike DALR, it is not constant, depends on moisture content
 At high altitude, moisture is near zero, SALR will approach DALR (at -40 C)
 SALR increases as latitude and/or altitude increase, tending towards DALR at high altitude
and high latitude
 Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) is the actual LR existing in the atmosphere
 It is intermediate between DALR and SALR
 ELR determines Air Stability
 Inversion
 Increase in temperature with height is inversion - It is also referred as –ve LR
 Low level Inversion is common during winter due nocturnal cooling of ground
 Inversion indicates stability, lack of turbulence in atmosphere
 Lower-level inversion does not permit surface air to rise and mix with upper air
 This causes smoke, haze, mist, dust and fog stagnate near ground
 Inversion is found just above stratified clouds/ radiation fog
 Inversion Layer
 That part of atmospheric layer where Inversion is observed
 The vertical motion in this layer is stable
 Inversion layer near surface occurs during cloudless cool night
 Inversion layer in upper level is associated with Anti-cyclone and some Fronts
 Stability and instability
 Stability can be defined as being resistance to change
 In atmospheric stability, changes to air in vertical motion determines stability
 When parcel of air is forced to rise
 If it returns to original place - it is Stable situation
  If it continues to rise - it is an Unstable situation
 If it takes new height – it is a Neutral situation
 Atmospheric stability is determined by comparing the ELR with the DALR and the SALR.
 Absolute Stability
 DALR > SALR > ELR
 ELR LIES RIGHT DALR AND SALR
 DRY AIR STABLE
 SATURATED AIR STABLE
 Absolute Instability
 ELR > DALR > SALR
 ELR LIES LEFT DALR AND SALR
 DRY AIR UNSTABLE
 SATURATED AIR UNSTABLE
 Conditional Stability
 DALR > ELR > SALR
 ELR LIES BETWEEN DALR AND SALR
 DRY AIR STABLE
 SATURATED AIR UNSTABLE
 Neutral Stability
 ELR = DALR: NEUTRAL STABILITY - for unsaturated (dry) air
 ELR = SALR: NEUTRAL STABILITY - for saturated air
 Weather in Stable Air
 Clear skies
 Moderate to poor visibility
 Light turbulence (except at any inversion and in mountain waves)
OR
 Stratiform cloud
 Possibly fog, especially in winter
 Continuous or intermittent light precipitation
 Clouds in stable air, small in vertical extent and large in horizontal extent, layer clouds.
 Layer clouds may include stratocumulus
 Weather in Unstable Air
 Cumuliform clouds
 Moderate to heavy showers
 Potential for moderate to heavy precipitation
 Good visibility except in showers
 Clouds form in unstable air tend large in vertical extent and small in horizontal extent -
heap clouds

NOTES ON OPTICAL PHENOMENA

 Many Optical phenomenon occurs – indicates several met parameters – help pilot to
understand surrounding weather
 RAINBOW
 Group of concentric arcs produced on background of water drops (rain drizzle or fog)
 Formed due to double refraction of Sun rays
 Once entering rain drop
 Once upon leaving
 Can be seen when viewed opposite to sun
 Subtends angle of 42 degrees from eye
  Sometimes Primary & Secondary rainbows (52 degrees)
 Secondary rainbow is not as bright as Primary
 Colours due to refraction of different colours
 VIBGYOR
 Red outside and Violet Inside for primary rainbow
 Red inside and Violet outside for secondary rainbow
 HALO
 HALO is a circle of light around the Sun or Moon
 Produced by refraction of light through ice crystals present in Cirrostratus (CS) clouds
 It is a white luminous ring of 22° radius with sun or moon at its centre (Small Halo)
 Most frequent is small Halo
 Large Halo luminous ring of 46 degrees
 Well-developed halo round the sun shows pure clear red on the outside, other colours are
usually difficult to recognize
 The portion of the sky inside the rings is darker than rest of the sky.
 SIGNIFICANCE - Negligible chances of ice accretion.
 CORONA
 Corona is a luminous coloured rings (usually 3 or more)
 Small radius (< 5 Degrees) centered on the Sun or Moon
 Red circle on outside, violet/Blue inside
 Colours usually dull
 Caused due to diffraction of light passing through Mist, Fog or water/ice particles in
ALTOSTARTUS (AS) clouds
 Diffraction is moderate bending of light when passing along boundary of an object
 SIGNIFICANCE – indicate moderate icing when cloud above Freezing Level
 May be distorted due varying size of particles
 May be observed around moon when it is in crescent form
 Refraction is the bending of light (it also happens with sound, water and other waves) as it
passes from one transparent substance into another
 Makes it possible for us to have lenses, magnifying glasses, prisms and rainbows. Even
our eyes depend upon this bending of light
 Diffraction is the slight bending of light as it passes around the edge of an object.
 The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size
of the opening
 MIRAGE
 Light rays are refracted (bent) when travel from one medium to another of difference
densities
 In atmosphere, density reduces with height – light travels in a curved path
 Rising sun or moon appears higher than they are actually are
 MIRAGE phenomena occur due to curving of lights in large changes of refractive index
 Observed when ground temp is differs markedly higher air above
 Upper MIRAGE or Superior MIRAGE
 over snow field
 cold sea surface
 In INVERSION layer
 Lower MIRAGE or Inferior MIRAGE
 Over intensely heated water, soil, beach road
 Steep Lapse Rate
 BISHOP RING
 Whitish faint ring with slightly bluish tinge inside and reddish-brown outside
  Centered around the sun or moon - Radius: 22°
 Caused by - Diffraction of light by fine dust particles in the high atmosphere
 Dust may also be of volcanic origin
 TWILIGHT COLOURS
 Various colours in sky during sunrise and sunset due to
 Refraction
 Scattering
 Selective absorption
 IRISATION
 Colours or bands nearly parallel to the margin of the clouds
 Pink colour predominates
 Cause: Diffraction of sunlight
 GLORY
 One or more coloured rings, seen by an observer around his own shadow on a cloud
consisting of numerous small water droplets, on fog, or very rarely on dew.
 Cause: Diffraction of light.
 Airborne observers may see a glory around the shadow of the aircraft they are flying
in.
 CREPUSCULAR RAYS
 Dark bluish streaks radiating from sun
 They are shadows of cloud at or below horizon.
 AURORA
 Meaning dawn (In Latin).
 It is the display of light in form of streamers, rays, arches, patches or sheets
 In this phenomenon, visible light is emitted by high atmosphere, at heights varying
from 70 and 1000 km, with peak frequency at about 100km
 Colour: Greenish white or pronounced red or yellow
 Common in higher latitude centring around magnetic poles
 Electrical particles from Magnetic storm bombard rarefied gasses in upper
atmosphere – gasses excite – emit radiation
 Impair radio communication
 Types of Auroras
 Aurora Borealis – Norther hemisphere
 Generally over NW Greenland
 Called Northern Lights
 Aurora Australis – Southern hemisphere
 Called Southern Lights
 Atmospheric Electricity
 Fine weather:
 Earth negatively charged
 Electric potential is directed towards earth
 Mean value:100 volts/min
 Thunderstorm:
 Direction of current locally reversed, ie from earth to air.
 Precipitation particles carry net positive charge towards the ground.
 Air to ground lightning flashes convey predominantly negative charge to ground.
 Types of Lightning
 Ground Discharge
 Cloud Discharge
 Air Discharge
  Thunderbolt
 It is the lightning between cloud and ground.
 Branches downward from a distinct main channel (streak or ribbon lightning)
 Ball Lightening
 Occasionally seen luminous ball seen soon after ground discharge.
 10 to 20 cm diameter.
 Moves slowly in air or ground.
 Disappears with a violent explosion
 Cloud Discharge
 This Discharge takes place within the cloud
 Air Discharge
 This Discharge occurs from cloud to Air
 It does not strike the ground
 SAINT ELMO’S FIRE
 When flying in CU/CB clouds - Bluish or greenish luminous discharge an aircraft may
experience
 CAUSE: Discharge due to strong electrical field in the cloud.
 It is also accompanied by cracking sound.
 Intensity of glow is weak to moderate

NOTES ON PRECIPITATION
 Precipitation Theory
o Ice crystal Theory
o Coalescence Theory
o Giant Nucleus theory
 ICE CRYSTAL THEORY
o It explains how precipitation happens in Cold clouds
o Both ice crystals and water droplets may be present above Freezing Level
o Water vapour may sublimate over ice crystals.
o Ice crystal grows in size at expense of water drops
o Ice crystal falls, collides with super cooled droplets below
o Crystal grows bigger in size
o Once the crystal reaches a sufficient size, it falls as precipitation
 COALESCENCE THEORY
o In Tropics, rain occur from clouds below Freezing Level
o This explains the precipitation from warm clouds
o Coalescence means - to come together so as to form one whole or unite
o Large droplets initially form by collision and coalescence of small droplets in clouds
o Large drop falls - pressure falls in their wake - smaller drops gets sucked in and
attached to falling drops
o During fall a large drop collides with smaller drops on its path, which also get
attached to it.
o Ultimately number of large drops form cloud
 GIANT NUCLEUS THEORY
o In maritime areas, cloud with lesser vertical development can give rain
o This is due to presence of large no of salt particles due to salt spray
o Vertical lifting of Giant Hygroscopic nuclei by vertical currents
o Absorb water vapour to form large water droplets
 o A chain reaction is created
 SNOW AND SLEET
o When surface temperature is less than 4°C and
o Mean temperature between the surface and base of cloud is less than 0°C
o Snow fall is usually in the form of flakes.
o Sleet is mixture of rain and snow
 Cloud Burst - Very heavy showers or rain over an area in a short period is called Cloud
Burst
 Flash Flood - A sudden rise in the level of rivers or streams causing flood is called Flash
Flood
 Rainy Day – when the rainfall amount is a day =/> 2.5 mm
 Diurnal Variation of Rainfall
o Tropics, cloud form due to convection – Afternoon
o Coastal – Sea/ land breeze, Valleys – Katabatic/ Anabatic winds – night early
morning
o Precipitation happens in
 Tropics – Afternoon
 Coastal areas and Valleys – At night/ Early Morning hours
 Elsewhere – Afternoon and Early night
o Rainfall is more in summer than winter
o In temperate latitudes clouds form due to Convergence associated with
Depressions/ Fronts - rain or snowfall is maximum in winters
o In NW India, precipitation is due Fronts of WD, mostly in winter
 Artificial Rain or Cloud Seeding
o An attempt to stimulate rain
o Done by injecting nucleating agents into cloud
 Silver Iodide, common salt, solid CO2
 Spraying of Potassium Chloride in small cloud
o Clouds grow rapidly and rains in 15-20 minutes
o The particle sprayed act like ice forming nuclei to initiate Bergeron process
o Used commonly for fighting fire, ending draught, promote harvesting, draining
clouds and fog dispersal
 Fog Dispersal
o Fog can be dispersed by
 Increasing the air temperature
 Or by seeding the fog as cloud
o Facilitate aircraft take-off and landing
o Not a common practice due fire hazard
o In an extreme and unavoidable need, Cloud seeding, a better solution
 Classification of Rainfall
o Light --------- Less than 7.5 mm
o Moderate --------- 7 - 35.5 mm
o Rather Heavy --------- 35.6 - 64 mm
o Heavy --------- 65 - 84.9 mm
o Very Heavy --------- More than 85 mm
o Exceptionally Heavy --------- 250mm

