Class notes:

COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It has the ability to
store, retrieve, and process data.

Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
• Takes data as input.
• Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
• Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
• Generates the output
• Controls all the above four steps.

Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which
• accepts and stores data input,
• processes the data input, and
• generates the output in a required format.

Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.
• High Speed
- Computer is a very fast device.
- It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
- The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the picosecond.
- It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will
spend many months for doing the same task.

• Accuracy
- In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
- The calculations are 100% error free.
- Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input has been
given.

• Storage Capability
- Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
- A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
- It can store large amount of data.
- It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many others.

• Diligence
- Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack of
concentration.
- It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
- It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.

• Versatility
- A computer is a very versatile machine.
- A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 - This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
- At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
moment it may be playing a card game.

• Reliability
- A computer is a reliable machine.
- Modern electronic components have long lives.
- Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.

• Automation
- Computer is an automatic machine.
- Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
- Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer memory, the program and
instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

• Reduction in Paper Work

- The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper
work and results in speeding up a process.
- As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.

• Reduction in Cost
- Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it substantially reduces
the cost of each of its transaction.

Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena.
• NoI.Q
- A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
- Each instruction has to be given to computer.
- A computer cannot take any decision on its own.

• Dependency
- It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human being.

• Environment
- The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.

• No Feeling
- Computers have no feelings or emotions.
- It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge unlike a
human being.
 Applications
Following list demonstrates various applications of computers in today's arena.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for:
- Payroll calculations
- Budgeting
- Sales analysis
- Financial forecasting
- Managing employees database
- Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
- Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances, deposits,
overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
- ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of computers. The
insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are widely using computers for
their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information showing
- procedure to continue with policies
- starting date of the policies
- next due installment of a policy
- maturity date
- interests due
- survival benefits
- bonus

Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
- The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE (Computer Based
Education).
- CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
- The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students.

- There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use computer to
educate the students.
- It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis is carried out
on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
- Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and graphics, write
and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more products.
- At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerised catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. The computers are
being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning
and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc. are also done by
computerised machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
- Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of illness.
- Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by computer.
- Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for abnormality
such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
- Pharma Information System - Computer checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful
drug’s side effects etc.
- Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in Engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and modification of
images. Some fields are:
- Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of Ships,
Buildings, Budgets, Airplanes etc.
- Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and improvement
of integrated systems of people, materials and equipments.
- Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing buildings,
determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.

Computers are largely used in defence. modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc. Military also
employs computerised control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
- Missile Control
- Military Communication
- Military Operation and Planning
- Smart Weapons

Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this
category are:
- E-mail
- Chatting
- Usenet
- FTP
- Telnet
- Video-conferencing
 Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this category are:
- Budgets
- Sales tax department
- Income tax department
- Male/Female ratio
- Computerization of voters lists
- Computerization of driving licensing system
- Computerization of PAN card
- Weather forecasting

History of the modern computer

Most histories of the modern computer begin with the Analytical Engine envisioned by Charles
Babbage following the mathematical ideas of George Boole, the mathematician who first stated
the principles of logic inherent in today's digital computer. Babbage's assistant and
collaborator, Ada Lovelace, is said to have introduced the ideas of program loops and
subroutines and is sometimes considered the first programmer. Apart from mechanical
calculators, the first really useable computers began with the vacuum tube, accelerated with the
invention of the transistor, which then became embedded in large numbers in integrated circuits,
ultimately making possible the relatively low-cost personal computer.

Modern computers inherently follow the ideas of the stored program laid out by John von
Neumann in 1945. Essentially, the program is read by the computer one instruction at a time, an
operation is performed, and the computer then reads the next instruction.

From the mid-1900s to the present, the advancement of computers is divided into five
generations. While the year span for each generation varies depending on the reference source,
the most recognized generational timeline.

