Elements of Practical

GEOGRAPHY
R.L. Sing^h
U
Rana P B. Singh
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

o ^ a a a o 9 .B a » f j ^
Ofl *.869125,5 0 l« 4
 ELEMENTS
OF
PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
(Fully Revised and Enlarged Edition)

R.L. SINGH RANA P.B. SINGH

Ph. D. (London)
Ph. D.
Ex-Professor & Head Reader
Department of Geography Department of Geography
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

k a ly a n i p u b lis h e r s
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Catalouging Data
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Singh, R,L. (1917) and Singh, R ana P.B. (1950) : i pop
Elem ents of Practical G eography. Fully Revised and Enlarged edition. 74 tables, 383 figures, 14 appendices, index,
50ID
xii + 421 pp. January 1991. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
A text book covering overall aspects of Practical Geography at Bachelor and Master level courses and also in short giving direction emp
for research procedures at higher level. anal)
i paiic

field

iDclyd
C opyright © 2 6 th Ja n u a r y , 1991. R.L. S ingh a n d R a n a P.B. S ingh ^ Q,

iiiffes
olilipt
Printed in 1992 diTKii

Reprint 19 9 7
ISBN 81-7096-441-5 invest]

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X
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 PREFACE

ediuon published in 1951, authored by R r s i n g h and o f the Rrst

rev,s,on and new additions to the book wiUenfbTe L ,’ ? “
knowledge of geographical science which n o ^ l l ^ o n h comprehend the growing and advancing
with humanities. Ih e new chapter on ‘System technology
the students towards comprehending modem tech n iau e^^ l will awaken
their mapping and representation though s o D h S ic r ^ - ii 7 Processing even complex data and
urgent need for the balanced and integrated courses o f nh ? suggested there is an
along with cybematics in view of th ^ d e v e lo L T f f
and provide logicai criticism; m i t h e m t d f E c t l " : ! ? ' 7 ' ^ '
computer programming and cybematics wUi’hein in eeom nh , Ptocess; and fmally the
and interpretation of spatial phenomena. Through s u c l ^ m S r computation, mapping
m comprehending as weU as solving reai worfd situ^donranrt geographical knowledge
Another new chapter nertains w 'Ph , and problems will be made possible
explanations to materials and equipment used P*'°‘o Interpretation’. Here pertinent
photo are grven. It may be remarked that the use of air phomfo ih' techniques for interpreting air
data rs rncreasr^ng day by day and the students of g e o if e n c ^ c l* “ nds of geographical
In rh T n materials that have been provided in rtv- n r l 2 Pmcticai steps.
la ctapter 7 as brought out by George F Jenks special I n W chapters may also be noted here,
w u la u o n drstribution in an area have been e x a rn i;!^ ,^ c h l l P^«cming of
some of the methods are also briefly explained sncii T 2 4-'®“ significance is explained and
emp oyed rn geographical formulations. The important m e t h o d f r e q u e n t l y
analysts and computerizauon are discussed in ^ technrques of model building syster^^
^aucules drawn on different p ro je c ^ n s ^ e e x p S l l e r l ^ T f
field study of an area/region are explained for die benefit of P“ *' P™ce<iures and model of
included in the btxrk are redrawn vr^th a lie w 1 m S g 1 1 2 ^ ' ’ Most of the illustradons

interest in bring I t E l h s h I d K u m * l^ i„ keen

R.L. S ingh
R ana P.B. S ingh
 CONTENTS
Chapter 1
m aps

Topographical M ap T W ^’ls^M apZ ■ Cadasiral Maps.

Uses of Maps. Map Drawing Equipment • D J">Ponance and
P en cls and Pens. Tints and P a t L T ® Colours,

pier 2
LLES

Graphic S M t '’co“ X u " ,;g ‘^p"™^^ “ «sion of Scales. Use o f

Scales. Pace Scales. R evoluL n Scale? r p e d S Different Units. Time
S c^ es. Scales of VerUcals. P e rs p e c h v rS c a llj D ia T c Root
Ettlargement or Reduction o f S c^es L u a r l ? t ^ L ® ?" Scales.
Instrumental Method. Pantogtaoh E id n i u Triangle Method
Methods. Combining S c l ? ' ’'’s c I f - d fh o tT ^ ^ ’
Measurement of Distance. Measurement oT Am? S ? la titu d e.
Planimeter. ot Arcs . Square Method. Other Methods.

Chapter 3
r e l ie f d e p ic t io n

33-4S

s h a ^ Valley. U-shaped Ceorge. W a te rfa irt^ ’

C tffs. Fiord coast. Ria coast. Sand dunnes n "' '^ ‘=“ ‘‘ors.
mto Angle o f Slope and vice versa. Finding S l o ^ ? l f '“ “ - Conversion o f Gradient
!L ‘‘long C m v e r L [ ? r ? o " a d ? ' '^ ° " '“ -^ * ‘>SS"'"Pon
™ *'b,hty. Interpoiation o f Contour. Contour R epresenttfo?.'” "'
Chapter 4

49-82
Profiles. Composite Prollles.Slot)eA nfr™ f l‘f®' ^ “P^nmposed Profiles. Projected

- .c r m tn a t to n o f D ,,O u t c r o p , comp,Chon
 (viii)

of a bed Unconformity. Overlap. Drift Deposits. Folds. Faults. Outliers and Inliers.
Method of drawing Sections. Hints for drawing the Section. Description of the Map.
Representation of igenous activity on Geological Maps. Form of Rock Outputs, Width
of Rock Outputs. Structure of Drainage.

Chapter 5
IN T ER PR ET A TIO N O F TO PO G R A PH IC A L MAPS 83-118
Topographical Maps of India. Conventional Signs. Hints for the scientific study of
Topographical Maps : Preliminary information. Observation of the Topography. Picturing
the sheet as a whole. Observing the Relief, Observing the Drainage and its Pattern.
Observing the Coastal Region. Vegetation. Observing Human Settlements. Observing
Means of Communication and Irrigation Study of some Selected Sheets : Mirzapur and
Adjoining Regions : Introduction. Physical Feature. The Vindhyan Plateau Vegetation.
Settlements. Means of Communication. Means of Irrigation and water supply. Nature
of Occupation. Dun Valley, Almora and Adjoining Region. Nainital and Adjoining
Region. The Skardu and the Adjoining Region-Ranchi District. Hazaribagh District.
Badland Topography of the Rewa State. Gorakhpur District. Plains of West Bengal.
East Bengal Plains. Orissa Coastal Region. Masulipatam and the Adjoining Region in
the Kistna District. East Godavari District. Mangalore Coastal Region in the South
Kanara District.

Chapter 6
W EA TH ER MAPS 119-160
Definition. The Observations : Pressure. Wind Direction. Wind Velocity. Deflection of
Winds. Temperature. Humidity Visibility. Cloudiness. Cloudform. Rainfall. Weather
Symbols. Beaufort Notation. Some Weather Phenomena Defined : Hail. Snow Sleet
Frost. Rime. Mist and Haze. Squall. Line Squall. Corona and Halo. Aurora Borealis.
Zodiacal Light. Mirage. Isobaric Systems. Depressions or Cyclones’ : Tropical Cyclones.
Anticyclones. Secondary Depressions. Trough of Low Pressure. Indian Wedge. Col.
Weather. Indian Weather Maps. Cold Weather Season—A Wedge of High Pressure, A
Trough of Low Pressure, Anticyclone over Peninsula, Cyclone over North India. Hot
Weather Season, Season of General Rains. Season of the ReU'eating Monsoon. Reading
a Weather Map. Some Notes on the Weather Maps of India. Metric Units for Weather
Reports. Cyclonic Storms— Depressions—Thunder Storms. Examples I, Pressure, Wind,
Sky Condition, Precipitation, Pressure Departure from Normal. Temperature Departure
from Normal, Sea-condition. Example II, Pressure, Wind, Sky Condition, Precipitation,
Departure of Pressure, Departure of Temperature, Sea Condition. Weather Forecasting.
Summer Monsoon. Winter Monsoon. West European Weather : Cyclone or Depression.
Anticyclone.

Chapter 7
REPR ESEN TA TIO N O F STATISTICAL DATA 161-200
Diagrams and Diagrammatic Maps. Methods of Drawing Diagrams : Bar or Pillar
or Column. Blocks. Block Piling Method. Wheel Diagrams. Pictorial Diagrams.
Star D iagram s. Im portance o f D iagram s. G raphical R epresentation. C lim o-
graphs. Hythergraphs. Ergographs, Band Graphs, Compound Pyramids. Superimposed

/
/
 \

(«)

^am ids. Cartograms. Rectangular Cartograms. Traffic Flow Cartograms, Isochronic

^togram s. Distribution Maps. General Requirements for the Construction of
istribution Maps. Methods of Drawing Distribution Maps—Colour or Tint Method.
Method, Isopleth Method, Shading or Choropleth Method,
S n e r^ ^ ^ ‘ Multiple Dot Method, Diagramatic Method. Population Maps. Some
Clim^ M T Techniques for Population Mapping. Stock Maps. Crop Maps.
Distn^ution^lVfeps"^'^^^^ Maps. Mineral Maps. Advantages and Limitations of

Chapter 8

S " o ? s L T t e c h n iq u e s 201-225
ReDresentafinnc nf n Types of Table. Frequency Distribution. Geographical
T e n te y DistribuUons. Histograms. Measures of Location or Centml
Median Mode Group^ Data. Short Cut Method for Calculation of Mean,
or Dispersion Rancrp ° Dispersion or Variability, Absolute Measures of viiation
Standard Deviation R d ^ Deviation or Mean Deviation. Quartile Deviation.
Two Scales IntemrPi r Measures of Dispersion. Comparative Assessment of the
M oLg A v e « ^ Series. Tlte
Regresfion. CoLlatin^ r ’ Diagrams, Correlation and Linear
Co-efficient Rank Gn i Grouped Data. Regression Lines. Regression
i^o-etiicient. Rank Correlauon. Test of Significance.
Chapter 9
SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION
226-251
Linear Sicuation, Spacing
of Con T . cn Measures. Matrix and Graph ConnecUvity. Degree
TowarHTvf^rti r- Set TheoreUc Approach
Maif' Pr H Model. Potential Surfaces. Computerization Program
M^ing. Pi-ocedures. Input Description. AddiUonal Assigned Names. Piogiams Analysis
Data. Input Lisung. Program. Conclusion. ^

Chapter 10
m a p p r o je c t io n
252-309
Meaning and Use. M ef Historical Aspect. Classification of Map Projections The
Consriucuon of Map ftojecuons. Simple Conical Projection with One Standard Parallel
It T*o Standard Parallels. Bonne’s C o n i c r S o n
Polyranic j • ponical Equal Area Projection with One Standard Parallel
^ P ofar 7 Projection with One Standard Parallel. Zenithal ProjecUon
Stereographic Po ar Zenithal Projection. Gnomonic Polar Zenithal P r S o ^
^ ' S ' ^ i d i s t a r i t S ;S ^ U o ? “ .e“"' Zenithal Equal Area Projection. Polar
^Hndrical Projection. Simple Normal Zenithal Projection. Natural
Mercator’s Projection, Sinusnirt i ^ Cylindrical Equal Area Projection.
Projection. Gall’s Projection ^ Projection. Mollweid’s
Choice of Projections. SummaH S' r In^emauonal Map Projection,
graticules drawn on different Solution of Errors in the
scales for gratitudes drawn on Man Pm- Jf.^^*°"^~Methods of constructing comparative
P r'rojccuon. Methods of constructing comparative scales.
 (X)

Chapter 11
SU RV EY IN G 310-343
Field Notes, Chain Surveying, Importance o f Chaining. Appliances— Chains, Taps,
Offset Staff, Ranging Rods, Arrows Optical Square, Magnetic Compass. Procedure.
Errors, Obstacles to Chaining. Plane-Table Surveying. Equipments, Procedure for a
Comple the Survey. Suggestions. Sources o f Errors. The Three Point Problem—
M echanical Method, Graphic Method, Trail Method. Advantages and Disadvantages of
Plane Table Surveying. Company Surveying. The Prismatic Compass. Procedure
Suggestions for accurate work. Plotting. Closing Error. Detection and Elimination of
Local Attraction. Sources o f Errors. Advantages and Disadvantages o f Compass
Surveying. Disadvantages o f Traverse Surveying. Methods of Traversing— By Chain
or Tape. By Prismatic Compass, By Plane Table, By Theodolite. Adjustment o f Errors
in O ^ n Traverse. Contouring. Spirit Level. Plotting. Closing Error. Detection and
Elimination of Attraction. Sources of Errors. Advantages and Disadvantages o f Compass
Surveying, Parts of a Transit Theodolite. Procedure. Plotting. Co-oridinate Method of
Traverse Computation, Calculations. Traverse Surveying. Methods of Traversing.
A djustm ent of Errors in Open Traverse. Contouring. The Spirit Level. Practical
Contouring Sextants, Nautical Sextant. Procedure. Basis o f Large Scale Maps.
Triangulation.

Chapter 12
P H O T O G R A M M E T R Y AND AIR PH O T O IN T ER PR ET A TIO N 344-357
Some defined terms associated with aerial Photographs and aerial Photographic Surveys.
General equipment used in air photo interpretation. Parallax bar or Stereomicrometer.
Aerial or Radial-Triangulation and Preparation of Miner Central Plot or Grid. Aerial
Mosaic. Interpretation of Aerial Photographs. To find the number of air photos. List of
conventional symbols. Dip and Strike.

Chapter 13
M IN E R A L S AND RO CK S 358-375
Minerals, Characters depending upon Cohesion and Elasticity : Form, Hardness, Fracture,
Cleavage, Characters depending upon Light, Specific Gravity of the Mineral, Other
Minor Characters, Classification; Rock Forming Minerals. Ore Forming Minerals,
Description of Minerals. Soft Minerals. Medium Soft Minerals. Medium Hard Minerals.
Hard Minerals. Very Hard Minerals. Light Minerals. Medium Light Minerals. Medium
Heavy Minerals. Heavy Minerals. Very Heavy Minerals. Metallic and Non-metallic
Colours. Rocks— Igneous Rocks. Igneous Granite. Pagmatile. Syenite, Diorite. Gabbro.
Pcriodolite. Dolerite. Basalt. Rhyolile. Pumice. Sedimentary Rocks. Sandstones. Shales.
Lime stones. Breccia. Conglomenalc. Metamorphic. Quariize. Slates.

Chapter 14
FIELD STUDIES & RESEA RCH STEPS 376-393
Training the student in Field Geography. Instructions for the Study of a Typical Area.
Giridih and Adjoining Region. Arrangement and Equipment. Arrangement for Camping
some Specific Areas. Mirzapur and the i^ jo in in g Region. Measure the Depth of Water
Table or Sub-Soil Water. Kodarma Parasnath-Jharia-Region. Jabalpur and the Adjoining
Region. Setting of Map in the Field. Collection of Data in the Field. Taking the Soil
Sample, Measuring the Depth of Water or Sub-soil Water. Collecting of Data regarding
Social Geography. How to write the Regional Account. Problems and Patterns of field-
research. Five steps of research, lime-budget. Village Report : An OuUine.
 (»)
^ P E N D IC E S , 394.421
lA. Use of Logarithms, 394
IB Use of Units of Measurement and Conversion Tables, 395-396
2. ^ (Chi-square) Table, 397
3. Z value Table, 398
4. t distribution Table, 399
5. Logarithms, 4(X)-401
6. Antilogarithms, 402-403
7. Angles, degrees and values, 404-405
8. Square roots (1— 100), 406-409
9. Cube roots (1_1000), 410415
10. Reciprocals (1— 10), 416-417
11. Random sampling numbers, 418
12. Pesudo-random numbers, 419
13. Tailed t test values, 420
14. F distribution value, 421

Z
 T

Chapter 1
MAPS

1. Meaning and Definition

freehand sketches and diagrams. (IV) Now, by
The map may be defined as the rejM-esentation
computer maps are being precisely constructed.
of the earth’s pattern as a whole or a part of it, or
Satellites and remote sensing are also being used for
of the heavens cxi a plane surface, with conventional
mapping large areas of the earth quite acciu’ately.
signs, drawn to a scale and projection so that each
The method of mapping depends on the size of the
and every point on it corresponds to the actual
area, on the degree of accuracy aimed at and on the
torestrial or celestial position. By gradual evolution
amount of detaUs required. On a topographical survey
in the science of map-making it is now possible to
map every point on the map bears a true relationship
picture the earth’s pattern more precisely and also to
with the corresponding point on the ground.
compress varied types of necessary information in a
Photographs are, no doubt, true_^ representatives of
single map sheet without any verbose description.
the e a rth ’s designs but they are p ictorial in
The amount of information to be represented on the
appearance and can show only a very small portion
map depends on : (0 Scale, (ii) Projection, (Hi)
at a time. Landstat data and remote sensing images
Conventional signs, (iv) Skill o f the draughtsman,
are available to prepare the most accurate and
and (v) Methods o f map-making. A large scale makes
detailed maps for any region. In sketch-maps and
for a big size of the map which can conveniently
diagrams the scale is less accurate.
and legibly depict features of the area in much detail.
The ffainework o f the map is based on the way how 2. History of Maps
the graticule, i.e„ the longitudinal and latitudinal
Maps are not the invention of the modem age.
network is prepared. This depends on the posiUon
They were in existence even in olden times. But the
of the area on the earth’s surface and also on the
earliest maps were, in general, highly pictorial
type of the map. The perfection of conventional signs
presenung the ideas by a rough sketch or picture,’
has made it possible to compress maximum of
without any scale or accuracy regarding relative
information in the minimum of space without losing
position or size. For the first time, over 3000 years
legibility. Every symbol, sign and letter which has
ago, the Egj^tians prepared more feasible maps,
been adopted for representing topographic forms
showing particularly land boundaries with a view to
conveys a definite meaning; so the map becomes a
making proper assessment o f revenue. The few
kind of code which cannot be fully interpreted
Egyptian maps which still survive are of little interest
without a complete knowledge of the conventional
from the cartographic point of view as they represent
signs. The draughtsman, by his unique skill and
only small areas of surface and are rather rough
technique, may give a lively touch to his drawing, sketches. *
which, otherwise, becomes less attractive.
The credit for laying the foundaUon of modem
There are various ways by which the earth is
cartography goes, in fact, to the ancient Greek
mapped : (I) by actual survey with the help of the
geographers whose achievements in this field were
mstruments like chain, planetable, prismatic compass
not excelled till the 16th century. The recognition of
and theodolite, etc., (II) by photographs and (III) by
the earth as a spheroid with its poles, equator and
 "7"

ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

tropics, the division of the earth into cUmatic zones, culm inated in the works o f Ptolem y. H is
the development of the system of graticules and the Geographia” contained a map of the world and other
form ulation o f the first p ro jectio n s, and the twenty-six detailed maps. On his world map Asia
calculation o f the size o f the earth are all and Europe extended over 180° though they actually
achievements of Greek geographers like Aristotle, cover only about 130°. Likewise, the length of the
Eratosthenes and Ptolemy etc. The Greek cartography Mediterranean has shown as 62°, which is really 42°

180°

O
90°

Fig. 1. Showing Ptolemy’s world.

only (vide Fig. 1). Considering the limitations of The recovery of Ptolemy’s “Geographia” in the
travel in those days, Ptolemy’s maps, however crude 15th century, the invention of printing and engraving,
and rough they may seem to appear, should be and the age of discoveries, all these exerted a great
appreciated. His “Geographia” disappeared for some force in ushering in the renaissance o f map-making.
time and as such there was a steady decline in the The Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, the Germans and
art of map-making. The work of the Romans alone the Dutch with their successive efforts perfected the
was available which provided a very inferior source art of drawing maps to such an extent that map-
to the succeeding geographers. Unlike the Greeks, publishing became a very lucrative business in the
the Romans paid little attention to mathematical 16th century. Map printing presses of Venice and
geography. They adopted the old disk maps of the Amsterdam which gave em ploym ent to many
early m ap-m akers w hich suited m ilitary and workers, could be started due to the invention of
administrative purposes only. The “Pentinger Table”, printing and engraving. But on the whole the
an example of Roman cartography, is a “Graphic
sixteenth century maps reproduced P tolem y’s
com pendium o f m ileages and m ilitary posts distortion in the shape and distance. Mercator, who
throughout the empire.” During the middle ages maps liberated cartography from the influence o f Ptolemy,
were produced in a fairly large number—over 600, on his may of Europe published in 1554, reduced
discovered so far, but they simply represent the the length of the Mediterranean to 53°. It was not
Roman disk type. The Arab geographers followed until the close of the 17th century than its actual
the Greek methods and made some improvements length of 42° was shown on the map of Delisle.
ih the maps and showed, at least, the Islamic world With the perfection o f triangulation survey and
ccHTectly. measurement o f longitude by chronometer, the
X

MAPS

reformation in cartography was introduced by the

unknown or unexplored regions. All advanced
French in the beginning of the 18th century. In the
countries of the world—U.K., U.S.A., and U.S.S.R.
latter half of the 18th century when England became
etc., —have made extensive use of the airplane
the forem ost m aritim e pow er in E urope, a photographic survey.
cartographic centre was developed in London. It was
Recently the U.S.A. has collected through
during this period that the military operations
Satellite—^LANDSTAT—1 various kinds of images
necessitated the preparation of detailed and accurate
and pictures during two years period (July 23,1972—
topographic m ^ s under the auspices of the army.
July 23, 1974) which have been processed by
The first national survey was conducted in France
computerized cartographic tools to produce the world
by C.F. Cassini whose work was continued by his
map into 7 parts (W P.S. 1— 7). To make these maps
w n, and was completed during the Revolution. Thus
easily understandable meaningful system of shading
“Carte Geometrique de La France” was completed
and colour schem e have been employed.
on a 1 : 86,400 scale in 1789. Napoleon, a great
Consequently, full analysis of topographical and
supporter of survey and mapping, started a number
landform maps in a scientific way can be made.
of surveys in Italy, Germany and Egypt England
air surveying operations were started in
followed the lines of France and the Ordnance Survey
India in 1924 but litde could be done till 1928 when
was instituted in 1791. The first sheet on the scale
with the accumulated experiences gained in Malaya,
of one inch to the mile, of Kent and southern Essex
Borneo and Burma, a map of the Chittagong district
was published in January, 1801. Then other National
was prepared on the 16 inches to the mile scale.
Surveys were organised in Spain, Germany and
Switzerland, etc. Dunng the following years four districts of Bengal,
nearly 4,000 sq. miles in U.P. and one thousand
In the foUowing two centuries great advances
square m iles o f land in B aluchistan, for oil
w ere m ade in science and education. The
prospecting, were surveyed from the air. RecenUy
development o f lithography, wax-engraving and
aenal photographs for some specific areas like
photo-engraving in combination with colour printing
Damodar valley have also been prepared but these
d i ^ g 1804-60, gave much stimulus to map-drawing.
are not yet available for public use. So far about
Rich and colourful symbols were used in place of
three lakh square miles of area have been surveyed.
black-and-white technique of older maps. Germany,
But in view of the necessity of prospecting for
France and England produced a number of maps
mineral resources, planning o f public works,
and atlases. The Stieler Atlas of Germany, French
improvement of towns, preparation of large scale
atlases of Vidal de La Blache and Vivien de St.
land utilization maps and prevention of floods and
M artin and E nglish atlases o f Philips and
soil erosion, etc., we are badly in need of
Bartholomew, etc., may be noted. New types of
geographical information. It is high time that our
National atlases,* giving all available information
nauonal govemment should organise extensive air
about one nation, were produced in France, U.S.A.,
surveys for making detailed maps which will render
^^d U.S.S.R. The “French Colonial Atlas” and the
a great service in national planning.
American Atlas of Agriculture” owe their caigin to
the ^rfection of the new technique. The introduction 3. Types of Maps
of airplane photography in the beginning of the 20th
Maps are usually drawn of show different details
century ushered in a new phase in topographical
on a large or small scale. The details that are to be
surveying. This method is quicker, cheaper and
shown on it may be so varied that even if the scale
especially useful for m apping com paratively
be fairly large, their representation on one map may

RecenUy an Irrigation Adas of India has been p u b lish ^ A O Phy^ographic maps of India have also been out
 e lem ents o f pra c tica l geo g ra ph y

lead to confusion and am biguity. Hence it is and means of communication, etc., that are depicted
customary to show different details in separate maps. on them. It is for this reason that for geographCTS
Though certain features of the area may have marked these are the most valuable tools. As already noted
correlation with others, yet, to avoid confusion, in precedmg paragraphs, these maps were drawn after
separate maps are drawn for each on the same scale the perfection of the methods of triangulation survey.
and their causal relationship may be studied by Modem airplane photogr^hs may be regarded as
comparing one with the other. For instance, rainfall new but good additions to this type. A vertical
and vegetation maps of a country drawn on the same airplane i^otograph is more effective when its scale
scale may be easily correlated. In a large scale map be over 1 : 20,000. These photographs have a
more detailed features may be usefully shown as particular value in so far as they clearly exhibit many
compared to small scale maps. In topographical maps relationships by providing a complete view of several
prepared on one inch scale, for example, both natural different maps.
as well as cultural features are marked with clarity, The topographical maps of different countries,
whereas in atlases, the physical and economic maps however, do not show unifcMmity. They differ both
^ separately drawn so that they may be properly in scale and scheme. The most standard and popular
interpreted.
topographical survey maps o f British Ordnance
It is, therefore, essential to pay more regard to Survey are one inch m ^ s . Most of the £urc^)ean
two things while classifying maps into different sheets are on the scale 1: 25,000 to 1 : 100,000. In
categories ; (1) Scale and (2) Purpose or content. the U.S.A. the topo-sheets in general are drawn on
According to scale maps may be classified as follows: 1 : 62,500 and 125,000 scale. India has followed,
1. more or less the British scales. Recently metric
(a) Cadastral: The term cadastral is derived
from the French word cadestre meaning register of system has been introduced in the country and as
territorial property. The cadastral maps are drawn to such one inch maps are now being revised to 1 :
register the ow nership o f landed property by 50,000 scale; considerable progress has been made
demarcating the boundaries of fields and buildings in this direction.
etc. They are especially prepared by the government The one-in-a-million (1" = 15.78 miles) map
to realize revt lue and tax. The village maps of our may also be included in this group which is designed
country may be cited as example, which are drawn to produce a uniform map of the world in various
oil a very large scale, varying from 16 inches to the sheets of uniform size, shape and style. The one-in-
mile to 32 inches to the mile so as to fill in all a million map is also known as “International map”
possible details. and the proposal for its acceptance as such was made
The city plan maps may also be included in this by Prof. Penk at the Intemational Geographical
category. The British Ordnance Series prepared on Congress held at Berne in 1891. But an agreement
1 : 2400 or 25 inch scale and 6 inch scale, 12 inch between various nations was reached only in the
scale may also be included in this type. London Congress held in November, 1909, when a
specific scheme was prepared which was again
{b) Topographical maps : The topographical
supplemented and confumed in the Paris Conference
maps are also prepared on a fairly large scale being
in 1913. The Intemational map projection, a modified
based on precise surveys. They show general surface
polyconic projection was devised for the drawing.
features in detail comprising both natural landscape
When completed, the whole set will consist of 2,222
and cultural landscape. Unlike cadastral maps, the sheets, in the following way ; (i) Between 60° North
scale of topographical maps varies in general from and South latitudes there will be 1,800 sheets each
one inch to the mile to 1/4 inch to the mile. They do covering 4° of latitudes and 6° of longitudes; (//)
not show boundaries of individual plots or buildings; from 60° to 88° latitude both North and South of
it is rather the principal topographic forms like relief equator each sheet would extend ovct 4° of latitudes
and drainage, swamps and forests, villages and towns and 12° of longitudes, and thus, that total number of
 MAPS

Sheets would be 420; (/«) and there would be two

prepared to show the relief of the land, which bring
circular maps for the polar areas, with 2" of radius
home the real picture of the surface. Recently aero-
India and U.K. have taken the lead in producing
these maps. relief maps on plastic surfaces in appropriate colours
have been brought out which are washable and can
be conveniently used for teaching purposes. The
.• Walls maps are generally drawn
^ I d ly so that they may be used in the class-room rocks that from the crust of the earth, and their mode
The world as a whole or in hemispheres is distincUy o f occurrence and disposition are marked on
represented on the w d l maps. Wall maps may also Geological maps. A correlation of these m ^ s with
be prepared fw a continent ot country, large or small, the corresponding relief maps reveals the causes and
according to need. Their scale is smaller than that of evolution of landforms. Then there are weather and
topographical maps but larger than that of atlas maps. climatic maps. The weather map denotes the average
condiuon o f tem perature, pressure, wind and
(d) Chorographical or Atlas maps : The Atlas precipitation over a short period, which may range
maps are drawn on a very smaU scale and give a from a day to a season. Maps showing daily weather
rnore or less highly generalised picture regarding conditions are termed daily weather maps, while
the physical, climatic and economic conditions of those showing the average of monthly or seasonal
d ifferen t regions o f the earth. M ost o f the weather for winter or summer etc., are called winter
topographical maps have been shown in colours to or sunyner maps, etc. When averages of weather
form atlas maps on which, due to the limitations of conditions over a long period say, over 10 years or
space, only main ranges of hills with impcMtant peaks more, are charted out on maps, they are defined as
important rivers, chief towns and main lines of climatic maps. The maps showing natural flora are
^ Iw a y s can be represented. Only a few atlases have called vegetation maps. The soil map of an area
^ n prepared on a 1: 1,000,000 scale like the Times exhibits various types o f Mils covering the area.
Survey Atlas o f the World. Little effort has so far On the other hand cultural patterns designed
been made in Iridia towards the compilation of school over the surface of the earth are also represented on
atlas maps, while, on the other hand, countries like the map; such maps may be termed ^'cultural maps".
Fiances, U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. have produced national The occupancy of the surface of the earth by man
atlases. S.P. Chatterjee’s Bengal in Maps has given has resulted in carving our various designs over it.
stimulus for the publication of such atlases as Bihar On sm dl scale maps, in particular, it is not possible
in Maps. State atlases have also been completed by to depict all manmade features without losing
various institutes, such as the Atlas o f Mysore by the leg b ility . So different types o f maps showing
Indian Statistical Institute; and Planning Atlas ofUJ* different features consequent upon the activities of
by G .B P. Institute (1988). The Registrar General man, have been evolved. A political map shows
has thought out Census atlases of India, and also for boundanes between different states or boundaries
each state (1989-90). between different political units within a country.
Various spheres of influence of nations may also be
2. The other classification is based upon the
expressed on political maps. Military maps record
purpose or the content of the map. The pattern of
strategic points, routes and battle plans etc. Past
the earth is consequent upon both natural forces and
events are symbolised on historical maps. Social
human forces. So both natural features and man-
organisms—tribes and races, their language, religion,
made features evolved over different areas should
etc.—are also depicted on maps which may be called
be shown on maps. A map showing heavenly features
social maps. Maps exhibiting the nature and character
is known as astronomical map. The map depicting
of l^ d -u se may be termed land utilization maps
surface forms is termed orographic or relief map.
which have been recently devised in U.K., U.S.A.
m s mdicates the bulges and depressions found over
China. Japan and other countries. Moreover we are
the surface. The level of land, its slope and drainage
not urifemiliar with pictorial and diagrammatic maps
which IS represented by rivers and lakes are well
m which, at the cost of precision and true proportion’
marked on it. Sometimes clay models too are
great attention is paid towards illustrating the fects
 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

in such a manner as to make them more impressive When different objects are shown by various colours
and appealing to the mind. On such maps some facts the m ap is know n as chorochrom atic. The
are charted out and represented by graphs and representation o f density of population, fwest types,
cartograms. amount and intensity of rainfall, etc., may be done
The map is, however, named after its content by different colours or different shades of one colour.
when only one aspect or feature is shown. For In a map showing the distribution o f crops cotton
example, if only means of communication—roads, may be shown by C, wheat by W, maize by M and
railways, airways, etc.,—are shown it may be called rice by R. Likewise, the distribution of coal may be
communication map. A population map denotes
shown by C, iron by F and gold by G, etc. Such
distribution o f man over an area. When many features
maps may be termed Choro-schematic. Statistical
are shown on a map, it may be named either after
data may also be shown by lines o f equal value.
the main idea reflected by it or according to the total
aspect shown by iL For instance, the map showing Thus regular lines may be drawn on a m ^ to show
Ae distributipn of important agricultural, mineral and equal amount o f rainfall, temperature and pressure,
industrial products, with imjwrtant centres linked by etc. These lines are called isohyets, (isopluves),
various means of communication may be termed isotherms and isobars, etc., respectively. All those
econom ic m ap because from it the nature of maps in which lines of equal values are shown are
econom ic developm ent o f the region may be called isopleth maps. The distribution of sheep ot
interpreted. horse or any other object may be shown by putting
Maps displaying the distribution of different dots of uniform size, each dot representing a definite
objects of definite value may be grouped under the number or quantity; these are called dot maps.
head “the Distribution maps”. These present one Similarly, different shading by htxizontal, vertical
characteristic feature of a certain area, even ignoring and slanting lines or in check frn n s may be adopted
the exact location of the object if necessary. The to show different density o f population, location
item may be natural, like temperature, pressure, factor for industries, forest types, etc., such maps
rainfall, flora and fauna, or, it may be cultural, may be termed choropleth maps.* Bars, blocks,
showing agricultural and industrial products, etc. It circles, spheres and other forms o f representation
may be contrasted w ith location m aps or are also included in cartogr^hic and diagrammatic
physiographic maps in which the features marked representation of geographical data. The relative
on the map exactly correspond with those on the im portance and technique o f different types of
earth-surface. The distribution maps may be further distribution maps will be discussed in a subsequent
sub-divided according to the method of construction. chapter.
The data may be presented by : (i) colour, (ii)
Thus, we may distinguish the following major
symbol, {iii) regular lines, (zv) dots, (v) shading,
groups o f maps according to their purpose and
(vz)bars, (viY) block, (vm) circles, and (ix) spheres. c o n te n t:
Maps

Physical I
or Cultural
Natural I
1
I Distribution Economic Political MiUtary Historical Social Land Utilization Special
I ^ ^ ^ ^ n I------------- ^ ^
Astro- Orogra- Geological Climatic Natural SoU Charts Diagrams Cartograms Perceptual/
nomical phical Vegetation CogiStivT

*The choropleth m ^s may represent all quantiflcation areal maps prepared on a basis of average numbers per unit area.