NOTES ON ICE ACCRETION

 Formation of ice on an aircraft in flight is called Ice Accretion
 Icing affects aircraft aerodynamics – may lead to loss of controls - Serious aviation hazard
 Aircraft anti icing system capable of limited protection
 Avoiding formation of icing is necessary
 Types of Icing
o Airframe Icing
o Engine Icing
 Types of Airframe Icing
o Hoar frost
o Opaque Rime
o Glazed Ice
 Hoar Frost Icing
o Occurs on airframe in clear air
o Occurs on ground (aircraft parked on tarmac on a cold night)
o Occur in air when descend from above FL to a lower level of warmer moist air
o Feathery in appearance
o Formed due to sublimation WV on cold airframe
o Dissipates easily when warmed or due vibration
o Not a serious icing hazard
 Opaque Rime Icing
o Deposit of opaque ice with light porous texture
o Opaque due air trapped in ice
o Less weight but may alter aerodynamics
o Formed by freezing of small super cooled water droplets – when flying in cloud above
FL
o Accumulates on LE and Struts
o Similar to ice crystal deposit in Freezers
 Glazed/ Translucent/ Clear Icing
o Called Clear due to transparent glassy appearance – has less air trapped
o When super cooled water droplets freezes and spreads on airframe
o Starts at LE and spreads backwards
o Initial deposit is smooth – may be slightly rough at Aft
o Sticky – cannot be shaken off easily
o May break off to cause large chunks to fly off – hazardous
o Poses serious inflight hazard, may lead to vibration due unequal load on wings and
propeller blades
o Similar to ice cubes in freezer tray
 Water droplets that remain in liquid state at temperature below freezing are said to be super
cooled.
 Even though the largest droplets freeze between 0ºC and -20 - Smallest droplets remain liquid
at up to minus-40ºC
 Temperature Range for Airframe Icing
o Severe icing 0ºC to – 7 ºC
o Moderate icing -7ºC to -12ºC
o Light icing -12ºC to –20ºC
o Very light icing -20ºC to -40ºC
 Clouds Associated with Airframe Icing
 o CI, CS CC – mainly ice crystals – negligible icing hazard
o AS, NS – Super cooled water droplets – Light to moderate icing
o AC – Light to moderate icing, severe icing over mountains
o TCU – Light to severe icing at least up to -20 C
o CB – Light to severe icing up to -20 C – below this not significant
 Effects of Airframe Icing
o Alters aerodynamics
o Increases Stalling speed
o Unequal wing loading – vibration
o Jamming of control hinges
o Pitot tube block – wrong ASI readings
o Antenna icing – communication problems
 Engine Icing
o Types of Engine Icing
 Impact Icing
 Carburettor Icing
o Impact Icing – occurs when super cooled water droplets impact engine intake –
restricts air flow to engine – leads to loss of engine power
o Carburettor Icing
 Air passes through the carburetor – pressure falls inside the carburetor – due to
adiabatic cooling at carburetor – temp drops very low
 Evaporation of fuel further enhances the decrease in temperature.
 If humidity is high icing occur due to sublimation.
 Can occur even in clear air even if outside air temperature of 30°C
 Below -10 C, icing is negligible unless liquid is present
 Unlikely when RH is less than 60%
 Height of Freezing Levels in India in various seasons

NOTES ON THUNDERSTORM

 Thunderstorms (TS): occur in well-developed cumulonimbus (Cb) cloud, not all Cbs
 Accompanied by sudden cool strong squally winds, blackening of sky, sharp showers, hail,
snow, sleet etc.
 Conditions for occurrence
o A lapse rate greater than the SALR through a layer at least 10000’ thick and extending
above the freezing level
o Sufficient water vapour to form and maintain the cloud
o Trigger action Lifting forces that increases instability – Convection, Orographic uplift,
Convergence, Frontal uplift, katabatic cooling
 The most hazardous weather phenomena - Occurs in well-developed CB cloud
 Thunderstorm is reported when thunder is heard
 Diameter of CB cloud – 1 – 10 km
 Thunderstorms are classified based on origin
o Frontal type (more common in winter time): mainly Cold front – vigorous uplift of warm
moist air – more severe than Air mass type – develop any time of the day – Line of TS
ahead of cold front is called Line Squall – severe weather
o Air mass type (more common in summer time) – mainly due to intense heating and
convergence due to LP – Also occur when cold air mass passes over warm sea –
 relatively weak – mostly develop in the afternoon in plains – in valleys, develop during
night/ early morning
o Steady State TS. Associated with Fronts, converging winds, Troughs – Precipitation
falls outside up draughts – Last for several hours
o Mesoscale Convective Complex – Circular cluster of many interacting TS – Occur
over large area – New TS continue to develop within – Lasts 6 to 24 hours – Severe
weather, tornadoes, flash floods – Forms near Fronts and in tropics ITCZ
 Classification based on number of cells
o Single Cell – has one main up draught – Local instability phenomena – less severe
o Multi Cell Cluster – Multiple TS cells due to convective up draughts near mountains,
cold fronts – last up to an hour
o Multi Cell Lines – Squall Lines, Ahead or along cold Fronts, 100s of km long – moves
swiftly – cause heavy rains, lightening, strong winds – Powerful Squall Line is called
DERECHO
o Super Cell – Large and severe TS – separate up and down droughts – produces WS –
may reach upto lower Stratosphere
 Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm
o Cumulus Stage
 Triggering lifts parcel of air – expands and cools – further lifting condenses – Cu
is formed
 Condensation releases Latent heat – surrounding air warms – Further rises due
convection – creates up draughts – LP develop within and beneath cloud –
Entrainment (mixing of surrounding air into cloud) occur
 Air continues to rise higher until warmer air present – the CU develops into CB
 Strong up draughts throughout the cell – up to 30 m/s – super cooled water
drops, ice crystals held in suspension – falls when become heavier
 Main aviation hazard - Turbulence and Icing
o Mature Stage
 Warmed air continues to rise upto Tropopause level – no more rise possible –
spreads sideways like Cirrus (False Cirrus) – Anvil shape – water drops merges
and become heavier – falls as rain
 If upheld by up draught, falls as hail – falling rain draws surrounding air – creates
down draughts – Both draughts present
 Sudden rush of strong cold winds on ground – spreads horizontally – under cuts
and lifts surrounding warm air – generate new TS
 Last for 20 to 40 min
 Presents Sever weather hazard – precipitation, draughts, WS, severe turbulence
o Dissipation Stage
 Up draught ceases – further growth of cloud ends - dominated by down draughts
– precipitation may occur with reducing intensity
 Downdraught is week and confined to middle and lower level
 Up draughts are nil or restricted to upper level
 The cloud extends to tropopause
 The upper wind pushes the cloud top to form anvil
 Winds at 700-500hpa levels influence the movement
 Light Rain occurs in this stage
 Clouds type emanate from CB
o Roll Clouds
  It is an elongated cylindrical dark cloud which appears to rotate about its
horizontal axis
 It is detached from CB
 It occurs behind the first gust
 Seldom associates severe weather
o Shelf Clouds
 It is a wedge-shaped elongated cloud having flat base
 It is attached to CB
 It occurs at the edge of Gust front
 Associates severe weather
 Intensity of Thunderstorm
o Light
 Faint peals of thunder
 Lightning flashes at long intervals
o Moderate
 Loud peals of thunder
 Frequent flash of lightning
 Moderate or heavy showers and light hail
 Max wind speed generally 15-40 kts
o Heavy
 Continuous thunder and lightning
 Heavy rain/shower may be hail
 Max wind speed exceed 40kts
 Diurnal variation of Thunderstorm
o Terrain
 Over plains - TS mostly occur during the afternoon and die out in the evening
 Over valley and foot hills - TS occur during night and early morning
 Over sea - TS most frequent at night
o Seasonal Variation
 In mid latitude - over the land and frequent in Summer
 Frontal thunderstorms are frequent in winters
 Aviation Weather Hazards of Thunderstorm
o Turbulence
 Most severe – caused by gusts, eddies, up/ down draughts
 Around a CB and between adjacent CBs – 1000 feet above top – Below CB to
ground – affect T/O and Landing
o Wind Shear
 Strong wind variation near ground
 Down draughts strikes and rises upto 2000 feet – WS zone exists
 On approach, wind changes cause aerodynamic handling problems
o Squall
 Initial down draughts spreads along ground as squall – upto 40 -100 kt –
strongest squall ahead direction of movement of TS
o Draughts
 Up draughts are stronger
 Can suck in and lift light aircraft to great height – experience high G forces
 Down draughts exist from middle level downwards
 sudden height loss upto 500- feet
o Gusts
  All over CB – maximum at junction of up and down Draughts
 Severe Load Factor, G forces can be encountered – structural failure
o Icing
 Icing is possible in temp range of 0 to -30 C
 Glazed ice form upto 1000 feet from freezing level
 More brittle ice form towards cloud top
 Engine power loss or reduced power
 Sever icing in CB clouds
 Use de-icing systems
o Hail
 Worst hail occurs from Freezing level to 25,000 feet
 Generally limited in area extent
 Large hail can damage aircraft – occur upto 45,000 feet in CB cloud and under
CB Anvil
o Heavy Shower
 Reduces visibility drastically
 Standing water on runway causes hydroplaning
 Water ingestion in engine causes power loss
o Lightning
 Generally harmless, may cause external damage
 Compass may show erroneous reading
 Radio Signal losses, malfunction of electronic equipment, temporary blindness
o Noise
 Noise associate with rain, hail and thunder are disturbing
o Darkness & Disorientation
 In CB, thick darkness leads to disorientation, lack of spatial orientation
 Believe and follow instruments
o Instrument Error
 Reduction in pressure below a CB – Altimeter tends to over-read
 Water ingestion in Pitot lead to erroneous readings
 Radar Detection of Thunderstorm
o Specially designed storm detection radars are used for
 Locating TS
 Watching their development
 Movement
 Dissipation
o May be ground based or airborne
 For detecting precipitation, a wavelength of 3 to 20 cm is suitable.
 For precipitation measurement wavelength of 10 cm is widely used
 Microbursts and Macro bursts
o Localised severe down draughts of severe intensity
 Dry Microburst occur under a CB or CB Anvil
 Wet Microburst occur CB in intense precipitation
o Area Extent
 Microburst of area < 4 km
 Macro burst of area > 4 km
 Spreads outwards 2 to 4 km and upto 600 m
o Life – 1 to minutes, series of microburst may last 15 to 20 minutes
o Causes
  Falling rain quickly evaporates in dry air (VIRGA effect) - evaporation reduces
temp of air column – colder column descends faster towards ground
o Wind Speed
 Speed of downdraught may exceed 75 kmph close to ground.
 Average horizontal wind speed of 90 kmph is common, at times may exceed 200
kmph
o System which produces Microburst
 CB cloud (about 5 % of all TS produce microburst)
 Heavy rain (high probability of micro burst)
 Virga (medium probability of microburst)
o Aviation Hazards – Head/ Tail winds, vertical wind shear, Crosswind shear,
Turbulence, Rain effect
o
 Dust Storm and Sand Storm
o In pre monsoon season, surface temperatures are very high over north India -
Atmosphere is highly unstable over desert areas - With a small amount of moisture
incursion, conditions become favorable for formation of CB clouds
o As humidity aloft is not high, clouds do not build up to great heights - clouds can still
cause storms if their tops extend to sufficient height above freezing level
o These local storms raise loose dust or sand from ground up to 10,000 ft.
o These are called Andhi in N India
o Reduces visibility drastically
o Lasts for a shorter time than TS
 Norwesters
o Violent thunderstorms which affect West Bengal, Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand
(Chotanagpur) North East States and Bangladesh.
o Most violent form of TS
o During pre-monsoon period (March to May).
o Locally known as Kalbaishakhi
o Accompanied by strong squalls and hail
o Poses extreme aviation hazard
 Dust Devils
o During summer, local SW converge towards hot spot
o Starts rotating about a vertical axis
o Picks up dust from ground and whirl up wards
o It may reach upto 2 km, diameter upto 10 m
o It is short lived phenomena
 Tornados
o A rotating funnel – air is sucked up from below the CB
o It is a strong instability phenomenon
o Rotation is caused due to
 Circulating wind below CB is drawn up to its base through convergence
 Low level wind shear below the cloud lifted up along its up draught
o Speed of rotating wind is upto 150 kts
o LP in the core
o Diameter upto 200 m
o Life of few minutes to about an hour
o Large scale tornado causes extensive damage
 o Rare phenomena in India
o Tornado over sea is called water spout
o The funnel suck up sea water
 Funnel Clouds
o The strong wind gathers dust and debris & the low pressure generates a funnel shaped
cloud extending downward from the CB base.
o If the cloud does not reach ground, then it is funnel clouds