Computer Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware technologies.
But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which together make up an
entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been discussed
in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates against each
generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers:
 S.N. Generation and Description
1 First Generation The period of first generation: 1946-
1959. Vacuum tube based.
2 Second Generation The period of second generation:
1959-1965. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation The period of third generation: 1965-
1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4 Fourth Generation The period of fourth generation:
1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.
5 Fifth Generation The period of fifth generation: 1980-
onwards.ULSI microprocessor based

First Generation
The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used vacuum
tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit).
These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the
installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large
organisations. In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used. Punched
cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and output devices. The computers in
this generation used machine code as programming language.
The main features of first generation are:
- Vacuum tube technology
- Unreliable
- Supported machine language only
- Very costly
- Generated lot of heat
- Slow input and output devices
- Huge size
- Need of A.C.
- Non-portable
- Consumed lot of electricity

Some computers of this generation were:

• ENIAC
• EDVAC
• UNIVAC
Second Generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used that
were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first
generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as
primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. In this
generation assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL
were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.
The main features of second generation are:
- Use of transistors
- Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
- Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
- Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
- Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
- Faster than first generation computers
- Still very costly
- A.C. needed
- Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were:
• IBM 1620
• IBM 7094

Third Generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used integrated
circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors
along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made
computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation remote processing, time-
sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High-level languages (FORTRAN-II
TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

 - IC used
- More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
- Smaller size
- Generated less heat
- Faster
- Lesser maintenance
- Still costly
- A.C needed
- Consumed lesser electricity
- Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
- IBM-360 series
- Honeywell-6000 series

Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used Very
Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system were used. All
the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc. were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

- VLSI technology used
- Very cheap
- Portable and reliable
- Use of PC's
- Very small size
- Pipeline processing
- No A.C. needed
- Concept of internet was introduced
- Great developments in the fields of networks
- Computers became easily available

Some computers of this generation were:

- DEC 10
- STAR 1000

Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch
in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human
beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation.
AI includes:
- Robotics
- Neural networks
- Game Playing
- Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
- Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

- ULSI technology
- Development of true artificial intelligence
- Development of Natural language processing
- Advancement in Parallel Processing
- Advancement in Superconductor technology
- More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
- Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

Some computer types of this generation are:

✓ Desktop
✓ Laptop
✓ NoteBook
✓ UltraBook
✓ ChromeBook

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
We can categorize computer in three ways: on the basis of data handling capabilities
(functionality), purpose and size.
On the basis of data handling capabilities, the computer is of three types:
• Analogue Computer
• Digital Computer
• Hybrid Computer

1) Analogue Computer
Analogue computers are designed to process analogue data. Analogue data is continuous data that
changes continuously and cannot have discrete values. We can say that analogue computers are
used where we don't need exact values always such as speed, temperature, pressure and current.
Analogue computers directly accept the data from the measuring device without first converting it
into numbers and codes. They measure the continuous changes in physical quantity and generally
render output as a reading on a dial or scale. Speedometer and mercury thermometer are examples
of analogue computers.
Advantages of using analogue computers:
Advantages of using analogue computers:
o It allows real-time operations and computation at the same time and continuous
representation of all data within the rage of the analogue machine.
o In some applications, it allows performing calculations without taking the help of
transducers for converting the inputs or outputs to digital electronic form and vice versa.
 o The programmer can scale the problem for the dynamic range of the analogue computer. It
provides insight into the problem and helps understand the errors and their effects.

Types of analogue computers:

o Slide Rules: It is one of the simplest types of mechanical analogue computers. It was
developed to perform basic mathematical calculations. It is made of two rods. To perform
the calculation, the hashed rod is slid to line up with the markings on another rod.
o Differential Analysers: It was developed to perform differential calculations. It performs
integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms to solve differential calculations.
o Castle Clock: It was invented by Al-Jarazi. It was able to save programming instructions.
Its height was around 11 feet and it was provided with the display of time, the zodiac, and
the solar and lunar orbits. This device also could allow users to set the length of the day as
per the current season.
o Electronic Analogue Computer: In this type of analogue computer, electrical signals flow
through capacitors and resistors to simulate physical phenomena. Here, the mechanical
interaction of components does not take place. The voltage of the electrical signal generates
the appropriate displays.