\
 4. Importance and Uses of Maps topographical maps is restricted during war.
Maps are the tools of Geographers. No other Businessmen, industrialists and managers of factcaies
science is so much dependent upon maps as and workshops also need maps and charts. The
geography though all use maps and diagrams to manager of a cotton mill by casting a glance over
iUustrate their facts and data. As all sciences are the production graphs, may at once understand
directly or indirectly connected with the science of whether his production is falling or rising and take
the earth, all types of maps may be regarded further action, without incurring the trouble of going
g e o ^ h i c in one sense or the other. Our planet is over a long list of daily production data. The
w big and presents such a variety of scenery that it government badly need maps for administrative
is yery difficult for any individual to have personal purposes. Besides, maps are useful for planning and
observation of things all the world over. Not unlike COTservation of natural resources of a country.
books, maps are also records of various facts In conclusion, it may be noted that while the
regarding the earth; but they are something more in map is a guide and help to individuals in general
that they make a direct a p p ^ to the mind and even and the government in particular; it is a “shorthand
the unknown and unseen lands may be unfolded in script” of geographers, which cannot be thoroughly
their original form. In a certain sense they are followed without proper training and practice.
pictorial and as such a glance at them is more
pleasant and easily brings home even a set of 5. Map Drawing
complex facts in their proper relationship. For “The map is the traditional medium o f the
example, a population map with towns of various geographer,” and map drawing is now a well
sizes not only acquaints us with factual data regarding recognised discipline in which proficiency cannot
the distribution of man in rural and urban areas, but be achieved without (z) manual skill and dexterity,
it explains .their causal relationship also. They at («■) mechanical aids, and (Hi) critical knowledge of
once jTCsent a concrete idea about other parts and cartographic techniques and principles. All these
peoples. Good maps furnish us with a wealth of require a systematic training which a student of
information in its true perspective and so they are as geography is expected to undergo as an essential
good as pages of descriptions. With the help of part of practical work. Maps, drawn in course of
topogr^hical maps regicxial geography of a country training, may be grouped into two classes : (a)
may be systematically described. It is with the help compilation, and (b) originals. Sotic universities in
of maps and diagrams that many complicated India provide a systematic training in map drawings.
landforms may be explained in a simplified manner. Then maps and illustrations ai^jearing in text
Thus, for academic purposes maps are very essential. books form a separate group. Map drawing for
But for personal observation, maps are true printing presents a somewhat different aspect from
p i d e s not only to geographers but to other that for training purposes, and perhaps this fact seems
individuals too. They are useful to travellers and to have been ignored by the authors and publishers.
tourists in that they may guide them to their It may be suggested that while imparting training in
destination without their being under the necessity map drawing, due emphasis should be laid on their
of enquiring about it from other local persons. It is printing aspects also.
needless to mention the importance of navigational
charts for sea or air use. In military operations the Drawing Equipment
services of maps—topographical maps or “topo Though maps are drawn by human hands,
sheets” in short—can hardly be exaggerated. In
modern advances in drawing tools and mat»ials have
unmapped areas advances are not free from risks resulted in reducing the time spent on map drawing
and dangers. During opaations, maps render much
and standarding the total aspect of maps. Thus the
help by indicating various routes and possible enemy
famUiarity with not only the use of instruments but
positions. This is why the public use of the
also with different types of materials and their
 8
elem ents o f practical geography

qualities is a prerequisite for drawing a standard map. the edges a small machine may be used.
Essential drawing tools a re : (0 Drawing instrument Tracing cloth is excellent for thick line work
sets containing dividers, compasses both ink and and manuscript maps and for blue prints. But it is
pencil, protractors, ruling pens; (ii) T-squares and rarely used for fine map work.
triangles and celluloid set squares; (iii) Graduated Vellums are semi-transparent papers imprograted
scales and sliding rules; (iv) Drawing board and with oil which prevents distortion with changes in
Table; (v) U. N. O. Stencils or Le Roy pens, humidity. It is used for colour maps, but it is not
particularly fcx- lettering; (vi) Drawing materials easy to draw on vellum.
include paper, pencil, eraser, ink, colour, brush, C ellophane, Tracilin, etc., are perfectly
reproduction whites, sticking tape, etc. transparent and are very helpful in tracing details
Drawing Table: A map maker’s table is different from airplane photography. Cellophane is dso used
from other tables. It should have a hard surface of for protecting finished drawings.
thick glass tilted at a slight angle with provision of Different kinds of plastic materials are now
illumination from below by a tubular light. For available for cartographical works. Celluloid sheets,
o r d i i ^ uses an adjustible drawing board made of both transparent and opaque take very fine lines both
one inch thick plywood may form the top of the in pencil and in ink. They are washable also.
table. The drawing paper may be stuck down by Kodatrace, a grainless celloluse plastic material with
strips of Scotch or a^ esiv e tape over each comer. finished malt on one side and tinted faint blue, allows
A short T-square is used on the front of the table. In over 74 pw cent light transmission; it is tough and
an attached tray the instruments few immediate use flexible and can be cleansed easily.
may be kept. Arithmetic graph papers ruled in inches or
centimetres are used for drawing a wide range of
Papers: For drawing maps and other illustrations graphs. Semi-logarithmic graph papers are required
generally four types of papers are used: (/) drawing for frequency graphs. Circular graph paper may prove
paper, {ii) tracing paper, (zu) plastic media, and helpful in drawing some projections, wind roses etc.
(/v) graph papers. Each type varies in quality and Percentage circular graph paper is helpful in accurate
has its specific uses and advantages and and quick plotting of divided circles. Triangular
disadvantages. Smooth surfaced Saunders’ or Kent graph paper is used in plotting the variables, say of
paper is a fairly good drawing paper for all finished climate. Isometric graph paper facilitates the
map work. Cheaper media will neither stand erasure depiction of three dimensional figures, such as block
nor will they permit smooth colour washes or diagrams. Fw plotting p'obability curves, say, of
shadings. Transparent tracing papers are used for rainfall, etc., the arithmetic graph paper is very
copying, and for tissue overlays that indicate various useful.
colours and tints. A good tracing paper is tough, and
of a smooth mat surface with no gloss; maps for Inks and Colours: The standard ink used in
block making can be drawn directly on it in black drawing is called Indian ink which consists of find
profile ink. Any alterations and obliterations in the lamp-black suspended in a liquid medium. It is
drawing can be made more easily on this papw than available in a number of brands and colours. Most
on Bristal can! Tracing papo^ will, however, expand brands are water proof and when it is deep black it
easily on humid days; and especially for two-colour photographs well. But it dries up very rapidly, so
blocks it becomes difficult to bring about precise that the cartographer, particularly in fine map-work,
registration while reproducing the drawing. A change must keep his line-work moving fast When exposed
of 40 per cent in relative humidity may introduce to air the ink in a bottle gets coagulated and unless
about 2% distortion in either direction. Furtho-, these it is corked well when not in use it soon deteriaates.
pq)ers tear easily, and it becomes essential to protect The ink is also sold in the form of small sticks or
their edges by a kind of adhesive tape; for binding cakes from which the ink is rubbed in a cup in

X
 MAPS

required quantity. It is also supplied in plastic tubes

lines drawn by this varies with its vertical and
from which the desired amount of ink of correct
fluidity may be squeezed o u t horizontal movements. For freehand lettering it is
certainly a good pen. (vi) The Barch—Payrant pen,
Unnecessary ink lines can be removed by
though designed for lettering, is used by geographers
W y in g ‘reproduction white’ with a fine sable brush.
more frequently for m aking uniform dots in
They may be scratched with a razor blade or erased
with an ink eraser. distribution maps. The flow of ink is adjustable, a
quality which makes it desirable for dotting process.
Sometimes for clarity ordinary water colours
(vii) The UNO pens of varying thickness are quite
made in tubes and cakes, or aniline powder-dyes are
versatile and are used for drawing lines of uniform
used in drawings. The use of crayons and coloured
pencils results in cruder forms. thickness and with stencils for lettering purposes. A
certain amount of care is essential to maintain even
Much of the prehminary work flow of ink; it must be kept absolutely clean, (viif)
IS done m pencil. To avoid rolling or slipping the The Le Roy pen (Fig. 2.) was originally designed
hexagonal pencil is preferred to a circular one A for lettering but it has been found quite useful for
good pencil writes even and dark line; it neither other purposes also, (ix) The Pelican Graphers
w e^s down too rapidly nor breaks easily. They are drawmg ink fountainpens are extremely versatile type
made m vanous grades of hardness: 8 H or 9 H for cartographic use.
pencU are hardest and will scratch or cut the surface
of the paper; while HB pencils are of medium Tints and Patterns: A very essential part of many
hardness and 6 B pencils are the softest. maps is the shading or pattering that is done to
differentiate one from another. This is commonly
^ variety of pens is available for drafting
drffwent kinds of lines and for lettering purposes: awomplished by drawing them laboriously by hand.
Now patterns printed on transparent film ar available
Gillott NOS.
290 (soft). 291 (hard). 303 and 404. (ii) One or two which can be easily used; zip-a-tone is the trade
double-pointed nibs (e.g. road pens) are used for name of the best known material of this kind. More
drawing parallel lines, (m) A ball-pointed nib is ^ n 150 patterns are available in different colours.
used for dotung and suppling, (/v) Quill-type pens The material is placed over the area and cut to fit
are of large vanety and make uniform lines; some into It. This is. however, not well known so far to
our cartographers.
^ used for rivers that vary in width; for speedy
^ tten n g the quill pens are very advantageous, (v) Some tints are set by the block-makers by
The stub pen is lik*e a quill except that the tip-ends mwhanical devices but the process of setting tints is
are flat and not tapering to a point; the width of the relauvely more cosUy and also only a limited number
of unts may be had by this process

p ir't>l i^uViLijs .Tv . > ; ^

R g.2
 Chapter 2

SCALES

Definition 3. By a Representative Fraction.

The distances on the map are smaller than the This expresses the proportion o f the scale by a
corresponding distances on actual ground. But the fraction in which the numerator is one and the
map always bears a definite proportion to the mapped denominator also in the same unit o f length. For
area. The scale indicates the proportion which a example, if the Representative Fraction (Commonly
distance between two points on a map bears to the written as R.F.) is stated to be 1/100,(XX), or 1 :
distance between the corresponding points on the 100,000, this means that one unit on the map
actual ground. If for instance, an actual distance of represents 100,0(X) o f the same unit on the ground.
5 miles is represented on the map by a distance of This unit may be an inch or a centimetre or any
1 inch, the scale is 1" = 5 miles. other foreign unit. If it is an inch, then 1" on the
According to our need we can have ''small map represents 100,(XX)" on the ground, i.e., about
scales” and "large scales ”. The scale we choose 1.58 miles. If it is a centimetre, then 1 cm on the
primarily depends on (1) the size of area to be map represents 1(X),0(X) cm on the ground, i.e., 1 cm
mapped, (2) the amount of details to be shown, and represents 1 kilometre. The advantage o f expressing
(3) the size of the paper. "Small scales” show miles the scale in terms of the R. F. is that one can judge
to the inch; as, for instance, the cycling and motoring distances on a foreign map even if he is not familiar
maps which are generally either 1 mile to the inch with the linear measurements o f that country. For
or 2 miles to the inch. The atlas maps are drawn on instance, if on a Russian map it is stated that one
a still smaller scale. These may vary from a few Paletz = one verst, then to a person who is not
miles to the inch to several hundred miles to the fam ilia r w ith the R u ssian system o f lin e a r
inch. "Large scales” are scales of inches to the mile. measurement it will carry no meaning. But if the
Navigator’s charts and property survey plans, for same scale is expressed in terms o f R P . it becomes
example, are drawn on large scales of say 6" to 1 1 : 84,(XX) .-. 1 verst is equal to 84,(XX) Paletz.
mile, or 25" to 1 mile or even larger. Obviously to one who uses an inch as the unit it will
be 1"= 84,(XX)" and to one who uses centimetre as
R epresentation the unit it will be 1 cm = 84,(XX) cm.
There are three ways in which the scale is
Thus R J . = . n ^ P d ista n c e
depicted on the map.
ground distance
1. By such a statement as “3 inches to the mile”
or “ 1/3 mile to the inch.” C onverting Scales
W e are familiar with inch distances and, thus, 1. Find the R.F. when the scale is 2 inches to
can easily read off miles on the map. the mile.
2. By a graphic scale as shown in Fig. 4. 2" = 1 mile
Here a straight line is divided into a number of 2" = 63,360" (1 mile = 63,360 inches)
equal parts and is marked to show what these Now the R.F. is always expressed in terms o f a
divisions represent on actual ground. fraction in which the numerator is one.
 SCALES 11
We have 2" = 63,360"
guessed which could be represented by a length
1" = 63,360/2 = 31,680
between 4" to 6".
or, die R.F. is 1/31,680 or 1 : 31,680.
(Hi) It is convenient to make the scale represent
2. Find the R.F. when the scale is 1" to 3 miles.
distance which is a multiple o f 10.
1" = 3 miles
(iv) There are two designs o f Scale division
or, 1" = 3 X 63,360" = 190,080"
So, R.F. is 1 : 190,080. (a) Fully divided : The scale is divided into
3. Find the R.F. when the scale is 1 cenUmetre small divisions throughout its length.
to 1 Kilometre.* (b) Open divided: The scale is divided into
1 cm = 1 km large divisions called “primaries” and the
or, 1 cm = 100,000 cm First primary on the left is subdivided into
So, R. F. is 1 : 100,000, smaller divisions called “secondaries.”
scale o f a map is 1 centimetre = 1 This ty^pe is more convenient for drawing.
kilometre. Find the scale in inches to the mile.
1 ^ntim etne = 1 kilometre = 100,000 centimetres Use of G raphic Scale
The R. F. is 1 : 100,000.
(a) To measure distances between two points
So, 100,000 inches would be represented by
on the map : To use the scale for measuring the
1 inch distance between two points on the map, take a sheet
63,360 inches (1 mile) of paper and mark off the two points o f the map on
1
the edge of the sheet {see Fig. 3). Now apply this
100,000
63,360 piece o f paper on= 0.63
the scale
inch. so that the mark A
The scale is 0.63 inch to the mile or 1" = l 58 coincides with zero of the scale {see Fig. 4), and the
miles. other point is found to lie between 4 and 5 mile
5. The R. F. o f a map is 1/1,000,000. Whatmarks.
is Now shift the piece o f paper to the left and
the scale in terms o f miles to the inch? bring the B point to the 4th division and it is found
1 unit on the map represents 1,000,000 of ground that the point coincides with the secondary division
or. 1 inch ” » 1,000,000 inches o f ground marked 3/4. This shows that the length between the
or, 1 inch represents 1,000,000/63,360 = 15.78 two points is 4 + -2. = 4 3 ^liles
e , . miles. 4 4
Scale IS about 15.78 miles to the inch. {b) To measure out a certain length from the
scale : Suppose the distance required is 8 miles.
Design an d Division of Scales
u of a n d mark on
(0 The scale should always be expressed on a it the 8th point of the primary and the 3/4 point of
map in all the three ways mentioned, i.e., (a) there the secondary division. The distance between the
should be a linear scale, (b) the scale should be two points will be S i miles.
stated in figures e.g., 1" = 1 mile, and (c) the R. F. Distances could also be measured with the help
should also be mentioned. On a manuscript map of dividers.
which is to be printed on the same size the scale
may be indicated as above but if the map is to be I. Constructing Plain Scales
reduced or enlarged for printing, the scale may be
convenienUy shown only in a graphic form. show* "
0 0 The length of the scale should be between 100, 000 inches are represented by 1 inch.
4 to 6 inches and thus a round number should be
63,360 inches (1 mile)
100,000 ‘
63,360 = 0.634."
*10millimetres=l centimetre. i .
For devils of ™ .s o f m e a s u .,m « ,,s a ,.d c o i« S ,'S A ^ ^ ^ 1000 metres = 1 kilometre.
 12 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig. 3

Furlongs
0 4 0

Fig. 4

It is seen that 8 miles will be represented by Each o f these primary divisions will represent
8 X 0.634 = 5.07 inches or approx. 5.1 inches. Now one mile. Divide the first primary into 8 parts and
this will be suitable length for drawing. each division (secondary) will represent 1 furlong,
Draw a line of 5.1 inches and divide it into 8 i.e., 220 yards.
equal parts with the help of the following method: In case o f dividing a primary into secondaries
The line A B is equal to 5.1 inches* and it is to the divisions required are small and so the following
be divided into 8 equal parts. method is preferable.
From A draw a line A C so that the angle CAB At each end o f the first primary which is to be
is about 20“ or 25“. Now divide the line A C into 8 divided, erect two perpendiculars one above the line
equal parts with the help of a pair of dividers.** and the other below i t (Lines drawn at any other
Mark these points as a, b, c, d, e, f, g, and h. Join angle can also be used, but the alternate angles should
h to B and through the other points with the help of be equal). Mark off along these perpendiculars eight
set squares draw lines parallel to h B. These will equal distances and join the points o f division thus
divide A B into eight equal parts. formed as shown in figure 5. The original primary

♦In Fig. 5 and all other figures of the chapter the dimensions of the lines A B etc., correspond to the original drawings which in printing
have been reduced on 3 :2 or other proportions.
**If the line AC is taken to be equal to 4" then eight divisions can be made on it easily with the help of a scale by marking points at
intervals of 1.2 inch.
 SCALES
13
is thus divided into secondaries each o f which in
mis case represents one furlong. Clearly understand that the round number is taken
only for the convenience of the division o f the scale
and this number can be 8,000 or 12,000 or any other
round number, but the length in inches that will
represent it should not be either very small or too
large for the size of the paper on which the scale is
to be drawn. Supposing we do not take any round
number, let us see what happens then.
The relation is that a length o f 6 inches will
rep r^en t 11,666 2/3 yds. So take a line of 6 inches
Fig. 5 and divide it into six equal parts and each division
will represent 1944 yds., one foot and two inches.
inn ydjrim aries and Obviously if we draw this scale, it will be very
100 yd secondanes when the R. F. is 1/70,000. inconvenient to measure distances from it. In order
1 represents 70,000 inches = 70,000/36 yd to remove this difficulty a round number is always
taken. ^

re p re ^ t " would So, 35,000/3 yds. are represented by 6 inches

1" represents 70,000/36 yd 10,000 >ds. „ ^ 3 x 1 0 ,0 0 0 ^
35,000
6 " represents 35,000
36 3 = 180
35
= ll,6 6 6 2 .y d
Tw .• o = 5.143 inches
t o w a line o f 5.14 inches and divide it into ten
for “ < * convenient
for M y scale drawing. Take, therefore, a round represent 1000 yds.
Divide the first pnmaiy into 10 equal parts and each
in inches will represent it. Here the student should Mcondaiy division will represent 100 yds. See

yards
1000 0 1000 3000 5000 Yards
bnmEE 9000

Fig. 6
3. The scale o f a map is 6" to 1 mile, t o w a
What is win snow
show" one chain. See Fig.
W ill
'O ^7.ie e l parts and each

6" = 1 mile,
4.
The R. p. = L
or, 6" = 63,360 inches 1000 0 0 0 ’ a scale to
show miles .ouu,uuo
••• 1" = 10,560 inches.
So,R F = _ 1 1" = 1,000,000"
10,560
Again, 6" = 1 mile, nr r » - l/XX)X)00 ^
63360 ~ (approximately).
or. 6" = 8 furlongs
But this is an odd number and so we take a
Draw a line o f 6 inches and divide it into eight
round number of 90 miles and find out the length
equal parts and each part will represent one furlong.
in mches that would represent iL ’

X
14 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Furlongs
7 s ’
E 3ZZE ID

Furlong Furlongs
I 0 6 7
— F
10
C h a in s

Fig. 7

15.8 miles are represented by 1" Draw a line of 5.7 inches and divide it into nine
equal parts and each will represent ten miles. Divide
90 X90 the first primary into ten equal parts and each
15.8
secondary division will represent one mile. See
_45Q. = 5 69 inches Fig. 8.
79

Miles Miles
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Fig. 8

5. The R. F. is 1/100,000, draw a scale to read Draw a line o f 12 cm and divide it into 12 equal
kilometres. parts so that each division will represent 1 kilometre.
Divide the first primary into ten equal parts and
1 cm = 100,000 cm each secondary division will represent 100 metres.
or 1 cm = 1 kilometre. See Fig. 9.

Metres Kilometres
1000 O I 10 II
Imniini — b
Fig. 9

6. Construct a scale of a field showing 100 links equal parts and each will represent 100 links.Divide
to 1 inch. What is the R. F. ? the first primary into ten equal parts and each will
Draw a line of 6" length and divide it into 6 represent 10 links. See Fig. 10.

Links Links
100 100 200 300 400 500

Fig. 10

1” = 100 links R. F. = 1 : 792

or 1" = 22 yds. 7. An area o f 8 square inches in drawing
or 1" = 22 X 3 X 12 = 792" rep resen ts an area o f 512 sq. yds. D raw a

\
 SCALES
15

o S " a i? f R- F- .- .R F .= - -=_L _
8 sq. in. = 512 sq. yds. ( 8 x 3 x 1 2 ) 188
1 sq. in. = 64 sq. yes. Draw a line of 6" length and divide it into six
equal parts and each division will represent 8 yds.
or lin ch = V M =8yds.
Divide the first primary into eight equal parts and
each will represent one yard. See Fig. 11

Y A R D S
8
16 24 32
Y A R D S
40
3 Z
Fig. II
n . Comparative Scales
In the usual way, draw a line of 5.07 inches and
(a) Different Units ^ ^ e it into eight equal parts and each will represent
l . C ^ yds. Divide the first primary into ten parts
scale';J?h® /' ' ' i ' * Comparative and each secondary division will represent 100 yds.
^ ^ scale
For the metre scale also the R. F. is 1/50,000.
R- F. = 1/50,000, i.e., 1" = 50,000"
or 1 cm = 50,000 cm
O r, 1 " = ^ ^ = 1388.88 >ds. or 1 cm = 500 metres.
number, say, 8,000 yds., and find If we take a length o f 12 cm., it will reptesent
the length in mches that would represent it. 6.(X)0 metres and when divided into 12 parts each
are represented by 1 " m Wdl represent 500 metres. Dtaw this just below

3 6 x 8 j0 0 0
Ih “"*■ l>e laken
ia a that the zero point of the yard scale should coincide
with the zero point of the metre scale. See Fig 12

Yard thousand
1000 0

^ra_L_ ^ ----- 1
Metres
500 0 ^ -= 1 P = l ------C =:rr , ----- --------

Hundred
Metres
Fig. 12

2- The statement on a French map is that one

For the mile scale :
cenum etre represents one kilom etre. Draw
R- F. = 1 : 100,000
comparative st^le to show kilometres and miles,
ro r the kilometre scale : or 1 " = 100,000 inches.
= 1kmor R. F. = 1. ioq.ooq. 100,000 inches are represented by 1 inch.
Draw a line of 15 cm and the whole length will
or 63,360 inches (1 mile) „ ^ ><63360
r e p ^ e n t 15 km. Divide it into 15 paru ^ T e T “
will represent 1 km. Sub-divide the fust n r i i ^ 100,000
into ten parts and each will represent 100 metreT^
or. lO m ile s w ill berepresented:;«':;Ses.
16 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Divide this into ten equal parts and each will scale one above the other so that the zero points
represent 1 mile. Sub-divide the first primary into coincide. See Fig. 13.
quarter miles. Draw the kilometre scale and the mile

Metres Kilometres
1000 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14

a s
8 4 0 8 9
Furlongs Miles

Fig. 13

(b) Time Scales miles will be covered in 4 hours.

1. A boy scout is marching at the rate of 3 Draw a line of 6 inches and divide it into 4
miles an hour. Draw a scale for a map whose R. F. equal parts and each will represent one hour’s march.
is 1/126,720. Sub-divide the first primary into 6 equal parts and
1" = 126,720" = 2 miles, each secondary division will represent 10 minutes
or, 6" = 12 miles. march. See Fig. 14.
The rate of march is 3 miles an hour, so 12
Minutes Hours
SO 4 0 20 0 1 3
H r i H I ■. ■
3 2 1 3 9
Miles Miles
Fig. 14

2. A cavalry is marching at the rate of 9 miles Divide the line into 6 equal covering 18 miles. Divide
per hour. Draw a scale for a map of 1" = 3 miles : the line into 6 equal parts and each division will
9 miles per hour, i.e.. 18 miles in two hours. represent 20 minutes or 3 mile march. Sub-divide
3 miles are represented by 1". the first primary on the left into 12 parts and each
18 ” 18= 6 inches. secondary division will represent 100 seconds and 2
Draw a line of 6 inches which will represent 2 furlongs. See Fig. 15.
hours or 120 minutes’ march covering 18 miles.
Seconds Minutes
1200 61 20 40 60 80 100
P |H F
24 18 12 6 0 ‘5 ,
Furlongs Maas'
Fig. 15

(c) Pace Scales show yards and paces for a R. F. o f 1/10,560.

During a rapid reconnaissance, it may not be R. F. is 1/10,560.
possible to use chain and tape due to shortage of or, 1" = 10,560", i.e., 6" = 1 mile.
time, and then distances can be measured with the 63360
help o f paces. The length o f a pace of the person .-. A length of 6" will represent
employed should be known and then the distance
between any two points can be measured by paces. = 2,112 paces,
The stan d a^ military pace is o f 3 0 ".
1. If the length of a pace is 30", draw a scale to or, 2,112 paces will be represented by 1760 yds.