NOTES ON AIR MASS AND WESTERN DISTURBANCE

 Definition: Air Mass is a large body of air covering an area of thousands of square kilometers
in which the horizontal and vertical distribution of temperature (density) and moisture are nearly
uniform
o Air mass move with wind and carry their properties
o Weather associated with air mass depends on their properties and interplay with other
air masses
o Characteristics differs with their origin and travel
o Air masses gets modified as they travel
 Source Region
o Air mass forms large body of air stagnates for a long period over an area with fairly
uniform temperature and moisture
o HP area with slack pressure gradient and hence light winds are most suitable source
region
o Mainly Poles and Subtropical Highs
o Stagnation of air over these regions acquire properties of underlying surface
 Classification of Air Masses
o Temperature and humidity characteristic distinguish air masses.
o From temperature characteristic
 Polar air mass
 Tropical air mass
o From moisture characteristic
 Continental air mass
 Maritime air mass
 Tropical Maritime Air (Tm)
o Originates at sub tropical Highs of N Pacific Ocean
o Arrives over India during monsoon season.
o High temperature, high relative humidity and high dew point.
o Excellent visibility
o High diurnal range of temperatures.
o Cumuliform clouds causing showers
o Thunderstorm
 Tropical Continental Air (Tc)
o Most common air mass over India
o In winter season.
o Moves over India as a cold dry current
o Fair weather
o Poor visibility conditions
 Equatorial Maritime Air (Em)
 o Originates over Indian Ocean
o Has a long travel over water
o Prevails over India to the south of 25°N during monsoon season
o High humidity
o Sultry weather
o Good visibility except in showers
o Small diurnal range of temperature
 Air masses over India in Winters
o India is overrun by Tc air mass.
o In extreme south, occasional intrusion of Tm air from south of equator.
o Western Disturbances which affect northern India draw Tm air from Arabian sea and
Bay of Bengal
o After the passage of WD sometimes in winter there is an incursion of Pc air mass, which
cause Cold Wave conditions
 Air Masses over India in Summers
o Equatorial low moves northwards and by June gets established over Gangetic plains as
Monsoon Trough.
o To the south of this trough - Em air from southern hemisphere.
o To the north –
o Tc air in northwest India
o Tm air in northeast India and along Himalayan range
 Fronts
o Definition of Fronts: It is a narrow zone of transition between two air masses of
contrasting densities
o Difference is density is due to difference in temperature and humidity
o Change in temperature, wind, clouding and precipitation is observed at the Front
o Frontal Surface: It is the sloping surface along which the two air masses exist
o Front is the place the Frontal Surface meets the ground
o Frontogenesis:
o In a Front, weather occurs when significant density contrast
o Little density contrast does not affect weather other than small wind changes
o Front becomes active when density contrast increases
o Strengthening of Front is called Frontogenesis
o Weakening of Front with time and dissipation Frontal weather is called Frontolysis
 COLD FRONT
o Demarcation Zone between Cold air mass overtaking Warm air mass
o Cold air provides a wedge on which the warm air glides
o Associated with CU and CB clouds
o Average slope of Front is steep 1:50, slope gradient reduces with height
 KATA TYPE COLD FRONT
o It has a shallow slope 1:120 with speed about 20 kts
o There is sinking of warm air at upper level
o Vertical cloud development is restricted
o ST, NS, AS, CU, CB clouds are found
o Precipitation is widespread, showery type occurs ahead and just behind the Front
o Behind, rain occurs from NS and AS clouds
o When Front moves fast, Line Squall develops 100 – 300 km ahead of Front
 ANA TYPE COLD FRONT
o It has a steep slope 1:50 with speed > 30 Kts
o Instability due to rising warm air at upper level
o Main clouds CU, CB
o Violent TS, hail and shower of short duration
o Confined to 100-150 Kms
o Weather generally clears on passage of ANA Cold Front
 WARM FRONT
o It is demarcation zone between Warm air mass overtaking Cold air mass
o Shallow Slope – 1: 150 to 1:180 with speed of about 10 to 15 Kts
o If advancing Warm air unstable, ST, CU clouds
o If stable, air sinks at higher level – Stratiform clouds
o Warm Front is represented by
 ANA TYPE WARM FRONT
o Warm air is Unstable
o CU, CB embedded in Stratiform clouds
o Brief spells of heavy precipitation, just ahead of Front – Drizzle
o After passage, fog dissipates, sky clears
 OCCLUDED FRONT
o Cold front moves at twice the speed of warm front.
o Occluded front forms when cold front catches up with warm front.
o Occluded fronts are of two types
o Cold occlusion
o Warm occlusion
o Symbol of occluded front
 COLD OCCLUSION: If the air mass of advancing cold front is colder than the cool air mass of
the warm front - cold front undercuts and lifts both the warm and cool air masses of the warm
front
o Weather in Cold Occlusion
 Initially warm front type
 During passage of front showery weather of cold front occurs.
 Cold occlusion occurs in summer
 WARM OCCLUSION: When the air mass behind the advancing cold front is less cold than the
cold air mass of warm front ahead, advancing cold front overrides the warm front ahead.
o Weather in Warm Occlusion
 Similar to warm front.
 Occurs in winter.
 Less common
 STATIONARY FRONT
o Front that shows almost no movement
o On either side of the front there are two contrasting air masses.
o Winds on either side blow parallel to the front but in opposite direction
o E.g.: Polar front.
 FRONTS OF THE WORLD
o POLAR FRONT
 It is a transition zone between Polar Easterlies and Mid Latitude Westerlies
 Located at around 60 deg latitude
 It is not continuous, active only in segments
 o ARCTIC FRONT
 It is boundary between Arctic and Polar air masses
 Lies further north than Polar front, often displaced southwards into Temperate
latitudes during winter
o MEDITERRANEAN FRONT
 It is the boundary between Polar Continental (Pc)air form Europe and Tropical
Continental (Tc) from north Africa
 Lies roughly from West to East over Mediterranean in winter
 FRONTS IN INDIA
o India is not affected by Fronts except extreme NW India
o This is of Frontal Origin
o When it reaches India, it is mostly in Occluded stage
 WESTERN DISTURBANCE
o WD’s are lows or troughs which move from W to E , N of 20° N and causes weather.
o Whenever the low has two or more closed isobars at 2 hpa interval, it is termed as
Western Depression.
o Troughs above 500 hpa level are called Troughs in Westerlies
o Noticed as cyclonic circulation/ trough in mid and lower tropospheric levels
o Identified by LP area on the surface chart
o Originates over the Mediterranean Sea, Caspian Sea and Black Sea and move
eastwards across north India
o Belongs to Extra Tropical Cyclone Family
 WESTERN DISTURBANCE IN INDIA
o Over India, it is in Occluded stage causing warm/ cold front type of weather
o Intensify over India due to terrain and moisture feed form Arabian Sea
o Formation of Induced Low/ Cyclonic circulation – under influence of WD a Low is
formed south of WD affecting Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab
o Average frequency of WD is 5 to 7 in winters and Nil in monsoon
o Movement: Enters from Pakistan into Rajasthan – NE towards Western Himalayas -
glide along foothills – cover Indian plains – towards NE states
 Speed is approx. 250 to 300 km per day
o Weather – 50% of cases, weather is confined to Northern states, Bhutan and Arunachal
– rest in northern plains and NE
 Maximum precipitation along foot hills
 After passage, fog and cold waves occurs
 Subsequently fog lifts by afternoons
 AVIATION HAARD OF WD
o During Approach and Passage - Low clouds, poor visibility, rain, TS, hail, icing, wide
spread fog
o After Passage – widespread fog
o During pre-monsoon - wide spread dust haze and dust storm are experienced over
NW India under the influence of WDs
 TROUGH IN WESTERLIES
o A series of Troughs n Upper Air Westerlies keep moving from West to east with
considerable amplitude
o They cause upper air divergence ahead of them
o Severe TS, DS, Norwesters and heavy rains occurs
 NOTES ON JET STREAMS

 It is a strong narrow current of winds

o Along a semi horizontal axis in the upper troposphere
o Path of stream is zig zag
 Extent
o 1000s km in length
o 100s km in width
o Less than 5 km in depth
 Accompanies strong vertical and horizontal wind shear
 Lower limit of Jet Core Velocity 60 Kts
 One or more velocity maxima may exist
o Path of maximum wind speed is called Axis
o Tubular volume surrounding Axis is called Core of jet stream
 Wind speed along axis is not uniform
 Drop in speed below 60 Kts is termed as jet stream break
 Jet streams can break into two flowing in different direction
 Jet Streak – Centers of high-speed winds along Axis
 TYPES OF JET STREAMS
o Arctic Jetstream (AJ)
 Westerly
 Close to polar tropopause
 7-8 km height over the Arctic region
o Polar Front Jetstream (PFJ)
 Westerly (sometimes NW’ly or SW’ly)
 Mid latitudes (30°N in Winter 70°N in Summer)
 Core Speed is stronger in winter than in summer
 80-100kts in winters
o Sub-Tropical Jet Stream (STJ)
 Westerly
 Above the Subtropical high-pressure belt
 Winter 27°N and strong ( in February 22°N)
 Summer 35°N and weakens
 Close to Mid latitude Tropopause
 Oct-May affects India - 100kt -200kt
o Tropical Jet Stream (TJ)
 Easterly
 Height – 15-16km
 Prominent during Monsoon and Week in Winters
 June-august axis at 13°N (Chennai)
 Core speed is 60-80 kts (maximum is 150kt)
o Stratospheric Jet Stream (SJ)
 Above 20 km in Arctic and Antarctic region
 Westerly – Winter
 Easterly –Summer
 Jet Streams over India
o Subtropical Jet Streams
 During Non-Monsoon Month
o Tropical Jet Stream
  During Monsoon Months
 Sub-Tropical Jet Stream
o STJ appears in October after withdrawal of monsoon
o Progressively move Southwards
o Mean position is at 27 N Lat at 12 Km height - Southernmost location 22 N Lat
o STJ prevails Oct to May (8 months)
o STJ is North of India from May to Oct
o Mean wind speed is 100 Kts with Max of 200 kts
 Lowest speed – 60 to 70 Kts during October and May
 Highest speed – 100 to 120 Kts in January and February
o Level of max wind speed is just below Tropopause
o Branching of STJ due to Himalayas - Recombine over China
o It is layered structure – 2 layers of Max winds
o STJ is located 3-4 Km below Tropopause - In the region of Tropical Break/ Fold at 300-
200 hPa level
o Vertical Windshear – Occur above and below the Core
 Stronger above the Core
o Horizontal Windshear – Occur North and South of the Core
 Stronger in the North and below the Core
o Weather in STJ
 With Passage of WD, STJ strengthens and moves South
 Divergence in combination with Low Pressure causes severe TS
 Tropical Jet Stream
o Occurs over Peninsular India June to August
o It is Easterly Jetstream
o Location
 South 25 N Lat
 Mean 13 N Lat near Chennai
 At 100 hPa level in Monsoon period
o Wind speed
 Easterly winds speed increases with height - 80 Kts at 16 Km
 Maximum 150 Kts
o Found over Asia and Africa
o Max wind speed observed just below TP
o Windshear strength is less than STJ
 Weather in jet Stream
o Sheets of High clouds CS, CC with defined and sharp edges in the warm side of the
stream - Cloud tops few thousand below TP
o Cirrus CI clouds are common on the cold side of the stream - Cloud top just below
TP
o Roll type if CI and CS may occur all along the stream
o CAT occurs around boundaries of Jetstream due to large windshear
o Strongest CAT occurs just below the axis on the colder or Low-Pressure side which
is left of stream in NH
o CAT is severe in
 Strong wind speed
 Curved Jets
 On the leeward side and above the mountain range
 NOTES ON CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE

