Computer Networks(2015 Pattern)

Unit IV- Network Layer

Note: Material for this presentations are taken from

Internet and books and only being used for student
reference
Network Layer Design Isues
• Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
• Services Provided to the Transport Layer
• Implementation of Connectionless Service
• Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service
• Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram Subnets
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
Switching techniques
Switching techniques

Circuit Switching
Datagram Packet
Switching
Packet Switching
Virtual Packet
Switching
Message Switching
Circuit Switching
 When two nodes communicate with each other over a
dedicated communication path, it is called circuit switching.
 There 'is a need of pre-specified route from which data will
travels and no other data is permitted.
 In circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be
established so that the data transfer can take place.
 Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which
use circuit switching may have to go through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit
Circuit Switching
 Circuit switching was designed for voice applications.
 Telephone is the best suitable example of circuit switching.
Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller
and callee is established over the network
Circuit Switched Networks
Message Switching
 This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching
and packet switching. In message switching, the whole
message is treated as a data unit and is switching /
transferred in its entirety.
 A switch working on message switching, first receives the
whole message and buffers it until there are resources
available to transfer it to the next hop.
 If the next hop is not having enough resource to
accommodate large size message, the message is stored and
switch waits.
Message Switching
Message Switching drawbacks

 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to

accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included
until resources are available, message switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media
and real-time applications.
Packet Switching
 Shortcomings of message switching gave birth to an idea of
packet switching.
 The entire message is broken down into smaller chunks
called packets.
 The switching information is added in the header of each
packet and transmitted independently.
 It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small
size packets and they do not take much resources either on
carrier path or in the internal memory of switches.
 Packet Switching Technique
 A station breaks long message into packets
 Packets are sent out to the network sequentially, one at a
time
 How will the network handle this stream of packets as it
attempts to route them through the network and deliver
them to the intended destination?
 Two approaches
 Datagram approach
 Virtual circuit approach

12
 Datagram
 Each packet is treated independently, with no reference to
packets that have gone before.
 Each node chooses the next node on a packet’s path.
 Packets can take any possible route.
 Packets may arrive at the receiver out of order.
 Packets may go missing.
 It is up to the receiver to re-order packets and recover from
missing packets.
 Example: Internet

13
 Datagram Approach

14
 Virtual Circuit
 In virtual circuit, a preplanned route is established before any
packets are sent, then all packets follow the same route.
 Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead
of destination address, and each node on the preestablished
route knows where to forward such packets.
 The node need not make a routing decision for each packet.
 Example: X.25, Frame Relay, ATM

15
 Virtual
Circuit Approach

A route between stations is set

up prior to data transfer.
All the data packets then follow
the same route.
But there is no dedicated
resources reserved for the
virtual circuit! Packets need to
be stored-and-forwarded.

16
Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram
Subnets

5-4
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
IPv4 datagram format (IPV4 Header)
 IPv4 datagram format (IPV4 Header)

 Version: IP Version  Protocol

 4 for IPv4  Demultiplexing to higher layer protocols
 6 for IPv6
 TCP = 6, ICMP = 1, UDP = 17…

 HLen: Header Length  Header checksum

 32-bit words (typically 5)  Ensures some degree of header integrity
 Relatively weak – only 16 bits
 TOS: Type of Service
 Priority information  Options
 E.g. Source routing, record route, etc.
 Identifier, flags, fragment  Performance issues at routers
offset  used primarily for  Poorly supported or not at all
fragmentation
 Source Address
 Time to live  32-bit IP address of sender
 Must be decremented  Destination Address
at each router
 Packets with TTL=0  32-bit IP address of destination
are thrown away
 Ensure packets exit
the network
Service type field in IPV4

20.22
Protocol values
Some of the IPv4 options.

5-54
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
IPv4 Addressing- Introduction
An IP address is a 32-bit address that uniquely
and universally defines the connection of a host
or a router to the Internet.

IP addresses are unique.

26
 Note:

An IP address is a 32-bit address.

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.
27
Dotted-decimal and Binary equivalent notation

28
 Example 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal
notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number and add
dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239 b. 193.131.27.255
c. 231.219.139.111 d. 249.155.251.15

29
 Example 2

Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary

notation.
a. 111.56.45.78 b. 221.34.7.82
c. 241.8.56.12 d. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent:
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010
c. 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100
d. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

30
IP Addresses formats and ranges.
Finding the class in binary notation
 Example

Find the class of each address:

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 10100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution

a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.

b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address.
c. The first bit is 0; the second bit is 1. This is a class B address.
d. The first 4 bits are 1s. This is a class E address..
Finding the class in decimal notation
 Example

Find the class of each address:

a. 227.12.14.87 b.193.14.56.22 c.14.23.120.8

d. 252.5.15.111 e.134.11.78.56

Solution
a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D.
b. The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.
e. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.
Netid and hostid
 Example

Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class, the block,
and the range of the addresses.

Solution
The class is A because the first byte is between 0 and 127.
The block has a netid of 17.
The addresses range from 17.0.0.0 to 17.255.255.255.
 Example

Given the network address 132.21.0.0, find the class, the

block, and the range of the addresses.