Z \
 SCALES 17

••• 1,800 paces will be represented by Draw a line o f 5.1 inches and the length will
represent 1500 yards or 1800 paces. Divide it into
1300=1400 y d ten equal parts and each division will represent 150
yds. and 180 paces. Further sub-divide the first
Now 1760 yds. are represented by 6". primary into 10 equal parts and each will represent
15 yd. and 18 paces. See Fig. 16.
.1,500 X 1500.= 5.1 inches
1,760

Yords Yards
150 0 »50 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350

180 O ISO 360 540 720 900 1080 1260 1440 1620
S^eps Steps

Fig. 16

2. Draw a scale o f paces and metres when the

So a length o f 10 cm will represent 1500 metres
R. F. is 1/15,000. Take 1 pace equal to 75 cm. and 2000 paces.
Draw a line o f 10 cm, and divide it into 10
1 cm = 15,000 cm or =200 paces.
equal parts and each division will represent 150
So a length o f 1 cm represents 150 metres and metres and 200 paces. See Fig. 17.
200 paces.

'5 0 0 150 30Q 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350

EH
200 0 20 0 400 600
PACES 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
PACES
Fig. 17

3. Draw com parative scales showing paces,

••• A length o f 5" will represent 1,000 yds and
yards and metres whens the R. F. is 1/7,200. Take 1,200 paces.
30 inches equal to one pace in case o f the yard scale
(,0) For Metre Scale
and 75 cm, equal to one pace in case o f the metre
scale : R. F. is 1 : 7,200
or 1 cm = 7,200 cm = 96 paces.
(0 For Yard Scale
So, 1 cm represents 72 metres and
R. F. is 1 : 7,200
= 96 paces
o f,l" = 7 3 ( X ) " = 2 M = 200 w ls. 12.5 cm „ = 900 metres and 96 x 12.5 =
36
_ . 1,200 paces.
First draw a line o f 5" and divide it into 10
Again 1" represents 7,200" or equal parts and each division will represent 100 yds
30 and 120 paces. Below this scale draw the metre scale
i.e., draw a line of 12.5 cm, divide it into 10 equal’
= 240 paces. p ^ and each division will represent 90 metres and
120 paces. See Fig. 18.
lUrani ef Biiflaisii
......
 18
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Y o rd s ' ° 0 0 1^200 300 ^ q q sq q s q q „„„ 90O Yards

I 1 I 1 F = 1 ------ i = ,
P aces 120
360 ^ 80 600 720 6 4 0 960 1080 Paces
M etres 90
CHH
90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 610 Metres
Fig. 18
(d) Revolution Scales
III. Special Types
If the country is suitable, distances can be
If the contours on a map are drawn at an interval
measured rapidly with the help o f a bicycle. A piece
o f 100 feet, then the Vertical Interval (V.I.) is said
o f tape is tied round the fro n tw h eel and its
to be 100 feet. The horizontal distance between two
circumference is found by trial o f one complete
successive contours is the Horizontal Equivalent
revolution along the ground. The circumference can
(H.E.), and, obviously, its length varies with the
also be found from the formulae 2 n r where n =
degree o f slope. The steeper the slope, the smaller
22/7 and r = radius o f the wheel. The distance to be
the Horizontal Equivalent.
measured may now be covered by riding on the
A scale can be prepared to show the relation of
bicycle and the number of revolutions noted and the
the length o f the Horizontal Equivalent to the degree
length can be ascertained by multiplying the number
o f slope for a given Vertical Interval, so that if the
of revolutions with the circumference o f the wheel.
Horizontal Equivalent is measured between two
1. A certain distance is covered by 1,220
successive contours, the degree o f slope can be read
revolutions of a bicycle wheel. Draw a comparative
off directly from the scale.
scale showing revolutions and yards for a sketch on
From Fig. 20 it is seen that when the slope is
a scale of 2" to 1 mile. The circumference o f the
wheel was 90". 1° and the V.I. is one foot, the H.E. is 57.3 feet or
say 20 yd.
1,220 revolutions will cover a distance of 1,220
This relation can be expressed in terms o f a
X 2.5 = 3,050 yd. ( V 90" = 2.5 yd.)
formula for finding the length o f H.E. for small
For the convenience o f scale drawing we take
angles.
1.200 revolutions and it will represent a distance of
1.200 X 2.5 = 3,000 yrd.
H. E. = 2 0 x ^ ^ when D = degree o f slope.
Now on the sketch 1,760 yrd are represented by
Now supposing the Vertical Interval (V.I.) is
100 feet, the length o f the H. E. can be calculated
3,000 yrd will be represented by x for different degrees o f slopes.
3,000 = 4.2 inches.
So, a length of 4.2 inches will represent 3,000 H. E. = 20x100 = 2,000 yd for 1° o f slope
1
yd and 1,200 revolutibns. Draw a line o f this length;
divide it into ten equ^l parts and each division will 20x100
= 1,000 yd for 2° o f slope
represent 300 yd and 120 revolutions. See Fig. 19. 2
20x100
= 666 yd for 3“ o f slope
yards H undred
Yards
3
3 0 0 __ 0 12 15 21 24 27
h n -i 20x100
120 0 120 2 4 0 3 6 0 ABO 600 720 8 4 0 960 1000
= 500 yd for 4° o f slope
Revolutions Revolutions

Fig. 19 and so on.

X
 SCALES 19

575
Fig. 20

If we are to prepare a scale o f slopes for a map

the lengths for other degrees o f slopes can be
whose R. F. is 1/63,360 and the V. I. is 100 feet we
obtained by proportionately dividing the line B D
first calculate the length of the H. E. as shown above
and drawing parallels from it. See Fig. 22. For
and then draw a straight line and mark on it distances
instance, the mark for 3“ on B D will have a length
equal to 2,000 yd, 1,000 yd, if distances equal to
equal to | B D measured from D towards B; for 4°
2,000 yd, 1,000 yd, etc., in proportion to the R. P. it will be j B D and so on.
of the map. In this case, when the R. F. is 1/63,360
the length in inches representing 2,000 yd can be
found as follows :
R. F. is 1/63,360
i.e., 1" = 63,360" = 1,760 yd.
or, 1,760 yd are represented by 1".

2,000 yd are represented by — ^— x 2,000

1,760
= 1.13 inches.
The length representing 2° will be of 1.13 inches
and for 3° it will be^ of 1.13 inches and so on.
To construct the scale, draw a straight line and
mark off successively the lengths representing the V I . = JOQ
different degrees of slope. It should be borne in mind Fig. 22
that the scale is for a particular Vertical Interval and
for a given R. F. See Fig. 21. (a) Square Root Scales
Sometimes in geographical maps for showing
V.I. = I00 the distribution of certain quantitative elements the
use is made of circular graphs (also known as pie
graph). H ere the area o f the circle is m ade
Fig. 21 proportional to the quantities represented. The area
o f a circle being n r ^ and the value o f being
The same scale can be shown in a different constant, it is obvious that the radius will be
way.
proportional to the square root of the quantity.
Draw a line A B = 1.13 inches representing the Supposmg we are to prepare circular graphs
horizontal distance between adjacent contours for a showmg the acreage of cultivated land in different
slope of 1°. Now at A and B erect two perpendiculars States of India, we shaU first have to find the square
A C and B D of equal length. Join C D and A D. roots of the different acreages and draw circles
To get the horizontal distance between adjacent proportionately, i.e., (take the radius for the Sq. root
contours for a slope of 2 \ bisect B D at E and from of 25,(XX),(XX) equal to one inch and the others are
E draw a line E O parallel to A B. The line E O will drawn proportionately). For the sake of convenience,
represent the horizontal length for 2° slope. Similarly,
a square root scale can be prepared so that the radius
 \

20 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

of any can be measured on the scale and acreage 25,000,000 and calculate the length of the radius for
represented by the circle determined. others as follows :
Supposing the acreage in the different States The square root o f 25,000,000 that is 5,000
varies from five million to fifty million. Now a scale represented by I".
can be drawn showing the square roots o f 5 million, The „ „ 5,000,000 that is 2235 inch
10 million, 15 million and so on upto 50 million.
To proceed for actual drawing we find that the is represented by — — x 2,235 = 0.41 inch.
square root o f 25,000,000 is 5,000. Now we take 5,000
Similarly, the square roots and the representing
one inch radius for representing the square root of
distances can be calculated (See Table 1).

T able 1

Figure Square root Representing distance, inch

10,000,000 3,162 0.63

15.000.000
.
20 000.000
30.000.000
'3,873
4,472
0.77
0.88
5,477 1.10
35.000.000 5,916 1.20
40.000.000 6,325 1.26
45.000.000 6,708 1.34
50.000.000 7,071 1.41

Draw a straight line and mark off these lengths the cube root of 5 lakhs, i.e., 19.A by a radius o f
as shown in Fig. 23. one inch. Now we take up cities with populations of
less than 5 lakhs and calculate the cube roots for
each and find out what would be the length o f the
5 10 20 30 4 0 50 Million rad iu s fo r such and such cu b e ro o t fig u re,
r r M II Acres remembering that 79.4 is represented by 1" (See
Fig. 23 Table 2).

(b) Cube Root Scales

T a BL£ 2
Sometimes in statistical maps instead o f circles,
spheres are drawn to represent different quantities. Number Cube roots Radius, inch
The volume of the spheres is proportional to the
quantities represented by each sphere. Since the 5 lakhs 79.4 1.00
volume of a sphere is 4/3 k F or the cube roots of 4 ” 73.7 0.92
the quantities will be proportionate to the radii of 3 ” 66.9 0.84
the spheres. 2 ” 58.5 0.73
Suppose we are to represent with spheres on a 1 ” 46.4 0.58
map of Uttar Pradesh the cities with population of
one lakH or over. Here the radii of the spheres will
be proportional to cube roots of the population A cube root scale can easily be prepared to show
figures. the variation on the length of the radius, and the
We find that the population of the cities varies population of any city can be determined directly by
from one lakh to 5 lakhs. We suppose to represent measuring its radius on the scale.
 SCALES 21

To prepare the scale, draw a line of one inch i.e., half the photo represents C D on ground.
length to represent the cube root of 5 lakhs, i.e., of
79.4 and then mark off distances on it proportional (d) Perspective Scale
to the cube roots of one lakh, two lakhs, three lakhs A Perspective scale is used in landscape
and four lakhs. These will be represented by 0.57,
drawings—block diagrams, field-sketches, etc., (vide
0.73, 0.84, and 0.92 inches respectively See
Chapter IV). A perspective scale decreases from the
Fig. 24. ^
foreground to a vanishing point on the horizon (Vide
Fig. 27) in which the lines A B, C D and E F are
indicating the same elevation on the ground though
they are decreasing in length.
2 3 4 5 Lakhs
So, the scale is A B
n I I I I Persons
CD
Fig. 24 A B - BL - Focal length
CD CL Altitude
{c) Scales o f Verticals . Focal length o f lens
Aerial photographs are sometimes used for the Altitude (in the same unit)
map to get a detailed information about the natural E xam ple: Focal length of the lens of the camera
and cultural features of an area. The most common is 8 inches and altitude 10,000 feet.
types are the vertical photos where the camera points
The sc a le =-
vertically downwards and the details of the area
(10,000x12)" 1,20,000
appear in plan as in the case of map.
The scale of the photograph depends on the focal - i.e., 4 2 inches to 8 miles.
length of the lens and on the altitude from which the 15,000
photograph was taken. To prepare the scale draw a line of 4.2 inches;
Referring to Fig. 25, find that the length A B, divide it into eight equal parts and each division
will represent one furlong. See Fig. 26.
PHOTO FURLONGS
7 8
pi A
f-H I

U. |UJ Fig. 26

(Lens) 0 -
rv. Diagonal Scales
A diagonal scale can be conveniently used for
dividing a short line into equal parts.
\ UJ,
\ S i Supposing the line A B which is equal to one
\
3 inch, is to be divided into ten equal parts. Draw two
\ ::i perpendiculars C A and D B of any convenient length
\‘=^i andvmark ten small equal divisions on both C A and
\i
1 D B. Now, join the corresponding point of C A and
|N\ D B by parallel lines. Join C to B by means of a
I
diagonal line. If we drop perpendiculars on A B
GROUND_______ from the points of intersection of the diagonal with
C the paralled lines, the line A B will be divided into
Fig. 25 ten equal parts. The first small step from B to C on
the right side of the diagonal C B is equal to 1/10"
 22
e l e m e n t s o f pr a c t ic a l g e o g r a ph y

HORIZON length. Consider the line b x. The first step on the

VANISHING POINT
right o[ b X toward x y is equal to 1/10 inch = 0.01
inch and the second step equals 0.02 inch, the third
0.03 inch and finally the line x y equals a b = O.l
inch.
So with this arrangement, measurements upto
1/100 o f an inch can be taken. See Fig. 29.
C D

500
400
300
200 '//
100 /
A

Fig. 27

and the second step is equal to 2/10" and the third

3/10" and so on and ultimately the line C D is reached 1. Draw a diagonal scale o f inches and measure
which is equal to A B. See Fig. 28. a length o f 2.67 inches.
Draw a line A B equal to 4" in length and divide
it into 4 equal parts. Drop two perpendiculars C A
and D B, and join C D. Now divide the sides C A
and D B into ten equal parts and join the successive
points with parallel lines. The original line A B was
divided into four equal parts. Consider the portion
on the extreme left and divide the top and bottom
3/10 lines of this portion into ten equal parts. Now join
successively the O o f the bottom line 1 o f the top,
1/10
the 1 of the bottom with the 2 o f the top and so on.
The scale is complete and, to measure a length o f
Fig. 28 2.67 inches, place one leg o f the divider at x and
the other at y and the length x y is equal to 2 67
Again draw a line A B equal to one inch and as inches. See Fig. 30.
in the previous case erect a rectangle C A D B and
divide the sides C A and D B into equal parts by
parallel lines. Now divide the bottom line A B and
the top line C D into ten equal parts so that each M etra
.1 0 8 6 4 2 O 1
division equals 1/10. Mark these divisions from the
right to the left successively as 0, 1, 2, 3 and so on.
Join the O point of the bottom line with the 1 point
o f the top, the 1/10 o f the bottom with the 2 o f the
top and so on. The portion a at the bottom is equal C8 6 4 2O
to the portion jc y at the top and they are 1/10 in Fig. 30
 SCALES 23
Now = xy = x p + p q + q y
Feet Yards
^ . ^ . 2-=0.6".0.07".2"=2.67”. 2 I0 6 7„

t
2. The R. F. o f a plan is 1/50. Draw a diagonal '1
scale to read metres and centimetres. R. F. = 1/5Q or
3
1 cm represents 50 cm.
C 32 I 0
or, a length o f 2 cm will represent 1 metre.
Draw a lien o f 8 cm and it will represent 4 Fig. 32
m etres. D ivide the line into four equal parts each
The line E F measures 2 yd 1 foot and 7 inches.
division representing one m etre. Subdivide the
EF = E K + KL + LF
division on the extreme left to read up to 1/100 o f
a metre.
= ly d + X y d + 2 y d
The length OP = 1 metre and 4 decimetres and 3 36
5 centimetres = 1.45 metres. See Fig. 31.
= 1 foot + 7 inches + 2 yds. = 2 yd
M etre M etres 1 foot and 7 inches.
= J b
V. Vernier Scales
The vernier is a device which enables a fraction
o f a division to be esUmated with accuracy. The
8 6 42
Vernier Scale consists o f one small moving scale,
Fig. 31 the graduated edge o f w hich slides along the
graduated edge o f a larger scale, the primary scale.
3. The R. F. o f a plan is 1/50. Draw a diagonal In Fig. 33, P is the Primary Scale and V the Vernier
scale to read yards, feet and inches. Scale. The method o f construction o f a Vernier will
R. F. = 1/50 or 1" represents 50". be clear from the following examples :
i.e., 1" = 50/36 = 1.4 yd (approx.).
So, 1.4 yd are represented by 1".

8 yd "
- ^ x 8 = 5.71".
1.4
Draw a line o f 5.7 inches and divide it into 8 Fig. 33
equal parts when each division will represent one
(0 Construct a Vernier with a least count of
yard. E rect a rectangle C A B D as shown in Fig. 1"
32* and divide C A and D B into 12 equal parts. 100 ’
Now join the successive points by parallel lines. Draw a line O P and divide it into inches and
C onsider the extreme division on the le f t This is tenths as shown in Fig. 33. Draw a Vernier V V' on
equal to one yard or three feet. Divide the top and O P o f length equal to 9 small divisions o f O P.
bottom lines o f the division into three parts, i.e., Now divide this length into 10 equal parts. Thus a
into three one-foot lengths and Join the zero o f the smaU division of the Vemier scale is 1/100" shorter
bottom with one o f the top and one o f the bottom
than a small division on a primary scale. In position
with 2 o f the top and the 2 o f the bottom with 3 of
(a) shown in Fig. 33 the zero o f the Vemier scale
the top.
coincides with the zero of the primary scale, and in

*In Fig. 32 F is at the right end of the anow whose left end is marked E
 24
e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l GEOGRAraY

this position the first division on the Vernier legs

the zero o f the Vernier Scale equals to 3.86".
behind l/IO" o f the first division on the primary
(I'O Construct a Vernier with a least count of
scale. The second division legs 2.20" behind the
one minute.
second division on the primary scale. The third
In this case, the primary scale is divided into
division on the Vernier scale lags 3/10" behind the
degrees and half degrees. Construct a Vernier of the
third division o f the primary scale, and so on; and
length equal to 29 small divisions of the primary
the 10th division on the Vernier scale coincides with
scale and divide it into 30 equal parts. Thus the
the 9th division of the primary scale. To read a length Vernier will read up to l/30th o f half degree, i.e.,
of say 3.86 inches slide the Vernier so that the zero one minute. In Fig. 34 the zero o f the Vernier is
of the Vernier coincides with the 3.8 mark o f the placed a litUe to the right o f 23“, and this little
primary scale. Now shift the Vernier just a litUe to distance is equal to 25' because 25th mark on the
the right so that sixth division on the Vernier Vernier coincides with a mark on the primary scale.
comcides with primary scale graduation. The length Thus The reading is 23“ + 25’ = 23“ 25'. See Fig
indicated between the zero o f the primary scale and 34.

30 25 20
xe:
J T I I I I I.
38 36 28 26 22 20
Fig. 34

VI. Enlargement or Reduction of

details are carefully transferred square by square.
Scales First the prominent marks like rivers, roads, railways,
This means the changing o f the scale o f a map etc., are lightly sketched in and then other details
or a portion o f it. The enlargement is chiefly done are interpolated later.
(1) to get a base map on which details may be added So, calculation is only necessary to find out the
ater by survey, and (2) to get more space for size o f the squares required on the new scale to
labelling further information. represent the squares on the original, and size can
Reduction might becom e necessary, say, to be found out from the proportion :
combine four large scale maps into one. N ew .scalp. _ ^
O ld scale
(a) Square M ethod
The method of enlargement or reduction is to E x a m ple :
work by squares. The map to be enlarged or reduced 1. It is required to enlarge a 1 inch to one mile
IS divided into any suitable net work o f squares. map into a 2 inch to 1 mile map. The original map
Then on a sheet o f pap er squares are drawn is covered with one inch squares. It is obvious that
representing the squares to be reproduced on the the size o f the squares for the enlarged drawing will
new scale p ro p o rtio n a te ly la rg e r or sm aller. be 2 inch squares.
Enlargement or reduction is usually done by squares 2. To enlarge a map with a R. F. o f 1/63 360
because certain maps are already divided into squares to one o f 1/15,840.
and the time of divide the map into squares and the 1
time to divide the map into squares is saved. N ew scale _ 15.840 i
1-----------^----------- — X 63,360 =4.
Otherwise any other convenient figure, e.g., a triangle O ld scale __ 1 15 ,840
can also be used. 63360
After the original map has been divided up into Draw on the original map squares o f 1/4 inch
squares and squares have been drawn on a fresh sides and the size o f the enlarged squares will be 1
sheet o f paper proportionately larger or smaller inch.
 SCALES 25

3. To reduce a map with a R. F. o f 1/40,000,000

to one o f 1/80,000,000.
1
N e w scale _ 80,000,000 _ 40,000,000 _ \
O ld scale _ 1 80,000,000 ~ 2 '
40,000,000
Draw on the original map squares o f 1 inch
sides and the size o f the reduced squares will be
-j inch. See Fig. 35.

Fig. 35

(b) Sim ilar Triangle M ethod

This method is used for reducing or enlarging a
narrow area, such as a road, railway, river, canal
which would otherwise be very difficult. Suppose in Fig. 36
Fig. 36 the river between A and B is to be reduced (c) Instrumental Methods
on the scale of 8 : 3. lU
The instrumental methods o f the reduction and
Join A and B by a straight line. Select a jx)int
enlargement o f maps involve the use of proportional
P at a convenient distance from A B; the further
compasses, pantograph, eidograph. Camera Lucida,
away is the point P, the more accurate will the
P h o to sta t and p h o to g rap h ic eq u ip m en t. The
proportions be obtained. Divide A P into 8 equal
proportional compasses, which comprise two-bars
parts and from the third division from P draw C D
clamped together by a sliding screw and with a pair I
parallel to A B. Join the bends and other specific
o f needle-points at both the ends acting as dividers,
points on the river to P; these points will be
form a handy aid in enlarging or reducing plans by
autom atically fixed in the required proportion along
the method o f squares or similar triangles. Changing
C D; and other details can be drawn by observation.
In the case of enlargement follow the method as
o f scale by pantograph or eidograph is less expensive i
(for they require less capitals and litUe recurring
shown along E P in the figure.
expenditure) than the photostat and photographic
 26
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Students should be fam iliar on th eir resp ectiv e bars to give the n ecessary
wiUi iheir use. However, it must be kept in view that reduction or enlargem ent (Fig 37).
for pn nung reproduction, high precision and quick
work, the latter are the m ost satisfactory mQthods.

Pantograph
The pantograph com prises a fram ew ork o f four
tabular bars— two large ones and two short ones;
freely hinged together a t the jo in ts to form a
parallelogram and is m ounted on sm all w heels
(castors ) w hich give it free m ovem ent Its working
is based on the principles o f sim ilar triangles and its
precision on a num ber o f factors am ongst which the
most important is the accuracy with which the jointed
parallelogram has been constructed by the makers.
The instrum ent is generally used for reduction o f
plans, charts and maps. It can also be used for
enlargement, but in so doing, even a little error in
the movem ent o f the tracer point on the original
map will appear several times m agnified on the Fig. 37
enlarged copy. Several models o f the instrum ent are
G enerally, tw o types o f indices are found
available— the cheaper ones are made o f baccalite
engraved on the instrum ent— in the first type, the
or special wood while the costiler precision models
reduction (for enlargem ent) ratios such as 1-2, 1-3,
are made o f metals, specially brass or nickle.
1-4, 1-5, etc., are marked on the index-lines; w hile
In Stanley’s model, the two longer bars, which in the second type (as in Stanley’s model) the index-
are equal, are marked ‘B ’ and ‘C ’. The bar ‘B ’ carries lines are divided into 100 equal parts and the setting
an index-line and a sliding frame with socket in for the required ratios have to be found out from a
which may be fixed the fulcrum or the axis o f rotation table engraved on a brass-plate fixed to the box-
o f the instrument. The fulcrum is fixed to a triangular cover o f the instrument.
weight or circular block with needle-points in its W hen the instrum ent has been set accuratelv,
bottom which keeps it in a firm position. At the the fulcrum, the piencil {X)int and the tracer m ust lie
lower end the bar ‘C ’ is a fixed socket, which may in one straight-line. Further, if F, P, and T denote
carry the tracer. O f the two shorter bars, the one the fu lcru m , the p e n cil an d the trac e r p o in ts
which is parallel to bar ‘C ’ is marked as bar ‘D ’, respectively and the instrum ent has been set, say for
which like bar ‘B ’ also carries an index-line and a reduction in the ratio 2 : 1, it follow s that
sliding fram e with socket for the pencil holder. The o rF T = 2 F P
fulcrum, the pencil and the tracer holder are provided FT 1
with clamping screws and are interchangeable. There Thus the accuracy o f the instrum ent can be tested
is a cord-operated m echanism to raise the pencil by measuring the two distances, F T and F P, which
from the paper while one passes the tracer from one m ust bear the sam e ratio as the settin g o f the
point to the other on the original map. A num ber o f instrum ent
small circular weights are also provided with the There are two m ethods, viz., the ‘E rect’ and the
‘R ev erse’ o f using the pantograph. In the erect
instrument which may be placed on the pencil holder
method the reduced (or enlarged) copy will appear
to vary pressure and get a sharp copy. The sliding
the same way as the original, whereas in the reverse
firames may be fixed to any division or ratio engraved
methods it would appear upside down the original.

X
. X
 " T
X

SCALES 27

The fulcrum in the erect method o f setting is placed

in the socket o f the sliding frame on either o f the
long bars B or C-on bar B for ratios between 1 : 1
and 1 : 1 2 and on bar C for ratios between 1 : 1 and
1 : 2. In the reverse method, the fulcrum has to be—
necessarily the short central bar D. The reverse
method is better o f the two in so far as the original
and the copy do not overlap each other or come
edge to edge.
In Stanley’s instrument, the settings for any ratio
on the bars B and D can be calculated by means of
the following formulae :

Erect Method
For ratios 1 : R between 1 : 2 and 1 : 12 with
fulcrum on bar B.

Setting cn bar B =—ISO— Fig. 38

R -1
» d =2Q 0 other two bars in a parallel position. Below the
R pulleys and attached to these are two tabular slides
For ratios between 1 : 1 and 1 : 2 with fulcrum through which pass the two parallel bars. There is
on bar C. also a third tabular slide through which passes the
Setting on bar B = 100 (R— 1). central bar and is attached to the fulcrum fixed in a
„ „ „ r^ _ 2 0 0 (R -l) circular weight. The three bars are graduated into
100 divisions each way from the centre and the
R
vernier on the tabular slides gives a reading to one-
Reverse Method tength of a division.
T he w orking o f the in stru m e n t, like the
Setting on bar B=15Q, pantograph, is based on the principles o f similar
R triangles and when the instrument has been set, the
„ D= ^ fulcrum, the pencil point and the tracer must lie in
R+1 one straight line. The distances F T and F P should
Thus the setting on bar B and D for the ratio have the same ratio on measurement as the ratio of
1 : 6 1/4 will be at 16 and 27.28 divisions by the the setting.
reverse m ethods and at 19.05 and 32 divisions
respectively by the erect method. C am era Lucida
The Camera Lucida, whose working is based
E idograph on the principles of optics and photography, is
The eidograph (Fig. 38) consists o f a simple suitable only for reduction o f large maps, especially
fram ew ork o f three graduated bars o f tabular wall maps. The original map, which has to be
construction— two parallel bars and one central bar. reduced, is placed in a vertical plane and its reduced
It has only one support, viz., at the fulcrum base, image is transferred through a prism on to a drawing
and three joints and hence is more precise, and paper placed in a horizontal position vertically below
reliable than the pantograph. There are two pulley the prism. In order to get an uniform and sharp copy
wheels at the two ends o f the central bar, operated the original has to be well illuminated. The reduced
by an adjustable steel hand which always keeps the image on the original can be viewed through the
 28
e l e m e n t s o f pr a c t ic a l g e o g r a ph y

prism but any movement o f the eye with respect to

familiar with their various parts and their functions.
the centre of the prism leads to the distortion o f the
The quality o f the reduced or enlarged print depends
image and hence the reduction or enlargement is
larg ely upon the ac c u rate w orking o f such
only ap p ro x im ate. T he re q u ire d d e g ree o f
photographic processes as focussing, exposing,
enlargement or reduction is got by adjusung the
preparation o f solution for developing and fixing,
distances of the original and the drawing paper with
washing, drying, and trimming.
respect to the prism. If the distance from the drawing
The photostat machine (Fig. 39), which has a
paper is less than the distance from the prism to the
camera-like device with a prism fixed to its front
original map, it will lead to enlargement and vice
versa. frame and a magazine to its back frame, is mounted
on a heavy pedestal stand. The original map is placed
on an adjustable subject or copy holder which lies
Photostat an d P hotograp h ic M ethods
in a horizontal position vertically below the prism.
P h o to static or p h o to g ra p h ic m ethods o f
The prism transfers the image on to a sensitized
enlargement and reduction are, no doubt, the costliest
photostat paper placed in a vertical plane in the
of all the methods so far discussed but at the same
magazine. To obtain a negative print, the sensitized
lime are capable of giving the highest degree of
paper is then passed into the developer and a fixing
precision. However, the operaUon of the photostat
tray in the rear of the magazine, before it is washed
machine is not simple and it requires one to be fully
in running water. The positive copy is got by

-»3

Fig. 39
 SCALES 29

repeating the process once again. There are several For exam ple, if we have two maps with
mechanical devices to vary the distances of the copy R . F. 1 : 10,000,000 and I ; 20,000,000, and we are
holder and the magazine with respect to the prism to required to draw a new map on a scale of
obtain the necessary enlargement or reduction. The I : 15,000,000, we can cover the first map with one
photostat has only one limitation as in case of inch squares and the second map with half inch
enlargement that the size of the nrint has to be limited squares and then the size of the corresponding
to the size of the photostat p ^ r which is ordinarily squares on the new map will be 2/3 inch. See Figs.
18 X 24 inches. The enlargement in this case, has to 40 a, b, c.
be done in sections but again difficulty may arise in
m atching the enlarged section due to unequal
shrinkage of the prints in developing and drying. Vin. Scales from the Length of a Degree
However, the photostat is a boon for researchers of Latitude
inasmuch as it gives a few relatively inexpensive The length of a degree of latitude on a straight
copies in the quickest possible time and may be meridian is approximately equal to 69 miles and this
recom m ended for a full-fledged departm ent o f fact can be utilised to find the R. F., if the scale is
geography.
not given on the map. For example, the length of
The photographic method involves the use of one degree of latitude on a given map is found to be
standard cam eras and the preparation o f film 1.2 inches, the R. F. is equal to
negatives and paper prints. It gives a little more
- 1.2 - 1
precision than the photostat in which there is the
6 9x63360 3,643300 ‘
possibility o f some distortion at the edges. In the
photographic method, any size of enlargement may
be made with the aid of the enlarger, which is an
IX. Measurement of Distance
advantage on the photostat, but the former is costlier
than the latter. Some difficulty lies in the measurement of the
length of irregular lines on a map, such as roads,
railways, rivers. The following methods may be
VII. Combining Scales followed : (/) If the line is not too irregular it will
Sometime it becomes necessary to combine be convenient to mark off short straight portions on
maps o f two adjacent areas on different scales into

1 •• 10, 000,000 1 : 20,000,000

Fig. 40 (a)
Fig. 40 (i)
 30
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

It with dividers and their values may be enumerated

squares the fractions which are more than half within
to give the length. (//) A piece o f thread or fine wire
the boundary can be taken as complete squares and
may be spread along the line following each curve,
those which are less than half can be neglected. In
and then stretched along a scale to give the length.
this case 1 sq. inch = 1 sq. mile and if there be 20
complete big squares and 35 small squares within
the boundary the area o f the map will be 20 + 3.5
sq. miles = 23.5 sq. miles.
It is obvious that if the map is not drawn on
squared paper, squares could be drawn on the map
itself or squares could be drawn on a piece o f tracing
paper and fixed on the map whose area is required.