 Concept and Features of CAT

o Bumpiness experience by aircraft at high altitude in cloud free condition
o Caused when body of air masses of widely different speeds meet
o Occurs in upper troposphere (23000 to 39000 feet) near tropopause
o Frequently found near Jet Streams
o Unstable air enhances CAT
o In lower level, may occur near mountain ranges
o May occur in stratiform clouds also
 Conditions for Generation of CAT
o Marked horizontal or vertical wind shear
o Steep lapse rate in the atmosphere
o Generally, these conditions are found below tropopause and in the vicinity of
Jetstream core
o CAT is found in lower Stratosphere also
o CAT is found near the fringes of Jetstream, but not within the core
o CAT also occurs when strong winds cross a mountain range under suitable stability
conditions
o The combined effect of mountain wave and Jetstream may cause severe CAT
o CAT also occurs at top of TS due to mixing of strong winds
 CAT over India
o October –May, frequency of CAT is more over N, central and NE India due to the
presence of STJ
o July-August over S India due to presence of TJ
o Most of the CAT over India are weak
o Severe CAT occurs from December to February when STJ is in its peak
o It is a Patchy phenomena
o Extent: 120 KM N-S direction, 250 KM E-W direction
o Vertically: 2000 feet, can be deeper as well
 Aviation Hazard of CAT
o CAT causes discomfort
o Difficult to control the aircraft
o Sudden and may get amplified (due to mountain waves)
o Avoidance
 Avoid flying close to Jet Streams
 Climb/ Descend to get clear of CAT
 Turn N/S to leave CAT zone
 Avoid flying just below Tropopause

NOTES ON MOUNTAIN WAVES

 Concept and Features

o The airflow gets disturbed when flowing over mountainous area
 o The flow pattern is non uniform and extremely complicated
o The waves formed on the leeward side of the mountain is called mountain wave
 Conditions for formation
o Wind
 Shall flow across the ridge, within 30° perpendicular to the ridge
 Speed should be at least 7m\s for smaller mountains and 15m/s for larger
mountains
 Steady flow with speed increasing with height
o Stability
 Less stable at lower levels
 Stable layer slightly above the mountain crest
 Less stable or unstable layer above this layer
 Vertical Currents
o They rise and sink after crossing the mountain
o Vertical currents may reach 10 to 25m/s
o In down current aircraft suffer constant loss of height
o In up current gain of height is encountered
 Clouds in Mountain Waves
o In Humid Air, MV forms characteristics clouds
o Cap Cloud – over the peak
o Rotor Cloud – bottom of wave
o Lenticular Cloud - crest of waves on leeward side
o Fohn Wall – clouds sweep down, like a cloud fall
o ST, SC, AS, CI, Nacreous Clouds
 Cloud recognition
o Lenticular – ragged cloud, indicate turbulence, few thousand feet above wave crest
o Rotor – At first crest level, rounded shape
o Cap – over mountain top, may slope down leeward side as Fohn wall
 Turbulence
o Flying over mountain is not always turbulent
o Smooth air to turbulent is sudden without warning
o Rugged clouds indicate turbulence
o Severe turbulence in Cap, Fohn wall and rotor clouds
o Severe turbulence in vicinity of rotor clouds (2-4 g) similar to TS
o In series of ranges, turbulence get more violent
 Effects on Altimeter in Mountain Waves
o Aneroid Barometer is unable to respond to rapid changes in height called
HYSTERESIS Effect
o Changes in temperature gives Altimeter misreading
 Colder than ISA – Over reads
 Warmer than ISA – Under reads
 Seasonal and Diurnal Variations
o During evening
 Earth start getting cooled
 This reduces the wind speed at lower levels
 Which can cause waves to form of lesser intensity
o During winter
 Winds are steady and strength increases with height
  More frequent in winters
 Extent of Mountain Waves
o Horizontal – 100 – 200 kms
o Vertically – Upto stratosphere
o Wavelength of wave – 10 kms or more
 Aviation hazards
o Strong up and down currents
o Turbulence
o Unexpected winds of large magnitude
o Icing
o Errors in altimeter

NOTES ON TROPICAL SYSTEM

 In Tropics, temp and density contrast between two air masses is not well marked
 Line of Discontinuity can be drawn in the wind field in upper air charts by inspection of cloud
pattern
 This Line of Discontinuity is called Tropical Discontinuity or Convergence Zone
 Inter Tropical convergence Zone (ITCZ) – It is a narrow zone along which Tm or Tc from
North meets the Tm or Tc from the South
 It forms along Equator Trough (ET) – depending on sun inclination, it moves to 20 N in
summer and 20 S in winter
 ITCZ occurs all round globe but active at select places
 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone ITCZ
o Where active, it gives CB clouds and heavy showers
o Where inactive, it gives scattered rain and CU clouds
o In winters, it moves to S Bay of Bengal and initiate formation of cyclonic storms
o During monsoon, ITCZ coincides with Monsoon Trough
o It is also called Equatorial Front
o Equatorial Trough the quasi-continuous belt of low atmospheric pressure that lies
between the subtropical high-pressure belts of the Northern and Southern
hemispheres
 Easterly Waves
o Troughs in tropical easterly winds.
o Form on the ITCZ with fairly high frequency.
o Originate at sea at the boundary of tropical maritime and equatorial maritime air
masses.
o Surge of Em air may distort the ITCZ and start the Easterly Wave.
o Travel East-West direction
o Weak at surface, Better developed at 500hpa level and above.
o Wavelength is about 1500 km.
o Move from West-East with speed 20-25 kmph along the ITCZ.
o Most of the weather occurs in the rear of the wave trough.
o In Winter
 Noticed in Andaman Sea as shallow lows with troughs in the upper air.
 Move westward across south peninsula and emerge in to Arabian sea.
  Speed
 15 kts over sea.
 10 kts over peninsula.
 ITCZ is to the south of the equator
 On rare occasions it moves to extreme south bay.
 Resulting wave may cause a spell of disturbed weather for 3-4 days over
Bay islands, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Arabian sea islands
o During pre-monsoon season
 ITCZ advances further North
 Consequently, the frequency of eastern wave over India increases.
 These help the formation of pre-monsoon cyclonic storms over Indian seas
o During monsoon season
 Easterly waves from the Pacific Ocean move across Southeast Asia and
reach the head of Bay of Bengal.
 Some of them move further WNW along the ITCZ with only slight
intensification.
 Others develop into depressions move NW and weaken.
o During post monsoon season
 ITCZ moves southwards
 Depressions and cyclones form in the central and S Bay of Bengal
 Peninsular Discontinuity
o Wind-discontinuity. A line across which there is an abrupt change. in wind
direction.
o Forms over peninsular India (South of 23°N latitude.)
o In April and May.
o Also called dry line.
o Is between hot and dry Tc air from the Northern India and comparatively cooler and
moist air from the Bay of Bengal
o Gives rise to afternoon thunderstorms, at times with hail.
o Strong north westerly squalls and heavy showers.
o Remains stationary for 3-4 days before dissipating
 Surge
o Sudden strengthening of air current in same air mass.
o At a surge, air arrives faster than it is removed.
o This leads to accumulation of air at surge line and vertical ascent.
o This process is known as velocity convergence.
o Common disturbance in monsoon season over the Arabian sea.
o To the west of surge line wind – 40 kts
o Ahead of it to east – 10 to 15 kts.
o Vertical ascent at a surge line causes growth of CU clouds, showers and gusts or
squalls.
o Surge line moves in the direction of wind.
o It ultimately reaches over the head of Bay of Bengal
o When a surge arrives
 Sky becomes overcast.
 Frequent showers
 Strong gusty or squally winds
 Favors the formation of depressions or cyclones.
 Shear Lines
o Created when in the same air mass the wind speed decreases markedly from south
to north or vice versa
o Common over Arabian sea during monsoon season
o At Shear line, due to friction, air rises
o When shear line extends vertically, the air rise is to higher level
o Thick Stratus clouds are formed (ST, AS and NS) in upto 500 km extent
o Fresh surge leads to development of CU and CB embedded in ST
o Surge and shear lines induces vigorous monsoon
 Monsoon Depression
o Depression is a low-pressure area with two or more closed isobars at 2 hPa interval
o Form over north Bay of Bengal in monsoon and hence monsoon depressions.
o Surface winds 17-33kts
o Average life is 3-5 days
o Move N/NW/NE into land
o Form over Arabian Sea and over land also
o Land Depression usually form over NE India
o Jun to Aug forms at 18 N in BoB, Aug at 14 N
o In Arabian Sea at 12 N and moves N
o Helps in advancing monsoon northwards
o In monsoon, worst weather occurs in SW sector – heavy rains in belt of 400 kms
o During curving, worst weather occurs in N/NE sector
o Occurs upto 300 hPa level
o Tilts SW with height
o Fair weather over Assam indicates formation/ intensification of depression over
head of BoB
 Cyclone
o Tropical Cyclone (TC) or Tropical revolving Storm (TRS)
o Non frontal low-pressure system with numerous TS, strong winds and heavy rain
o Form over warm tropical waters (temperature ˃26°C)
o Between latitudes 5-25
o Maximum sustained wind in a TC is 34 kts or more
o Rotation due to Coriolis force - anti clockwise in NH
o Depending on location TC is termed as
 Hurricane
 Typhoon
 Tropical storm
 Cyclonic storm
 Tropical Revolving Storm
 Cyclone.
o Conditions for Cyclone Formation
 Warm sea (˃ 26°C) to a depth of 60 m to create high evaporation
 High RH to above 7000 m to create condensation of WV – release energy
inducing fall in pressure
 Instability for vertical development
 Coriolis force to spiral winds inward
 Very little wind shear – below 20 kts from 850 to 200 hPa – help to distribute
latent heat over large area – result in intensification
 Characteristics of Cyclone
o The Eye
 Region of light winds and often clear skies.
 Lowest surface pressure
 Warmer by 0-2°C and at 12 km may be 10°C or more
 Inversion from 1 to 3 km
 Diameter is 8 to 200 km
 Mostly 30-60 km.
o Inner Storm Area (Hurricane Core)
 Area of 50-150km width surrounding eye
 Very strong wind (˃64 kt)
 Violent squalls
 Torrential rain
 Long thick dark clouds called Eye Wall/ Wall Clouds
 Most dangerous part of cyclone
 Steep pressure gradient
o Outer storm area
 Outside the core is outer storm area
 Extends to 400 km
 Winds of gale force > 34 Kts
 Occasional squall occur Winds decrease outwards
 Spiral bands of clouds
o Edge of Storm
 Winds are weak
 Clouds dissipates
 Extent & Movement of Cyclone
o Vast violent whirl of 150 to 800 km
o Spirals around a centre
o Move over sea at a rate of 300 – 500 km a day at 15-20 kmph
o Move westward up to 25° N/S and then recurve and move E
 Pressure Pattern in a Cyclone
o Central pressure - 1000 – 900 hPa
o 5 to 6 hPa below surrounding pressure
o Extreme cases 70 hPa less
o Pressure gradient is very steep up to a radius of 100 km
 Worst weather and winds in a cyclone are
o Right forward sector in N- hemisphere
o Left forward sector in S- hemisphere.
 Upper Air Circulation
o Cyclonic circulation in TC may extend to 40,000 ft
o Axis of circulation is almost vertical
o Inner storm area of hurricane force persists to 7000 ft
o Wind speed at surface and in upper air is stronger in right half than in left half
 TROPICAL STORM OVER INDIA
o Radius varies from 50-2000km.
o Average of 300-600km.
o Wind rotates counter clockwise in northern hemisphere.
o Clockwise in southern hemisphere.
 o Form over Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea and move inland.
o Have a very short life span 3 to 5 days – Small travel over sea
o Cyclone that recurves and stay over sea longer, gives more severe weather
o Few south BoB cyclones enter land and passes to Arabian Sea and re-intensifies
 Flying Conditions in a Cyclone
o Extremely hazardous
o Cloud bases may lower to the surface
o CB towers may reach 18-20 km
o Severe turbulence in towering cloud
o Frictional turbulence in lowest layers due to strong winds
o Strong up and down draughts
o Torrential rain
 Frequency of Occurrence of Cyclone in India
o Nil in February and March
o Frequent in May, June, October and November
o Frequency is maximum in October and November
o Annual frequency of TC
 4.5 in BoB
 1.1 in Arabian Sea
NOTES ON CLIMATOLOGY OF INDIA

