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Unit 1

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13 views65 pages

Unit 1

ACA unit 1 notes

Uploaded by

Masira Samdole
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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UNIT-01

The Concept of Computer


Architecture and Fundamentals of
Quantitative Design and Analysis:
Trends towards parallel processing
Phases of computer system in OS point
of view
Parallel processing challenged in 4
programmatic levels
Parallelism in uniprocessor system
Parallel processing mechanisms
Parallel computer structure
Pipeline Computer
Array Processors
Multiprocessor System
Architectural classification Schemes:
Multiplicity of Instruction-Data Streams

• The most universally excepted method of classifying


computer systems
• Any computer can be placed in one of 4 broad categories
» SISD: Single instruction stream, single data stream
» SIMD: Single instruction stream, multiple data streams
» MIMD: Multiple instruction streams, multiple data streams
» MISD: Multiple instruction streams, single data stream
Overview
• Flynn’s taxonomy
• Classification based on the memory arrangement
• Classification based on communication
• Classification based on the kind of parallelism
– Data-parallel
– Function-parallel
SISD

Instructions
Processing Main memory
element (PE) (M)
Data

IS
IS DS
Control Unit PE Memory

22
SIMD
Applications:
• Image processing
• Matrix manipulations
• Sorting

23
SIMD Architectures

• Fine-grained
– Image processing application
– Large number of PEs
– Minimum complexity PEs
– Programming language is a simple extension of a
sequential language
• Coarse-grained
– Each PE is of higher complexity and it is usually built
with commercial devices
– Each PE has local memory

24
MIMD

25
MISD

Applications:
• Classification
• Robot vision

26
Five Critical
Implementation Technologies
• Integrated circuit logic technology
• Semiconductor DRAM
• Semiconductor flash
• Magnetic disk technology
• Network technology
Integrated circuit logic technology
• Moore’s Law: a growth rate in
transistor count on
a chip of about
40% to 55%
per year

doubles every
18 to 24 months
Semiconductor DRAM
• Capacity per DRAM chip doubles roughly
every 2 or 3 years
Semiconductor Flash
• Electronically erasable programmable read-
only memory
• Capacity per Flash chip doubles roughly every
two years
• In 2011, 15 to 20 times cheaper per bit than
DRAM
Magnetic Disk Technology
• Since 2004, density doubles every three years
• 15 to 20 times cheaper per bit than Flash
• 300 to 500 times cheaper per bit than DRAM
• For server and warehouse scale storage
Network Technology
• Switches
• Transmission systems
Performance Trends
• Bandwidth/Throughput
the total amount of work done in a given time;
• Latency/Response Time
the time between the start and the completion
of an event;
Bandwidth over Latency
Trends in Power and Energy
Three primary concerns
• max power for a processor
• sustained power consumption
Metric: TDP Thermal Design Power
determines cooling requirement
Heat management
1. reduce clock rate and hence power as the thermal
temperature approaches the junction temperature
limit;
2. if 1 is not working, power down the chip.
Trends in Power and Energy
• Energy and Energy Efficiency
energy to execute a workload =
avg power x execution time
• Example
processor A with 20% higher avg power
consumption than processor B;
but A executes the task with 70% of the time by B;
A or B is more efficient?
Trends in Power and Energy
• Example
processor A with 20% higher avg power
consumption than processor B;
but A executes the task with 70% of the time by B;
A or B is more efficient?
• EnergyConsumptionA
= 1.2 x 0.7 x EnergyConsumptionB
=0.84 x EnergyConsumptionB
Trends in Power and Energy
• Primary energy consumption within a
microprocessor is for switching transistors –
dynamic energy

logic transistion: 0->1->0 or 1->0->1


• The energy of a single transition
Trends in Power and Energy
• The power required per transistor

• For a fixed task, slowing clock rate (frequency)


reduces power, but not energy.
Trends in Power and Energy
• Example
some microprocessors with adjustable voltage;
15% reduction in voltage -> 15% reduction in
frequency;
the impact on dynamic energy and dynamic
power?
Trends in Power and Energy
• Answer
Trends in Power and Energy
• Challenges
distributing the power
removing the heat
preventing hot spots
Trends in Power and Energy
• Energy-efficiency improvement techniques
1. do nothing well
turn off the clock of inactive modules
2. DVFS: dynamic voltage-frequency scaling
scale down clock frequency and voltage during
periods of low activity
DVFS
Trends in Power and Energy
• Energy-efficiency improvement techniques
3. design for typical case
PMDs, laptops – often idle
memory and storage with low power modes to
save energy
4. overclocking
the chip runs at a higher clock rate for a short
time until temperature rises
Trends in Cost
• Cost of an Integrated Circuit
wafer for test; chopped into dies for
packaging
Trends in Cost
• Cost of an Integrated Circuit

percentage of
manufactured devices
that survives the
testing procedure
Trends in Cost
• Cost of an Integrated Circuit
Trends in Cost
• Cost of an Integrated Circuit
Intel Core i7 Die
Trends in Cost
• Example
Trends in Cost
• Example
Trends in Cost
• Cost of an Integrated Circuit

• N: process-complexity factor for measuring


manufacturing difficulty
Outline
• Classes of computers
• Parallelism
• Instruction Set Architecture
• Trends
• Dependability
• Performance Measurement
Dependability
• SLA: service level agreements
• System states: up or down
• Service states
service accomplishment
failure restoration
service interruption
Dependability
• Two measures of dependability
Module reliability
Module availability
Dependability
• Two measures of dependability
Module reliability
continuous service accomplishment from a
reference initial instant

MTTF: mean time to failure


MTTR: mean time to repair
MTBF: mean time between failures
MTBF = MTTF + MTTR
Dependability
• Two measures of dependability
Module reliability
FIT: failures in time
failures per billion hours

MTTF of 1,000,000 hours


= 109/106
= 1000 FIT
Dependability
• Two measures of dependability
Module availability
Dependability
• Example
Dependability
• Answer
Measuring Performance
• Execution time
the time between the start and the completion
of an event
• Throughput
the total amount of work done in a given time
Measuring Performance
• Computer X and Computer Y
• X is n times faster than Y

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