(B) O th e r M ethods
A student o f geography is often required to
determine areas from maps, plans, charts etc., or
parts thereof. Such determination o f areas may take
place in three ways: (1) by mathematical calculations,
Fig. 40 (c) (2) by graphical approximations and calculations,
and (3) by instruments, especially made for the
(Hi) By opisometer which comprises a small toothed
wheel fitted with a recording dial. Its wheel is purpose. The mathematical calculation o f areas is
carefully run along the line; the total length given no doubt the most accurate but is possible only in
on the dial is read off in inches or centimetres; and case o f such g eo m e rtic fig u res as tria n g le ,
the scale of the map is then applied to find out the parallelogram, polygon, trapezoid etc., which are
actual length in miles, km etc., as the case may be. rarely to be had on maps or plans. In practice, one
It IS essential to measure the length from both the more often meets with irregular, asymmetrical figures
ends and then to take the mean o f the two so that the of various shapes and sizes and it is the calculation
inside and outside curves may be balanced. o f areas o f such strips that we are most concerned
TTiese methods hold good on a plane surface i with. Hence the need o f graphical approximation
in a hilly country the measured length will be shorter has been felt which has given rise to such graphical
than the actual length. It is, then necessary to methods of calculation o f areas as square method,
construct a profile of the track without any vertical strip method, midordinate method or Trapezoid Rule,
exaggeration and to measure the actual profile. Sim pson’s or Parabolic Rule etc. These graphical or
geometric methods give only approximate results and
are laborious and tim e-consum ing too and in
X. Measurement of Area
consequence have led to the d ev elo p m en t o f
mechanical or instrumental methods which involve
(A) S quare M ethod
the use of Computing Scale Planimeters. Calculation
If maps are drawn on squared paper the area
of area even with a computing scale is not altogether
can be easily calculated. Supposing if a map on a
mechanical as some boundary approximations or
scale of 1" = 1 mile has been drawn on a squared
adjustments have to be necessarily made before any
paper showing one inch-big squares sub-divided into
computation takes place. The planimeter is the only
one-tenth inch small squares, the area of the map
perfected mechanical device which simply by tracing
can be calculated by first counting the number of
the outline o f the map records the required area, and
small squares within the boundary. In counung the
hence students are advised to gain full familiarity
complete big squares and then the number of small with the use of the instrument.
 SCALES 31
P lanim eter
vernier it is possible to read upto one-thousandth
The planimeter, invented by Prof. J. Amsler, a
part o f a revolution o f the Measuring W heel. The
Sw iss m ath em atician , is a handy but delicate
shorter bar, known as the Pole Arm (E) has a needle-
instrument used for the determination o f areas from
pointed weight o f Fulcrum (F) at its one end and a
maps. It has to be handled with great care "as the
small sphere at the other which is to be placed in
instrument is m ade strong enough only to withstand
socket on the Carriage. It case o f Sliding Bar
mtelligent use. Several models o f the instrument may
Planimeters of Carriage has to be set at the desired
be found. The hatcher planim eter, which is the
position on the index line o f the Tracer Arm found
simplest, comprises o f a simple form o f tracer-bar,
from a Table supplied with the instrument. The table
while the polar or wheel planimeter which is more
gives a few scales in common use, corresponding
delicate and com plex is fitted w ith au tom atic
positions o f the carnage on the tracer arm, the area
recording dials and may have either fixed or variable
m easured by instrum ent p e r revolution o f the
tracer arm. The planimeter with fixed tracer arm is
measuring wheel and a number o f constant which
known as Fixed Arm Planimeter and the other with
have to be used when the area is measured by the
v ariab le tracer arm is know n as S lid in g B ar Interior pole method.
Planimeter. The given sketch is that o f a Polar
To use the instrument the fulcrum or the needle-
P la n im e te r h av in g v a ria b le tra c e r arm . The
pointed weight is firstly fixed at a suitable point on
instrument (Fig. 41) is made o f two bars o f unequal
the map, the outline (or perimeter) o f the area is
lengths, the longer one, which carries the Tracer
then carefully and accurately traced, and in the
Point (A) with an adjustable support (S) at its one
process the result is recorded is sq. units by the
end and the Carriage (B) at the other end, is known
m easu rin g w heel and the c o u n tin g d ial. The
as the T racer Arm (A). The Carriage which is
measuring wheel which, with the movement o f the
adjustable on the Tracer Arm rests on drum known
tracer point, is rotated by friction against the paper
as M easuring W heel (C) to which is geared a
forms a vital part o f the instrum ent It should not be
Counting Dial (H) to reckon its revolutions. The
touched, turned or pushed by bare fingers when the
Counting Dial carries to divisions, the Measuring
instrument rests on the paper. The vernier adjustment
Wheel 100 divisions and with the aid o f an attached
to zero ought to be done by lifting the wheel o f the

S 0
Fig. 41
 mmm

32 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

paper. The instrument should further be guarded

against any accumulation o f dust between the vernier movement o f the tracer point. This point should be
and the drum as it will interfere with the free a valuable starting point in tracing the out-line of
movement of the measuring wheel and give faulty the map whose area is required. The readings of the
results. measuring wheel and counting dial must be noted
There are two methods o f using the instrument both at the starting and closing point (in coincidence)
viz., (a) The Interior Pole method, with the fulcrum and their difference multiplied by the appropriate
or needle-pointed weight fixed inside the area to be number, got from the column o f the Table entitled
measured, and (b) The Exterior Pole method, with “area per revolution o f the measuring wheel,” will
the fulcrum or needle-pointed weight fixed outside give the required area.
the areas to be measured. The latter method is less The Interior Pole method involves the use of
complicated, more reliable and accurate though the certain Constants got from the Table. W ith the
former has the advantage o f a greater range or fulcrum-weight inside, the area to be measured is
coverage. firstly circumscribed to mark if the measuring wheel
In the Exterior Pole method, the tracer point is makes a total forward or backw ard movement.
placed in the centre of the area to be measured and Thereafter the arm is carefully traced and the
the pole arm is disposed at right angles to the tracer difference between the first and the second readings
arm. Then by lightly circumscribing the area as trial is noted. The area required is then found out by
case, the measuring wheel may be found to come to adding the difference to the “C onstant,” if the
a dead point, when it does not rotate with a little movement is backward.
 Chapter 3
RELIEF DEPICTION

Elevation and Relief

be m athematically calculated, but in drawing^s
The term elevation means the height of the land
generally it is more or less diagrammatic. Flat areas
surface above a fixed plane—the sea-level called
whether on mountain tops or in lowlands are left
the datum plane—and the height is measured in feet
blank white. Thus hachuring gives some idea about
or in any other unit. When a h n d surface is below
the relative steepness o f slopes. The use of this
^ - le v e l. the elevaUon is stated to be negaUve and
method by itself is becoming obsolete chiefly because
the number o f feet of depression is prefixed with a
(0 It does not indicate the absolute height o f land
n e p u v e ( ) sign. In India the datum plane is taken
surface, (ii) because in very hilly country the closely
to be the mean sea-level of the spring fide at Madras.
set lines obscure other details o f the topography,
The term relief is used in a syntheUc sense. It
and (Hi) these take a long time to be drawn and are’
in^cates the variation in the nature o f the land
thus costly. Their chief use lies in their capacity to
surface or in other words the lie o f the land. Thus it
indicate underfeatures, such as, shallow valleys and
shows the broad features and relative heights of
small knolls which form landmarks in a flat country
highlands and lowlands which are portrayed by such
terms as hills, knolls, spurs and valleys, etc. and which are generally.omitted in contoured maps
due to wide vertical interval. Caterpillar method is
a modified form o f hachuring. A full caterpillar is
Methods of Representation used to represent a flat topped, elongated ridge.
The different methods employed to represent Gentle slopes of the ridge are represented by half
e evauon and relief can be grouped under three heads: caterpillars.
(1) Pictorial, (2) Mathematical, and (3) Combination (b) Hill Shading : (i) Vertical illumination— An
of the previous two. im a g in g light held vertically above the country
causes illumination which varies according to the
1. Pictorial M ethods steepness of the slope. The steeper the slope the
These aim at giving a more or less true visual darker is the shading. Relatively flat areas like
picture of the terrain. hilltops, plateaux, summits of ridges, valley bottoms
etc., have lighter shading.
{a) Hachures : It is a method of representing
the re lie f by m eans o f sets o f finely-draw n 0 0 Oblique illumination—Here the source of
disconnected lines which indicate the direction to light is supposed to be beyond the north-west comer
which water would flow from highland to lowland. of the map. Thus slopes which face to the north­
Hachuring does not indicate absolute height but it west wiU be lighted while south-east facing slopes
shows the general configuration of the ground The will be dark. Thus it is deceptive and it does not
lines are thicker and closely drawn on steep slopes ^ v e any idea about the relative steepness of slopes.
and are thin and wide apart on genUe slopes. For an slope in the shadow always appears steeper and
accurate representation the thickness of the lines can If flat surfaces happen to be in the shadow they will
also appear slopy.
 34 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

The general effect o f hill shading is that of (d) C ontours : C ontouring is the standard
hachuring and like the latter it does not give any method o f representing relief. Contours are imaginary
idea about heights and gradients. It gives, however, lines o f the ground joining adjacent places at the
some idea about the relief o f the country. Since the same height above sea-level. Since these heights are
shading is done by stippling— that is by dots— the fixed by accurate survey, the method is slow and
method is easier, quicker and cheaper. It is used costly. But contours are easily drawn and they do
generally in small-scale maps. not obscure other details o f the map. W ith a liule
imagination and some practice the general relief o f
2. Mathematical Methods the land can be easily visualised. Moreover, contours
(a) Spot Heights : These give the actual heights from the basis o f some o f the other methods o f
of places above sea-level, fixed by survey. Thus these showing relief. The draw ing show n in Fig. 42
do not by themselves indicate the relief o f the land. represents a conical island. The lines which are drawn
These are shown on maps by dots followed by the on it indicate different levels above the sea-level.
number giving the height above sea-level in feet or The 100 feet line has been drawn by joining adjacent
metres. places at a height o f 100 feet above sea-level.
Similarly, the other contours have been drawn. If
{b) Bench Marks : These are marks placed on we imagine the lines to be marked on the island and
buildings, etc., indicating the height above sea-level, look down at it from above, the contour lines will
determined by actual survey. On maps these are appear like that shown in Fig. 43 and this will be a
indicated by the letters B. M. followed by the number contoured map o f the island.
giving the height of the mark in feet or metres above
sea-level. It differs from spot heights in that it gives
height of the mark and not that o f the ground.

Fig. 43

{e) F orm L in e s : T h ese are ap p ro x im ate

500^ contours. They are interpolated by eye-sketching in
-4 0 0 ' between the instnimentally fixed contours. When
-3 0 0 these are shown by broken lines, they are easily
; - 20 o' distinguished from contours. In some foreign maps
- 100' -
they are shown in the same style as the true contours
and thus create confusion. Form lines help specially
Fig. 42 to bring out the minor details o f the topography
which are not easily shown by contours in an area
(c) Trigonometrical Stations : These are points
of low relief and with large contour interval.
on the surface of the earth which were used as
stations for uiangulation survey. These are indicated
3. C om bination of Several M ethods
on maps by a small triangle followed by the number,
Most of the modem relief maps use several
giving the height above sea-level.
methods in combination.
 RELIEF DEWCnON
35
(a) Contours and H achw es : When the vertical
of the hill, that is, whether it is conical or flat-topped,
interval between the contours is large, hachuies are
or, has p n tle or steep slopes, etc. In case of a conical
added to bnng out the minor forms omitted by the
contours. hill with uniform slope the contours will be
concentric and spaced regularly. A conical hiU is
{b) Contours. Hachures and Spot Heights : The very typically exemplified by a volcanic cone which
addition of spot heights increases the utility o f the
map.

(c) Contours. Form Lines and Spot Heights •

H ere the hachures are replaced by form lines.
Although the visual effect is not so good as in the
previous one, the form lines are well suited for
wooded areas where hachures would maiic the details.
id) Contours and H ill Shading : These produce
alm ost a similar effect to that o f contours with
hachures but they seem to be more legible; and also
these are less expensive.

(e) Contours and Layer Tints : The area between

two successive contours is coloured. Generally deep
p e e n colour is used for the land between the sea-
level and the 100 ft. contour and lighter shades of
green for the successive intervals up to 1,000 ft
Likewise, for higher grounds different shades of
brown are used but here the shade deepens with
height culminating in a deep brown at 15,000'. Lands
above 15,000 ft. are left blank or coloured with Fig. 44
shades of lilac or blue. The colour scheme is different
rises more or less uniformly from the surrounding
in various maps but the general jMinciple is the same
country {Fig. 44). Generally four parts can be
The general distribution of high and low ground can
recognised in a h ill- th e foot, the brow, the crest
be visualised very easily from this type o f map but
^ d the summit {Fig. 45). The line of tran.^ition
in high country the tint becomes so dark as to obscure
tetween the valley or the plain on the one hand and
all details.
the hiU on the other is the foot. Here the gentle
? changes to a steeper incline of the
Contour Features hiU. Thus this area marks a sudden change in slope
M d IS liable to be swampy and open to landslides.
Mountain : It is an elevation which rises to more This region is not preferred for setUement. As we
than 3,000 ft. above the surrounding country. The ascend up from the foot in a hill with convex slope
contours help to show the character of the mountain, we come to a line along which the slope becomes
that is, whether it is long, narrow and elongated or steeper and this is the brow. It is generally chosen
broad and flat-topped, etc. for settlement sites and is of much importance in
rnilita^ o ^ ra u o n s since it gives a command over
H ill : This is an elevation rising to less than
the plam below. Before the highest point or the
3,000 f t above the surrounding country. The spacing
sumrnit is reached, usually there is a line marking a
o f the successive contour lines will indicate the nature
gentler upper slope of the top from a steepen
 36 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

slope. This is the crest of the hill and marks the line K noll : A very low detached hill which is
of the greatest elevation. commonly round. A more prominent elevation is
known as a hillock, and a slight elevation of an
irregular shape is called a rise. On plain regions
knolls are often formed by mound o f gravel and
afford sites for settlement. See Figs. 46 and 47.

too'-

KNOLL

300

700 ■ — Summit
i^NrCrast
500 ■
trow
300 ■ 1000
Foot ■ eoo
ICO ' 600
400
200
0
Fig. 45
Fig. 47. Knoll in a flat country
M a s s if: A large hill with more than one peak.
Spur (Salient): It is a projection o f a tongue of
land from the high ground into lower ground. Short
spurs are known as buttresses or shoulders and spurs
ending in broad precipitous slope form what is known
as a bluff. On the map a spur is shown by contours
running out from the main feature. See Fig. 48.
KNOLL Re-entrant : Sometimes there is an incision on
the side o f a rising ground or hill and such a
depression is called a re-entrant. River valleys also
form a depression in the side o f a hill or mountain
and in that sense they are also re-entrants but all re­
entrants may not contain rivers. On the map re­
entrants are shown by contours projecting towards
IC O O
the higher ground. See Fig. 49.
Ridge : It is a high elongated hill represented
^ on the map by elliptical contours. The line o f greatest
Fig. 46 elevation on the ridge is called the ridge-line.
 RELIEF DEPICTION 37

ooO ---

SPUR

aK**:AY.v:«
Fig. 50

Summit Summit Col Summit

(Fig. 51). According to their shape, ridges may show Fig. si

a col, which is a short steep sided depression on the
ndge line or a saddle when the depression is broad separated by cols, and here and there cols mav form
and low. The n d g e line may be long and continuous deep saddles. In a settled country roads usually
but generally it show s a num ber o f small summits follow these saddles. O f course, if the valley-heads
 38
ELEMENTS OF PRACnCAL GEOGRAPHY

are loo sleep, roads may climb by ihe spurs. Such a

passage provided by a spidle in a range of hills or
mountains is called a/w ja. The term gap is generally
used for a j)ass which has been lowered by the action
of running water. See Fig. 50, and a long narrow
pass is called a defile. If a ridge separates two distinct
drainage systems then it forms what is known as a
w a tersh ed or water-parting.

Plateau (Table-land) : It is an elevated plain

with relatively level surface which falls down rapidly
at least on one side. See. Fig. 52. The margins are
generally broken by erosion. Sometimes a series of
plateaux rise one above the other like steps called
terraces.
E seoroffltnt

Fig. 53

Valley : It is that part of the ground contained

between two slopes converging at their bases. In a
valley the contours point up towards the heart of the
hill.

Gorge : If there is a cliff on the two sides of the

stream, the contours become closer on both sides
indicating that the stream is flowing through a ravine
or gorge at that point. See Fig. 111.

W ater-fall: When contours cross a stream and

are very close to one another or sometimes when
they even touch each other, it means that there is a
Kig. 52 rapid or water-fall at the point indicated. See Fig.
112.
E sca rp m en t (S carp ) : It is the ab ru p t,
comparatively long and regular, steep face of any V-shaped valley : These valleys are generally
formed by surface water erosion. From the valley-
hill or ridge. See Fig. 53. Such escarpments arc
line the ground gradually slopes up. The contours
commonly seen on the face of plateaux. The erosion
which cut the valley-line are closer together near the
of tilted strata also results in scarped ridges. Scarps
head of the valley than further down. The V-contours
are also produced by faulting. Faulted scarps are
are sharper in the upper region and they widen out
generally distinguished from erosional scarps by the gradually until the V-shape o f the contours disappears
absence of outliers in the former. Here the outlier is when the mouth is reached. The spacing o f the
a portion of the escarpment detached from the main contours is such on the two sides o f the stream as to
feature by erosion. indicate concave slope. See Fig. 54.
 RELIEF DEPICTION 39

“Sfi, •6 0 0 0
15800'
CIRQUE
15600 U SHAPED
15400
15200!
15000
14000

Fig. 55. Showing glaciated topography.

C— cirque; T—tarn; H— hanging valley.

Cirque (or Cwm or Corrie or Kar or both or
caldare or oule or zanoga):
River Plain : The valley floor is broad and the
Fig. 54
river is meandeiing and a few more lakes may be
present Contours cross the river at long intervals
U-shaped valley : The valley is formed by showing that the slope o f the valley is gentle. The
glacial erosion. The valley has a flat floor and steep sides of the valley are gently sloping. See Fig. 56.
parallel sides. In a contoured map, it is indicated by
close parallel contours running on two sides of the
stream, leaving a broad flat valley floor and the
spacing o f the contours indicates more or less a
convex slope. See Fig. 55.

H anging valley : Glaciated tributary valleys

break rapidly down a steep slope into the main valley
ox BOW ! \ K E i
below. The contours which cross the valley in close
succession, are more or less V-less and they indicate
waterfall. See Fig. 55 at H.
In glaciated m ountainous regions the old
catchment basins of glaciers have the appearance of
steep-walled arm-chair hollows which are called
cirques. The slop)e o f the wall may be alm ost
perpendicular and in that case the contours merge
together on the face o f the w all and to aid
visualisation special shading is generally used. The
basin is usually occupied by a small lake called a
tarn. See Fig. 55 at C and T.
Fig. 56

%
dm
 1 ^

40
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Incised meanders : They are deeply trenched

m eandering river valleys. This type o f valley is
sometimes found is plateaux o f easily eroded rocks
with very little local rainfall to widen the valley;
thus deeply trenched valleys result. They are also
form ed by the slow uplift o f the area. See Fig. 57.

CLIFF

Fig. 58

Fig. 57

Cliffs : These are commonly seen on rocky

coasts. There is a sudden steep fall to the sea below.
The contours seem to run out into the sea and they
merge into one another on the face o f the cliff See
Fig. 58.

F iord coast : The fiords have been formed by

glacial action; so the valleys are U-shaped and this
400-
is easily recognised by the spacing o f the contours
on the two sides o f the valley. Islands are sometimes
present at the entrance o f the fiord and submarine
contours indicate that the fiord is deeper at the land
end than near the island farther into the sea. This is
due to deposition from floating ice which melted
Fig. 59
after drifting out for some distance into the sea See
Fig. 59. a gradual deepening aw ay from the coast. See.
Fig. 60.
Ria c o a s t: These are formed by drowned river
valleys which are not glaciated and thus the valley Sand-dunes : These are indicated on maps by
slope is V-shaped and submarine contours indicate elongated ring contours arranged roughly in parallel
 RELIEF DEPICTION 41

Slopes and Gradients

Kinds o f slopes

(a) Uniform. Evenly spaced contours indicate

uniform slope. See Fig. 62.

Fig. 60

bands. These lie generally at right angles to the

prevailing wind direction. See Fig. 61.

400-
200 -

Fig. 62

(b) Concave. W hen the contours are close

together near the top o f the hill and farther apart
downwards. See Fig. 63.

(c) Convex. When the contours are closest at

^ y other point than the top, e.g., when the space
between the contours decreases towards the lower
ground. See Fig. 64.

(d) U ndulating. W hen the spacing o f the

contours is variable. See Fig. 65.
It should be remembered that close contours
indicate steep slope and widely spaced contours
Fig.6i genUe slope. GeneraUy slopes are convex near the
top o f the hill and concave at the bottom. The curve
 42
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

■b-
b '

1000 -
8 0 0 ^ -P - %
6 0 0 '* ^
4 0 0 - j>
Fig. 63
2 0 0 ‘4 '
along a water-course is mostly convex and the slope
going down a spur is convex.

G radient
Fig. 64
Gradient is the amount o f vertical rise of land
is relation to horizontal equivalent, i.e., the amount the base. Thus any slope can be represented by a
of steepness of slope.
triangle. B C is known as the distance on the ground
Sometimes it is necessary to measure the amount (D); A C represents the horizontal equivalent (H.E.)
of steepness of a land surface; it is not sufficient to and A B is the vertical interval (V. I.) See Fig. 66.
say that the slope is steep or gentle. Transport and The H. E. can be found by measurement on the map
engineering problems require exact measurement of and V. I. is found from the contours. The ratio of
the amount of steepness of slopes.
these two gives a measure o f the steepness and is
The amount of slope can be expressed in several called the slope. This can be expressed as follows:
ways. Suppose it is desired to find the amount of
- d ifferen ce in elevations o f points (V.I.)
slope of the land surface between B and C. The
slope may be expressed in terms of a right-angled horizontal distance betw een points ( H £ )
triangle in which the sloping surface B C forms the Thus it is evident that the degree of slope shown by
hypotenuse. The horizontal distance from C to a the Z B C A depends on the ratio of V. I. to H. E.
point perpendicularly below B forms the base and The amount o f slope can be expressed in several
the vertical interval A B forms the perpendicular to ways :
 REUEF DEWCnON 43

is 5 ft. (or 1 yard in a distance of 5 yards). There is

no standard method of indicating gradient. In the
instance givCT above, the numerator is equal to unity
but this is also sometimes expressed when the
denominator is equal to 100 so that a gradient of 1/
l_\__ 5 is also expressed as gradient of 20 in 100.
id) By Degrees : With reference to the right-
angled triangle, we fmd that the angle B C A is also
a measure of the amount of slope. If the angle BCA
is measured by a protractor, the angle of slope is
said to be so many degrees.

1000- If 0 is the angle than the r a t io n s , is called the

800' — tangent of 0
6 0 0 '-

400'- T h u s ^ = ta n 0 b u tA B = V .I.aiidA C = H .E
800 ’-
H ence the gradient=^^!^ = tan 0
HJE
Fig. 65 So the gradient of slope can be considered as
tangent of the degree of slope. The tangent of 1“ is
(a) By per cent : The slope is found and it is equal to 57.3. This means that if the angle B C A is
transformed into the per cent form, i.e., the slope is equal to 1° it is necessary to travel a distance equal
multiplied by 100; for example, when the land to 57.3 feet in order to rise 1 foot above the starting
surface rises 2 feet for a horizontal distance of 40 point. For small degrees of slope there is very little
feet, the per cent slope can be calculated thus: difference between B C and A C, and A C may be
per cent slope taken to represent 57.3 feet.
- difference in elevation o f pcints
Conversion o f gradient into angle o f slope and vice
horizontal distance betw een paints versa
= - ^ xlOO The slope may be expressed in terms of a
40 gradient of 1/28.6 w the same slope can be expressed
= 5 per cent. by its angle of slope of 2». Thus, for the map reader
{b) By M ills: Slt^ies up to 200 can be expressed It becomes necessary to be able to convert one
in mills. method into another.
Slope in mills
_ difference in elevation o f points ^^|qqq From the gradient to find angle o f slope: Three
methods may be employed.
horizontal distance between points
Thus slope in mills can be found from per cent (a) A right-angled triangle may be constructed
s ope by muIUplying by 10. For example, 5 per cent to scale according to the length of the V. I. and H £
slope is equal to 50 mills. and the angle of slope measured with a protractor.
We have seen that gradient = V J- -
(c) 5 y Gradient : If a slope is expressed in
RE "
of a fraction it is caUed a gradient For example,
the t a l e n t of the angle sub-divided by V. I. Thus
\J5 indicates a rise or faU of 1 foot in a horizontal
If the fi^cuon is reduced to a decimal, the angle can
distance of 5 feet. Here the V. I. is l ft. and H. E.
be easily found from a table of natural tangwits
 44
e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l g e o g r a p h y

(c) For gradients o f less than 1/6 the angle can

we have 150/1,500 = 10 per cent, 100 mills, 10 in
be found by multiplying the gradient by 57.3 (or for 100 or 5.7“.
a rough work by 60.)
If the point A is between two contour lines {Fig.
fr o m Angle o f Slope to fin d the Gradient: (a) 67), we assume that the ground rises uniformly
The angle o f slope when divided by 57.3 wiU give between the two contour lines and since the point A
the gradient, e.g., the gradient for an angle o f 5’ is is half way between the contour lines, we can take
the height o f A to be 125 feet. In a similar way for
-^ = lin ll.4 .
573 any other position o f A its height can be found by
interpolation, which also depends on a sense of
(b) By the construction o f a right-angled triangle proportion. From the figure it is seen that the
provided the length o f one side is known and then projection of the point A is about half the distance
the gradient can be found out from the measurement between the two contour lines C and D so that its
o f the triangle.
elevation can be taken to be equal to 100 feet
(c) The value of the tangent o f the given angle + 1/2 contour interval = 100 + 25 feet = 125 feet.
can be found from a table o f natural tangents and
this value is expressed in the form of a fraction,
usual for gradients.

Finding Slope from Contours

To find the slope between A and B {Fig. 66), it
is necessary to find the horizontal distance between
these two points. Obviously the horizontal distance
is equal to the straight line distance between A and
B which can be easily measured with the help o f a
scale. The difference in elevation (V. I.) can be found C
by the contour lines. In this case points A and B are
exactly on contour line. The elevation o f point A is
100 feet and that of B 250 feet. So the difference in
elevation is 150 feet. If the distance measured to
scale between A and B is equal to 1300 feet.

Fig. 67

In case o f a composite slope generally the

ground is broken up into small portions and slopes
are s^ a ra te ly found for these lengths. For example,
in the accompanying Fig. 68, the slope should be
found separately for diffCTent portions as shown. It
may be gathered from the figure that from A to B
the slope is gentle, while from B to C it is steq>. So,
if the slope from A to C is found out, it will not
Fig. 66 show the nature o f land from A to C correctly.
 RELIEF DEHCnON 45

note the height of every such point.

5. On another paper draw a straight line to
represent A B and on both ends erect one vertical
line. Now construct a scale of heights as shown in
Fig. 69. Let the scale be 1" = 1,000 ft.
6. Place the folded edge o f the paper along this
horizontal line so that the point A on the paper edge
corresponds with A on the scale and the point B
corresponds with the point B.
7. On the base of the scale mark off the contour
heights.
8. Draw perpendiculars at each of these points,
of lengths varying according to the heights of these
points.
Fig. 68 9. Join the tops of these perpendiculars with a
smooth continuous line to get the profile.
Profiles
10. When there are two adjacent points of the
The best way o f representing slopes same height, the land in between might represent a
diagrammatically is by means of profiles. If a section raised ground, say, the crest of a hiU, or, the ground
of the ground is cut by a vertical plane, the side falls slightly forming the bottom o f a valley.
view of the cut is the profile. A good example of a Examples are seen in the section.
ground section is afforded by a railway cutting; the
section of a contoured map can be drawn in the Exaggeration in the Vertical Scale
following way:
The horizontal scale of the map is 1" = 1 mile
Supposing a section is to be drawn between the and the vertical scale has been taken to be 1" =
two points A and B (See Fig. 69):
1,000 feet. This means that slopes shown on the
1. Join A B with a straight line.
section are not correct. They are too steep. In order
2. Fold a piece of paper to get a straight edge. to get a true picture of the relief both the scales
3. Place the straight edge of the paper along the
should be the same. But an exaggerated vertical scale
line A B.
helps to show the relief boldly. The different land-
4. Mark with a pencil on the edge of the paper
forms, peaks, plateaux, ridges, valleys, etc., stand
every point where it cuts a contour line and also
out more clearly and can be easily compared. The
exaggeration of the vertical scale wUl depend on the
horizontal scale of the map and also on the relative
prominence of relief.
The exaggeration in the vertical scale can be
^tarU0<ftottqun«i*nt easily calculated: On the Horizontal Scale 1"
rtf«rtnc« represents 5,280 feet (1 mile = 5,280 feet). On the
Vertical Scale r represents 1,000 feet.