 General Pattern of Indian Climate

o India has variety of Climate
 Tropical climate in South
 Temperate climate in North
o Strongly influenced by Himalayas and Thar desert
o Himalayas act as a barrier of cold winds – keeps Indian sub-continent warm – as
compared to places elsewhere at same Latitude
o Northern plains have severe summer and winter
o Southern region, coastal area is warmer and have frequent rains
o South West monsoon is an important feature that controls Indian Climate
o 75% of rain occurs during monsoon
o NE receives rain 180 days in a year, Rajasthan only 20 days
o Due to earths tilt 23.5 degree, the heating varies and oscillates Thermal Equator
annually between Tropics
o Leads to oscillation of temperature, wind, pressure causing changes in weather
 Pre-Monsoon (March to May)
o Transition season from Winter to Monsoon pattern
o Continuous rise in temp, fall in pressure over the country
o Weak pressure gradient – 2 Isobar covers the country (1006 and 1008 hPa)
o Runs almost parallel along Indian Coast line
o Trough over peninsula along 78 deg longitude, shift 79 deg by May
o Low forms over mid Pakistan and a weak trough over E UP/ Bihar
o Low over Myanmar
o High over C or W BoB
o Surface Temp
 Northward movement of Sun from January onward
  Lands get heated upto 30 – 35 C by April over C peninsula
 Mean maximum reaches 40 – 42 C over country
 Max Diurnal temp 18 C over West India and MP
 Max Diurnal temp 06 C over the coastal areas
 Heat wave condition (temp > 4 C from Mean max temp)
o Surface Winds
 In March
 North of 17 Lat – Westerly
 South of 17 Lat – Easterly
 In April
 N/NW upto E UP
 E in NE India
 In May
 S/W in Rajasthan, UP
 E in E UP and NE India
 S in eastern States
 Rest places NW to SW winds
 Winds becomes gusty - Raising dust (0900 to 1700H) - Reduces visibility
o Upper Winds
 Westerly winds strengthen over N India and Peninsula
 22 N Lat in April: Westerly - at 300 hPa – 40 Kts, at 200 hPa – 60 Kts,
weakens above
 In May, this shifts to 30 N Lat – E winds in peninsula
o Aviation Weather Hazards
 Thunderstorm North and NE India
 Dust Storm in Rajasthan and NW India
 Line Squalls
 Poor visibility due DRW – vis down to few 100 mts
 Dust haze my extend up to 7 to 8 Kms height
 Monsoon (June to September)
o Main Features
 Most significant weather feature of Indian climate
 Period of monsoon depends on onset and withdrawal of monsoon
 75 days in Rajasthan to 120 days in SW India
 Onset begins in BoB in May, reaches Kerala coast on 01 June, covers entire
country by mid-July
o Pressure Pattern
 LP over Balochistan
 Trough extends eastward along Gangetic plains – Rajasthan, UP, head BoB
 HP over southern hemisphere, 30S 60E
 Weak ridge over Arabian sea adj W Coast
 Weak LP over NE adj Myanmar
o Surface Winds
 E/ SE winds N of Monsoon Trough (MT)
 SW/ W elsewhere in India
 Wind speed
 Over land 5 to 10 Kts
 Over sea 15 Kts
 Strength of monsoon is determined by these winds
o Upper Winds
 Same pattern upto 10000 feet
 Above, generally E winds prevail
o Surface Temperature
 Over southern parts 26 C
 Over Rajasthan 31 C
 Temperature range 9 C
 Diurnal range 4 to 9 C
 Temperature rises during break monsoon
o Advance of Monsoon
 SW Monsoon advances in two branches
 Arabian Sea branch – Kerala region
 BoB branch – Myanmar, Bangladesh, Bengal region
o Normal Dates
 20 May – South Andaman Sea
 01 Jun – Kerala
 10 Jun – Mumbai
 29 Jun – Delhi
 15 Jul – Entire country
o Monsoon Withdrawal
 01 Sep – Rajasthan
 15 Sep – NW India
 15 Oct – From entire country
 Replaced by NE Monsoon
o Weather
 Active, widespread rain over most parts
 During break - little rain over plains, heavy along Himalayan foothills
 Heavy rain over mountains leads to floods over plains
 High temperature and humidity
 Monsoon depressions over BoB, 2 to 3 per month – heavy rain over C and N
parts
 The distribution of rain depends on movement of monsoon depressions
o Aviation Hazards
 Relatively smooth in stratiform clouds
 Good visibility except in rains
 Clouds in different layers with clear gaps
o Axis of Monsoon Trough (MT)
 MT on surface chart Ganganagar – Allahabad – Kolkata – Head BoB
 MT fluctuates N/S direction that govern rainfall
 North of MT – BoB Branch, South of MT – Arabian Branch
 MT coincides with ITCZ
 MT tilts southward with height
 10000 feet – 22 N
 20000 feet – 10 to 15 N
 Not well marked above 20000 feet
o Sub-Tropical (Mid-tropospheric) Cyclone
 Sometimes, STC establishes over 18-28 N 60-80 E at 500 to 700 hPa level,
along with a trough at surface
 Causes heavy rains in W India, MP and NE Arabian sea (W/SW of cyclone)
 o El Nino: - Occurs 2-7 years interval in Pacific Ocean. Affects global weather
 SW monsoon affects inversely to El Nino
 Monsoon below normal or drought in El Nino years
o Aviation Weather Hazard
 Low Clouds
 Poor Visibility during rain
 Dust haze in N India during Break monsoon period
 CAT may be present near Tropical Jet Stream
 Fairly widespread Thunder Strom (TS)
 Aquaplaning
 Post Monsoon (October to December)
o Also called Retreating SW Monsoon
o NE winds establishes in Indian Sub-Continent
o Rain fall over Eastern Coast
o TN receives 48% of its rain fall in this season
o Long spells of dry weather
o Storm forms over BoB causes rains
o Pressure Pattern
 One Isobar surrounds entire India and Andaman Islands
 Monsoon trough shifts to BoB at 13 N
 Weak LP lies off Chennai coast
o Surface Winds
 Changes from SWly to NEly
 Winds light and variable due weak pressure gradient
 Stronger sea breeze upto 160 km inland
o Upper Winds
 Gradually westerly winds establish
 STJ reappears over J&K
 Above 500 hPa, Easterlies over South India weakens to 20 Kts
o Surface Temperature
 Nearly uniform at 18 C over country
 Diurnal range 6 to 7 C
 Day temperature starts to fall
 NW India experience sharper drop in day temperature
o Weather
 1 – 2 WD affects N India, clouding and precipitation
 Good visibility, clear skies
 Tropical storms over C BoB and Arabian sea cause weather over coastal
regions
 Maximum Cyclonic storm over BoB in Oct – forms near Andaman Sea –
moves towards TN or curves towards Bengal
 Some crosses land – reach Arabian sea – intensifies and recurve to
Maharashtra and Gujrat coast
 Maximum CS in Nov over Arabian sea
o Aviation Hazards
 Poor Visibility due smog, fog and haze over N India
 Passage of WD produces intense Fog
 Low clouds during passage of Cyclonic Strom
 CAT in vicinity of STJ in N India
 NOTES ON GENERAL CIRCULATIONS

 SYNOPTIC METEOROLOGY
o The surface and upper air charts show systems like highs, lows, cyclonic circulation
etc., which change position and intensity with time
o These systems are associated with different types of weather
o These systems affect a locality weather changes
o A study of the behavior of these systems is known as synoptic meteorology

 GENERAL CIRCULATION
o The large scale, static or semi – permanent, pressure and wind patterns on the
globe are termed as general circulation.
o General circulation is a result of following
 Energy balance
 Transport processes.