Solution
The class is B because the first byte is between 128 and 191.
The block has a netid of 132.21.
The addresses range from 132.21.0.0 to 132.21.255.255.
 Example

Given the network address 220.34.76.0, find the class, the

block, and the range of the addresses.

Solution
The class is C because the first byte is between 192 and 223.
The block has a netid of 220.34.76.
The addresses range from 220.34.76.0 to 220.34.76.255.
Masking concept
Default masks
 Note:

The network address is the beginning

address of each block. It can be found
by applying the default mask to any of
the addresses in the block (including
itself). It retains the netid of the block
and sets the hostid to zero.
 Example

Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the beginning address

(network address).

Solution
The default mask is 255.0.0.0,
which means that only the first byte is preserved
and the other 3 bytes are set to 0s.
The network address is 23.0.0.0.
 Example

Given the address 132.6.17.85, find the beginning address

(network address).

Solution
The default mask is 255.255.0.0,
which means that the first 2 bytes are preserved
and the other 2 bytes are set to 0s.
The network address is 132.6.0.0.
 Example

Given the address 201.180.56.5, find the

beginning address (network address).

Solution
The default mask is 255.255.255.0, which means
that the first 3 bytes are preserved and the last
byte is set to 0. The network address is
201.180.56.0.
Special IP addresses
.
IPv6 ADDRESSES

Despite all short-term solutions, address depletion is

still a long-term problem for the Internet. This and other
problems in the IP protocol itself have been the
motivation for IPv6.
Note

An IPv6 address is 128 bits long.

IPv6 address in binary and hexadecimal
colon notation
Abbreviated IPv6 addresses
 IPv6 Colon Hexadecimal Notation
 128 bit number expressed as dotted decimal
104.230.140.100.255.255.255.255.0.0.17.128.150.10.255.255 becomes
68E6:8C64:FFFF:FFFF:0:1180:96A:FFFF

 Hex notation allows zero compression

 A string of repeated zeros is replaced with a pair of colons
 FF05:0:0:0:0:0:0:B3 becomes FF05::B3
 Can be applied only once in any address
Basic IPv6 Address Types

 Unicast – Destination address specifies a single computer. Route

datagram along shortest path.
 Anycast – Destination is a set of computers, possibly at different
locations, that all share a single address. Route datagram along shortest
path and deliver to exactly one member of the group (i.e. closest
member)
 Multicast - Destination is a set of computers, possibly at different
locations. One copy of the datagram will be delivered to each member
of the group using hardware multicast or broadcast if viable.
The Main IPv6 Header

The IPv6 fixed header (required).

IPV6 Header Description
 Version (4-bits): It represents the version of Internet Protocol
 Traffic Class (8-bits): These 8 bits are divided into two parts.
The most significant 6 bits are used for Type of Service & The
least significant 2 bits are used for Explicit Congestion
Notification (ECN).
 Flow Label (20-bits): This label is used to maintain the
sequential flow of the packets belonging to a
communication. Payload Length (16-bits): This field is
used to tell the routers how much information a particular
packet contains in its payload.
IPV6 Header Description
 Next Header (8-bits): This field is used to indicate either the type
of Extension Header.
 Hop Limit (8-bits): This field is used to stop packet to loop in the
network infinitely. The value of Hop Limit field is decremented by 1 as
it passes a link (router/hop). When the field reaches 0 the packet is
discarded.
 Source Address (128-bits): This field indicates the address of
originator of the packet.
 Destination Address (128-bits): This field provides the address
of intended recipient of the packet.
Format of an IPv6 datagram
Extension header types
Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4(Ipv4 v/s Ipv6)

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Source and destination 32 bits 128 bits
address
Address Format Dotted Decimal Hexadecimal Notation
No of Address 2^32 2^128
IPSec Optional required
Payload ID for QoS in No identification Using Flow label field
the header
Fragmentation Both router and the Only supported at the
sending hosts sending hosts
Header checksum included Not included

Resolve IP address to a broadcast ARP request Multicast Neighbor

link layer address Solicitation message
 Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4
(Ipv4 v/s Ipv6) (2)

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Determine the address ICMP Router ICMPv6 Router
of the best default Discovery(optional) Solicitation and Router
gateway Advertisement (required)

Send traffic to all nodes Broadcast Link-local scope all-

on a subnet nodes multicast address

Configure address Manually or DHCP Autoconfiguration

Manage local subnet (IGMP) Multicast Listener

group membership Discovery (MLD)
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
IPv4 Addressing- Subnetting

The problems associated with classful addressing is

that the network addresses available for assignment to
organizations are close to depletion.

This is coupled with the ever-increasing demand for

addresses from organizations that want connection to
the Internet.

In this section we briefly discuss two solutions:

subnetting and supernetting.
Addresses in a network with and without subnetting
Default mask and subnet mask
Comparison of a default mask and a subnet mask
For more examples refer
 https://www.kirkwood.edu/pdf/uploaded/569/ip_address
ing_&_subnetting_workbook.pdf
 http://www.routeralley.com/guides/ipv4.pdf

PPTS from NPTEL

 http://www.facweb.iitkgp.ernet.in/~isg/INTERNET/SLI
DES/Lecture-06.pdf
 Example

What is the subnetwork address if the destination address is 200.45.34.56 and

the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?