Exaggeration in the vertical scale =

1,000
iiiiniji
= 5.28.

Below the Section we can write__

Fig. 69
“Heights exaggerated 5.28 times”
 46
elements of practical geography

Profiles along Curved Lines

waterfalls, rapids, etc.
Sometimes it is necessary to draw sections along
curved or broken lines. For example, the section Road Section
along a river or a road. In this case the river or the
Road section enables the road builder, the
road is divided into small, straight portions, which
cyclist, the motraist, etc., to know the gradient alcMig
are marked successively on the edge of a paper and
different portions of the road. Published road guides
then profiles are drawn for these portions in order.
generally contain such road sections and the g riie n ts
The longitudinal secUon along the river indicates or angles of slope are written along steeper slopes.
the stage in the cycle of river erosion and also locates See Fig. 70.

i/91-ea
i/i8-4a

F6H I

1 Mile
L - i_ l
Horizootol S cole

Fig. 70

Marking Routes
visible fiom anoth^ situated at a long distance, but
To trace the possible routes of communication__ if the line of sight is obstructed by the rise of the
roads, railways, etc., on a contoured map the guiding ground in between or by the presence of trees, etc.,
factor is the slope of the land. Roads and Railways the two points will not be intervisible. The area which
will always try to t^ e the genUest slope. To minimise is hidden from sight is known as the dead ground.
the cost of construction, the shortest length is From a simple inspection of the maps, it is possible
preferred but care should be taken that in laying it to make the following deductions:
along the shortest route the track does not cross many (0 When the two points are on a level ground,
stream s etc. O therw ise, the cost o f bridge the intervisibility will depend on the presence or
construction would be too high. For a similar reason absence of obstacles like trees, buildings, etc.
swampy areas or river flood plains are also avoided. (ii) When the two points are on the two sides of
Usually the route follows plains or valley slopes and a valley the points are intervisible.
crosses hiUs by pass or gaps. But if the valleys are (Hi) When the slope joining the two points is
steq)-headed, the roads foUow the slope of the spurs. concave, they are probably intervisible.
(iv) When the slope is convex the points are not
Intervisibility intervisible.
It sometimes becomes necessary to fmd from (v) If the obstacle in between the two points is
higher, then the points will not be intervisible.
contoured maps whether one point is visible from
(vi) If the obstacle between the two points is
another. Generally in an open country without much higher than one of the points, the points may or may
obstruction of buildings, trees etc., one point will be not be visible.
 RELIEF DEPICTION 47
To determine visibiUty several methods can be 0,9 5 0 '
followed: 1040^ ./

1.By drawing a section: The method of drawing

a section has already been explained. It is not
necessary to draw a complete section along the line
joining the two points. It will suffice if perpendiculars
are erected to scale at two points A and B on the
base line of the section and then at the position of
any other point C in between which seems to be an
obstacle, another perpendicular should be erected
according to the height of the point. Now, if the tops Fig. 71
of A and B are joined by a line it will be obvious
whether the perpendicular at C obstructs this line of the line of sight at C. Obviously, this height is greater
sight. than that of C along A B; thus the points A and B
are intervisible. If the height of C,, were less than
2. By Gradients: Supposing there are two points
t o of C, along A B, then A and B will not be
A B on the map and there is a possible obstacle C intervisible.
in between. Let the heights of A, B and C be 400,
350 and 250 feet respecdvely. The distance between
A and B, when measured on the map, is 2,500 yards Interpolation of Contours
and the distance A C is 1,000 yards. To find whether By interpolation o f contours we mean the
the points A and B are intervisible, calculate gradient drawing of contour lines on a map when spot heights
along A C and along A B. are given. Fig. 72 represents a river valley with spot
Slope A C = a drop of 150 f t in 1,000 yds. heights marked on two sides of the valley and it is
= - 150 - 1 required to draw contour lines at intervals of hundred
l^XX)x3 20 feet
Slope A B = a drop of 50 f t in 2,500 yds.
=— • 540 *52
2,500x 3 150 • 560
• 480
Thus the gradient along A B is less steep than •3 9 0
•^ 9 0 •4 8 0 •4 3 0
along A C so that the two points A and B are
• 480
intervisible. 430 . 400
•4 3 0
• 420
3. Principle o f Similar Triangles: This is a more
accurate method of determining intervisibility. Let • 320*3'0
there be three stations A, B and C in a given contour .30(i«£'^2(
map (Fig. 71). The difference between the height of
A (1,040') and B (950’) is 90 ft. Draw a line A ' B',
9 units in length, at a convenient distance from and
• 150 \
parallel to A B, the line of sight, and on it mark the
sub-divisions at 10' interval. Join A and B with the Fig. 72
opposite ends of the parallel line; and these will
intersect at x . From the point C, which may appear To Start with, we find that point A is 100 feet
atove sea-level. This point should be connected with
to interrupt visibility draw a line through x and
ad^COTt points at the same height above sea-level
produce it to the parallel line; then read off the
Md then the line will represent a 100 feet contour
height of C which, actually indicates the height of
Point B IS at a level of 80 feet and slopes up to a
 48
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

height of ISO' at C. Assuming the slope to be uniform each other. In case of a cliff, a steep fall in a river,
between B and C, we can easily locate a point on or a very steep escarpment, the contours seem to
the line joining B to C which is 100 feet above sea merge on the drawing.
level. On the map the distance between B and C is 3. Contour lines of the same elevation cannot
one inch and the land rises 180 — 80 = 100 ft. merge and continue as one line.
Divide C B into five equal parts; the first point from 4. The spacing of contour lines indicates the
B towards C will be at a height of 100 ft. This point nature of slope.
can then be joined to point A which is also at a 5. A hill is indicated by closed contours with
height of hundred feet The procedure for getting higher contours inside and a depression is indicated
other points at the same height is similar. Consider by closed contours with lower contours inside.
the points B and D which are at 80 feet and 200 feet 6. A contour Une should either close on itself
level respectively; that is the difference of level is on the map or it should begin at one edge of the
200 — 80 = 120 ft. By measurement along the bank map, and end at another. It neither can start from
B D a point E at a level of 100 feet can be found within the map nor end inside the map.
and this joined to A in such a way that it crosses the 7. In case of a ridge the contours either run
line B F at a point which as also at 100 feet level. parallel to each other or they are enclosed at the top.
This 100 feet contour, while crossing the river, should In case of a valley they either run parallel or they
point up-stream. To draw the 200 feet contour, we are pointed up-stream.
start from D and by judgment mark a point at a In drawing the contour sketch from the given
level of 200 feet between F (IbO*) and G (210*), and description of an area, the following suggestions
then join it to D. Similarly, other points at a height should be kept in view:
of 200 feet can be found, the contour and the line (/) Before attempting to draw, the description
completed. The method o f procedure for other should be read carefully to visualise what is required
contour lines will be similar. It is clear from the to be drawn.
drawing that on one side of a contour line the spot (ii) The extent of the area to be sketched should
heights are lower than the value of the contour line first be roughly outlined according to scale and the
and, on the other side, the spot heights are higher in north-south direction marked.
elevation. (ji'O The chief features should then be marked
in lighdy, paying attention to the higher regions.
Contour Representation (iv) Draw the rivers and their tributaries coming
down from the highlands.
Sometimes it is required to represent the land
(v) Put in other details according to the
forms by contours from a description of a certain
description.
area. It will help in drawing such contour sketches
(vi) Draw the lowest contour first taking it
if we here rec^itulate the fundamental principles of
contours. around the loww part of the rivers. Put in other
contours at the required interval.
1. Contour lines join adjacent places at the same
elevation. (vi'O Hachures may be used to indicate break in
slopes, gorges, scarps etc.
2. Contours of different elevations do not cross
 The representation of three a-dimensional picture of
the earth’s skin has long been one of the most
challenging problems in cartography. It requires an
unusual combination of training and artistic skill.
An artist without training in the interpretation of
land forms is likely to produce ‘good-looking’
drawing which would rather bq scientifically barren.
While on who knows well the land-form geography
may be able to depict the subUe differences of the
land-form complex but as an amatei rist. So one who
draws terrain must get at least an elementary training, 500 T C
on the one hand, in such fields as land-slope analysis,’
geomorphology and structural geology, and, on the 500
other, in the visual arts.

A. Relief and Slope Analysis

A student of geography should have a correct
understanding of the area that he studies. He finds
a lot of information depicted on the topographical
map of the area. Supplementary information may be
gathered by personal investigations in the course of 500-t.:
field w ork. In a study o f land forms before
proceeding for field study, he must be able to classify
land forms after proper analysis of relief and slope.
The contoured maps prepared from accurate
topographical maps are no doubt an indispensible
aid to such investigators, yet their testimony can be
supplemented by other forms evolved by employing
certain methods of relief and slope analysis. There
are numerous methods by which the relief and slope
of an area may be analysed. Some simpler methods
are given below.
P ro files— The easiest method o f showing V 500
various land forms is profile drawing. The area under Y I - t • ;

Fig. 73
MtLES
50 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Study may be imagined as cut into thin slices at features, which w ould otherw ise rem ain
some intervals and a series of profiles along parallel unrecognised. This exaggeration of vertical scale
lines may be drawn for a clear understanding of the should not be too much. The desirable amount of
land forms. Vide Figs. 73 and 74*. The contour exaggeration will, however, depend upon the map
scale and the relative altitudes.
All these profiles, drawn separately, may be
arranged in one column representing a series from
one end of the map to the other. It will be better if
the series is accompanied by a location map. It is
advisable to number each individual line carefully
and to locate them on the accompanying map.
Superimposed Profiles" If all the profiles of
the series of profiles be traced on a single frame,
these are called superimposed profiles, as these
■750T
illustrate superimposition of the profiles one over
the other.
Instead of tracing all the profiles on a single
frame it we go on lowering a bit the base of each
succeeding profile, the drawing will give a block-
diagrammatic impression. Some careful shading
added to it will enable the drawing to represent
approximately the true character of the land forms:
vide Fig. 75.
P ro je c te d P ro file s. It is a careful
superimposition of a series of profiles one over the
other but is slightly different from superimposed
Fig. 74 profiles discussed above. In this case too, all the
profiles of the series are traced on a single frame,
but the portion of each profile which comes below
lines drawn at suitable intervals on topographical
the succeeding one is left untraced (or rubbed ofO-
maps provide the primary requisite for drawing such
Hence, it is better to begin with that end of the
profiles. In certain areas of low relative altitudes,
series where the profile depicts an area of
where the contours are spaced farther apart, spot
comparatively higher absolute relief than that at the
height can guide the trend of profile lines to a other end of the series.
COTsiderable accuracy. A systematic arrangement of
Projected profiles, thus, show only those features
a set of profiles drawn for an area will give a visual which are not obscured by higher intervening forms.
impression of the land fm ns. It gives a panoramic effect, with a fore-ground, a
Serial Profiles. A number of parallel lines middle-ground and distant skyline. Fig. 76.
should be drawn on the map. Care should be taken Composite Profiles. A composite profile shows
that important features do not remain untouched by only the ruggedness of the sky-line. It is constructed
such lines. A series of profiles (one along every to represent the surface as viewed in the horizontal
line) should then be drawn. In profile drawing it plane of the summit-levels from an infinite distance.
will become necessary to exaggerate the vertical scale If from a diagram of superimposed profiles or
in order to give promence to the different relief projected profiles only the uppermost line is traced

*Fig. 74 is based on one inch sheet No. 72 D/1.

 re pr e se n t in g la n d fo r m s a n d geo lo g ica l str u ctu re 51

l ^ i ,^

Fig. 75

Slope Analysis
SUPERIMPOSED
Kece-meal analysis o f the gradient of slope in
a region makes land-form classification easier. But
in any area the gradient o f slope is seldom uniform.
COMPOSITE Its irregularities are apparent from the contour maps.
Hence, it is necessary to calculate the average slope.
T here are several m ethods o f average slope
PROJECTEO determination of which Wentworth's method is a
general and random’ method and is easier to follow.
First, draw an east-west, north-south grid on the
contour-map of the area. Then count all contour
Fig. 76 crossings and determine the average number of
ctmtour crossings per mile. In addition, if an oblique
on a similar frame of the same size, it will represent
p d be drawn on the same map and contour crossings
composite profile of that area.
w again counted and average crossings per mile
For drawing a composite profile a number of
d e t ^ m e d , the final average o f the two averages
closely spaced parallel lines, carefully oriented, will give a better result.
should be drawn on the map. Then the highest
If N be the average number of crossings,
altitude occurring along each line should be plotted
I be the contour interval,
on a line placed at the end o f the map and running
and 0 be the average angle o f slope
at nght angles to the parallel lines. A profile should then,
then be drawn based on altitudes plotted d o n e that
line. tan 0 = :N X I
3,361
 52 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

or 0 = tan -1 N X I scale base map. Isopleths are drawn for each 100 ft.
3,361 of relative relief by joining places of even differences.
Guy Harold Smith (1935) demonstrated the method
In this case 0 gives us the average angle of by a map of the Relative Relief of Ohio. His method
slope for the whole area. As the angle of slope varies is good in maturely dissected plateaus and plains
from one part of the area to another, it is better to with horizontal rock structure; it does not give
determine the average angle of slope in different satisfactory results in g eologically and
parts of the area independently using the same physiographically complex regions.
formula. Raisz and Henry have tried to apply other
methods to avoid defects of Smith’s method. Firstly,
the detailed differences which were lost in Smith’s
SON-PAR 5-minute rectangles were brought out by covering
SLOPE ANALYSIS the state (New England) with a grid of mile squares;
but the map could not be reproduced on a small-
scale map of the whole state. Next, they tried to
SLSiiiiiilliliiiiiiiuij divide the topographical map into irregular areas
corresponding with such physiographic forms as
monadnocks, incised valleys, etc., again the unequal
units did not prove satisfactory. An extensive but
gently sloping plain might show higher relative relief
than a small monadnock. Then, they divided the
large-scale topographical map into small areas within
each of which there were the same number of contour
lines per mile of horizontal distance. Six categories
were selected representing slopes of per mile 50 f t,
DEGREES 100 f t, 200 ft., 300 ft., 400 f t, 500 ft., and above.
A horizontal scale showing standard contour spacings
was drawn; from this the slope categories could be
ascertained by careful inspection. After the six
categories had been recognised on the large-scale
Fig. 77 maps their boundaries were transferred on the small-
scale map and six shadings were inserted. This
method may be tried by using one-inch maps of the
Thus, it is advisable to divide the area into a Survey of India.
number of small squares, to determine the average Raisz (1948) has developed a laborious process
angle of slope for every square and plot the of establishing an exact ‘co-efficient of land slope’.
calculated angles (in degrees) in the respective The map is covered with rectangles, their size being
squares. Then a choropleth map or an isopleth map determined by slope-categories, and again each
may be drawn to depict the variations in the angle rectangle is divided into areas of uniform slopes in
of slope over the different parts of the area; vide the manner indicated above for average slope maps.
P'ig- 77. The area of each category is calculated on the map
S m ith’s R elative R elief M ethod. In this with a planimeter. Then a line proportional in length
method the topographic sheet is divided into to the total area of the rectangle is drawn and along
rectangles of 5 minutes of latitude and longitude. In it are plotted to scale the areas of each category as
each rectangle the differences between lowest and points starting with zero on the left. Further, a series
highest elevations are marked and plotted on a small- of lines is drawn corresponding with angles of slope
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 53

at vertical intervals o f 100 ft., 200' and so on, the

maximum per mile. The area of the plane figure
SON - PAR
A F F gives a co-efficient of slope for the rectangle; - ; n ^ '? " '-V \''> S L O P E ANALYSIS
vide Fig. 78.

500' II
300’
lOO' V '■•'i-

■i ?
r’
• I
: :r I

SO. MILES

Fig. 78. (After Raisz)

t
■■■J Eoch dot
J;} represents
Calculation o f the co-efficient o f slope: This 15'of slope
can be calculated graphically. It is quite obvious
that flat land will have a co-efficient of zero. After
establishing the co-efficient of every rectangle on Fig. 79
the map, each value at the geometrical centre of
each rectangle is plotted and isopleths drawn by curves, and (ii) altimetric frequency curves or
joining the points of the same co-efficient—or by graphs. Wooldridge (1928) tried to show clearly
interpolation method. 200 ft., ‘platform’ or plantation surface in the London
A. H. Robinson (1948) has devised a method Basin by drawing a series of hypsographic curves
by which quantitatively accurate relief map showing using Ordnance Survey half-inch series. Baulig has
slope v ariation can be m ade. A large-scale made frequent use of altimetric curves. Figs 80 and
topographical map should be covered with a net­ 81.
work of squares, each 0.01 sq. mile in area. The
average slope o f each square should be determined
and one dot for each degree or a part o f it be placed;
vide Fig. 79.
The dots need not be placed symmetrically
within each square; their positions are determined
so as to produce some appearance o f continuity.
The size of the dot is carefully selected so that visual
contrasts of light and shade are effected. It is not
necessary to go into details of slope calculation by
elaborate methods; each square may be examined
and by an inspection of the contours average gradient 25% 50%
of the square may be estimated and converted into
degrees of slope.
HUNDRED SO. MILES
For an aid to geomorphological investigations
two of the devices may be noted: (/) hypsographic Fig. 80
 54
e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l g e o g r a p h y

A hypsographic curve indicates the proportion

of the area of the surface at different elevations above ALTIMETRIC FREQUENCY GRAPH
or depths below a given datum in a region. In case
of an island, for instance, the following calculations
need be done: (/) the area enclosed within the 100
foot contour, (ii) the areas enclosed within
successively higher contours, and (Hi) the total area
of the island. Represent the areas in square miles
along a conveniently selected horizontal scale with
S 4
zero on the left Or, the areas enclosed by successive
pairs of contours may be mariced along the horizontal
scale as percentages of the total area of the island.
Make a vertical scale on the left side of the base
line to mark elevations at suitable intervals.
Then plot each area against the respective 250 750 1250 1750 2250 2750
contour interval, and the hypsographic curve will be
HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVELdn Feet)
obtained by joining the various points thus plotted,
vide Fig. 80. Fig. 81
A ltim etric frequency curve involves the
computation of the frequency of occurrence of forms and geological structure is boldly displayed
heights above sea-level and plotting it on graph by this technique. The top of the block presents a
paper. Either spot heights all over the map of an bird’s eye-view of the area and the sides of the
area may be counted, or the map may be covered up block, the underlying structure for practical purposes
with a grid of small squares and the highest point in o f the earth with all its complexities, but they
each square be noted: (i) from an actual spot-height, conform to a perspective view of a small relief
and (ii) by estimating from contours if no spot- model. Very often they illustrate geomorphological
heights fall in a square. Percentage of frequency principles, nor actual landscape.
should be graphed along the vertical scale and the Block diagrams may be grouped in three main
actual elevations, along the horizontal scale. categories:
(0 Sketch Block Diagrams which tend to depict
imaginary land forms being drawn merely by eye or
B. Block Diagrams
with the guidance of a simple geometrical figure.
A block diagram is a technique which may be
Thus, a cone can be used as a basis fw volcanoes,
utilized to show effectively different types of
fans, atolls etc., pyramids for mountain peaks and
landforms and their evolution. This technique was
mesas; sph^x>ids fw cirques, drumlins; cylinders fw
introduced by G. K. Gilbert and was perfected by
fold mountains, glacial valleys and fiords; and
W. M. Davis in the late 19th century. Its chief
prismoidal blocks for ridges, cliffs and escarpments
advantage lies in the fact that it is diagrammatic and (vide Fig. 82).
unlike maps it is three dimensional; thus, it is
(ii) Non-perspective Block diagrams drawn from
possible to lay great emphasis on pertinent features
contour maps: This gives, in general, an appearance
and omit irrelevant and confusing details which may of a relief model viewed obliquely. Debenham calls
obscure the broader asp ect Moreover, a block it 'a pseudoisometric projection of the contoured
diagram often requires li^ e explanation and can be map.’* The relief details can be shown by ’multiple
easily understood. The relationship between surface section’ method; (vide Fig. 82). In the figure profile

•Exerdie* in Canography, London, 1937, p. 78.

 s . I L
^ e t.

M ««nM r

Qx-BimLofc#

lih iffif.

' -y.
MEAMOER«>w>IO RIVER MEAMDCR SPUR CURVED PROFILE
V
& « c ^ € iv r
Obaecment

fU O T ^ p P U M W COASTAL PLAIN
DOME

• J S * 5 o

CANYOM GLACIAL CIRQUE AND LAKE

Crafor

—,rtnw

ROUNDED ELONSATED
MORE HILL HILLS p y r a m id a l p e a k
LCANOES
Fig. 82. In lop row. second drawing, from A to B the bank is visible and under cut. whUe A to C it is invisible.
 56 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

sections have been drawn along every minute of

V
latitude. Various features o f the landscape are shown
by suitable shading using the sections, profiles, ~ T
streams, crest lines etc., as guides. V fI
(Hi) P ersp ective b lo ck d ia g r a m s r The II
perspective method helps in maintaining natural
/I
t 9
appearance of the landscape o f the block. Perspective
« 'k » t / f
effect may be given to a block by simply making
the back of the block narrower than the front and
allowing the sidelines to converge somewhere at
the observer’s horizon; the point pf convergence is
called the vanishing p o in t When only two sides are Fig. 83
made to converge at one point on the horizon, the
block is in o n e-p o in t p e rsp ectiv e. W hen the front of the block faces the observer squarely (central
remaining two parallel sides also converge at another block); (ii) when the observer views from the left
point on the horizon, the block becomes two-point (left-hand block); and (m) when the view is from
perspective. the right (right-hand block). In all cases the sides of
the block as well as all the vertical lines tend to
One-point Perspective converge at the distant vanishing point on the
In one-point perspective several arrangements observer’s horizon, while all the horizontal lines are
of the block are possible, but approximately three parallel to the front of the block (vide Fig. 84 left-
positions may be quoted (vide Fig. 83): (0 when the hand block).

HORIZON

^ /////
• Z / / / / . //

/ C //

Fig. 84

The horizontal scales may be true only along the observer’s view is usually indicated by an arrow.
front edge, or, along the base if the block is inclined The vertical scale decreases away from the observer
towards left or right. So it is not essential to mention (vide Fig. 84). In the figure AB, CD, EF, etc., are
the scale in a block diagram. But the direction of the indicating an elevation of 500 ft., though their length
 itnK ilftlH i

REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 57

is gradually decreasing towards the vanishing view. If it is not possible to show geological structure,
point. the frame will be made solid or it will have vertical
The conversion of a rectangular or square block shadings. The framework gives the block diagram
into a one-point perspective block may b^ easily an appearance of a model.
understood by a reference to Fig. 84 in which ABCD
has been converted into ABC'D'. There is no definite T ranter o f geological cross-section
rule or formula to indicate exactly the angles of The drawing of geological section along the base
inclination of the sides of the block. Only the base or front of the block involves no difficulty; it is
or front of the perspective block corresponds with drawn in an ordinary way as discussed elsewhere.
one horizontal of the square or rectangle. In the case But its drawing along a side must correspond with
of uninclined blocks the vertical sides (AD' and BC') the perspective; so in this case the section should be
may form angles of 80° at the base; in case of inclined first drawn separately and then transferred as shown
blocks A D ' may be at 45° and B C ' at 55°. The in Fig. 85.
length of A D' may be determined by drawing the Trinuning o f the block: The elongated comers
may be eliminated by trimming the block as shown
in Fig. 84. This converts the rectangular or square
block into pentagonal or hexagonal block. If need
be, all the four comers may be eliminated. This
results in a more compact drawing without losing
any material information.
The surface of the block represents the basic
level of the topography and not the lowest contour.
Generally the larger river valleys serve as guide.
Vertical elevations conform to the perspective scale
over different parts of the block. After drawing the
profile sections alongsides the streams are transferred
Fig. 85 on the block with the help of grid squares. Then
outstanding peak points are located and their
diagonal B D ' at an angle of 45° — 50° with AB. elevations shown by vertical lines. Final depiction
Then from the point D the line D ' C ' can be made of the landscape is done with the help of hachures;
parallel to A B. The horizontal lines A B and D ' C ' the hachure lines indicate the direction of slope. For
can be sub-divided proportionately at equal intervals guidance of shading see Fig. 82.
and the corresponding points be joined to complete A laborious but useful procedure to be adopted
the vertical grids. From the points of intersection at by a beginner will be the drawing of the serial
BD the lines parallel to AB can be drawn to complete profiles at suitable intervals on the surface of the
horizontal grids. Thus the complete net-work of the block (Fig. 75). lliese will serve as guidelines for
block is produced for the transfer of objects from completing the shading of the landscape. Inside the
the map to the block.
block letterings should be done in the least. Colours
Then on all sides profile sections should be are generally not used in block diagrams. If the
drawn; such sections may be separately drawn and
colours are to be used water features are shown in
transferred to the sides as shown in Fig. 84: centre.
blue slope lines in brown and cultural features in
Either along the front or along the front and one black or red.
side, the framework may be provided to show
geological structure. The thickness of the framework Two-point Perspective
at the base should be about half an inch, and along
In this case one comer of the block faces the
one side it will be determined by the perspective
observer and the two edges incline away from him.
 58 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

one meeting at the right and the other at the left in upon the horizon and by drawing pairs of lines
the respective vanishing point up the horizon (Fig. radiating from each of the vanishing points a series
86). The two-point perspective block appears to be of blocks obtained. Any one o f these may be
more natural than the one-point perspective block. selected. It may be remarked that only some of those
It is used for more elaborate and large block blocks which are lying in the centre are satisfactory.
diagrams. Here the geological sections can be shown The blocks lying in the upper part have been so
on two edges with equal clarity. much fore-shortened that their surface has become
The simplest method of construction is to select too small for general use; the blocks near the
a small block in a manner shown in Fig. 86 and observer have assumed unnatural appearance; those
enlarge it proportionately to the size of the map. lying far to the left or right provide only one side
The two vanishing points are selected in a plane for suitable representation of geological section.

Fig. 86

The conversion of the map into block diagram lithology and structure of the imderlying rocks which,
may be done in the same way as in the case of one- in turn, help in the study of the evolution of
point perspective. Fig. 87 shows the topographic landfcxrns in a particular area. It is not possible to
features of the Yamuna Valley in the Siwaliks and discuss here in detail the methods involved in its
particularly three terraces on the left flank may be interpretation. Samples of idealised geological maps
noted. A generalised picture of evolution of these can be easily handled by geography students.
terraces has been shown by a series of block Geological structures are, no doubt, understood in a
diagrams in two-point perspective (Fig. 88). much better way from geological sections than from
maps; and these sections can be added to the edges
C. Geological Maps of topogr^hical profiles and block diagrams so as
to produce a ‘life-like picture’ of the landscape.
The value of geological maps for students of
In the beginning it is essential to be acquainted
geography need be hardly exaggerated. A geological
with some salient features of geological maps and
map shows the geographical distribution of different
also with geological terms like bedding planes, dip,
rock formations or strata at the ground surface. Its
strike etc. The geological formations are shown by
interpretation leads to an understanding of the
conventional tints or colours, or in black and white
 'REHIESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 59

Fig. 87

by their symbols; thickness and age-sequence are Dip

shown in columns, the oldest formation occupying As menticHied above a bedding plane is generally
the bottom and the youngest, the top; and the inclined in a certain direction. This inclination is
d isco n tin u ities o f the colum n m ark the known as the (Up of the bedding plane. A line drawn
unconformities. on the bedding plane in the direction of maximum
inclination marks the direction of maximum dip of
Bedding Plane the plane. The amount o f the true dip is the angle
The sedim entary rocks are deposited which the bedding plane makes with the horizontal
horizontally in layers or beds, one above the other. in the direction of true dip. The dip measured in a
The surface of sq>aration between two adjoining direction other than that of true dip is known as
beds is known as a bedding plane; and for all apparent dip, and the amount of ^ p a re n t dip will
practical purposes it is treated as a geometrical plane. always be less than the true dip. True dip has both
A bed is thus bounded by two bedding planes, the a direction and inclination. The term ‘dip’ if not
upper one separating it from the younger or overlying specified otherwise always refers to 'true dip'.
bed and the lower one, from the older or underlying On a geological map, direction o f true dip is
bed. The bedding planes may subsequently lose their shown by an arrow and the amount is written
horizontality by tilting or folding due to earth alongside, > 25“; the point marks where the dip was
movements. measured. Horizontal beds are conventionally shown
 60 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

'k.

Fig. 88

by the sign +; and vertical bedding by — ; the longer parallel and equidistant if the vertical interval
line marks the direction of the strike. between the strike lines is the same.