2) Digital Computer
Digital computer is designed to perform calculations and logical operations at high speed. It
accepts the raw data as input in the form of digits or binary numbers (0 and 1) and processes it
with programs stored in its memory to produce the output. All modern computers like laptops,
desktops including smartphones that we use at home or office are digital computers.
Advantages of digital computers:
o It allows you to store a large amount of information and to retrieve it easily whenever you
need it.
o You can easily add new features to digital systems more easily.
o Different applications can be used in digital systems just by changing the program without
making any changes in hardware
o The cost of hardware is less due to the advancement in the IC technology.
o It offers high speed as the data is processed digitally.
o It is highly reliable as it uses error correction codes.
o Reproducibility of results is higher as the output is not affected by noise, temperature,
humidity, and other properties of its components.

3) Hybrid Computer
Hybrid computer has features of both analogue and digital computer. It is fast like an
analogue computer and has memory and accuracy like digital computers. It can process both
continuous and discrete data. It accepts analogue signals and convert them into digital form before
processing. So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analogue and digital data
is processed. For example, a processor is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of
fuel flow into quantity and price. Similarly, they are used in airplanes, hospitals, and scientific
applications.
Advantages of using hybrid computers:
o Its computing speed is very high due to the all-parallel configuration of the analogue
subsystem.
 o It produces precise and quick results that are more accurate and useful.
o It has the ability to solve and manage big equation in real-time.
o It helps in the on-line data processing.

On the basis of size, the computer can be of five types:

1) Supercomputer
Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount
of data. A supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of
interconnected processors.
Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather
forecasting, scientific simulations and nuclear energy research. The first supercomputer was
developed by Roger Cray in 1976.
Characteristics or applications of supercomputers:
o It has the ability to decrypt your password to enhance protection for security reasons.
o It produces excellent results in animations.
o It is used for virtual testing of nuclear weapons and critical medical tests.
o It can study and understand climate patterns and forecast weather conditions. It can run in
NOAA's system (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) that can execute any
type of simple and logical data.
o It helps in designing the flight simulators for pilots at the beginner level for their training.
o It helps in extracting useful information from data storage centres or cloud system. For
example, in insurance companies.
o It has played a vital role in managing the online currency world such as stock market and
bitcoin.
o It helps in the diagnosis of various critical diseases and in producing accurate results in
brain injuries, strokes, etc.
o It helps in scientific research areas by accurately analysing data obtained from exploring
the solar system, satellites, and movement of Earth.
o It also used in a smog control system where it predicts the level of fog and other pollutants
in the atmosphere.

2) Mainframe computer
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different processes
simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big organizations
like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process high volume of data.
Mainframe computers are designed to support hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
They can support multiple programs at the same time. It means they can execute different
processes simultaneously. These features of mainframe computers make them ideal for big
organizations like banking and telecom sectors, which need to manage and process a high volume
of data that requires integer operations such as indexing, comparisons, etc.

Characteristics of Mainframe Computers:

o It can process huge amount of data, e.g. millions of transactions in a second in the banking
sector.
 o It has a very long life. It can run smoothly for up to 50 years after proper installation.
o It gives excellent performance with large scale memory management.
o It has the ability to share or distribute its workload among other processors and input/output
terminals.
o There are fewer chances of error or bugs during processing in mainframe computers. If any
error occurs it can fix it quickly without affecting the performance.
o It has the ability to protect the stored data and other ongoing exchange of information and
data.

Applications of mainframe computers:

o In health care, it enabled hospitals to maintain a record of their millions of patients in order
to contact them for treatment or related to their appointment, medicine updates or disease
updates.
o In the field of defence, it allows the defence departments to share a large amount of
sensitive information with other branches of defence.
o In the field of education, it helps big universities to store, manage and retrieve data related
to their courses, admissions, students, teachers, employees and affiliated schools and
colleges.
o In the retail sector, the retail companies that have a huge customer base and branches use
mainframe computers to handle and execute information related to their inventory
management, customer management, and huge transactions in a short duration.

3) Miniframe or Minicomputer
It is a midsize multiprocessing computer. It consists of two or more processors and can support 4
to 200 users at one time. Miniframe computers are used in institutes and departments for tasks
such as billing, accounting and inventory management. A minicomputer lies between the
mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Characteristics of miniframe or minicomputer:

o It is light weight that makes it easy to carry and fit anywhere.
o It is less expensive than mainframe computers.
o It is very fast compared to its size.
o It remains charged for a long time.
o It does not require a controlled operational environment.