Solution
We apply the AND operation on the address and the subnet mask.

Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000

Subnet Mask ➡ 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
Subnetwork Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000.
 Style -1 Subnetting when given a required number of networks

Example 1: A service provider has given you the Class C network range
209.50.1.0. Your company must break the network into 20 separate
subnets.

Solution
Step 1) Determine the number of subnets and convert to binary
-In this example, the binary representation of 20 = 00010100.

Step 2) Reserve required bits in subnet mask and find incremental value
- The binary value of 20 subnets tells us that we need at least 5 network bits to
satisfy this requirement

67 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 1 continued

- Our original subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 (Class C subnet) - The full binary
representation of the subnet mask is as follows:
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

- We must “convert” 5 of the client bits (0) to network bits (1) in order to satisfy
the requirements:
New Mask = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11111000

-If we convert the mask back to decimal, we now have the subnet mask that
will be used on all the new
networks – 255.255.255.248 –

68 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 1 continued

New subnet mask 255.255.255.248

Our increment bit is the last possible network bit, converted back to a binary
number:

New Mask = 11111111.11111111.11111111.1111(1)000 –

bit with the parenthesis is your increment bit.

If you convert this bit to a decimal number, it becomes the number “8” that is
every subnet is having 8 addresses allotted to it (from 0 to 7, then 8 to 15 etc)

69 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 1 continued

Step 3) Use increment to find network ranges

You can now fill in your end ranges, which is the last possible IP address
before you start the next range
209.50.1.0 – 209.50.1.7
209.50.1.8 – 209.50.1.15
209.50.1.16 – 209.50.1.23 …etc

You can then assign these ranges to your networks!

Remember the first and last address from each range (network /
broadcast IP) are unusable

70 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Style 2- Subnetting when given a required number of clients

Example 1: A service provider has given you the Class C network range
209.50.1.0. Your company must break the network into as many subnets as
possible as long as there are at least 50 clients per network.

Solution
Step 1) Determine the number of clients and convert to binary
-In this example, the binary representation of 50 = 00110010

-Step 2) Reserve required bits in subnet mask and find incremental value
- The binary value of 50 clients tells us that we need at least 6 client bits to satisfy
this requirement

71 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 2 continued

- Our original subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 (Class C subnet) - The full binary
representation of the subnet mask is as follows:
255.255.255.0 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000

-We must ensure 6 of the client bits (0) remain client bits (save the clients!) in
order to satisfy the requirements. All other bits can become network bits:
-New Mask = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11 000000
- note the 6 client bits that we have saved

-If we convert the mask back to decimal, we now have the subnet mask that
will be used on all the new networks –
255.255.255.192

72 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 2 continued

New subnet Mask - 255.255.255.192

Our increment bit is the last possible network bit, converted back to a binary
number:

New Mask = 11111111.11111111.11111111.1(1)000000

– bit with the parenthesis is your increment bit.

If you convert this bit to a decimal number, it becomes the number “64” (i.e
from 0 to 63, 64 to 127 etc)

73 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 2 continued

Step 3) Use increment to find network ranges

209.50.1.0 – 209.50.1.63
209.50.1.64 – 209.50.1.127
209.50.1.128 – 209.50.1.191
209.50.1.192 – 209.50.1.255

You can then assign these ranges to your networks!

Remember the first and last address from each range (network /
broadcast IP) are unusable

74 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Style 3 - Given an IP address & Subnet Mask, find original
network range

Example - You are given the following IP address and subnet mask:
192.168.1.58 255.255.255.240 Identify the original range of addresses
(the subnet) that this IP address belongs to

Solution
Break the subnet mask back into binary
255.255.255.240 = 11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000

-As before, the last possible network bit is your increment.

-In this case, the increment is 16
-
-Use this increment to find the network ranges until you pass the given IP
address: 192.168.1.0
192.168.1.16
192.168.1.32
192.168.1.48
192.168.1.64 (passed given IP address 192.168.1.58)
75 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
 Example 3 continued

- Now, fill in the end ranges to find the answer to the scenario:

192.168.1.0 – 192.168.1.15
192.168.1.16 – 192.168.1.31
192.168.1.32 – 192.168.1.47
192.168.1.48 – 192.168.1.63
(IP address 192.168.1.58 belongs to this range)

76 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Note:
In subnetting, we need the first address
of the subnet and the subnet mask to
define the range of addresses.
In supernetting, we need the first
address of the supernet and the
supernet mask to define the range of
addresses.
Comparison of subnet, default, and supernet masks
 IP Addresses:
Classless Addressing
(CIDR- Classless Inter domain
Routing)
Classless Addressing

It uses slash notation with IP Address

Example: 142.4.7.3/27

Here /27 means from total 31bit address first 27 bits are
for Network and remaining i.e. 32-27=5 bits are for host
Prefix lengths

The addresses in color are the default masks for classes A, B, and C.
Thus, classful addressing is a special case of classless addressing.

81 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example - Find first address

What is the first address in the block if one of the

addresses is 167.199.170.82/27?