Strike Determination o f dip

A line drawn on a bedding plane at right angles If a beriding plane is cut by the same contour at
to the direction of true dip is known as the strike two points or more, then the line joining these points
line, that is, it is the line of intersection of an inclined is a strike line and the value of the suike line is that
bedding plane by a horizontal plane. Infmite number o f the contour line. Another point may be found out
o f strike lines can be drawn on a bedding plane, all where the same bedding plane is cut by another
parallel to each other. A strike line on a bedding contour. A line drawn through this point parallel to
plane is analogous to the contour lines of the ground the former strike line is a strike line of the value of
surface, so it is also known as stratum contour. For the second contour. Similarly, othCT strike lines can
the same bedding plane strike lines are straight. be drawn as all strike lines (having the same vertical
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 61

interval) are parallel and equidistant The direction upper and lower bedding planes respectively. The
of dip can be found out by drawing a line at right contour line of 500' cuts the upper bedding plane at
angles to any strike line towards strike lines of lower B, C, D, so line B C D is a strike line of the value
value. The direction of the dip can be found out in of 500'. The contour of 600' cuts the upper bedding
degrees with relation to the north-south line. plane at A. So a line drawn parallel to B C D from
The am ount is found out by taking into A is a strike line of the value o f 600'.
consideration the perpendicular distance between two XY is at right angles to the direction of the
strike lines and their vertical interval. strike line, so it marks the direction of true dip, that
tangent of dip = vertical interval is, S, 42° E, (42° east of south) with relation to the
horizontal equivalent north-south line.
Here XY is the horizontal equivalent between
dip (in d eg rees)= tan two strike lines and the difference in the value of
H .E.
the two strike lines is the vertical interval. So XY
So a dip may be expressed in degrees and if the is equal to 600 f t, according to the scale of the
num erator is made unity, then it becom es the map.
gradient. So dip can be expressed in degrees or
gradients. True Hip^ vertical interval - 1 0 0 - 1_
horizontal equivalent 600 6
In Fig. 89, A B C D and A ' B ' C ' D ' are the

.600'

■800

-P
TOO'

- » I 30 » /
^0 FEET 1C

Fig. 89

Likewise, apparent dip can also be found out by Apparent dip can also be found out by this method,
measuring the horizontal equivalent in the direction taking the base equal to the horizontal equivalent in
of apparent dip and the rest as above. the direction of apparent dip.
Dip is also found out by constructing a right-
angled triangle in which the base is equal to the Outcrop
horizontal eq u iv alen t (xy = XY) and the Exposed surface of a rock stratum on the ground
perpendicular equal to the vertical interval (xz) drawn is known as an outcrop. The outcrop of a bedding
to the scale of the map. Then, angle xyz is the angle plane is the line of intersection of the bedding plane
of true dip and can be measured by a protractor. with the ground.
62 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

.* 600' .....................

.* •5 0 0 ^.......... ; *'800'''"

...* 4 0 0 i... \ A'< p'

^97614 ..60C ^"

^................,- 5 0 0 - — >
0 FEET 1000
1 I I

Fig. 90

Completion o f an outcrop on a map of the lower bedding plane. In Fig. 89, for instance,
Sometimes in a geological map for class work the 500 ft. strike line (BD) for the upper bedding
the contour lines are shown and at places portions plane coincides with the 400' strike line for the lower.
of the bedding are shown, then the problem is to Thus the same strike line has two different values
complete the outcrop {Fig. 90). First, one should and this difference (i.e., 100') is the vertical thickness
find out two points where the same COTtour line of the bed.
cuts the same bedding plane. By joining these points,
a strike line can be drawn, as line GH is Fig. 89. Unconformity
Then another point has to be found out where another A series o f beds laid down in a period of
contour of a higher or lower value than the previous continuous sedimentation forms a conformable series
one cuts the same bedding plane. In Fig. 90, at as there is no break or interruption in the deposition
point N, 500' contdUr line cuts the bedding plane, so o f the d ifferen t beds. T he nex t p erio d of
line A B ' C ' D ' is another strike line {Fig. 90). By
sedim entation may com m ence after a lapse of
finding out two strkie lines, other strike lines can be
geological time during which denudation and not
drawn. Now, each point where a contour line is cut
d eposition had been pred o m in an t. A second
by a strike line of the same value can be marked.
ccMiformable series o f beds may be laid down during
By joining these points by a smooth line the outcrop
the succeeding period o f sedim entation on the
can be completed. The outcrop line must pass right
denuded surface of the first series. The surface
through the point of intersection into the opposite
angle. Fig. 89 is the completed form of Fig. 90. separating the two conformable series is known as
Likew ise, the other bedding plane can also be the plane o f unconformity {Fig. 91). The surface,
completed. It should always be borne in mind that having been exposed to the agents o f sub-aerial
the line should not cross a strike or contour line denudation, is usually uneven and is, therefore,
unless the point of intersection is reached. represented on a geological section by a crenulated
line. This plane forms the base of the lowest bed of
Vertical thickness o f a bed the upper series to whose dip and strike it will
The vertical thickness of a bed can be deter­ COTrespond.
mined from a given geological map by comparing The plane o f unconform ity can be easily
the strike lines for its upper bedding plane with those detected on a m ^ since it truncates or cuts across
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 63

all the outcrops o f the bedding planes older than when, proceeding away from an axis o f folding,
itself. For example, if Fig. 93, the base o f the lowest outcrops of successively older beds are met; and the
bed of the upper series, that is, sandstone, cuts across structure is anticlinal when the reverse is the case,
the outcrops of the beds of the lower series. that is outcrops of successively younger beds are
m et In a folded area, the valleys are often carved
Overlap out in the anticlines and hills or ridges are formed
When an eroded land surface is submerged out of the synclines. This feature o f anticlinal valleys
under the sea sedimentation begins to take place. If and synclinal hills is called inversion o f relief (Fig.
the submerged surface is a valley then the upper 94).
beds will extend to a greater extent than the lower
ones or overlap them. The relation between the Faults
differen t successive beds o f an overlap is a A rock series may be broken or fractured due
conformable one. to the stresses set up in the earth’s crust by the
tectonic forces. When a fracture is accompanied by
Drift deposits dislocation or relative movement of strata on either
Any deposit on the soild rock which has been side, the rocks are said to be faulted, and the fractuio
tr^sported, e.g., boulder clay (by ice), loess (by is called difault. The surface of this fault is fau lt
wind) etc., is called drift deposit. They bear an plane. A fault plane, like a bedding plane, has both
unconformable relation with the soild rock. a direction and amount of inclination. The term hade
is used to express the angle which the fault plane
Folds makes with the vertical (this is just to differentiate
Rock strata may be bent or folded into a series the inclination of a fault plane from that of a bedding
of troughs or downfolds and arches or upfolds due plane). The side of a fault plane on which the strata
to horizontal compressional forces. The imaginary are displaced downwards, relatively to those on the
surface about which folding occurs is called the axial other side, is the downthrow side, whereas the other
plane of the fold. For instance, lines KL and MN is the upthrow side. The downthrow side is indicated
on a geological map by a small line at right angles
in Fig. 94 are the outcrops of the imaginary axial
to the fault line and exten d in g tow ards the
plane. This plane cuts each bed at the point where
downthrow side. The outcrop of the fault plane itself
the direction of dip in that bed is reversed. The line
is m arked by a heavy line. The am ount o f
along which this change occurs for a particular
displacem ent o f the dissevered ends o f a bed,
bedding plane is the axis o f folding for that plane.
measured vertically, is the throw o f the fault, and
In other words, it is the line o f intersection of the
the horizontal displacement is the heave of the fault.
axial plane with the bedding plane o f a particular
In Fig. 91 MNOP—^Fault Plane; Y— downthrow
bed; the beds on either side of the axial plane form
side; X— upthrow side; and bac— angle of hade; ba__
the limbs o f the fold. A fold in which the limbs dip
vertical throw; be— heave; and acb—dip o f the
towards the axial plane is a syncline, and one in fault
which they dip away from the plane is an anticline.
Faults may be classified as norm al and
A fold is said to be symmetrical when the two
reversed, accwding as the displacement o f strata
limbs have the same am ount o f dip; and it is
has occurred in a downward or an upward direction.
asymmetrical when the dips are unequ^ in am ount
A normal fault is one in which the fault is vertical
The axial plane is vertical in the former and inclined
(Fig. 95) or it hades or inclines tow ards the
in the latter.
downthrow side (Fig. 96), whereas a reversed fault
Folding is detected on the map by the repetition
hades towards the upthrow side. Faults may also be
of beds, with opposed dips on either side o f the axis
classified according to the relation between the
of folding. Further, a synclinal structure is indicated
direction of the outcrop o f the fault plane and the
64 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAKIY

Fig. 91. Note the Plane of Unconformity.

l.Marl, 2. Grit, 3. Conglomerate, 4. Sandstone, 5. Mudstone, 6. Qay, 7. Limestone.

ACB-: T h td lfio f iht.

Fig. 92. MNOP—Fault Plane; ACB—EHp of the fault; BAG—Hade; BA—Vertical throw;
BC—Heaves; X—Up throw Block; Y—Down throw Block.

dip and strike of the strata. A dip fault is one which A fault is easily detected on a map from the
runs in the direction of the dip of the strata whereas displacement o f the outcrops o f the beds on either
a strike fa u lt runs in the direction of strike. An side o f the fault. Further, the downthrow side can be
oblique fa u lt is one in which the outcrop of the fault found out by applying the general rule that, at any
plane conforms neither to the dip nor to the strike point along the outcrop o f a fault plane, the younger
direction of the strata. For instance, in Fig. 95 Fj Fj bed outcrops on the downthrow side. The throw of
is a dip fault for the upper series and an oblique a fault can be measured from 'a map by comparing
fault for the lower series. the strike lines of a bedding plane on one side of the
 \

r e pr e se n t in g l a n d fo rm s an d ge o lo g ic a l str u ctu re
65
fault with the strike lines of the same plane on the
the geological history o f the area as also the
other side. The difference between the two values of
relationship between the structure and topography.
the same strike line gives the throw of the fault

Outliers and Inliers To draw a geological section—Hints

1. Draw the profile by projecting the points
A geological map often shows the outcrop o f a
where the contours cut the line of section to their
bed to be completely enclosed or surrounded by
correspionding altitudes and Join these points by a
another outcrop. An outlier is formed when the
smooth line.
younger rocks are surrounded by older rocks and
2. Mark on a strip o f paper the points of
inlier is formed when reverse is the case, that is
intersection of the different bedding planes with the
when older rocks are surrounded by the younger
line o f section. Transfer these points on to the base
rocks. The former structure is generally developed
of the section which generally represents the sea-
on a hill form ed by denudation in an area o f
level and project these points on the profile.
horizontal rocks or by the denudation o f a syncline.
3. Find out the apparent dip of the beds and
The latter is formed in a hollow or depression carved
describe angles on the base in the direction in which
out by denudauon in an area of horizontal rocks or
they are dipping. From the points projected on the
by the denudation of an anticline. An outlier and an
profile draw lines parallel to the corresponding dip
inlier may also be developed by trough and ridge
lines on the base; for instance, KR in Fig. 93
faultmg respectively. In Fig. 96, sandstone is an
represents the dip line on the base and the different
inlier and clay forms an outlier being surrounded bv
conglomerate. bedding planes of the lower series are drawn parallel
to i t
Study of Geological M aps 4. A bedding plane can also be drawn by
projecting the points where the strike lines for the
The study of a geological map involves the
plane cut the line of section, and then joining the
drawing of geological section along a suitable line
points projected by a straight line. The other bedding
on the given map so as to bring out the structural
planes can similarly be drawn. This is called the
features clearly. Then an attempt is made to interpret
strike line method.

OFEET 1900

riOOO

Fig. 93
 N

66 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

5. The horizontal and vertical scales of the under marine conditions in the order: Conglomerate
section need be the same so that the section is a to grit. . ,
natural one. 2. Uplift and tilting followed by sub-aenai
denudation.
M ap 1 (Fig. 93) 3. Submergence and deposition of the beds ot
The geological section has been drawn along the upper series in the order: sandstone to limestone.
XY, following the hints given above. The bedding 4. Uplift and tilting followed by sub aerial
planes are drawn in the following order : the plane denudation and the development of the present relief.
of unconformity, bedding planes of the upper series
and of the lower series. M ap 2 (Fig. 94)
The geological section has been drawn along
The Geological Description the northern edge of the map. Due to folding, the
(a) Succession Vertical thickness dip of any one bedding plane will very from one
Upper Series Limestone > 3(X)' (Newest bed) limb of the fold to the next The dip should, herefore,
(Carboniferous) Sandstone 100'
be determined for each limb of a fold.
Grit > 200’

Shale 400'
The Geological Description:
Lower Series (a) Succession Vertical thickness
(Cambrian) Mudstone 600'
Grit > .300 ft. (Newest bed)
Conglomerate > 200'

(Oldest bed) Sandstone 3(X) ft.

Mudstone 2(X) f t
(b) Structure: Shale > 6(X) ft. (Oldest bed)
1. The beds of the upper series dip at 3°, S
70° W. (b) Structure: The beds are folded into a
2. The beds of the lower series dip at 11.5°, E. symmetrical anticline in the west and a symmetrical
(c) Relation o f Rock groins: The beds of the syncline in the east of the area. The trend of the
Upper or Carboniferous series rest unconformably folds is N. 23° E., that is in the direction o f the
upon the beds of the Lower or Cambrian series, the strike. The dips of the beds, reading from E. to W.,
plane of unconformity conforming to the dip of the are : 14°, S. 67° E., 14”, N. 67° W., and 14°, S. 67°
Upper series. E. The age of folding is post-griL

(d) Topography and its relation to structure: ( c ) Relation o f rock groups: The beds are

The highest land occurs in the north of the map conformable.

corresponding with the outcrop of limestone. The (d ) Topography and its relation to structures:
main stream flowing north-east of south-west has The main river occupies a strike or longitudinal
cut through the upper series and is superimposed valley hemmed in on either side by high ground.
on the lower series. Its gradient conforms to the dip Both of its tributaries, as well as the north-westemly
direction of the upper series but it is steeper than flowing river in the north-western part of the map,
the dip slope. As a result of this, the Vs’ of the are all opposed to the dip direction of the respective
outcrops correspond with those of the contours. limbs of the the folds over which they flow. A col
The north-south flowing tributary stream is also or saddle is formed on the western high ground as
superimposed. The gradient of the tributary valley the north-easterly river and the upper left hand
is relatively steeper. tributary of the main river flow down from here in
opposite directions. The relief shows lithological
(e) Geological history
control as high ground is formed in the resistant grit
1. The deposition of the beds of the lower series
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 67

WOOFEET

V FEET
21200
-800
-400

Fig. 94. A—Shale; B—Mudstone; C—Sandstone; I>—Grit.

and sandstone whereas the main valley has been

denudation and the development of the present relief
carved out in the .weak shale rock. The area also
features.
shows inversion of relief with an anticlinal valley
carved out by the main river and synclinal high
Map 3 (Fig. 95)
ground oh| its east.
The trend of outcrops of the bedding planes in The geological section has been drawn along
the valleys of the tributaries and the north-westerly XY. The following procedure may be followed in
drawing the section :
stream may be noted. As the beds dip in a direction
opposed to the slope of the valleys, the apices of the 1. Draw the surface profile.
V-shaped outcrc^s point upstream. As compared to 2. Draw the vertical fault F, F^. As it affects
Map 1. the trend of the Vs is the same but the both the upper and lower series, it is to be drawn
relations between the dip and valley slope are before any beds of these series.
different 3. Draw the plane of unconformity.

(e) Geological history 4. Draw the beds of the upper series.

1. The deposiUon of the beds under marine 5. Draw the beds of the lower series. As none
conditions in the order ; shale to grit. of the bedding planes of the lower series outcrop on
2. Uplift and folding, followed by sub-aerial the line o f section, the strike line method is to be
followed in depicting the planes on the section.

.X .
68 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

FEET 1000 FEET

r l2 0 0
L0OO
-4 0 0

Fig. 95. C—Upper UmestxMie; B—Sandstone; C—Lower Limestone;

G—Mudstone; F—^hale; E—Grit; D—Conglomerate.

The Geological Description 2. The beds of the lower series dip at 11.5°, N.
ia) Succession Vertical thickness 63° W.
3. Faulting: The fault Fj Fj affects the rocks of
Upper >100 f t (Newest bed) both the SCTies. It is a normal vertical fault trending
Upper Limestone N. 35° W. The throw or vertical displacement is 100
Series Sandstone 100 ft. f t , down on the N.E. side. The age o f faulting is
(Carboni- Lower 200 ft. post-upper limestone. The fault is parallel to the dip
fCTOUS) Limestone of the upper series and seems to have developed by
the same movement which caused the uplift and
tilting of that series.
Mudstone > 200 ft.
Shale 100 ft. (c) Relation o f Rock groups: The beds of the
Lower
Grit .200 ft. . upper series rest unconformably upon the beds of
Series
Conglo­ > 400 ft. (Oldest bed) the lower series. The plane of unconformity conforms
(Silurian)
merate to the dip and strike of the upper series.
(d) Topography and its relation to structure:
(b) Structure The main river crosses the area from N. W. to S. E.
1. The beds of the upper series dip at 6°, N.and is almost coincident with the fault to which it
26* W.
 r e pr e se n t in g l a n d fo r m s a n d g e o lo g ic a l str u c tu r e
69
ow es its developm ent. The main river and its
aerial denudation and the development of the jH-esent
tnbutary are superimposed on the lower series. The relief features.
mam nver flows in direction opposed to the dip of
the u p ^ r series whereas the tributary follows the Map 4 {Fig. 96)
strike direction in the portion of its course in the
The geological section has been drawn along
upper series. The Vs of the outcrops coirespond XY.
with those of the contours in the main valley as the
(a) Succession Vertical thickness
dip is opposed to the slope o f the valley floor.
Clay > 300 ft
(e) Geological history: Conglomerate 200 fL
1. The deposition of the beds o f the lower series Limestone 200 f t
under m anne condiUons in the order : conglomerate Mudstone 75 ft
to mudstone. Sandstone > 100 ft
2. U plift and tilting, followed by sub-aerial
denudation. {b) Structure: The rocks have been intensely
folded, resulting in overfolding. The axial plane of
3. Submergence and deposition of the beds of
the fold has thus been greaUy inclined from the
the upper series under marine conditions in the order-
vertical to cause inversion of strata. Further, the dip
lower limestone, sandstone, and upper limestone.
of the beds is all in the same direction, that is,
4. Uplift, tilting and faulting, followed by sub­ due E.

'°9 o

Fig. 96. 2 -M u d s ,3 -L in ,e s.o ™ = ; 6-Co„glon,u„„, 5 - a , y .

\
 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
70

(c) R ela tio n o f ro ck groups: T hey are a erosion and Ihe development of the present surface
conformable series. features.

(d) Topography and its relation to structure: Map 5 (Fig. 97) r n

The foUowing procedure may be followed
The highest land above 700' in the S.W. is formed
by limestone, conglomerate and clay. A river flows drawing the section along XY .
in the centre of the map from west to east. In the 1. Draw the surface profile.
2. Draw the plane o f unconformity between me
centre of the area it is joined by two tributaries from
upper and lower series (on the south o f the fault),
N. W. and S. W. The river has exposed the older
and that between the middle and the lower series
beds like sandstone, mudstone and.limestone, giving
(on the north o f the fault). In the former case the
rise to an inlier. The denudation of the high ground
pro tectiv e cover o f conglom erate has been
in the west central part of the map has given rise to
completely worn away to expose the lower series to
a knoll which also represents an outlier as a structural
sub-aerial denudation, whereas, in the iatter case, a
feauire.
thin conglomerate layer still exists above the lower
series. The result is that a new plane o f un-
(e) Geological history
comformity has developed above the lower series
1. T he beds w ere form ed under m arine
south of the fault but the original plane exists on the
conditions in the following order—sandstone to clay.
north of the fault. In certain cases, the presence of
2. Uplift, tilting, folding, followed by sub-aerial

FEET
1000

Fig. 97 (a)

P ig 9 7 , 1 — Sandstone; 2— Limestone; 3— M udstone; 4 Conglom erate, 5 Cl y.

 H ..

REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 71

an intermediate bed in one part of the map and its and 11.5°, S. 10° E. The age o f folding is post­
absence from the other part may indicate non­ mudstone and proconglomerate.
deposition in the latter. This frequently h ^ p e n s in 4. Faulting. The fault F F runs almost through
the case o f a bed like conglomerate. the middle of the area in an east-west direction. It
3. Draw the beds o f the upper series and the has affected both the middle and the lower series. It
bed of the middle series.
is a normal fault with a hade o f 45°, S 60° E. The
4. Draw the fault FF. The fault affects both the trend o f the fault is N 85° E., that is, parallel to the
middle and the lower series, but this is apparent strike o f the middle series. The throw o f the fault is
from the section only in the case o f the latter. The 100 f t down on the southern side. The age of faulting
outcrt^ of the fault plane on the m ^ is a curved is post-conglomerate and pre-clay.
line indicating that it cannot be a vertical fau lt The
inclination of the fault plane with the horizontal can (c) Relation o f Rock groups: The upper series
be found out by drawing strike lines for the plane, rests unconformably upon the middle series and the
as in the case of a bedding plane. latter, in turn, rests unconformably upon the lower
5. Draw the folded beds of the lower series. series. The upper and lower unconformities are
respectively parallel to the upper and middle series.
Fig. 98 {a) and { b ): Showing the topographical
expression of the area depicted on Fig. 97. Outcrops (d) Topography and its relation to structure:
Two narrow valleys cross the area from south to
of sandstone, conglomerate and shale are shown on
north separated by a ridge in the middle, and a
the topography through the symbols used on the
tributary valley is found in the N. E. comer of the
geological map. The topography does not show any
map. The directions o f the main valleys are
direct correlation with geological structure mainly
aj^roxim ately transverse to the fault and to the axis
owing to the superimposition of the drainage of the
of folds. The western valley is confined only in the
area. Thus the present streams are transverse to the
lower series and the eastern valley cuts across all
fault line and the axis of folding.
the formations (except conglomerate which has been
displaced due to faulting).
The Geological Description : The eastern river is superimposed on the lower
{a) Succession Vertical thickness series, while its tributary in the N. E. part of the
Shale > 100 ft. map, although superimposed on the lower series, is
Upper series approximately following the strike o f the syncline.
L c la y 100 ft. Neither the lithological differences nor the fault seem
Middle series to affect the topography.
Conglomerate > 200 ft.
Mudstone > 200 ft. {e) Geological history
Lower series Limestone 200 ft. 1. Formation of the lower series under marine
_ Sandstone > 100 ft. conditions in the following order : sandstone to
mudstone.
(Jb) Structure: 2. Uplift and folding followed by sub-aerial
erosion.
1. The beds of the uppier series dip at 3°
S. 34° E. 3. Submergence and deposition of the middle
series under marine conditions.
2. The bed of the middle series dips at 5°, N.
4. Uplift, tilUng and faulting, followed by sub­
3. Folding. The lower series is folded into a
aerial erosion.
sym m etrical syncline in the northern part and
5. Submergence and deposition of the upper
symmetrical anticline in the southern part o f the
series in the following order : clay to shale.
map. The trend of the folds is N. 80° E., that is, in
6. Uplift and tilting followed by sub-aerial
the direction of the strike. The dips of the beds from
erosion and the development of the present surface
south to north are : 11.5°, S. 10° E; 18.5°, N 10° W; features.
72 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

{000 -

Fig. 98 (a) & (b)

Representation of igneous activity on geological shown as passing downwards to the bottom of the
maps section. A sill, on the other hand, is usually injected
Igneous rocks are often found occurring with along the planes of sU'atification or bedding planes,
the sedimentary or stratified rocks. The igneous rocks and in a section it tends to follow the bedding planes.
may be g ro u p ^ into extrusive and intrusive rocks. As regards their age, intrusive rocks are younger
The former, for example, lave flows, tuffs, and than the youngest rocks into which they are intruded,
agglomerates are formed on the earth’s surface and but older than the oldest beds they fail to intrude. A
are often found interbedded with the stratified rocks. dyke and a sill are shown to occur in Fig. 99.
Their structure can, therefore, the studied from the
geological maps by the methods employed earlier Map 6 (Fig. 99)
for the study of the stratified rocks. As regards the The geological section has been drawn along
age of the extrusive rocks, they are younger than XY on the map. The following method may be
the youngest beds they overlie and older than the followed in drawing the section:
oldest beds that overlie them. 1. Draw the surface profile.
The instrusive rocks occur in a variety of forms 2. Draw the plane of unconformity and the beds
determined by the conditions of intrusion. Unlike of the upper series. The dolerite sill, interbedded in
the extrusive rocks, they often cut across the stratified this series, is to be drawn like any other bed of the
rocks, for exam ple, dykes, stocks, bosses and series.
volcanic necks or pipes, and in a section they are 3. Draw the dolerite dyke and the beds of the
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 73

r-400-

OFEET 1000
_J

ICOO

900
400

M -Limestone; L-
Fig. 99. M—Limestone; -Mudstone; K—Sandstone; C—Shale; B—Grit;
L—Mudstone;
A—Conglomerate; D—Dolerite.

lower series. As the outcrop o f the dyke is not

'S h ale .. > 400 f t
affected by relief, it is a vertical body and is to be Lower series Grit .. 200 f t
similarly shown on the section. The dyke affects (Silurian)
only the low er series as it is truncated by the
_C onglom erate > 300 fL
unconformity.
(Oldest bed)
{b) Structure :
The Geological Description
1. The beds of the upper series dip 17.5°, N. 76°
(a) Seccession Vertical thickness W.
Limestone > 300 ft. 2. The beds of the lower series dip at 12 5° S
78° E. K • . .
(Newest bed)
Upper series Mudstone 175 fL 3. Igneous rocks. There are two intrusions in
(Jurassic) the area.
_ Sandstone 175 fL A non-transgressive sill of dolerite, 25 feet thick,
has intruded between sandstone and mudstone, and
74 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

has the same direction and am ount o f dip as the landftxm s evolved as, in the words o f W . M. Davis:
beds of the upper series. The age o f the intrusion is ‘landscape is a function o f structure, process, and
post-limestone. stage.' The term ‘structure’ signifies the disposition
A dolerite dyke has intruded into the lowg" series or attitude o f rocks. In a broader sense it also includes
only and is 50 feet thick. Its age o f intrusion is post­ the rock or lithological characters, that is, hardness,
shale and pre-sandstone. permeability, solubility, grain size, cohesion, and
the spacing o f fracture systems such as joints. The
(c) Relation o f Rock groups: The beds o f the
structure largely controls the general pattern o f relief,
upper or Jurassic series rest unconformably upon
while the lithological characters influence the relief
the beds of the lower or Silurian series, the plane of
in detail. These characters also determine the degree
unconformity corresponding with the dip and strike
of resistance offered by a rock to weathering and
of the upper series.
erosion. In fact, the influence of rock attitude will
{d) Topography and its relation to structure: A hardly be reflected in relief if the different rocks
river flowing N. W. to S. E. has superimposed itself outcropping in an area exhibit an equal degree of
on the lower series. It is an anti-dip stream for the resistance to w eathering and erosion. Thus, the
upper series in which it originated, and follows the reflection o f structure in topography is largely
dip direction of the lower series. The Vs of the dependent on the presence of a series o f weak and
outcrops of the beds o f the upper series bend in the sUong or resistant rocks so that, by differential
direction of the contours while crossing the river erosion, the former are etched out, leaving the latter
but those of the lower series show a reversed trend prom inently in relief. The relief will be wholly
since, in the former case, the dip direction is opposed independent o f structure if the rocks in an area are
to the slope of the valley-flcior whereas it is in the either all highly resistant or are all weak to the same
same direction but greater than the slope o f the degree. Further, the structure of the underlying rocks
valley-floor in the latter case. Neither they dyke nor may not be expressed in the surface relief even
the sill affect the topography since the dolerite rock, though they m ay p o ssess v ary in g d eg rees o f
out of which they are composed, exhibits the same resistance to erosion; for instance, if the rocks are
degree of resistance to weathering and erosion as protected by a thick cover o f alluvial or other
the surrounding stratified rocks. superficial deposits. However, if the sam e rock
(e) Geological history: o u tcro p s o v e r a c o n sid e ra b le a re a, c erta in
1. The deposition o f the beds of the lower series characteristic features of scenery may be evolved
under marine conditions in the order : conglomerate due mainly to the lithological variations in that rock,
10 shale. for instance, in each o f the rocks like shale and
2. Uplift, tilting, and intrusion of dolerite dyke, clay, sandstone, limestone, granite, basalt, and gneiss.
followed by sub-aerial denudation. The nature of the relief features carved out will,
3. Subsidence and deposition of the beds of the of course, depend upon the sculpturing agency of
upper series under marine conditions in the order : ‘process’ in operation in an area, and also on the
sandstone to limistone. ‘stage’ or time elapsed since the process became
4. Uplift, tilting and intrusion of dolerite sill, effective in the area. As an example of the influence
follow ed by su b -a e ria l d en u d atio n and the of process, a wave-cut platform hardly exhibits the
development of the present relief. influence o f rock attitude or lithological differences
but, under the fluvial cycle o f erosion, the same
area may give rise to a drainage system well adjusted
D. Correlation of Topography with or adapted to structure. As regards ‘stag e,’ the
Structure differences in rock hardness will be most strikingly
The structure of the underlying rocks is an brought out in late youth and early or middle maturity
important factor in determining the nature of the when the sculpturing capacity o f the erosional

X
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 75

process is at a m axim um . Some o f the m ore two being resistant in arid but weak in humid
important aspects in the coneiation of topography climates on account of their solubility in carbonated
with structure shall now be consid^ed. waters. Lim estone may, however, present bold
physiographic features even in humid climates on
Rock resistance to weathering and erosion account of the fact that it often exhibits a well
In an area with rocks o f varying resistance to d eveloped jo in tin g system w hich renders it
weathering and erosion, differential erosion may permeable. Shale and clay belong to the weaker
result in the mcHe resistant rocks giving rise to higher group of rocks and give rise to lowlands and gentle
ground and the less resistant ones to lowlands. slopes.
However, nock resistance is not an absolute property
but it changes with the lithological variations in the Form of rock outcrops
sam e ro ck and also under d iffe re n t clim atic The effect of topography and structure on the
conditions and erosional processes. It is, therefwe, form or trend and position of the outcrop of a bed
difficult to fix universal rules o f relative competence may be shown with the help of Fig. 100 wherein a
of rocks with respect to their resistance to weathering bed with varying dips outcrops on a hill. It is evident
and erosion. It is, however, a fact o f common from this figure that in the case of a horizontal bed
observation that the rock quartzite, due to its very (A) the outcrop follows the contour lines. Further,
high resistance, stands up prominently in relief in the case of a vertical bed (D) the outcrop is
forming ridges or knolls. The other highly resistant rectilinear or straight (the projection of the outcrop
rocks are gneiss, granite, basalt, and well cemented o f a vertical bedding plane on to the horizontal plane
sandstone and conglomerate. Slate, limestone, and of the map will appear as a straight line). The trend
chalk are generally moderately resistant, the latter of the outcrop in this case is not influenced by
topography. Finally, in the case of tilted bed (B and
C), the outcrop line makes a concave bend in the
dip direction. In fact, the dip of a bed can be roughly
inferred from its outcrop and vice versa.
The relationship betw een topography and
structure is once again brought out from Fig. 101 in
which a bed with varying dips, outcrops in a river
valley. In such a case, the outcrop line will generally
take a V-shaped form, and the following cases
represent the d ifferen t com binations between
structure and topography met with in the field. It
has been assumed for simplicity that the slope of the
valley-floor is uniform and the strike of the bed is
more of less at right angles to the valley.
1. In horizontal rocks (case A) the outcrop of a
bedding plane follows the contours, and will thus
be V-shaped with the apex pointing upstream. In all
. 100'* COO other cases, mentioned below, the outcrop will run
across the contours.
000'
2. If a bed dips upstream (case B) the apex of
its V-shaped outcrop points upstream.
3. If a bed dips downstream at a steeper angle
Fig. 100
than the slope of the valley-floor (case C) the apex
of the V-shaped outcrop points downstream.
 76 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

4. If a bed dips downstream but at a gentler amount of dip of the bed on the one hand and the
angle than the slope of the valley-floor (case D), the direction and amount of slope of the valley-floor wi
apex of its V-shaped outcrop points upstream. It the other.
may be observed here that in both the cases C and
D, although the dip is downstream, the apex of the Width of rock outcrops
V of the outcrop points downstream, that is, in the The width of the outcrop of a bed does not
dip directi(Mi, in the former, whereas, in the latter, it remain constant but varies from place to place over
points upstream, that is, opposite to the dip direction. the map. The variation may, firstly, be due to the
5. If a bed dips downstream at the same angle variations in the thickness of a bed— the width
as the slope of the valley-floor (casd E), its outcrop varying directly with the thickness. The other
will run along either side of the valley and will be controlling factor is the relation between the dip of
parallel to the valley-floor. the bed and the ground slope— the width o f an
outcrq) increasing as the dip of a bed ^p ro ach es
the slope of the ground.