Applications of minicomputers:
A minicomputer is mainly used to perform three primary functions, which are as follows:
o Process control: It was used for process control in manufacturing. It mainly performs two
primary functions that are collecting data and feedback. If any abnormality occurs in the
process, it is detected by the minicomputer and necessary adjustments are made
accordingly.
o Data management: It is an excellent device for small organizations to collect, store and
share data. Local hospitals and hotels can use it to maintain the records of their patients
and customers respectively.
 o Communications Portal: It can also play the role of a communication device in larger
systems by serving as a portal between a human operator and a central processor or
computer.

4) Workstation
Workstation is a single user computer that is designed for technical or scientific applications. It
has a faster microprocessor, a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapters. It
generally performs a specific job with great expertise; accordingly, they are of different types
such as graphics workstation, music workstation and engineering design workstation.
Characteristics of workstation computer:
o It is a high-performance computer system designed for a single user for business or
professional use.
o It has larger storage capacity, better graphics, and more powerful CPU than a personal
computer.
o It can handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation and editing.
Any computer that has the following five features, can be termed as a workstation or can be used
as a workstation.
o Multiple Processor Cores: It has more processor cores than simple laptops or computers.
o ECC RAM: It is provided with Error-correcting code memory that can fix memory errors
before they affect the system's performance.
o RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks): It refers to multiple internal hard drives
to store or process data. RAID can be of different types, for example, there can be multiple
drives to process data or mirrored drives where if one drive does not work than other starts
functioning.
o SSD: It is better than conventional hard-disk drives. It does not have moving parts, so the
chances of physical failure are very less.
o Optimized, Higher end GPU: It reduces the load on CPU. E.g., CPU has to do less work
while processing the screen output.

5) Microcomputer
Microcomputer is also known as a personal computer. It is a general-purpose computer that is
designed for individual use. It has a microprocessor as a central processing unit, memory, storage
area, input unit and output unit. Laptops and desktop computers are examples of microcomputers.
They are suitable for personal work that may be making an assignment, watching a movie, or at
office for office work.

Characteristics of a microcomputer:
o It is the smallest in size among all types of computers.
o A limited number of software can be used.
o It is designed for personal work and applications. Only one user can work at a time.
o It is less expansive and easy to use.
o It does not require the user to have special skills or training to use it.
o Generally, comes with single semiconductor chip.
o It is capable of multitasking such as printing, scanning, browsing, watching videos, etc.
Types of Computer Based on the Purpose
There are two types of computers according to their purpose.
» General Purpose Computers
» Special Purpose Computers

General Purpose Computers

Most computers in use today are General-Purpose computers — those built for a great variety of
processing jobs. Simply by using a general purpose computer and different software, various
tasks can be accomplished, including writing and editing (word processing), manipulating facts
in a data base, tracking manufacturing inventory, making scientific calculations, or even
controlling organization’s security system, electricity consumption, and building temperature.
General purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of functions and operations.
You will probably use this type of computer reading this article and I am using a general purpose
computer typing this article in some software (MS Word). A general purpose computer is able to
perform a wide variety of operations because it can store and execute different programs in its
internal storage. Unfortunately, having this ability is often achieved at the expense of speed and
efficiency. In most situations, however, you will find that having this flexibility makes this
compromise a most acceptable one.

Special Purpose Computers

As the name states, a Special-Purpose Computer are designed to be task specific and most of the
times their job is to solve one particular problem. They are also known as dedicated computers,
because they are dedicated to perfom a single task over and over again. Such a computer system
would be useful in playing graphic intensive Video Games, traffic lights control system,
navigational system in an aircraft, weather forecasting, satellite launch / tracking, oil exploration,
and in automotive industries, keeping time in a digital watch, or Robot helicopter. While a
special purpose computer may have many of the same features found in a general purpose
computer, its applicability to a particular problem is a function of its design rather than to a
stored program. The instructions that control it are built directly into the computer, which makes
for a more efficient and effective operation. They perform only one function and therefore cut
down on the amount of memory needed and also the amount of information which can be input
into them. As these computers have to perform only one task, therefore, they are fast in
processing. A drawback of this specialization, however, is the computer’s lack of versatility. It
cannot be used to perform other operations.