82 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example - Find first address

What is the first address(network address) in the

block if one of the addresses is
167.199.170.82/27?
Solution
The prefix length is 27, which means that we must
keep the first 27 bits as is and change the
remaining bits (5) to 0s. The following shows the
process:
Address in binary: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01010010
Keep the left 27 bits: 10100111 11000111 10101010 01000000
Result in CIDR notation: 167.199.170.64/27

83 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Example 19.6

A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We

know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is
the first address in the block?

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32−28 = 4 rightmost bits to 0, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 0010000
or
205.16.37.32.

19.84
Note

The last address in the block can be found

by setting the rightmost
32 − n bits to 1s.

19.85
 Example 19.7

Find the last address for the block in 205.16.37.39/28

Solution
The binary representation of the given address is
11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111
If we set 32 − 28=4 rightmost bits to 1, we get
11001101 00010000 00100101 00101111
or
205.16.37.47

19.86
Note

The number of addresses in the block can

be found by using the formula
232−n.

19.87
 Example 19.8

Find the number of addresses in 205.16.37.39/28

Solution
The value of n is 28, which means that number
of addresses is 2 32−28 or 16.

19.88
 Example 19.9

Another way to find the first address, the last address, and
the number of addresses is to represent the mask as a 32-bit
binary (or 8-digit hexadecimal) number. This is
particularly useful when we are writing a program to find
these pieces of information. In Example 19.5 the /28 can be
represented as
11111111 11111111 11111111 11110000
(twenty-eight 1s and four 0s).

Find
a. The first address
b. The last address
c. The number of addresses.
19.89
 Example 19.10

An ISP is granted a block of addresses starting with

190.100.0.0/16 (65,536 addresses). The ISP needs to
distribute these addresses to three groups of customers as
follows:
a. The first group has 64 customers; each needs 256
addresses.
b. The second group has 128 customers; each needs 128
addresses.
c. The third group has 128 customers; each needs 64
addresses.
Design the subblocks and find out how many addresses are
still available after these allocations.
19.90
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Solution
.
Group 1
For this group, each customer needs 256 addresses. This
means that 8 (log2 256) bits are needed to define each host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 8 = 24. The addresses are

19.91
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 2
For this group, each customer needs 128 addresses. This
means that 7 (log2 128) bits are needed to define each host.
The prefix length is then 32 − 7 = 25. The addresses are

19.92
 Example 19.10 (continued)

Group 3
For this group, each customer needs 64 addresses. This
means that 6 (log264) bits are needed to each host. The
prefix length is then 32 − 6 = 26. The addresses are

Number of granted addresses to the ISP: 65,536

Number of allocated addresses by the ISP: 40,960
Number of available addresses: 24,576
19.93
Figure 19.9 An example of address allocation and distribution by an ISP

19.94
Addresses for private networks
NAT – Network Address Translation
Placement and operation of a NAT box.
A NAT implementation

19.97
Addresses in a NAT

19.98
NAT address translation

19.99
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
ICMP V4 -Introduction
The IP protocol has no error-reporting or error
correcting mechanism.
What happens if something goes wrong? What
happens if a router must discard a datagram because it
cannot find a router to the final destination, or
Because the time-to-live field has a zero value?
These are examples of situations where an error has
occurred and the IP protocol has no built-in mechanism
to notify the original host.
The solution is ICMP protocol
ICMP V4 -MESSAGES
ICMP messages are divided into two broad categories:
1. error-reporting messages
2. query messages.
The error-reporting messages report problems that a
router or a host (destination) may encounter when it
processes an IP packet.
The query messages, help a host or a network manager get
specific information from a router or another host. Also,
hosts can discover and learn about routers on their network
and routers can help a node redirect its messages.
General format of ICMP messages or
ICMP header
Basic ICMP Header
 Headers are 32 bits in length; all contain same
three fields
◦ type - 8 bit message type code
 Thirteen message type are defined
◦ code - 8 bit;
• indicating why message is being sent
◦ checksum - standard internet checksum
 for purpose of calculation the checksum field is set to zero
Error-reporting messages
 Query Messages

Query Messages

Echo Timestamp Timestamp

Echo Request Reply Request Reply
ICMP V6- INTRODUCTION

Another protocol that has been modified in version 6

of the TCP/IP protocol suite is ICMP.
This new version, Internet Control Message Protocol
version 6 ( ICMPv6 ), follows the same strategy and
purposes of version 4.
ICMPv6, however, is more complicated than ICMPv4:
some protocols that were independent in version 4 are
now part of ICMPv6 and
some new messages have been added to make it
more useful.
107
Taxonomy of ICMPv6 messages

108
 Error-reporting messages

109
 Informational Messages

Two of the ICMPv6 messages can be categorized as

informational messages: echo request and echo reply messages.
The echo request and echo response messages are designed
to check if two devices in the Internet can communicate with
each other.
 A host or router can send an echo request message to
another host; the receiving computer or router can reply using
the echo response message.

110
 Neighbor-Discovery Messages

The most important issue is the definition of two new

protocols that clearly define the functionality of these group
messages:
1.Neighbor-Discovery (ND) protocol
2.Inverse-Neighbor-Discovery (IND) protocol.
These two protocols are used by nodes (hosts or routers) on
the same link (network).