Structure and drainage

A feature of common occurrence on a geological
map is a system of one or more streams. According
to the genetic classification, largely due to Davis,
the streams are designated as consequent, subsequent,
obsequent, resequent, and insequent to show their
relationship with the history o f landform
development in that area. This classification is,
however, of a limited use as it implies a knowledge
of the denudation chronology of the area which is
rarely known with a sufficient degree of certainty.
Instead, it is safer to use a descriptive stream
terminology specifying relationships between streams
and structures, for instance, longitudinal and
transverse valleys, depending o t the fact that the
Fig. 101
valley runs parallel to or cuts across the structure or
grain of the country. These streams may also be
6. If a bed is vertical (case F), its outcrop is
called strike and dip or anti-dip streams respectively.
rectilinear and runs across the valley in the strike
The term ‘transverse’ may also be used for the
direction, that is, the trend is unaffected by
superimposed and antecedent valleys as they cut
topography (compare with Fig. 100, D).
across the structure, though they did not originate
It may be inferred from the preceding
upOT the structures through which they have carved
considerations that the form of the outcrop of a bed
out their present valleys. Similarly, on the basis of
varies between the limiting controls of the contour
the types o f geological structures which have
lines (relieO on the one hand and of the direction of
controlled their developm ent, valleys may be
strike on the other. Thus, the horizontally disposed
designated as homoclinal, synclinal, anticlinal, fault,
strata are completely controlled by relief whereas
fault-line, and joint valleys.
the vertical beds are completely controlled by the A study of the drainage pattern often reveals a
direction of strike. The actual form of an outcrop, very delicate and intricate adjustment with structure
within the limits of the above controls, will then and lithology. Hence, a knowledge of the drainage
depend upon the relation between the direction and pattern of a region may throw considerable light on
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 77

the structure of the underlying rocks even when elevated tract; the former are generally developed
neither geological nor contour maps are available. on a structural basin and the laaer on a dome or a
For instance, a dendritic drainage pattern develops volcanic cone. Annular patterns develop around
on rocks of uniform resistance to erosion and it is maturely dissected domes and structural basins with
insequent in origin due to a lack o f structural control. alternating belts o f strong and weak strata encircling
This pattern is often noticed in areas of massive them.
igneous rocks or on highly folded rocks o f varying
co m position b u t o f equal resistan ce, or on Stuctures and their topographic expression
horizontally disposed beds o f equal or unequal (z) Horizontal strata : An area of horizontally
resistan ce. In the tre llis p a tte rn , a p arallel disposed rocks in an arid climate often presents the
arrangement o f ridges and valleys in noticed. This appearance of a flat-topped surface of tableland with
pattern usually develops in folded regions with deep canyons due to the protective covering of a
alternating hard and soft rocks. A rectangular resistant rock. Stream dissection may subsequently
drainage pattern reflects the control o f joints or reduce the area into isolated tablelands or mesas
fault systems. Centripetal patterns show drainage and buttes, bounded by scarp slopes or escarpments
lines converging into a central depression, whereas on all sides (Fig. 102, A). In general an escarpment
in radial patterns the streams diverge from a central is formed when a resistant formation, inclined or

Fig. 102
(A) Cn—Cuiyon; G—Goige; C—Cliff; P—Plateau; B—Butte; M—Mesa; Pl-flain; Bl—Bad land
(B) M—Mountain; CU—Cuesta; C—Consequent stream; S—Subsequent stream; R—Resequoit stream- O—Obseouent stream
(Q s v ^ > .c lin a l vaUey. HR-Homodinal ridge; A V -A n tic^ ^ v a lle y T ^ V ^ I ^ ^ r a l v ^ ;
(D) S—Syndine; A—Anticline.

V
78 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

horizontal, overlies weaker rocks. The cross-profiles common occurrence. One of the simplest modes of
of river valleys, carved out in horizontal strata with their formation is on a newly emerged coastal plain
alternating hard and soft rocks, exhibit structural underlain by seaward dipping strong and weak strata
rock benches. (Fig. 102, B). In such a case as the drainage adjusts
itself to the structure, parallel lines of cuestas or
(ii) Tilted strata : An area of tilted strata or asymmetrical ridges (Cu), with their scarp slopes
homoclinal structure with rocks of varying degrees facing inland, and separated by strike vales, are
of resistance exhibits topographic features mainly formed. The vales are occupied by longitudinal or
related to the angle of dip of the strata, for instance, subsequent streams (Sj, S^, S 3), tributaries to the
hogbacks, hom oclinal ridge, and cuestas, and transverse consequents or dip streams (Cj, Cj, C3).
depending respectively uptMi whether rock attitudes The latter, in the course of their seaward journey,
are almost vertical, moderately dipping w gently cross the cuestas through narrow gaps or water gaps
dipping (Fig. 103). The mesas which, as mentioned (W). In the present case, the harder outcrops, over
above, develop on hwizontal rocks, stand at the other which the streams flow through the water gaps, dip
extreme (Fig. 102-A; 103). Apart from homoclinal downstream. This may give rise to rapids as against
structures, the above features may also be formed waterfalls which are formed, for instance, when
on the flanks of well dissected folds or domes. beds with varying degrees of resistance are horizontal
The cuestas, with a steep or scarp slope on their
or gently dip upstream.
front and a g e n tle dip slope on their back, are of

M ESA 8'JTTC

Fig. 103

The tributaries to the subsequents, flowing down or piracy. The former water g ^ s are converted into
the dip slope of the cuestas will be more numerous, wind gaps (Wg) which, together with other evidences
longer, and gentler as compared to those on the like elbow o f capture (e)— opposite a wind gap—
opposite side flowing down the scarp slope of the reveal the former existence of the consequents (Fig.
adjoining cuesta. The former are the resequent and 102, B).
the latter the anti-dip or obsequent streams. The (Hi) Folded strata : The intimate control of
whole area thus presents a scarp and vale topography structure and lithology on topography is well
with trellised drainage pattern. The subsequent revealed in a folded region undergoing dissection.
stream s as w ell as the escarpm ents exhibit The different topographic expressions of folds which
homoclinal or uniclinal shtfting, that is, recessitm in may be noticed in a region are synclinal valleys
the dip direction. Most o f the above-mentioned (SV) and ridges (SR), anticlinal valleys (AV) and
features are shown in Fig. 102, B. ridges (AR), and homoclinal valleys (HV) and ridges
As the drainage develqiment progresses further, (HR) (Fig. 102. C). If the axis o f folding is
the subsequent streams (Sj, S^, S3) gradually gain horizontal, a pattern o f long parallel ridges and
dominance over the consequents (Cj, C^, C 3) through valleys may be developed by the denudation of the
the process of migration o f divides and river capture folds, with inward facing (towards the axis of
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 79

folding) escarpments in the anticlinal and outward pattern may develop in areas where a series of faults
facing escarpments in the synclinal folds (Fig. 102, intersect at right angles. A similar pattern may also
C). A concordance between tc^iography and structure be exhibited in rocks with a rectangular pattern of
is indicated in an area o f synclinal valleys and joints, for instance, in some granites.
anticlinal ridges whereas an area o f anticlinal valleys The recognition of faulting is generally a much
and synclinal ridges indicates discwdance. The two easier task as compared to the determination of the
areas may respectively, be referred to as examples fact that the landforms in a faulted area are tectonic
of ‘uninverted’ and ‘inverted’ relief. form s, that is, produced directly by faulting, or they
The main streams in a folded region may flow have subsequently been carved out by differential
transverse' to the structure but their tributaries erosion of the strata on either side of the fault. A
generally occupy strike valleys, resulting in a trellis scarp, developed subsequent to faulting, may be a
pattern. The subsequent drainage may gradually fa u lt scarp (Fig. 104, B) or a fault-line scarp, and
become dominant through stream captures, and the the latter may develop into resequent or an obsequent
different water gaps, through which the transverse fault-line scarp. A fault scarp can be distinguished
stream s once crossed the resistant form ations, from a fault-line scarp from various evidences. For
become wind gaps. instance, if the rocks on the scarp side of a fault are
In an area of plunging folds, the ridges formed weaker than those on the downthrow side, or if the
from the dissection of the folds will not run parallel rocks on both the sides are weak, then the evidence
but converge in the direction of the pitch in an anti­ is positively in favour o f a fault scarp. On the other
clinal fold, and in the opposite direction in a syncline. hand, in the case o f a fault-line scarp, there is a
This gives rise to a pattern o f converging and close correlation between rock resistance, structure,
diverging or zigzag ridges (Fig. 102, D). and topography. The transcurrent faults, in which
(iv) D om es: The nature o f the topography strike-slip or horizontal movement predominates,
developed on a domal structure will mainly depend may be recognized from the offsetting of linear
upon the time elapsed since the commencement of objects like rivers, ridges, roads, hedges etc., along
dissection, and the angle of dip of the exposed strata the fault.
(Fig. 104). A commonly noticed feature on a dome Blocks of the earth’s crust may be relatively
is the radial drainage pattern. Further, an alternating raised or lowered between parallel faults without
system of weak and* strong rocks will, at an advanced much tilting. The relatively raised blocks are called
age of dissection, give rise to a series of concentric horsts and the lowered blocks grabens when they
ridges and valleys with a combination of annular are the direct effect of faulting. The development of
and trellis patterns (Fig. 104, A). The development obsequent rift block valleys and obsequent rift block
o f the different types of streams, namely, consequent mountains by subsequent erosion of the original
(Cj, Cj, C 3, C J , subsequent (S,, S^), resequent (R), faulted topography exhibits inversion of relief. A
and obsequent (O) may be noted from this figure. succession of parallel grabens may give rise to a
An inversion of topography occurs if the core of the drainage pattern known as fault-trellis.
dome, exposed to denudation, is formed of weak
rocks. Topographic forms resulting from volcanism
The volcanic cones are the most prominent
(v) Faulted strata: Faulting of strata gives rise
topographic forms due to extrusive volcanism. Their
to different topographic forms according as it
height and diameter depends upon the amount and
elevates, lowers, tilts, or hcMizontally displaces blocks
character of the material ejected and the nature of
of the earth’s crust (Fig. 104, B). Faulting may also
the eruptions. The presence of a depression on the
give rise to fix tu re or shatter zones which being
top of the peak in the form of a crater is generally
less resistant than the surrounding rocks, are
a definite proof of its volcanic character. A volcanic
expressed topographically. A rectangular drainage
cone may exhibit a radial drainage pattern. A

X
80 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

s
? 0

Fig. 104
(A) C—Consequent; S—Subsequent; R—Resequent; O—Obsequent.
(B) F—F: Fault. (C) V—^Volcanic rock; S—Sill.
(D) L—Lacolith. D—Dyke.

volcanic neck left behind on the removal of a cone

by denudation may remain as cospicuous feature of
relief for a long time. The to p o g r^h y exemplified
in the areas covered by lava-sheets is in the form of
flat-topped plateau-like surfaces with scarp or step­
like slopes on account of the varying resistance of
the horizcxitally disposed lava-flows coupled with
their tendency towards vertical or columnar jointing.
A maturely dissected lava plateau country may
exhibit mesas and buttes due to the capping o f a
resistant layer of lava rocks.
The influence o f an intrusive igneous body on
relief can only be felt when it has been exposed by
the denudation o f the ovCTlying rocks (Fig. 104, C
and D). F w instance, a more or less vertical dyke,
Fig. 104 (a): C—Consequent; S—Subsequent; exposed by denudati«i may form a wall-like feature
R—Resequent; O—Obsequent stream.
 REPRESENTING LAND FORMS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 81

if it is more resistant than the rocks into which it indicated by question marks on the section (Fig.
has intruded. But, if less resistant, it may form a 99).
valley. Sills, being concordant with the strata, behave It is often required to reconstruct the initial or
in their topographic results like any other stratum. original surface which may have obviously been
The sill rock may often be more resistant than the greatly modified or obliterated by the subsequent
rocks into which it has intruded and hence give rise geological events. The initial surface corresponds to
to escarpments.
the surface of a land area recently emerged from the
Out of the Plutonic igneous bodies, mention may sea. Its relief will naturally correspond with the
be made of the laccoliths which give rise to structure, for instance, the surface of a folded
laccolithic hills as a laccolith lifts up on the overlying structure will be ridge or arch-like on the anticlines
strata. The effect of the other types of plutCMiic bodies and valley or trough-like on the synclines. The relief
upon relief is due to the shape of the bodies will thus be tectonic in origin. The reconstruction
themselves, for instance, stocks and bosses which, may throw considerable light on the erosional history
being generally more resistant than the surrounding of an area. For instance, if the rate of erosion is
country rocks, form hills. The relative height of these known, the time elapsed, since the uplift of the area,
hills above the surrounding country increases with can be calculated, though it will generally be only
the progress of denudation. The plutcxiic bodies are an approximation. Similarly, if the time elapsed is
often composed of granite which when massive in known the rate of erosion can roughly be determined.
character may display dendritic drainage patterns. The reconstruction is done by rebuilding the
Most of the above-mentioned features are shown in part denuded away since the uplift. But this may not
fig . 104, C and D.
always be possible, for instance, when some of the
beds of a series have been completely removed by
R econstruction of the p artially preserved denudation. Reconstruction also becomes difficult
geological events
when an area has passed through a number of erosion
A geological map helps in the reconstruction of cycles. Further, the idea that the original topography
the geological history of an area but often the record directly depicts the structure is based upon the
of the earlier events is greatly modified, obliterated, assumption of rapid uplift with little or no
or even removed completely and, therefore, their accompanying erosion. It is more likely that erosion
reconstruction depends upon the amount of the accompanied uplift and even folding.
evidence available on the map. A geological secticxi The method of reconstruction of the initial
or sections, suitably drawn across the map, may be surf^e has been graphically shown in Fig. 105. The
of great help in this direction. For instance, the
original surface of synclinal structure has been
reconstruction of that part of the geological history reconstructed here. The events following uplift and
which has been defaced by denudation ftom the area folding are: (a) the denudation of the flanks of the
depicted in Fig. 99 may be attempted from its section syncline to give rise to an erosional surface that
drawn along X Y. However, this is possible only
coiresi»nds with the plane of unconformity and
for the denuded portions of the following:
which is also shown on the geological section drawn
conglomerate and grit beds; the dyke; the plane of along XY on the map. Fig. 105 (a); (b) submergence
unconformity; the beds of the upp^ series, that is,
and deposition of the beds of the upper series; (c)
sandstone, mudstcme, and limestone; and the sill. uplift, tilting, and faulting (Fault FF), followed by
But this cannot be done in the case of the
sub-aerial denudation and the development of the
foUowing: the thickness of shale and that of the present surface relief.
succeeding beds of this series, if any; the thickness
The upper la d in g plane of the youngest bed
of limestone and that of the succeeding beds of this
of the folded series has been worn away completely
series, if any. This part which cannot then be
but Its probable position can be fued from the
deciphered with any degree of certainty has been
geological section, Fig. 105 (h). The points of
82 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

H
a
0.
±
A
'O

N
'Q,

, 00'- - -

Fig. 105 (c)

Fig. 105 (a)

tnat a stream, urigiuauns -—
irregularities of the surface, has started flowing
southwards in the synclinal trough.
In the case of a pitching fold, the contours of
the original surface may be obtained by drawing
two geological sections along lines running widely
apart on the map and at right angles to the strike
Fig. 105 (b) direction. The syncline in the present case in
asymmetrical, with its eastern limb steeper than the
western. This will, obviously, be reflected in the
intersection of the altitude lines with the
original relief. Thus, the contour map shows that
reconstructed surface may then be projected
the eastern flank of the stream is steeper than the
vertically on to a horizontal plane and a contour
map prepared to show the initial or original relief western; [Fig. 105 (c)].
 Chapter 5

INTERPRETATION O F TO PO G RA PH ICA L MAPS

Undoubtedly a map is a good guide but it requires the enemy. But the aim of a geographer is quite
some art to follow the direction and informatitMi different He tries to identify the exact nature of
given by i t Map reading, in actuality, denotes the topography depicted on the map. For this he has to
formation of a visual picture of the ground depicted study and note down carefully the main features,
on a map. It is not always easy to grasp the general classify them in some order and then draw necessaiy
ai^)earance of the land at the first glance over the conclusions from them. Thus, there are two methods
map, because various details may be recorded by a of approach to a map. Firstly, a simple approach
complex set of conventional signs on i t It requires with some particular end in view, and secondly, a
a good deal of jwactice, and only a well-trained mind scientific approach. The simple appro^h points out
in this art can visualise the coTect picture of the to the mere consultations of the map; whereas a
country represented by it. In fact, all types of map scientific study of map requires a critical outlook; it
do not present the same difficulties in their reading requires, at first, the collection of facts, their
as the topographic survey map in which the
systematic arrangements and then deduction of
topographic forms are very well expressed by suitable inferences. The first type of study is simple
different symbols or signs in a complex manner. and it may be made even by a layman, but the second
The ^ s t way to be familiar with the topography of method is more elaborate and requires a
a region is to compare the survey map of the region comprehensive knowledge of physical geography as
at the spot in the field. But before proceeding to the well as of human responses to natural environment,
actual field, the students must be trained in the
without which erroneous conclusions may be drawn.
laboratory in consulting the map. Moreover, it is not This is why the scientific study of topographical
possible for a student even in his life-time to collect maps should be taken up after matriculation and not
direct information from the field all over the earth; before that. Obviously, this type of study is very
but one can easily manage to know of the different useful to a student of geography in having a proper
parts of the earth-surface from the topographical grasp of the regional geography of an area. A good
sheets thereof. This is why indoor reading of practice in this type o f practical work enables the
topographical maps becomes a pre-requisite. In this • student to write a systematic geographical account
chapter we shall confine mainly to indoor reading of of any area.
maps. Outdoor reading of maps requires prbjrer
orientation of the map in the field, which will be Topographical Maps of India
discussed in Chapter 14.
Topographical maps of other countries like U.K.,
Though a map is the tool of a geographer, it is
U. S. A. and France, etc., may also be available; but
consulted by other people also. A traveller may,
for the practical use of our students an analysis of
simply need to know about the location of his
various types of topographical maps of India wiU be
destination and the route followed; while in military
made m the sequel. Adequate practice in reading
strategy one may require to delect all possible routes
Aem will surely help in understanding foreign maps
along which to march or, which may be followed by
 N

ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

84
4 degrees. The whole country is planned to
The survey of India was started over hundred
divided in 4 X 4 degree sheets, each being numbe
years ago. Many great British surveyors received
as 39 40, 41, etc. Sometimes the sheet is named
their training here and many of our surveyors are
also held in high esteem. Due to their great effort after the most’important town of the
by it. For instance, sheet Nos. 43 and 53 are a l ^
our country is mapped on scales of 1, 2, 4 miles to known as Srinagar and Delhi sheets resp^Uvely M
the inch. But the most important are 1 : 1,000,000
these sheets lettering is done in black, wa er ,
scale maps, published in two series—(0 India and
contours in brown, and roads and town sites
Adjacent Countries Series and (ii) the International
colours. These sheets have been published in two
Series of La carte International du Monde. The
editions. (0 Political edition with admmistrauve
former also extends into the contiguous lands of
boundaries in colour, and (lO layered ediuon with
Afghanistan, Tibet and China. These sheets are 4 x

9 200 40 0
L _uj L j

Fig. 106

X
 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 85

graduated layers of colours to show altitudes. The may be preferred because on coloured sheets
publication of the latter has been stopped and in its vegetation and other features are very distinctly
place maps of International Series are being marked.
published. These sheets are also known as 1/M sheets
or one-in-million maps. The maps of International
Series, as already pointed out in Chapter 1, are being Conventional Signs for Topographical
prepared according to the scheme adopted by the Maps of the Survey of India
International Map Committee held in London in
1909, for the whole world. In this Series each sheet Description
extends over 6° of longitudes and 4° of latitudes in
which elevation is shown in metres. Besides, some Villages, Buildings, etc.
maps as “Southern Asia Series” have also been (1) Village, as surveyed: {a) open ijb) walled.
published on 1: 2,000,000 or 2 M scale by reducing (2) Ruined village as surveyed. (3) Scattered
one-in-million maps to half the scale. Each sheet of buildings and huts: (a) permanently occupied, {b)
this Series extends over 12° of longitudes and 8° of temporarily occupied. (4) Deserted site. (5)
latitudes. The colour scheme is the same as in 1/M Monument. (6) Sati. (7) Factory Chimney. (8)
maps. The one-in-million sheet has been further sub­ Cave, (when not antiquity): {a) inhavited, (Jb)
divided into 16 equal sheets, each of one degree uninhabited. (9) Piquet or Post. (10) Church. (11)
dimension as shown in Fig. 106. Each sheet is known Temple. (12) Tomb. (13) Pagoda. (14) Mosque.
as degree sheet as it represents only one degree (15) Idgah. (16) Fort: {a) surveyed (the thickness
extent. In Fig. 106 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, 1, J, K, of line should be increased for large forts according
L, M, N, O and P are 16 degree sheets. They may to size and importance), (Jb) conventional. (17)
be separately numbered as 63 A, 63 B, 63 C, etc., Watchtower. (18) Chhatri or way side temple.
because they arc parts of the one-in-million map (19) Battlefield (with name and year). (20) (a)
No. 63. They arc also sometimes called quarter inch Burial ground, as surveyed, {b) Graves. (21)
maps as they show a scale of 4 miles to the inch. Oilwell. (21A) Oil-tank. (22) Mine-shaft. (23)
The contour interval is generally 250'. The degree Boundary pillar: (a) Surveyed, (b) not found at
sheets have been again sub-divided into 16 equal time of survey. (24) Rifle-range, (as surveyed). (25)
sheets, each representing an extent of 15' (See the Aerodrome: (a) as surveyed, (b) conventional (26)
square 63 K in Fig. 106). These smaller sheets are Landing ground: (a) as surveyed, (b) conventional.
one inch maps as they show a scale of one inch to (27) Air bombing (or firing) range, as surveyed.
a mile. Sheets showing an extent of 30' are known (28) Air bombing target. (29) Air firing target.
as half inch maps because they represent a scale of (30) Air mooring or Tall telegraph mast. (31 A)
half inch to one mile. One inch maps are numbered Seaplane alighting area. (3IB) Seaplane station.
as 63 K/1, 63 K/2, 63 K/3, 63 K/4 etc., while the (310) T rijunction p illars: (a) when village
half inch maps are numbered as 63 K/N. W., 63 K/ boundary is shown, (b) when village boundary is
N. E., 63 K/S. E., and 63 K/S. W., because they lie not shown.
in the corresponding directions from the centre of
the 63 K degree sheet. Water Features
In selecting sheets for study, in the beginning (32) Well: (a) Uned or in rock, (b) unlined.
simple sheets should be taken in which contours are (33) Spring. (34) Karez. (with) depth of shaft in
not complicated but instead, they may be easily feet) (a) in use, (b) disused. (35) Pipe line: (a) water,
marked. For instance, a sheet representing a plain or (b) oil. (36) Swamp or marsh, with cultivation. (37)
plateau with low hills and ranges and clear drainage Reeds in perennial water. (38) Lake or tank, as
pattern may be selected. The sheets No. 63 K/12 surveyed: (a) with defined limit of perennial water,
may provide such simple features; a coloured sheet (b) with fluctuating, limit of pemnial water, (c) with
 7
86 ELEMENTS CM= TA CTIC A L GEOGRAPHY
(I)
(3)
(•) 0>) (*>
=gnci_ m (•) W W- (5) (*) 0) w
aa o£. • Monument .Sou, •O r o (dflve *reil/«f ^ ♦
(m nim^ (/fOft OfttJ^itjr, Mt OW^*w qf«/
(tfon OMtounr- UKOMEnflM4^0)
(16) (19) (10) t ( » )
(I I ) 03) (Q) (g ) Rifle ronfO

1849 t Xppmr^'Ute rfeKription to b t

V 'Brkfc !.««' e«.. will-be ad M Hcm/print if t/t>e is not OYailoH/e. If bed in the M f o f the map. •
'^(t) ^5> Kiln (b) ^ Kiln before 'Kiln' ei cbb'opriote. (25)

(‘)

. . . / >

Aerodrome

Aeroorome

«l)
A lrStn

\ Aerodrome \

(31)
(« )’ (17) •* (28) ( 2») ( 10)

ttbt l;rp*^Mtbo borf)' of tbt mtfi.

k

(3«) (35) (36)

(13) (W>
---- ------- - (33) (•) (6) (») ^ (b) U.* .0
(•) (b) (O 6r tr Pipo line 9(1 pip* I'ftc
# O ft ^ O- * - - -O ' - - - ■ -c - .o'
K d ro t K d r u b iiu to d
* (ft/)
(38) (39) (60) •(<!) (61)
(•) 0>) (') (6) <?
® g g ig; ')> m
Nome o f (>•« mtnerol or rock « iu e< (td from
Owfwor^ ibco’rf bo tftler#¥ o.| SiOftt . /f W jf
ISr (61) 24r

(66) ^ 0 ) S4.^
Folli 17 m
. o.oaoo^Essa*
rilli 16 m ?r (6) 9r (6) Confl niuitel/
Fills 6 m smMt ctnMiMloa

(51) (56) (Si)

_A _
nmnniiiKt" iiwuniii iwimTmwn Of—
(•) (b)
(«) (V I) (V II) (*)

(J» )
(58) ^ (6ft)
Pi) ft).
(37) Tolorliinc lint line / Mn Mwor line ((no ROMMMir
TtfmMfK
(61) T5“
-
I MiiU (•) (8)
I.*.?..* * Wirtliii KfCion • Wlrohn MOM*

(6.) (46) («S) (6>»

(66)
II I I l y i l M IV IM M V II
TIT (»)• ■ « ^ i) • S irii) ft) T 3*sr " f tT

Fig. 107 (a )
 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 87

embankment under 10 ft., {d) with embankment 10 (i) conventional on all scales, (ii) where spans vary
f t or over, {e) with very steep embankment (39) largely the position of pylons should be as surveyed
Excavated tank, as surveyed: {a) perennial*, {b) when suitable to the scale, (b) local distribiition line
non-perennial, (c) perennial with high embankment. (conventional): for lines of intermediate importance,
(40) T ank, conventional: {a) perennial. (]b) non­ the size of the large dots will be graduated between
perennial. (41) Q u arry , with greatest depth. (42) symbols (a) as surveyed, (b) conventional.
Singleline stream : (a) perennial, {b) non-perennial,
(c) approximate or undefined, {d) indicating change Railway, railway crossing and bridges
from non-perennial to perennial. (43) Stream bank, (Gauge, if other than 5’—6", should always be
north bank shows continuous, unbroken, steep or stated)
precipitous bank from 1* to 100’ or over, in height, (62) Railway, 5'—6" gauge double-line: (a)
and south bank shows the same, but broken, as open, with sidings, mile stone and station with
surveyed, heights corresponding with those on the enclosure (as surveyed), (b) undw construction. (63)
north bank: (a), {b) and (c) show treatment of side Railway, 6'—6" gauge single-line: (a) open with
stream junctions in accordance with the extent to sidings, and station and enclosure (conventional).
which the river-bank is broken, (d) breaks in banks (b) under construction. (64) Railway, other gauges
that extend to river bed level, (e) small breaks that d ouble-line: (a) open with sidings, (b) under
have not been eroded down to river bed level. (/). construction. (65) Railway, other gauges single-
(g) and {h) types of gcwges or narrow rivers with line: (a) open with sidings, (b) under construction.
high banks. (44) Dry nala: {a) with broken ground (In symbols (62) to (65) the sidings may be drawn
along bank (as surveyed). (Jb) ravines (as surveyed) narrower when space is limited). (66) M jneral line
(45) Double-line stream (width 1/20 inch or more or tram w ay. (67) Level crossing. (68) Road over
on published sheet): (a) perennial, with narrow railway. (69) Road (or railway) under railway.
showing direction of flow, {b) dry with sandy bed. (70) Railway tunnel, with or without cutting, as
(46) W aterfall with height (perennial and non­ surveyed. (71) Bridge carrying raUway. (72) Bridge
perennial). (47) R apids. (48) Sluice. (49) Perennial carrying: (a) railway over road, (b) road over railway
canal with distance stone: {a) single-line (thickness (the descriptive wording should be omitted only
according to importance), {b) double-line according where there is no room). (73) Bridge carrying road
to width and with embankment shown by relative and railway of: (a) 5'—6" gauge, (b) other gauges.
height. (50) N on-perennial canals with distance
stone. (51) Disused canals. (52) Canal: (a) with Roads and bridges
navigation lock, {b) with lock or weir carrying— (i) (74) Roads of 1st im portance: (a) metalled,
road. (»■) foot-path, (c) aqueduct or (if printed in and important bridge with piers over river (the
black (X red) viaduct (53) Dam: (a) masonry, (b) normal distance betw een the piers should be 1/8" on
earth work. (54) W eir (Anicut in Madras); on single- scale of drawing, varying slighUy to permit of equal
line and narrow double line streams, the sluice spacing between piers), (b) unmetalled. (75) Roads
symbol should be used with the word ‘W eir’ typed of 2nd im portance: (a) metalled, (b) unmetalled.
alongside. (55) C an al tu n n el, with or without (76) O ther roads: (a) metalled, also mile stone,
cutting, as surveyed. (56) Siphon in perennial canal bridge and Irish bridge or causeway, and avenue of
(black in case of non-perennial canal). trees, (b) unmetalled, (c) motor transport turning
point on roods. (77) C arttrack with bridge. (78)
T elegraph lines, etc.
Pack-track with bridge culvert. (79) Pack-track
(57) T elegraph line. (58) Telephone line. (59) with pass and height. (80) Foot-path with bridge,
Electric Pow er line: (a) main transmission line — culvert. In symbols (77 to 80) the heavier symbols
•For additions in bUck and brown, both items 40 (a) and 40 {b) should be shown by symbol 40 (b).
 \

88 ELEM ENTS OF PRACTICAL G EG G R A H IY

__________
(if) (6^ (70)
_ !iL
'»»ef fcod ' tfllm cr

(7<)

1 ___
T ~ I ----------
(C)
Un^er (onttncUon U iu n e to M «Ader cAMCmCtftM MMallad r*U oM er
= == =u= 373 =S= 3 » 3S = se tztes.