 ENERGY BALANCE
o Earth
 Receives energy - as incoming short-wave radiations from sun
 Loses energy – outgoing long wave radiations
o Over the globe, when averaged over a year incoming energy balances outgoing
energy
o Latitudinally, Equator to pole-wards
 Tropics – average radiation is surplus.
 Polar regions – deficit (outgoing radiation is more than incoming radiation)

 TRANSPORT PROCESS
o The surplus and deficient energy is re-distributed in the entire earth by transport
process such as: -
 Atmospheric winds
 Oceanic currents
o If the earth were still the circulation would be
o Effects of Coriolis force causes three distinct circulations

 THREE CELL MODEL OF GENERAL CIRCULATION

 This Cell Model
o Represents the average circulation
o Describe atmospheric energy transport
 These Cells are: -
o Hadley Cell
o Ferrell Cell
o Polar Cell

 HADLEY CELL
o The intense incoming solar radiation in the equatorial region heat up the surface and
cause the air to rise
 o This forms convective clouds –gives heavy precipitation
o This area is called ITCZ
o NE trade winds of NH and SE trade winds of SH converge
o ITCZ moves N/S depending on Sun position
o Warm air eventually diverges on reaching the tropopause
o Does not rise into stratosphere as it is a stable layer
o Air moves north and south towards the poles upto 30N/S and piles up creating
subtropical high on surface
o It eventually cools and descends
o At the surface some of this air is returned to the equator in form of trade winds due
to turn under Coriolis force
o It completes the circulation of the cells

 FERRELL CELLS
o Some of the diverging winds at 30N/S move towards the pole
o This surface wind turns East due Coriolis
o At 60 N/S, air rises, cools and condenses to give precipitation
o This latitude is also the location of Polar fronts
o Some of this rising air returns towards equator

 POLAR CELLS
o The sinking air over poles warms and crates HP over poles
o Pole-ward moving gets pulled to the right in NH creating Polar easterlies

 Surface characteristics of Three Cell Model over the surface are

o Equatorial Doldrums: The doldrums are a geographical band around the Earth
near the equator where there is very little or no wind. Sailors gave it this name
because of the depression and inactivity caused when their sailing ships would get
stuck there for days or weeks
o ITCZ: The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone, or ITCZ, is a belt of low pressure which
circles the Earth generally near the equator where the trade winds of the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres come together
 At the junction of the two Hadley cells airflow over the surface is converging
and rising
 This pattern of airflow creates a net loss of air flow in the region
 This causes a loss of weight of atmosphere against surface and LP forms
called ITCZ
o Trade Winds –
 At the Hadley cell air moves from subtropical highs to ITCZ.
 But airflow would get deflected to right because of Coriolis force, NE trade
winds.
 Steady NE winds in NH and Se winds in SH
 Trade winds are stronger over the sea than in land because of reduced
surface friction
o Horse Latitude – The descending branch of Hadley’s Cell at 30-40 N/S marked by
calm winds and HP in the region
 In the region of subtropical highs, the isobar spacing are quite large.
 The pressure gradient forces are very weak.
  Surface winds are light and variable.
 In the Atlantic these areas of light winds under the subtropical highs are
called the horse latitudes
o Roaring Forties: Westerly wind blows between 35 – 60 N/S latitude
 Specially, in SH, westerlies below 40 S is very stormy
 Continues round the year
 Other names
 Furious Fifties
 Screaming Sixties
o Polar Front: It is the boundary between cold polar air moving towards equator and
warm subtropical air moving towards poles
o Polar Easterly Winds - The cold air mass cannot keep up with the rotating earth.
Therefore, air flowing from the North Pole towards the equator produces cold,
surface-level winds that blow from the northeast toward the southwest. These winds
are called the polar easterlies
o Polar Front Depression– At higher latitudes, the air flow pattern is similar to that of
equator
 Creates LP at surface called Polar Front Depression
o Sub-Tropical HP Zone –
 At the area between Hadley and Ferrell Cells, airflow at the upper
atmosphere is converging and descending
 Upon reaching the surface airflow diverges.
 This pattern of airflow results in a net gain of air and thus more weight of air
 Creates HP Zone called Sub Tropical High
o Polar Highs
 At the poles upper air converge and surface flow diverge.
 Thus, a high-pressure system is created polar high.

NOTES ON METAR & SPECI

 METAR – METEOROLOIGICAL AERODROME REPORT

o The letters METAR stand for Meteorological Aerodrome Report
o METARs contain coded messages pertaining to the actual weather conditions at a given
aerodrome, at a stated time
o SPECI - AERODROME SPECIAL MET REPORT
o METAR and SPECI uses the same Met codes for weather conditions
o METAR is issued Half hourly or hourly intervals
o SPECI is issued any time of the day/night as per specified criteria

 METAR VOHS 201030Z 06006KT 4000 HZ SCT015 27/14 Q1016 NOSIG

o First Group
 Type of report is METAR
o Second Group
 Location Identification – V India, O Chennai FIR, Hyderabad- Shamsabad
o Third Group
 It is the date/time group
 Date & Time identification – 20th of the month, 1030 UTC
 Gives the date of the actual weather observation
 The first two digits represent the day of the month
 Followed by the time in hours and minutes
  Time is always given as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
 In the METAR, itself, UTC is indicated by the code Z, pronounced “Zulu”
o Fourth Group
 The next items in the METAR are the observed wind information
 Firstly, the direction of the wind given in degrees true
 Rounded up or down to the nearest 10 degrees
 The wind speed in knots
 It is a mean speed taken over a 10-minute period
 However, if a gust is observed which is at least 10 knots more than the mean
wind speed, then a gust figure, (G), comes after the mean wind
 Gust figure is preceded by the letter G.
 The next code-group may or may not appear depending on the directional
variability of the wind
 Variability of direction is included when the wind direction, over the
preceding 10 minutes, has changed by 60° or more
 The letter V will appear between these two extremes
 If there is no wind, the coding, 00000KT, will be used
 If the wind direction cannot be defined then VRB (for variable) replaces the
direction
o Visibility Group: METAR EGTK 211020Z 26012G25KT 0800 R30/1100
 Visibility in the METAR is represented by the next group
 In the METAR, the reported visibility is the prevailing visibility
 May, under certain conditions, include the minimum visibility
 Here, the prevailing visibility is reported as 0800 metres
 Prevailing visibility is the visibility value which is either reached, or exceeded,
around at least half the horizon circle, or within at least half of the surface of
the aerodrome
 If the visibility in one direction, which is not the prevailing visibility, is
less than 1500 m, or less than 50% of the prevailing visibility, the
lowest visibility observed, and its general direction, should also be
reported
 Up to 10 km, the visibility is measured in metres. For example, 6000 means
that the prevailing visibility is 6000 metres
 Once the visibility reaches 10 km or more, the code figure used is 9999
 Visibility of less than 50 metres is indicated by the code 0000. In this
example the prevailing visibility is 800 metres.
 In some instances, runway visibility information is given in a METAR
 This is known as Runway Visual Range (RVR.)
 RVR is given only when either the horizontal visibility or the RVR, itself, is
less than 1500 metres
 The RVR group starts with the letter R, and then goes on to give the runway
in use, followed by the threshold visibility in metres
 In the following example, for Oxford Kidlington, we have a prevailing
visibility of 800 metres, with an RVR, at the threshold of Runway 30,
of 1100 metres
 If the RVR is more than the maximum reportable value of 1500 metres, the
code P is used in front of the visibility value, R30/P1500
 If the visibility is less than 50 m then the prefix M will be used e.g.
R30/M0050
  A letter can sometimes come after the RVR to indicate any trends that the
RVR
 U means that the visibility has increased by 100 m or more in the last 10
minutes, e.g., R30/1100U
 D shows that visibility has decreased by 100 m or more in that same time
period, R30/1100D
 An N added to the visibility group shows that there is no distinct trend
observed, R30/1100N.
o Weather
 A Thunderstorm report will appear in a METAR if thunder has been heard
within the last 10 minutes
 A thunderstorm is represented by the letters TS
 If there is no precipitation, the letters TS will appear on their own
 If there is precipitation, a further two letters, which signify the type of
precipitation, are inserted after the TS
 For example, if there is rain observed from the thunderstorm, TSRA will
appear in the METAR
 If hail were to be observed, the code would read TSGR, or TSGS, with GS
meaning small hail
o Clouds
 The next code-group to appear in the METAR gives detail of cloud coverage
 Prefixes which are used to describe cloud amount, at any given level
 FEW (FEW) meaning one to two eighths of cloud coverage
 SCATTERED (SCT) meaning three to four eighths of cloud coverage
 BROKEN (BKN) meaning five to seven eighths of cloud coverage
 OVERCAST (OVC) meaning complete cloud coverage, or eight eighths.
 Cloud base is given as a three-digit figure showing hundreds of feet
 Cloud base is always measured as height above aerodrome level, using
the QFE
 For example, 6 eighths of cloud (6 oktas) at 1900 ft above aerodrome
level would appear in the METAR as BKN019
 8 oktas at five hundred feet would be abbreviated to OVC005
 The only cloud types that are specified in the METAR are the significant
convective clouds
 These are cumulonimbus (CB) and towering cumulus (TCU)
 If there is no cloud of operational significance (CB or TCU) or no cloud at or
below the greater of 5000 ft or the highest MSA then the term NSC (No
Significant Cloud) will be used unless CAVOK
 If there are several layers of cloud, then these will be shown in ascending
order.
 Higher cloud layers will only be included in the METAR if they cover a
greater proportion of sky than the layer reported immediately below.
 Eg; METAR VOHY 270650Z 26012G25KT 220V300 8000 FEW 009 BKN
015
 If the sky at an aerodrome is obscured for reasons other than cloud cover,
and cloud coverage cannot easily be determined, the code VV is used in
place of the cloud information
 VV is followed by the vertical visibility in hundreds of feet
 METAR EGTK 231020Z 26005KT 0300 FG VV002
  Visibility is 300 m in fog, the sky is obscured and the vertical visibility
is 200 ft
 If the vertical visibility cannot be assessed, three forward slashes will
replace the cloud height figures, e.g., VV///
o Use of CAVOK
 The code CAVOK is frequently used in the METAR code
 As abbreviation for “cloud, ceiling and visibility are OK.”
 If CAVOK is used, it will replace the visibility, RVR, weather and cloud
groups
 There are four criteria which must be met in order for CAVOK
 Visibility must be 10 kilometres or more
 Height of the lowest cloud must be no less than 5000 ft, or the level
of highest minimum sector altitude, whichever is the greater
 Must be no cumulonimbus or ‘towering cumulus’ (TCU) present
 Must be no significant weather at or in the vicinity of the aerodrome
 METAR EGTK 231020Z 26012G25KT 220V300 CAVOK
o Temperature & dew Point
 The temperature and dew point constitute the next group in the METAR code
 A two-digit number giving the air temperature
 Followed by another two-digit number which indicates the dew point
 Both temperatures are measured in degrees Celsius
 For example, the code 10/02 indicates that the air temperature is plus 10°C,
and the dew point is plus 2°C
 If either figure is negative, the prefix M will be used, as in 10/M02
 Rounding 0.5 to the next highest digit is used
 METAR EGTK 231020Z 26012G25KT 220V300 CAVOK 10/M02
 Air temperature is +10°C and the dew point is -2°C.
o QNH
 The next METAR code is the QNH
 QNH will be represented by the letter Q, followed by a four-digit number
representing the actual pressure value
 If the QNH is less than 1000 hectopascals, the value will be preceded by a
zero
 For example, a QNH of 991 hectopascals would appear as Q0991
 Only pressure value given in a METAR is the QNH
 QNH is always rounded down for safety reasons
 if there are digits after the decimal point; for instance, if the QNH
were 991.7 hectopascals, the QNH would be reported as Q0991
 METAR EGTK 231020Z 26012G25KT 220V300 9999 -RA FEW060 SCT120
10/M02 Q0991
o Wind Shear
 Wind Sheer is included in METAR
 When reported by a pilot or when it is forecast.
 METAR VOHY 270650Z 22002KT 220V300 CAVOK 10/ M02 Q0991 WS
ALL RWY
o Trend Forecast
 A TREND forecast is valid for 2 hours after the time of the observation of
the METAR
  Change in weather conditions indicated by the code, TREND, can be further
qualified by the codes, BECMG, meaning becoming, or TEMPO meaning
temporarily
 BECMG indicates that the change in the present weather will be
long-lasting
 TEMPO, on the other hand, means that the change is temporary, and
that the different conditions will prevail for periods of less than one
hour
 The codes may be followed by a time period in hours and minutes
 The time periods given may be preceded by FM meaning from, TL
meaning until, or AT meaning at.
 For example, TEMPO FM1020 TL1220 1000 +SHRA translates as
 Temporarily, from 1020Z to 1220Z, the visibility will reduce to 1000
metres, in heavy showers of rain
 The code NOSIG is used to indicate that no significant change is expected in
the next two hours
o Runway State Group
 A runway state group will be added to a METAR or SPECI
 When there is significant contamination on the runway
 Format is RXX/XXXXXX the runway designator followed by an oblique then
6 digits describing the contamination state
 Runway Designator
o R27 = Runway 27
o R27L = runway 27 left
o R88 = All runways
o R99 = A repetition of the last message received because no
new information received
 RXX/XXXXXX (Oxford p-478 onwards)
 Runway Deposits - 1st digit
 Extent of Runway Contamination - 2nd digit
 Depth of Deposit - 3rd & 4th digits
 Friction Coefficient or Braking Action - 5th & 6th digits
o End of Report
 An equal’s sign (=) appears at the end of the METAR to denote that the
message is complete
 Practice 1
o METAR EGTK 231020Z 26012G25KT 220V300 9999 –RA FEW060 SCT120
10/M02 Q0991 RETS WS ALL RWY NOSIG =
o This is a METAR report for the EGTK airport:
o EGTK: ICAO location indicator for the airport.
o 231020Z: Date and time of the observation. In this case, it means the 23rd day of
the month at 10:20 UTC.
o 26012G25KT: Wind is coming from 260 degrees (west) at 12 knots, gusting up to 25
knots.
o 220V300: Wind direction varies between 220 degrees and 300 degrees.
o 9999: Visibility is greater than 10 kilometers.
o –RA: Light rain is occurring.
o FEW060: Few clouds at 6000 feet above ground level.
o SCT120: Scattered clouds at 12000 feet above ground level.
 o 10/M02: Temperature is 10°C, and dew point is -2°C.
o Q0991: Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 991 hPa.
o RETS: Runway end touchdown zone visibility measurement system is operational.
o WS ALL RWY: Wind shear is occurring on all runways.
o NOSIG: No significant change is expected in the near future.
o This METAR report indicates light rain with a mix of clouds, moderate wind from the
west with gusts, and relatively mild temperatures. Wind shear is reported on all
runways, but otherwise, no significant changes are expected.