111
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
INTER-AND INTRA-DOMAIN ROUTING

Today, an internet can be so large that one routing protocol

cannot handle the task of updating the routing tables of all
routers.
For this reason, an internet is divided into autonomous
systems.
An autonomous system (AS) is a group of networks and
routers under the authority of a single administration.
Routing inside an autonomous system is called intra-domain
routing.
Routing between autonomous systems is called inter-domain
routing

113 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Figure Autonomous systems

114 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Autonomous System (AS)
AS 100
A

 Collection of networks with same policy

 Single routing protocol
 Usually under single administrative control
Popular routing protocols

116 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

Popular routing protocols

117 TCP/IP Protocol Suite

DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING

Today, an internet can be so large that one routing protocol cannot

handle the task of updating the routing tables of all routers. For this
reason, an internet is divided into autonomous systems.

An autonomous system (AS) is a group of networks and routers

under the authority of a single administration.

Routing inside an autonomous system is called intra-domain routing.

Distance Vector Routing Working
 No node has complete information about the costs of all network
links
 Gradual calculation of path by exchanging information with
neighbors
 Each node constructs a one-dimensional array containing the
“distances” or “costs” to all other nodes (as it relates to its
knowledge) and distributes it to its immediate neighbors.
 Key thing -- each node knows the cost of links to its neighbors.
 If no link exists between two nodes, the cost of a direct link
between the nodes is “infinity”.
 Distance Vector Routing
 The least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with
minimum distance.
 Each node maintains a vector(table) of minimum distances to
every node.
 The table at each node also guides the packets to the desired node
by showing the next hop routing.

Example:
Assume each node as the cities.
Lines as the roads connecting them.
 Distance Vector Routing-Initialization

At the beginning, each node know the

cost of itself and its immediate neighbor

The distance of any entry that is not a

neighbor is marked as
infinite(unreachable).
1
2
1
 Distance Vector Routing-Initialization

1
2
2
Distance Vector Routing-Sharing
 Idea is to share the information between neighbors.
 The node A does not know the distance about E, but node C
does.
 If node C share it routing table with A, node A can also know
how to reach node E.
 On the other hand, node C does not know how to reach node
D, but node A does.
 If node A share its routing table with C, then node C can also
know how to reach node D.
 Node A and C are immediate neighbors, can improve their
routing tables if they help each other.
 Distance Vector Routing-Sharing
 How much of the table must be shared with each neighbor?
 The third column of the table(next hop) is not useful for the
neighbor.
 When the neighbor receives a table, this column needs to be
replaced with the sender’s name.
 If any of the rows can be used, the next node column filled with
sender of the table.
 Therefore, a node can send only the first two column of its table to
any neighbor.
 Updating in distance vector routing
example: C to A
From C From A

A to A via C: ACA = AC+ CA = 2+2

A to B via C: ACB = AC + CB = 2+4

A to D via C: ACD = AC + CD = 2+ inf.

A to E via C: ACD = AC + CE = 2+4

A to C via C: ACB = AC + CC = 2+0

Final Distance vector routing
tables
When to Share Routing table with neighbors
Periodic Update
• A node sends its routing table, normally 30
seconds, in a periodic update
Triggered Update
• A node sends its routing table to its neighbors any
time when there is a change in its routing table
• 1. After updating its routing table, or
• 2. Detects some failure in the neighboring links
1
2 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
7
Distance Vector Routing –
The count-to-infinity problem.
 Distance Vector Routing –
The count-to-infinity problem.
To see the problem clearly, imagine a subnet
connected like A–B–C–D–E, and let the metric
between the routers be "number of jumps(Hops)".

Now suppose that A is taken offline.

In the vector-update-process B notices that the

route to A, which was distance 1, is down – B does
not receive the vector update from A.
 Distance Vector Routing –
The count-to-infinity problem cont….
The problem is, B also gets an update from C, and C is still not aware of
the fact that A is down – so it tells B that A is only two jumps from C (C
to B to A), which is false.

Since B doesn't know that the path from C to A is through itself (B), it
updates its table with the new value "B to A = 2 + 1".

Later on, B forwards the update to C and due to the fact that A is
reachable through B (From C point of view), C decides to update its
table to "C to A = 3 + 1".

This slowly propagates through the network until it reaches to infinity

(hop 16)
RIP- Routing Information Protocol
The Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is an intra-
domain (interior) routing protocol used inside an
autonomous system.

It is a very simple protocol based on distance vector

routing.

In the Internet, goal of routers is to learn how to forward

packets to various networks.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
RIP treats all network equals; the cost of passing thru a network is the same: one hop count
per network.

Each router/node maintains a vector (table) of minimum distances to every node.

The hop-count is the number of networks that a packet encounters to reach its destination.
Path costs are based on number of hops.

In distance vector routing, each router periodically shares its table with its
neighbour.

Each router keeps a routing table that has one entry for each destination network . The
1 entry consists of Destination Network Address, Hop-Count and Next-Router.
3
2
 An Example of RIP

Routers advertise the cost of reaching

networks. 1 4

In this example, C’s update to A would

A B
indicate that C can reach Networks 2 and
3 with cost 0, 2 5

Networks 5 and 6 with cost 1 C D

3 6

and Network 4 with cost 2.

RIP messages

Request
• A request message is sent by a router
that has just come up
Response
• A response can be within 30s or when
there is a change in the routing table
RIP Timers
Periodic timer
• Routing tables are exchanged every 30
seconds using the RIP advertisement.
Expiration timer
• If a router does not hear from its
neighbor once every 180 seconds, the
neighbor is deemed unreachable.
LINK STATE ROUTING

Link-state routers exchange messages to allow

each router to learn the entire network
topology.

Based on this learned topology, each router is

then able to compute its routing table by using
a shortest path computation [Dijkstra1959].
Link State Routing Algorithm Steps

Discover its neighbors, learn their network address.

Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighbors.

Construct a packet telling all it has just learned.

Send this packet to all other routers.

Compute the shortest path to every other router.

Measure the delay or cost

Echo packets are used to measure the line

cost

Calculate total time used to echo packet

t = Arrival time – Departure time

Then t/2 gives cost(time) of line

 Construct Link State packet

(a) A subnet. (b) The link state packets for this subnet.
Send this packet to all other routers
and compute the shortest path

Flood the LSP in subnet and then by

using Shortest path algorithm
(Dijkstra’s algorithm) compute the
shortest path for each router
 Distance Vector Routing Vs Link State
Routing (DVR Vs LSR)
Distance Vector Routing Link State Routing
used in small networks used in larger networks
it has a limited number of hops. it has unlimited number of hops
high convergence time convergence time is low.
periodically advertise updates only new changes in a network.
It has loop problem No loop problem
Updates are broadcasted Updates are multicasted
advertises only the directly connected routers advertise the updates, and flood the
and full routing tables, advertisement.

Eg. RIP ,IGRP , BGP . Eg. : OSPF , IS-IS

OSPF- Open Shortest Path First

The Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol is an intra-

domain routing protocol based on link state routing.

Its domain is also an autonomous system.

Support variety of distance metrics

Dynamic algorithm that adapted to changes in the topology

automatically and quickly
OSPF- Open Shortest Path First

Support routing based on type of service

Do load balancing, splitting the load over multiple lines

Prevent spoofing ie better security provision

Provision for dealing with routers that were connected

to the internet via a tunnel
OSPF Header Format
OSPF- Open Shortest Path First
 OSPF divides AS into areas.
Every AS has a backbone area called area 0
All areas are connected to backbone areas

 OSPF has four classes of router

1. Internal routers -wholly within on area
2. Area border routers -connect two or more areas
3. Backbone routers -On the backbone area
4. AS boundary routers -Talk to other routers in
other AS
OSPF- Open Shortest Path First

The relation between ASes, backbones, and areas in OSPF.

OSPF - WORKING
When a router starts,it first initializes the routing protocol

It then uses the OSPF’s handshaking Hello Protocol to

learn about each other.

The routers exchange information describing their

knowledge of the routing domain.This information is
called database description and is placed in LSA messages.
OSPF - WORKING
Using the above LSA messages the receiving router knows if its LSD
is consistent with its peer’s databases.If all is consistent the neighbor
is now defined as fully adjacent.

A router periodically advertises its state (link state) to detect dead

routers in a timely fashion.

From this database each router calculates a shortest path tree with
itself the root.

This shortest path tree in turn yields a routing table for the
protocol.
OSPF- Routing protocol packets

Hello packet: It is used to discover and maintain neighbor

relationships.

Data Description packet and Link State Request

packets:They are used in forming adjacencies.

Link State Update and Link State Acknowledgment

packets:Used for reliable update mechanisms.
OSPF- Databases

Neighbor Database: Initial table displaying neighbors

learned through Hello packets.

Link State Database: Similar in all routers. Formed after

each router floods its neighbor database.

Routing table: Each router builds this table by using SPF

technology. It gives the shortest path to all the routers in the
AS.
BGP- Border Gateway Protocol

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is an

interdomain routing protocol using path vector
routing.

The Border Gateway Protocol makes routing

decisions based on paths, network policies or
rule-sets configured by a network administrator,
BGP- Border Gateway Protocol

When BGP runs between two peers in the same autonomous system
(AS), it is referred to as Internal BGP (iBGP or Interior Border
Gateway Protocol).

When it runs between different autonomous systems, it is called

External BGP (EBGP or Exterior Border Gateway Protocol).

Routers on the boundary of one AS exchanging information with

another AS are called border or edge routers. BGP uses the services of TCP
on port 179.
Types of BGP messages
 BGP Messages
Open
• Announces AS ID
• Determines hold timer – interval between keep_alive or
update messages, zero interval implies no keep_alive
Keep_alive
• Sent periodically to peers to ensure connectivity.

Notification
• Used for error notification
• TCP connection is closed immediately after notification
BGP – Example

(a) A set of BGP routers. (b) Information sent to F.

Path Attributes
ORIGIN
• The source of the routing information (RIP, OSPF, etc)

AS_PATH
• The list of ASs through which the destination can be
reached
NEXT-HOP
• The next router to which the data packet should be sent
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
ARP and RARP
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
ARP and RARP
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
ARP associates an IP address with its physical address. On a typical physical
network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or
station address that is usually imprinted on the NIC.