 Practice METAR
o METAR VOHY 201030Z 23014KT 5000HZ SCT010 BKN020 OVC035 Q1015
31/15 NSG =
o METAR VOHY 300520Z 33015G37KT 300V000 1200NE 9999S +SHSNRAGR
SCT008 BKN010TUC 03/-01 Q0998 WS RW26L RETS BECMG AT 0600 9999
NSW SCT 020 BKN 120 =
o METAR VOHY 030340Z 33018KT 290V360 1200HZ +SNBLSNFG VV008 00/M03
Q1013 RMK RAE42SNB42 =
o Rain Ended 42 minutes past the hour and Snow began 42 minutes past the hour
o METAR VOMM 221603Z 24015KMH 0600 R12/1000U FG DZ SCT010 OVC020
17/16 Q1018 BECMG TL 1700 0800 FG BECMG AT 1800 9999 NSW =

 Practice METAR: 1
o METAR VIDP 160230Z 30005KT 290V050 1500S 5000N R15/P1500U BR FEW
020 FEW025CB SCT 120 BKN300 32/29 Q1003 REFG TEMPO FM0330
22015G25KT 3000 +TSRA FEW010 SCT025CB BKN 150 BECMG AT0415
27008KT CAVOK =
o VIDP: ICAO location indicator for the airport.
160230Z: Date and time of the observation. In this case, it means the 16th day of
the month at 02:30 UTC.
30005KT: Wind is coming from 300 degrees (northwest) at 5 knots.
290V050: Wind direction varies between 290 degrees and 050 degrees.
1500S: Visibility in the southern direction is 1500 meters.
5000N: Visibility in the northern direction is 5000 meters.
R15/P1500U: Runway visual range for Runway 15 is 1500 meters, and it's
increasing.
BR: Mist (light intensity).
FEW020: Few clouds at 2000 feet above ground level.
FEW025CB: Few cumulonimbus clouds at 2500 feet above ground level.
SCT120: Scattered clouds at 12000 feet above ground level.
BKN300: Broken clouds at 30000 feet above ground level.
32/29: Temperature is 32°C, and dew point is 29°C.
Visibility OK) after 0415 UTC.
o Q1003: Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1003 hPa.
REFG: Shallow fog.
TEMPO FM0330: Temporary conditions from 0330 UTC.
22015G25KT: Wind is coming from 220 degrees (southwest) at 15 knots, gusting up
to 25 knots.
3000: Visibility is 3000 meters.
+TSRA: Heavy thunderstorm with rain.
 FEW010: Few clouds at 1000 feet above ground level.
SCT025CB: Scattered cumulonimbus clouds at 2500 feet above ground level.
BKN150: Broken clouds at 15000 feet above ground level.
BECMG AT0415: Becoming conditions at 0415 UTC.
27008KT: Wind is coming from 270 degrees (west) at 8 knots.
CAVOK: Ceiling and visibility OK, meaning no significant weather phenomena and
the sky is clear or few clouds below 5000 feet, no cumulonimbus or towering
cumulus clouds, and visibility of 10 kilometers or more.
This METAR report indicates variable visibility in different directions, mist, cloud
cover at various levels, high temperature and dew point, shallow fog, temporary
thunderstorms with rain, and changing wind conditions. However, conditions are
expected to improve to CAVOK (Ceiling and Visibility OK) after 0415 UTC.

 Practice METAR: 2
o METAR: VOMM 190430Z 20005KT 5000 HZ FEW020 31/24 Q1013 NOSIG

This is a METAR report for VOMM airport:

VOMM: ICAO location indicator for Chennai International Airport in Chennai, India.
190430Z: Date and time of the observation. In this case, it means the 19th day of
the month at 04:30 UTC.
20005KT: Wind is coming from 200 degrees (south-southwest) at 5 knots.
5000: Visibility is 5000 meters.
HZ: Haze.
FEW020: Few clouds at 2000 feet above ground level.
31/24: Temperature is 31°C, and dew point is 24°C.
Q1013: Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1013 hPa.
NOSIG: No significant change is expected in the near future.
In summary, the METAR report indicates haze with relatively light wind, limited
visibility, few clouds at a low altitude, and stable weather conditions with no
significant changes expected.

NOTES ON TAFs

 Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts (TAFs) are forecasts of meteorological conditions

at an aerodrome
o Report of actual, present conditions as given in a METAR
o The format of the TAF is similar
o TAFs usually cover a period of between 9 and 30 hours
o 9-hour TAFs are issued every 3 hours
o 12 to 24-hour TAFs every 6 hours.

 TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 -SHRA SCT010 BKN018=

o The first code which appears in the TAF is the identifier, TAF.
o The next code is the ICAO location indicator of the aerodrome for which the report is
issued
o The example given below is for EGTK, Oxford, Kidlington, airport.
o In the TAF, there are two items of date-time information
o The first date-time group, indicates the date and time at which the TAF was issued
 TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 -SHRA SCT010 BKN018=
o The next code-group identifies the period of validity of the TAF
o The information here uses an eight-digit format
o The first four digits show the start date and time
o 1307 indicates that the TAF’s validity period starts on the 13th at 0700Z
o Next four digits are the end date and time of the validity period
o In example given, the date and time of the origin of the report is 0600 UTC on 13th
of the month, and the validity period, highlighted in red, is from the 13th at 0700
UTC to 1600 UTC on the same day
o This example, then, is a nine-hour TAF

 TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018=

o Wind codes in the TAF are the same as in the METAR
o Example TAF shows a mean wind direction of 310° (True), at a wind speed of 15
knots

 TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018=

o Weather coding in the TAF is also the same as in the METAR
o Example, the visibility is 8000 m with light showers of rain

 TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018=

o Cloud coding in the TAF can be slightly different from the METAR
o If there is no cloud below the greater of 5000 ft or MSA and if there is no CB or TCU
and CAVOK is not appropriate
o Code NSC is used, which stands for No Significant Cloud
o As in METARs, only CB or TCU clouds will be included in TAFs.

 The main TAF information ends with the cloud group

o TAFs do not contain information on temperature and dew point, QNH, recent
weather, wind-shear or runway state information
o However, some countries do forecast maximum and minimum temperatures for the
forecast period
o Only significant changes of weather follow the cloud group
o These significant changes are introduced by codes classified as forecast change
indicators.

 There are distinctive TAF codes which indicate that a change is expected in some or all of
the forecast meteorological conditions
o Nature of the change can vary: it may, for instance, be a rapid, gradual or
temporary change. These codes are
 FM (meaning FROM) RAPID CHANGE
 BECMG (meaning BECOMING) GRADUAL CHANGE
 TEMPO (meaning TEMPORARILY) TEMPORARY CHANGE
 PROB (meaning PROBABILITY) CHANCE OF OCCURENCE

 The FROM group in a TAF is introduced by the code FM

o A rapid change in the forecast conditions is expected
 o Lead to the appearance of a new set of prevailing conditions becoming established
at the aerodrome
 TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018 FM 131220
27017KT 4000 BKN010=
o The FM group contains all the elements of a complete TAF forecast: wind,
visibility, weather and cloud.

 The change group BECMG, meaning becoming

o Eight-figure date and time group which indicates the period during which there will
be a permanent change in the forecast conditions
o Forecast change, introduced by BECMG, will occur at an unspecified time within the
time period stated
 Example, TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018
BECMG 1309/1311 5000 –RA=
o Indicates that, at some time on the 13th between 0900 UTC and 1100 UTC, but
definitely by 1100 UTC, the prevailing conditions will give 5000 metres visibility, in
light rain
o There is no new wind information after BECMG, so the inference is that the wind will
be as previously forecast: 310° (T) at 15 kt

 TEMPO, meaning temporarily, indicates that a change in meteorological conditions will

occur at any time within the specified time period
o It is expected to last less than one hour each time, and, in aggregate, will last no
longer than half the time period of the complete forecast
o The TEMPO indicator is followed by an 8-digit date and time group indicating the
hours between which the temporary conditions are expected to begin and end
 Example, TAF EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018
TEMPO 1312/1314 4000 TSRA BKN010CB=
o Sometime on the 13th between 1200 UTC and 1400 UTC, the visibility will fall to
4000 metres, with the weather being thunderstorms and moderate rain. There will
be 5 - 7 oktas of cumulonimbus cloud at 1000 ft. However, after 1400 UTC, the
weather will return to the conditions specified in the first part of the message.