The delivery of a packet to a host or a router requires two levels of addressing:

logical and physical.

We need to be able to map a logical address to its corresponding physical

address and vice versa. These can be done using either static or dynamic
mapping.

Logical address to physical address translation can be done statically (not

practical) or dynamically (with ARP).
ARP operation

160
ARP packet
Note

An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast.
 RARP (Reverse Address resolution Protocol)

RARP finds the logical address for a machine that only knows its physical
address. RARP requests are broadcast, RARP replies are unicast.

This if often encountered on thin-client workstations. No disk, so when

machine is booted, it needs to know its IP address (don’t want to burn the IP
address into the ROM).

If a thin-client workstation needs to know its IP address, it probably also

needs to know its subnet mask, router address, DNS address, etc.So we need
something more than RARP. BOOTP, and now DHCP have replaced RARP.

163
RARP operation
RARP packet
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
ARP and RARP
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
Motivation

• Idea: Combine the forwarding algorithm used

in ATM with IP.

MPLS Basics

• Multi Protocol Label Switching is

arranged between Layer 2 and Layer
3
MPLS Basics (cont.)

• MPLS Characteristics
o Mechanisms to manage traffic flows of various
granularities (Flow Management)
o Is independent of Layer-2 and Layer-3 protocols
o Maps IP-addresses to fixed length labels
o Supports ATM, Frame-Relay and Ethernet
Label

• Generic label format

MPLS ROuters

• Label Edge Router - LER

• Resides at the edge of an MPLS network and assigns and removes
the labels from the packets.
• Support multiple ports connected to dissimilar networks (such as
frame relay, ATM, and Ethernet).

• Label Switching Router – LSR

• Is a high speed router in the core on an MPLS network.
• ATM switches can be used as LSRs without changing their
hardware. Label switching is equivalent to VP/VC switching.
Positions of LERs & LSRs
MPLS Advantages & Disadvantages

• Advantages

• Improves packet-forwarding performance in the

network
• Supports QoS and CoS for service differentiation
• Supports network scalability
• Integrates IP and ATM in the network
• Builds interoperable networks

• Disad.

• An additional layer is added

• The router has to understand MPLS
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
 Mobile IP
 Developed as a means for transparently dealing with
problems of mobile users
 Enables hosts to stay connected to the Internet regardless of their
location and without changing IP addresses
 Requires no changes to software of non-mobile hosts/routers
 Requires addition of some infrastructure
 Has no geographical limitations
 Requires no modifications to IP addresses
 Supports security
 IETF standardization process is still underway
 Mobile IP Entities
 Mobile Node (MN)
 The entity that moves from network to network
 Assigned a permanent IP called its home address to which other hosts
send packets regardless of MN’s location
 Home Agent (HA)
 Router with additional functionality
 Located on home network of MN
 Mobility binding of MN’s IP with its Care of Address (COA)
 Forwards packets to appropriate network when MN is away – uses
encapsulation
 Mobile IP Entities contd.
 Foreign Agent (FA)
 Another router with enhanced functionality
 Used to send/receive data between MN and HA
 Advertises itself periodically
 Care-of-address (COA)
 Address which identifies MN’s current location
 Sent by FA to HA when MN attaches
 Usually the IP address of the FA
 Correspondent Node (CN)
 End host to which MN is corresponding (eg. a web server)
 Figure Remote host and mobile host configuration

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 Mobile IP Support Services

 Agent Discovery
 HA’s and FA’s broadcast their presence on each network to which they
are attached
 MN’s listen for advertisement and then initiate registration
 Registration
 When MN is away, it registers its COA with its HA, via FA
 Registration control messages sent via UDP to well known port
 Encapsulation/decapsulation – just like standard IP only with COA
 Mobile IP Operation
 A MN listens for agent advertisement and then initiates registration
 If responding agent is the HA, then mobile IP is not necessary
 After receiving the registration request from a MN, the HA acknowledges
and registration is complete
 Registration happens as often as MN changes networks
 HA intercepts all packets destined for MN
 This is simple unless sending application is on or near the same network as the MN
 HA masquerades as MN
 There is a specific lifetime for service before a MN must re-register
 There is also a de-registration process with HA if an MN returns home
Outline
Switching techniques,
IP Protocol,
IPv4 and IPv6 addressing schemes,
Subnetting,
NAT, CIDR,
ICMP,
Routing Protocols: Distance Vector, Link State, Path Vector,
Routing in Internet: RIP ,OSPF, BGP,
Congestion control and QoS,
MPLS,
Mobile IP,
Routing in MANET : AODV, DSR
Routing in MANET
 Unicast Routing Protocols
 Many protocols have been proposed

 Some specifically invented for MANET

 Others adapted from protocols for wired networks

 No single protocol works well in all environments

 some attempts made to develop adaptive/hybrid protocols

 Standardization efforts in IETF

 MANET, MobileIP working groups
 http://www.ietf.org
Routing Protocols
Proactive •
•
Traditional distributed shortest-path protocols
Maintain routes between every host pair at all times

protocols •
•
Based on periodic updates; High routing overhead
Example: DSDV (destination sequenced distance vector)