 PROBIBILITY
o The code PROB (meaning probability) in a TAF indicates the probability of the
occurrence of specified weather phenomena
o The probability indication is a percentage probability of the occurrence
o Significant weather such as thunderstorms and associated precipitation
o A 30% probability is considered low, while a 40% probability indicates that it is
highly likely
o The code PROB can be followed by a time group of its own
 Example, EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018 PROB40
TEMPO 1310/1314 +TSRAGR SCT005CB=
o Indicates that there is a high probability that, between 1000 UTC and 1400 UTC,
there will be thunderstorms with heavy rain and hail, and from 3 to 4 oktas of
cumulonimbus clouds at 500 ft.
o Storms will not last longer than one hour at a time and less than two hours in total,
which is one half of the period to which the TEMPO applies
 TEMPERATURE
o Some meteorological authorities include forecast maximum and minimum
temperatures likely to be experienced in the forecast period of the TAF
o The format is: TX15/2016Z, meaning maximum temperature is expected to be 15°C
at 201600Z
o TN09/2105Z, meaning minimum temperature is expected to be 9°C at 210500Z
o

 AMMENDMENT
o When a TAF requires an amendment, the amended forecast may be indicated by
the code AMD after the TAF identifier
o TAF AMD EGTK 130600Z 1307/1316 31015KT 8000 –SHRA SCT010 BKN018
PROB40 TEMPO 1310/1314 +TSRAGR SCT005CB=

 END OF REPORT
o An equal’s sign (=) appears at the end of the TAF to denote that the message is
complete.

 PRACTICE 1:

VOHS 190200Z 1903/1912 18006KT 5000 HZ SCT010 SCT015 BKN100 BECMG

1904/1906 15010KT 6000 SCT015 SCT025

o
o
o
o
o This is a TAF (Terminal Aerodrome Forecast) for the VOHS airport:
o VOHS: ICAO location indicator for the airport.
o 190200Z: The forecast was issued on the 19th day of the month at 0200 UTC.
o 1903/1912: The period of validity for the forecast, from the 19th at 0300 UTC to the
19th at 1200 UTC.
o 18006KT: Wind is coming from 180 degrees (south) at 6 knots.
o 5000 HZ: Visibility is 5000 meters with haze present.
o SCT010 SCT015 BKN100: Scattered clouds at 1000 feet, scattered clouds at 1500
feet, and broken clouds at 10000 feet above ground level.
o BECMG 1904/1906: Becoming conditions between the 19th at 0400 UTC and the
19th at 0600 UTC.
o 15010KT: Wind is expected to shift to 150 degrees (south-southeast) at 10 knots.
o 6000: Visibility is expected to improve to 6000 meters.
o SCT015 SCT025: Scattered clouds at 1500 feet and scattered clouds at 2500 feet
above ground level.

 PRACTICE 2:

TAF: VABB 190200Z 1903/1912 11006KT 3000 HZ FU FEW020 SCT100

BECMG 1906/1908 28010KT 4000 HZ FU FEW020 TEMPO 1909/1912
30008G18KT
 This is a Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) for VABB airport:
 VABB: ICAO location indicator for Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport in
Mumbai, India.
 190200Z: The forecast was issued on the 19th day of the month at 0200 UTC.
 1903/1912: The period of validity for the forecast, from the 19th at 0300 UTC to the 19th
at 1200 UTC.
 11006KT: Wind is coming from 110 degrees (east-southeast) at 6 knots.
 3000 HZ FU: Visibility is 3000 meters with haze and smoke present.
 FEW020 SCT100: Few clouds at 2000 feet and scattered clouds at 10000 feet above
ground level.
 BECMG 1906/1908: Becoming conditions between the 19th at 0600 UTC and the 19th
at 0800 UTC.
 28010KT: Wind is expected to shift to 280 degrees (west-northwest) at 10 knots.
 4000 HZ FU: Visibility is expected to improve to 4000 meters with haze and smoke still
present.
 FEW020: Few clouds at 2000 feet above ground level.
 TEMPO 1909/1912: Temporary conditions expected between the 19th at 0900 UTC and
the 19th at 1200 UTC.
 30008G18KT: Wind during the temporary period is expected from 300 degrees (west) at
8 knots, gusting up to 18 knots.

 PRACTICE 3

TAF: VECC 190200Z 1903/1912 VRB02KT 2800 -RA HZ SCT018 BKN100

TEMPO 1907/1911 29010G25KT 1500 TSRA SCT015 FEW025CB OVC090

 This is a Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) for VECC airport:

 VECC: ICAO location indicator for Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport in
Kolkata, India.
 190200Z: The forecast was issued on the 19th day of the month at 0200 UTC.
 1903/1912: The period of validity for the forecast, from the 19th at 0300 UTC to the 19th
at 1200 UTC.
 VRB02KT: Wind direction variable at 2 knots.
 2800: Visibility is 2800 meters.
 -RA: Light rain.
 HZ: Haze.
 SCT018 BKN100: Scattered clouds at 1800 feet and broken clouds at 10000 feet above
ground level.
 TEMPO 1907/1911: Temporary conditions expected between the 19th at 0700 UTC and
the 19th at 1100 UTC.
 29010G25KT: Wind is expected from 290 degrees (west-northwest) at 10 knots, gusting
up to 25 knots.
 1500 TSRA: Visibility temporarily reduced to 1500 meters due to thunderstorms with
rain.
 SCT015 FEW025CB: Scattered clouds at 1500 feet and few cumulonimbus clouds at
2500 feet above ground level.
 OVC090: Overcast clouds at 9000 feet above ground level.

NOTES ON MET SERVICES FOR AVIATION

 Meteorological Services cater to safety and efficiency of air navigation

 The services are provided to
o Operators
o ATC
o Airfield Management
 World Met Organisation (WMO)
o An agency of the UN
o Works in collaboration with ICAO
 Objective is to
o Facilitate worldwide network of observatories
o Rapid exchange of Met information
o Research and training
 It uses
o Global Observing System (GOS)
o Global Telecommunication System (GTS)
o Global Data Processing System (GDPS)
 World Area Forecast System (WAFS)
o It provides world global aeronautical en-route weather forecast to Met offices
o There are two World Area Forecast Centres (WAFC) – Washington, London
o 19 Regional Area Forecast Centres (RAFC) – one in New Delhi
o Prepares and circulates significant weather – 4 times a day
 INDIAN MET OFFICES
o National Met Agency located at New Delhi
 Six Regional Met Offices (RMO) Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai,
Guwahati, Nagpur
 Aerodrome Met Offices (AMO) – Total 18 including 4 MWOs
 Aeronautical Met Stations (AMS) – Total 54
 Meteorological Watch Offices (MWO) – Total 4
o Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centres (TCAC) - is a specialized meteorological
institution responsible for monitoring, tracking, and issuing advisories, warnings,
and forecasts for tropical cyclones within a specific region. These centers are
typically operated by national meteorological agencies or regional meteorological
organizations in areas prone to tropical cyclone activity.
o Online Briefing Systems (OLBS) - An Online Briefing System is a digital
platform or tool designed to facilitate the dissemination of information, updates,
and briefings to a targeted audience through online channels.
 Notification Period
o For National flights
 AMOs 3 Hrs
 AMSs 18-24 Hrs
 o For International Flights
 At select places 3 Hrs
 AMOs 12 Hrs
 AMSs 18-24 Hrs
o Notification inputs – departure, destination, route, level, type of info required,
time of briefing etc.
 AIR REPORT/ PILOT REPORT
o Routine aircraft observation during climb and cruise
o Special observations when severe weather as per SIGMET criteria
o Other routine observations like wind shear, icing, turbulence
o Exemptions
 Aircraft not equipped with RNAV
 Flight less than 2 hours
 Flight within less than 1 hour from destination
 Altitude below 5000 feet
o Contents
 Section I – Identification, Position, Time, FL/ Altitude
 Section II – Operational information – ETA and endurance
 Section III – Met information – Air Temperature, Spot Winds, TS,
Turbulence, Icing and Humidity
 TYPES OF METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS
o Aerodrome Forecast (TAFs)
o Landing Forecast (TREND)
o Forecast for Take Off
o ARFOR – Area Forecast, generally for 50 Nm and validity 12/24 hours
o CODAR - CODAR stands for Coastal Ocean Dynamics Applications Radar. It's a
type of radar system specifically designed for monitoring ocean surface currents,
waves, and winds in coastal areas.
o WINTEM - "Winter Weather Message." It is a product issued by meteorological
agencies or services to provide specific information about hazardous winter
weather conditions, such as snow, ice, freezing rain, blizzards, and cold
temperatures.
o ROFOR - stands for "Route Forecast." It is a type of weather forecast specifically
tailored for aviation purposes, providing information about weather conditions
along specific flight routes.
o Local/ Area Forecast
o Global SIGWX Charts
o SIGMET - short for Significant Meteorological Information, is a type of aviation
weather advisory issued to alert pilots and air traffic controllers about significant
weather phenomena that could impact aviation safety within a particular area of
interest.
o AIRMET Information - stands for Airmen's Meteorological Information. It is a
type of aviation weather advisory issued to alert pilots and air traffic controllers
about potentially hazardous weather conditions that could affect aircraft
operations, but are of lesser intensity than those covered by SIGMETs
(Significant Meteorological Information).
o GAMET - stands for "Graphical Area Forecast." It is a type of weather forecast
product specifically designed for aviation purposes. GAMETs provide graphical
 representations of forecasted weather conditions over a specified area and time
period, typically covering a larger geographical region such as a country or a
portion of airspace.
 SIGMET CRITERIA
o Thunderstorm
o Tropical Cyclone
o Severe Turbulence
o Severe Icing
o Severe Mountain Wave
o Dust storm
o Sand storm
o Volcanic Ash
o Radioactive cloud
 TYPES OF WARNING
o Aerodrome Warnings – issued by AMOs – occurrence of weather likely to
affect aircraft on ground and aerodrome services
 Validity not exceeding 4 hours
 Winds => 30 kts or direction change of 20 kts > 45 degrees
 Weather like Squall, Icing, Precipitation sand/ Dust, Tsunami
o Light Aircraft Warning
 Issued by AMOs
 Wind speed > 17 Kts
o Wind Shear Warning
 Issued by AMOs
 Upto 500 m/ 1600 feet above runway
 VOLMET EXCHANGES
o VOLMET - short for "Volcanic Meteorological Information," is a continuous
broadcast service providing weather information for aircraft in flight or
approaching an airport. Contrary to the name, it primarily focuses on weather
conditions rather than volcanic activity.
o Data Link VOLMET (D-VOLMET)
o VOLMET Broadcast
o ROBEX (Routine OPMET Bulletin Exchange) - The ROBEX system facilitates
the exchange of routine OPMET bulletins between meteorological authorities,
aviation organizations, and airlines. These bulletins contain essential weather
information for aviation purposes, such as terminal aerodrome forecasts (TAFs),
significant weather charts, SIGMETs (Significant Meteorological Information),
AIRMETs (Airmen's Meteorological Information), and other relevant
meteorological data.
 Automatic Terminal Information System (ATIS) - It is a continuous broadcast service
provided by air traffic control (ATC) at busy airports to provide arriving and departing
aircraft with current and essential information about the airport and its operations.
 Current Weather Display - A graphical or textual representation of real-time weather
conditions at a specific location or over a particular region. It provides information such
as temperature, humidity, wind speed and direction, atmospheric pressure, visibility,
precipitation, and any significant weather phenomena.

FOR NOTES ON MET INSTRUMENTS

REFER MET BOOK BY GROUP CAPTAIN IC JOSHI
END OF NOTES