Reactive • Determine route if and when needed

• Source initiates route discovery
protocols • Example: DSR (dynamic source routing)

Hybrid • Adaptive; Combination of proactive and reactive

protocols • Example : ZRP (zone routing protocol)

Protocol Trade-offs
Proactive •
•
Always maintain routes
Little or no delay for route determination

protocols •
•
Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date
Maintain routes which may never be used

Reactive •
•
Lower overhead since routes are determined on demand
Significant delay in route determination

protocols •
•
Employ flooding (global search)
Control traffic may be bursty

Which approach achieves a better trade-off

depends on the traffic and mobility patterns
Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

 When node S wants to send a packet to node D, but does not

know a route to D, node S initiates a route discovery

 Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ)

 Each node appends own identifier when forwarding RREQ

Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

 Route Discovery in DSR
Y
Broadcast transmission

[S] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

[X,Y] Represents list of identifiers appended to RREQ

Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S [S,E]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A [S,C] G
H D
K
I N

• Node H receives packet RREQ from two neighbors:

potential for collision
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
[S,C,G] K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
 Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
F [S,E,F,J]
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I [S,C,G,K] N

• Nodes J and K both broadcast RREQ to node D

• Since nodes J and K are hidden from each other, their
transmissions may collide
Route Discovery in DSR
Y

Z
S E
[S,E,F,J,M]
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the route discovery
Route Discovery in DSR

 Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route

Reply (RREP)

 RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route

appended to received RREQ

 RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was

received by node D
Route Reply in DSR
Y

Z
S RREP [S,E,F,J,D]
E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents RREP control message

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)
 Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in the
RREP

 When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is

included in the packet header
 hence the name source routing

 Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a packet

to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded
Data Delivery in DSR
Y

DATA [S,E,F,J,D] Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Packet header size grows with route length

DSR Optimization: Route Caching
 Each node caches a new route it learns by any means
 When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also
learns route [S,E,F] to node F
 When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for
node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S
 When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node
F learns route [F,J,D] to node D
 When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route
[E,F,J,D] to node D
 A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data
 Problem: Stale caches may increase overheads
Dynamic Source Routing: Advantages

 Routes maintained only between nodes who need to

communicate
 reduces overhead of route maintenance

 Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead

 A single route discovery may yield many routes to the

destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local
caches
Dynamic Source Routing: Disadvantages
 Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing

 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the

network

 Potential collisions between route requests propagated by

neighboring nodes
 insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ

 Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to

nodes replying using their local cache
 Route Reply Storm problem

 Stale caches will lead to increased overhead

Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
Routing (AODV)
 DSR includes source routes in packet headers
 Resulting large headers can sometimes degrade performance
 particularly when data contents of a packet are small

 AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing

tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have to
contain routes

 AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are

maintained only between nodes which need to communicate
AODV
 Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar
to DSR

 When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a

reverse path pointing towards the source
 AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links

 When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it

replies by sending a Route Reply (RREP)

 Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when

Route Request is forwarded
Route Requests in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S

 Route Requests in AODV
Y
Broadcast transmission

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents transmission of RREQ

Route Requests in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Represents links on Reverse Path

 Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward

it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N
Reverse Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

• Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D

is the intended target of the RREQ
Forward Path Setup in AODV
Y

Z
S E
F
B
C M L
J
A G
H D
K
I N

Forward links are setup when RREP travels along

the reverse path

Represents a link on the forward path

Route Request and Route Reply
 Route Request (RREQ) includes the last known sequence number for the
destination

 An intermediate node may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided that it
knows a more recent path than the one previously known to sender
 Intermediate nodes that forward the RREP, also record the next hop to
destination

 A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a timeout

interval
 A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not used for a
active_route_timeout interval
Link Failure
 A neighbor of node X is considered active for a routing table entry if the
neighbor sent a packet within active_route_timeout interval which was forwarded
using that entry

 Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message

 When the next hop link in a routing table entry breaks, all active neighbors are
informed

 Link failures are propagated by means of Route Error (RERR) messages, which
also update destination sequence numbers
Route Error
 When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node D) on link
(X,Y), it generates a RERR message

 Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at node X

 The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR

 When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for D using
destination sequence number at least as large as N

 When node D receives the route request with destination sequence number N,
node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is already larger than N
AODV: Summary
 Routes need not be included in packet headers

 Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for

routes that are in active use
 At most one next-hop per destination maintained at each
node
 DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination

 Sequence numbers are used to avoid old/broken routes

 Sequence numbers prevent formation of routing loops

 Unused routes expire even if topology does not change

References
 ece626web.groups.et.byu.net/Lectures/
 http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/compsci/forouzan/dcn/student/
olc/powerpoints13.mhtml
 http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072460601/student_v
iew0/chapter5/powerpoint_slides.html
 http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/compsci/forouzan/dcn/
 https://www.slideshare.net/tameemyousaf/switching-techniques
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/data_communication_compute
r_network/physical_layer_switching.htm
 https://www.slideshare.net/vipinsahu/mpls-multiprotocol-label-
switching
 www.it.iitb.ac.in/~sri/talks/manet.ppt