P*> <•*> (W . ,
(78) (W) ff*ck
MJ$_ mpm,
(JmiuHmr) ^ '—
’iojj
(8S>
(••)
or wIka fpMi ftm tri

(92)
(M)

w w 0) m (•)

(♦*>
(92) (♦•)
(**)

(lot)
(108)
0)

z
(I0»)
(104)*
(*?» (104) 00 00 0 0 4
j C« I
is iti ipm-l ili 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00 0 0 0 0 00
oooooooo

V c o f t f ijwM* 109-101, ■ ■ • • a te 0M*ttf«e«iti/uMM

One If tetlewO If • w |kM. Sm•onM >0)8i

'*1 .«« 9 ♦ (110) (4I») (117) (III) (119)

(IM) 0 • “ *1
8 9 *• »
(b) *» • • • '« • f I 9 9 9 •

m |l«e onwliwci .
<120
( 120)

mmm

Fig. 107 (fc)

 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 89

should be used in afforested or contoured areas, or afterwards, even if the length of bars does not agree.
where emphasis is required in open areas. Symbols (100) Boundaries along: (a) one side of road, track
may be still heavier if required to give emphasis in or path, (b) centre of road, track or path (when it is
afforested or contoured areas. (81) Road tunnel, recognised boundary), (c) one side of river, (d) centre
with or without cutting, as surveyed.
of river, (e) bed of river as surveyed. (101) Wooded
(82) B ridge o r bo ats o r p o n toon b rid g e area: (a) not enclosed, (b) enclosed by wall or
(explanatory words to be typed against the symbol) permanent fence. (102) Limits of cultivation, open
(83) F erry or ford. (84) T rack or path coincident
and along stream or ravine. (103) Demarcated limits
w ith bed of stream : (a) for short distance, (b) long of camping ground. (104) Salt pan. (105) O rchard
distance. (85) T rack o r path following notified o r garden: (a) not enclosed, (Z>) enclosed by a wall
boundary: (a) short distance, (b) long distance. (86) or permanent fence. (106) Tea garden, as surveyed.
Roads in d ry river bed: (a) with steep river banks, (107) Betel o r vine on trellis. (108) Vegetable
(b) with shelving river banks. (87) Unmetalled road garden.
along tan k bund. (88) F orest fire-line, not in
regular use as line of communication; race-course O rnam entation and Trees
track and similar special cases (explanatory words (109) Scattered trees. (110) Scrub and
to appear along the symbol but when in regular use undergrow th. ( I l l ) G rass : high. (112) Cane-
as line of communication the appropriate road b rak e. (113) Pine, fir, etc. (114) Palm . (115)
symbol is to be used.
Palam yra. (116) Betelnut (117). Bamboo. (118)
Aloes o r cactus. (1 1 ^ O ther trees. (120) Plantain
Embankments and cuttings trees.
(89) Road or railw ay em bankm ent: (a) 5 f t Symbols (109) to (120) can be varied slightly
to 9 f t high, (b) 10 ft. high or over and steep with in size. Trees surveyed individually will appear in
shaip edge at top. (90) Road or railw ay cuttings: black, grass and all other trees will appear in green.
(fl) 5 to 9 fL deep, (b) 10 f t deep or more and steep, Authorised symbols will be used where suitable; in
with sharp edge at top. (91) P ro te c tiv e w ooded areas sm all circles and h alf circles,
em bankm ent: (a) 5 f t to 9 ft. high, (b) 10 ft. high representing trees of uncertain natme, and dots,
or over steep, with sharp edge at top (92) representing scrub, under-growth or tea bushes, may
E m bankm ents, cuttings and bridges with narrow be mixed with actual symbols which should very
gauge railw ay (Sleepers’ omitted) (a) along single- with the character of the vegetation. Symbols should
line, (b) along double-line (Note: “Single line” or not be drawn with elaborate care except when
“Double line” may be typed along the line, if isolated.
necessary).
(121) Stony waste. (122) Sand features: (a)
sand hills and dunes, shape as surveyed, (b) shifting
Boundaries, limits and gardens sand, (c) cwifused sand hills (conventional), (d) flat
(93) I n te r n a tio n a l: (a) dem arcated, (b) sandy areas. Loose free sand should be indicated by
undem arcated. (94) P ro v in c e o r S ta te : (a) closer spacing o f dots. (123) Sandy riv er bed
demarcated, (b) undemarcated (95) D istrict o r showing: (a) perennial channels, (b) non-perennial
T rib a l. (96) Sub-division , T ow nship, T alu k , channels. (124) River bed showing: (a) sheet rocks,
T ahsil, Z a m in d a ri o r sim ilar p a rtitio n . (97) (b) rounded rocks, (c) edged rocks, and (d) rock
Pargana in U.P. (98) Reserved, Protected or State ribs.
Forest (green riband will appear along the external
boundaries and along those between forests of High M ountain Features
different ownerships. (99) Village with trijunction
(125) Snow, ice and rock forms: (a) Medial
pillar: In symbols 93 to 99 boundary piUars should
^ i ^ e , (b) Lateral moraine, (c) Terminal moraine,
be drawn first, fitting in the boundary symbol
(d) Hanging glacier, (e) Ice faU, (f) Crevasses due to
90 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

(1 1 5 )//^ )>
r ^ y /(»)
i

i
Bould*rt

5850

(141) (141)
(144) (145) (144) (147)
(») (►) W <4) (•) (k) W (•«)
*700 .200 .200 .20r .6M 63 3 .SM 4J-2 .82 SO TO STO SS OS

(155)
■■A
(141) 0 4 f) (ISO) (ISI) (IS!) (151) (154) oo
CH RS (Sri) pp
UN IS cc Kg

(U l)

kaltr in* (I5»r^v

(.) (b)
(i »74)

(170)
* Bmom * Smcm
»•' (M

Rg. 107 (c)

 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 91

uneven bed, (^) Crevasses due to movement of ice Travellers bungalow. (151) Inspection bungalow.
stream. (/,) Jce pinnacles, (/) Bergschrunds. (J) (152) C ircuit house. In symbols (148) to (152) enter
Permanent snow ( n e 'v e ^ , (k) Ice wall, ([) Glacier in brackets the name of the department that maintains
stream and lake, (m) Ice cave, (n) Ice couloir, (o) the buildings. (153) C a m p in g -g ro u n d . (154)
R w k couloir (p) Scree (q) Rock fall (large rocks),
B uddhist kyaung. (155) Railway station. (156)
in Recognised route over glacier, with pass, (j) M arket or bazar with day. (157) Forest: Reserved,
bnow comice.
(b) Protected, (c) State, (d) Zamindari.
Hill and M ountain Features
Coastal Symbols
(126) C ontours, with form-lines showing sub-
(158) Tidal w ater: (a) with limit in double­
fwti^es and contour value. (127) Depressions or
line dry stream, (b) in double-line perennial stream,
Devil’s cauldrons. (128) Broken o r rocky ground.
(c) in single-line stream, (d) with definite bank at
(129) Sheet rock on m ountain side, with rock
the junction with a double-line dry stream, (e)
pinnacles. (130) Scarp or cliff; high. (131) Scarp
without definite bank at the junction.
or cliff: medium (about 20' to 50'). (132) Scarp or
(159) Coast-line as surveyed, showing: (a) high
cliff: low. (133) E a rth o r gravel slide. (134)
water line, (b) low water line, (c) tidal flats with
Isolated rock masses (shape as surveyed). (135)
mud, (d) shingle and sand, (e) cliff, (/) sheet rock,
♦Rock outcrops with and without scattered boulders.
(g) rounded rocks with sand, (h) edged rocks, (i)
(B 6) Sheet rock. (137) T erraced scarps. (138)
rock ribs, (/) single-line stream in foreshore. (160)
^ mountains. Fathom -line. (161) Submerged sand. (162)
(140) River fan formed by side streams. (141) River
Submerged rocks with danger line. (163) Steam er
terraces. (141, A) M ud V olcanoes, e tc.: as
service: (a) in double-line river, (b) in single-line
suiveyed—(a) Crater, (b) Pinnacles, (c) Mud vent, river.
(a) Mud flow; conventional, (e) Pinnacles, (/) Crater.
(164) M angrove sw am p. (165) L ightship.
Note: The rock forms depicted in symbols (125)
(166) Light-house. (167) Buoy: (a) lighted, (b)
and (128) to (139) are shown in their most usual
unhghted, (168) Anchorage. (169) Pier or jetty
surroundings; they are not, however, to be confined
(masonry): (a) conventional, (b) carrying railway as
to the type of country shown in the specimens but
si^ e y ed . (170) Pier or jetty (open, framework or
^ o u ld be drawn as illustrated wherever they occur.
piles): (v conventional, (b) carrying, road as
The Ust of features is not exhaustive, (see also nara
35, Chap. V, T. H. B.) surveyed, (c) carrying railway as surveyed. (171)
Beacon, steam er signal, navigation m ark, etc., of
a fairly permanent character (with appropriate
Heights, T rigonom etrical Symbols and
lettering typed against the symbol): (a) lighted (b)
Abbreviations
unlighted.
(142) Heights: (a) Triangulation station, (b)
Triangulation intersected point or permanent traverse
station or intersected point, with ground level Hints for the Scientific Study of
accurately fixed or measured, (see Chap. VI, para Topographical Maps
59) (c) (vi), (d) approximate, (e) relative. (143)
Bench-mark, with height to the nearest foot: (a) Preliminary information: (a) Note the nature
number and scale of the sheet, {b) measure the are^
geodetic, (b) canal, (c) others. (144) Post Office.
(145) Telegraph GfTice. (146) Combined post and » .L ‘he scale; (c) find
out tte distncts represented by the sheet and also
telegraph office. (147) Police station.
(148) Dak bungalow. (149) Rest-house. (150) i s reference to the index
92 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

longitudinal extent of the area depicted on the sheet. British symbols have been adopted. In some maps
more symbols are required, while in others only a
2. Observation o f the topography: Topography
few will do; for instance, in one inch maps less
is the expression of the interaction of physical and
symbols are used than in Cadastral maps, whereas
cultural environm ents, and as such in includes
quarter inch m ^ s and I/m maps require less symbols
physical as well as cultural (man-made) elements
than one inch maps. The student should, however,
which are charted below.
be familiar with these symbols so that he may be
As already indicated in the foregoing, these
able to identify various features on the map. For
features are marked over the sheet by some definite
convenience the conventional signs are given earlier.
symbols— conventional signs, and colours which are
3. Picturing the sheet as a whole: Ignoring the
generally used to aid legibility in the map. Maps
details for the time, picture the map as a whole. Do
may be both coloured and uncoloured. Generally
not look too closely at the map but try to have an
seven colours have been used in coloured maps.
idea of the most outstanding features of the landscape
Hills are shown by brown contours or hachures and
depicted on it. In the first place you should identify
grey shades, water-courses are blue, forest are green,
whether the area exhibits one type o f physical
cultivated areas are yellow, railways are black and
feature—plain or plateau or hill, etc. If it includes
roads, towns and villages are red. These are shown
more than one type, try to divide the area into sub­
on the “Characteristic sheet of the conventional signs
regions so that apfH’opriate and systematic descnption
and writing” used for British Ordnance Survey maps,
may be given. For this purpose observe carefully
and some are also given on the margins of the map.
the main river valleys and main contours indicating
Every country follows, more or less, the same
high and low lands which will enable you to divide
conventional signs, with a few additions or a little
the area into different units. In this connection it
alterations. In the topographical survey m ^ s of India

Topography
'pra

Physical Elements Cultural Elements

Relief Drainage Vegetation Population Means of Com- Irrigation General

I munication Occupation
Settlanaits

Plain Plateau Hill Mountain Others

Roads Railways Waterways Air-routes

Rural Rurban Urban

Town City Metropolis

Consolidated Scattered Hamleted Linear Ring Others

or or
Compact Dispersed
 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 93

may be noted that the nature o f rocks is not legible mountainous region mark the glaciers and their
on such maps; so only by the character of drainage morainic deposits if any. Correlate the contour map
it may merely be hinted whether it is a limestone with the drainage m ^ . For this put the former below
region of any other region.
the latter so that contours may be visible over the
4. Observing the relief: After recognising the drainage map. Draw cross-sections and longitudinal
major units o f relief, primary landforms—peaks, profiles of impcRtant rivers, particularly in their upper
ridges, hills, spurs, escarpments, knolls, cols, etc course between suitable points. Thus you will be
should be noted and identified. For this trace out able to use appropriate adjectives to them. Such as
important contours on a piece o f papier and along fo r stream s: to rren tial, young, ad o lescen t or
suitable lines across them draw one or more profile immature, mature, senile; for valley forms: narrow
sections (vide Chapter 3) which will give a clear gorge like, ‘V ’-s h a p ^ or ‘U ’-shaped, symmetrical
conception of landforms. Drawing o f sections to or asymmetrical, hanging, transverse, longitudinal,
identify landforms is necessary only in the beginning. broad, etc., and further with regard to the nature of
After a good deal of training and practice, the relief the river banks and beds it may be noted whether
features can be marked only by eye-observation of the banks are steep, gentle or shelving, the beds are
the map. The profile sections will enable you to use sandy, rocky, studded with islands and shoals, with
appropriate adjectives to typical features, just as for one or more water channels— braided, deep or
ridge: long, narrow or broad, steep-sided or with fordable, etc. Associated with broad flat valleys
gentle slopes—closely spaced contours expressing which result in the formation of alluvial flood—
steep slopes and widely spaced contours indicating plains are some important features which should be
gentle slopes; fw hills: rounded, with concave or carefully distinguished, e.g., m eanders, incised
convex slopes, residual, morainic hills— drumlins or meanders with steep sides (in case the drainage is
eskers, etc., spurs, cols, saddle, re-entrants; for interrupted by the earth-movements), terraces, oxbow
plateau: broad or narrow, young and immature, old lakes, swamps, fans, deltaic flats, straight course
or well dissected by streams, flat or undulating, and drains, Udal waves and their deposits, etc. If the
merging in the land below with a scarp face or valley sides are ascending steeply from the river
gently; for a plain: riverine, coastal or littoral, marshy noor, that is, if the profile is ‘U ’-shaped, it is evident
or desertic, etc. Dlustrations for these detailed that the region has undergone glacial erosion in the
features may be noted in the sequel and also in past. On the other hand, ‘V ’-shaped profile indicates
Chapters 3 and 4. normal stream erosion. The longitudinal profile may
In many pases landforms can be more easily be regular and irregular or step-like, showing some
identiried from contour lines and their spacings (mi breaks in the thalweg (vide Fig. 97). These breaks
the topographical map than from actual travel represent rapids and waterfalls which are caused b y
through the area. Flat country is represented by 100- (0 Earth-movements, (ii) differenUal erosion of
foot slope per mile; hilly country, by a 500-foot alternate hard and soft strata.
slope; and rugged and mountainous country by 1000-
foot slope. The stages of dissection, peneplanation
and rejuvenated relief, all produce such forms as
can be well recognised by drawing serial profiles,
etc., (vide Chapter 4).
Fig. 108. Longitudinal Profile of the Hairai Nadi.
5. Observing the drainage and its pattern: For (vide Fig. 115-b). Mark the Fall.
the sake o f convenience trace out important rivers
and their tributaries on a separate piece o f paper.
Moreover, the inspection of the drainage sketch-
N o te dow n the direction o f th eir flow and
map will also reveal some distinct designs or
approximate area of their basin. In the case of high
patterns; such as, (0 radial, when the streams are

\
94 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

opposite to that of the consequent streams. Some of

the subsequent streams may be captured by the
opposite flowing streams; wind gap or water gap
may be left. W hen the captured stream valley
remains dry, it will be called a wind g ^ ; (vide Fig.
110). The stream s with steeper gradients and
consequent greater erosive power have general
tendency to capture those with gentle gradient and
the erosive power. By examining the gradients of
the opposite flowing subsequent streams and the
nature of divide between them it may also be
suggested as to which in future will capture the other.
For measuring the gradient see pages 42-45 (chapter
3). In general, closely spaced contours will indicate
steep slopes or gradient and widely spaced contours,
gentle gradient
6. Observing the coastal region: Our Indian
3 coasts do not display as much varied scenery as the
B ritish and N orw egian coasts do. E ven then
topographical sheets of our coastal areas will exhibit
some interesting features which should be identified
by our students on the map as well as in the field.
Regular coastlines with depositional landforms like
Fig. 109 hodcs, bars, shallow lagoons and branches may be
easily marked. Drowned and indented shore lines
flowing in all directions from the centre; (ii) external may be witnessed along the west coast of India. A
when flowing out of the region into some open sea: drowned coast may essentially represent either a
(iii) i n t ^ a l or inland, when falling into a lake or former mountainous country or a low land country.
not capable of reaching any sea; (iv) under-ground; In the fwmer case, ranges and hills from peninsulas
(v) dendritic or tree-like. These drainage patterns and islands while the valleys may form: (i) narrow,
may partially explain the nature of some o f the long, steepsided fiords, (ii) rias. Fiords suggest
landftxms. The radial drainage may suggest igneous former glaication of the area. Hanging valleys at a
intrusion in the area where rounded or dome shaped higher level than the main rivers and at right angles
or flat-topped hills may be formed from which rivers to them may be looked for, and sometimes in the
flow in directions. When the surface water sinks upper reaches of ti.e river which have not been
under-ground and there is more or less, complete submerged, a waterfall appears on the fiord (see
absence of surface streams, it may be gathered that Fig. 59). Such coasts occur in Norway, Ireland,
the area is formed of limestone chalk. The inland Alaska, Labrador and South Chile, etc. The hinter
drainage indicates in general desert topography. The land of the fiorded coasts is so rugged and barren
dendritic pattern points out a well developed drainage that in spite of the presence o f favourable sites fw
system with many consequent, subsequent and good harbours no large ports have developed. Only
obsequent streams (vide Fig. 109.) A consequent a few settlements in the form of small villages cw
stream flows the general direction of the slq)e of holiday resorts may be found.
the land. The subsequent streams are tributaries at In contrast to the fiord coasts, the rias exhibit
right angles to the main stream. Obsequent streams highly irregular, branching bays or estuaries. They
flow into the subsequent streams into a direction are obviously formed by the submergence o f a
 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 95

0-O l»«,u en titie«„; E -H bow of opdire; R-Resequem str<am;

tqxigraphy evolved by normal stream erosion. It is and are generally backed by a marshland. The
the drowned river valley which becomes ria. The extension of land has been taking place towards the
coasts of Maine, C h e sp e ^ e Bay and Pugget Sound Bay o f B engal at the m ouths o f the G anga,
and South-west Ireland may be cited as examples of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery, etc., and
the ria coast Ria coasts show on evidence o f former also near the Rann of Cutch during recent times.
ice-work and have no rugged hinter land; but with The marshes, after being drained provide good
regard to human settlements they are as barren as agricultural land. The ports like Masulipatam lose
the fiord coast. {See Fig. 60).
their importance as a port on account of such
An emergent coast occurs where the surface of w ^ s i o n o f land towards the sea (vide sheet No. 65
the sea comes to rest against a raised land area. One
of the best examples of this type is furnished by the
Atlantic coast o f U. S. A. Generally the waves do 7. Vegetation: Note the vegetation o f the area.
not reach the coast; instead they break far out from Is there much woodland and where is it found on
the slopes o f the hills, on highlands or in the river
it, where they cast up offshore bars o f sp it These
v^ley? Can you say; it is chiefly to be found in
bars run parallel to the coast, and may sometimes
places where the land is too high, or, too steep, or,
enclose a narrow lagoon of water, Chilka Lake in
too poor to be cultivated? Likewise, examine the
Orissa is thus formed. Further, the land may also
grass-land and scrublands if any are found on the
extend towards the sea by the deposition o f sediments m ^.
along the coast by streams. Thus the deltaic coasts
correlate the nature o f vegetation with
are developed. Such coasts are regular in outline
the type o f climate prevailing there if possible. Such

X
96 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

an attem pt should be m ade only when one is patterns may be clearly understood by comparing
acquainted with the climatic conditions of the place, the settlement map with the contour map. Firstly,
otherwise appropriate inferences may not be drawn. look for the rural settlement patterns. See whether
So it may not be sometimes wise to read^ those the villages have com pact houses or dispersed
informations from the map which are not recorded habitations. Are the habitations scattered evenly or
unevenly Som etim es v illag e-settlem en ts form
on it.
alignment, that is, they are spread along a river
8. Observing Human Settlements: Trace the rural
valley, road, embankment and coastline (Fig- 111)-
and urban centres on a separate piece of tracing
These are called linear patterns. Habitations forming
paper. This will indeed help is visualising the true
ring round tanks and enclosed by trees may also be
picture of the distribution of population over the
found just as in West Bengal (Fig. 111). Thus four
area. The nature and the causes of various settlement

/
8 A I? w a im

6A Y OP
BENGAL

Showing rand settlement patterns. The first two squares on the top denote ring and compact patterns. The two squares on the
Fig. 111.
bottom show scattered and linear patterns respectively.

X
 kdiiyiii X

INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 97

p rin c ip a l types o f ru ral settlem en ts may be agricultural regions the pattern of settiement is
distinguished on the m ^ (/) compact or consolidated; different from that in a mining or pastoral region. In
(|0 scattered or dispersed evenly or unevenly; (Hi) an agricultural region with fertile soil, the villages
linear; (iv) ring type. Similarly, urban centres may are evenly scattered all over the area, but in a mining
also be examined; in their case, too, several patterns area they cling either to a mining pit or a road,
may be distinguished; (/) whether it is a small passing through it and thus assuming a linear pattem.
collecting and distributing centre with fixed market Sometime the villages may align the edge of forests
days; (ii) cross-road town; (Hi) nodal point; (iv) a or along the foot of hills as to utilize the resources
hill station; (v) a coastal holiday resort centre; (vi) o f forests ot hill slope and the adjacent plain. In a
a port; (vii) a manufacturing centre with suburban limestone topography where the surface drainage is,
villages and sometimes with satellite towns, skirting more or less, absent, the villages are closely setded
it at some distance like Manchester around which in the valley or along other water sources like lakes
Oldham, Bolton and Stockport, etc., have grown up; and the remaining surfaces are characterised by the
(viii) a capital town with royal establishments and complete absence of setdements. Likewise, the relief
fortsites in the case of old one and Secretariat and forms o f different types may exhibit their typical
Assembly Houses in the case of a modem one; (ix) controls over the character of setdements. The idea
religious centre with numerous temples. of protection and defence from external dangers is
Site of human settlements should be closely responsible for making the villages very large and
examined with reference to the contour and drainage com pact In Western U.P., and Punjab the villages
map. After careful investigation, the following facts are, in general, far more compact and consolidated
regarding the ch o ice o f settlem en ts may be than those of Eastern U.P., and Bengal as western
discovered: (i) thickly settled areas; (ii) thinly setded parts have been facing the dangers o f invasion from
areas; (Hi) vacant spaces. Densely setded areas may early times. The consolidated village setdements have
be located: (i) Over fertile plains, and (ii) in wide grown up along: (i) the river banks to fight out the
river valleys even in the hilly-regions. Thinly setded danger of flood collectively, and (ii) the edge of the
areas may be found: (i) Over plateaux with poor marshes to drain and reclaim them, etc.
agricultural lands and mining centres; 0 0 in forests; With regard to the pattern of urban setdements,
(Hi) over pastures; O'v) on terraced mountain slopes; a few salient points may be indicated. A cross-road
(v) over flat hill tops; (vO in coastal regions with town assumes a /a n shaped pattem; the houses being
small fishing villages; and (vii) in deserts with poor arranged along the road side and the crossing being
vegetation. The empty spaces may be seen over: (i) the heart of the town and the main market place. In
marshes and swamps; (ii) dense and inaccessible a nodal town the roads are radiating in all the
forests; (Hi) rugged mountain slopes; Ov) bare directions from the centre. Delhi may be cited as an
mountain tops; (v) shelving river banks where there exam ple o f this type (vide F ig. 112). The
is danger of floods; (vi) rocky and barren plains; characteristic feature of the manufacturing pattem is
(vii) deeply eroded ravines and badly broken lands; usually a dense mass of buildings, ill-arranged along
(viii) sandy deserts. There are various factors that narrow roads and highly congested like our Kanpur
determine the choice of setdements: (i) The problem town. In the case of Kanpur it may be noted that it
of water supply; (ii) provisions of food; (Hi) the has grown up in between the river Ganga and the
nature and character of occupation; (iv) the nature G rand Trunk Road thus form ing a roughly
o f relief of the land; (v) defence. It is for drinking rectangular block, (vide. Fig. 113). The relief forms
water that villages cling to river valleys or springs also affect urban setdements. The town of Calcutta
along hill slopes, and close to tanks and wells. The
developed hemmed in between the Hooghly on the
density of setdements is direcdy related to food one hand to the west and the marshland on the east.
supply. The greater the food supply, the denser is
So its extension could be possible to the north or to
the distribution of population and vice versa. In
the south along the Hooghly. Likewise Bombay
98 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

being on an island, could attain more vertical site of M irz^ur on sheet No. 63K/12, it would
extension than horizontal one. If you examine the become obvious as to why it has grown up on the

€U

ir^'hloralno

C ontr

CANT tomb
Polom IR S

km

Rojokri
X

INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 99

K A N P U R

R.
X olyonpur
BUSINESS
JCMotwonpur
INDUSTRIAL

A rm a p u r ^ RESIDENTIAL
I n d u tfr lo l
E cto r*

CANTONMENT

M uzoff
'> t ^
C h o W fl I W ozidpor
A e ro d ro m e /

Fig. 113

Steeper right bank and not on the shelving left bank. them the sites of bridges, embankments, tunnels,
Functional aspects o f urban settlements can be etc., which would reveal the nature of topography.
recognised on the map. A large building with a The slopes of roads and railways may be calculated
railroad siding may be interpreted as a factory, and (see pages 61-64). This will show whether the
a number of factories with a dense mass of buildings country is difficult fw transport ot easy. The presence
are typical of an industrial town. Railway and port of numerous means of communication in the form
towns are easily distinguished. Different types of of pucca roads and railways would indicate that the
residences are recognised by their arrangements and country is well developed and their absence or
their distances from the heart of the town. The scarcity would show the backwardness of the area.
business areas o f the city may also be maiked by Also examine means of irrigation— wells, tanks,
road patterns, and are generally located along central the canals, etc. Canals may be looked for both as
streets. means of irrigation and waterways. On the basis of
9. Observing M eans o f Communication communication and irrigation patterns the character
and
Irrig a tio n : N o te how various m eans o f of the development of the area may be envisaged.
co m m u n icatio n — footpath s, roads, railw ay s, By a perusal of settlement pattems and close
waterways, etc., link up the settlements. Mark on inspection of other features, like the cultivated lands
100 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

orchards, plantations, quarries, mines and factories, is 256', near Mirzapur Railway Station it is 282', at
etc., we may gather whether the chief occupation of Chilh R. S., 265' and at Mirzapur Ghat R. S., 261
the people is agricultural lum bering, mining or feet. Thus the plain is so uniformly flat that the
manufacturing. southern tributaries o f the Ganga begin to greatly
After gathering necessary information on the meander here soon after leaving the plateau. The
lines suggested above certain recommendations for Ganga drains the plain in an East-W est direction
future developments may also be made in the end. making two loops. It receives many tributary streams
But care should be taken lest conclusions may be on the south; while on the north only a few
farfetched. insignificant nallahs join it. The northern bank of
the western loop of the Ganga is shelving and low,
whereas the southern bank is comparatively steep,
Study of Some Selected Sheets being about 30' high. The main current of the river
Bearing the foregoing instructions in mind some also skirts this bank. It is on this side of the river
specific sheets may be inspected and described here
that the two im portant tow ns o f the region—
so that the students may pick up the methods of Mirzapur and Vindhyachal, have grown up. The
map reading. For this purpose typical sheets showing eastern loop is wider and the bed o f the Ganga here
common topographic forms may be selected. These at some places widens for a mile or more. In this
may be 63K/12, 53F/15,53J/3, 53J/11, 530/10, 530/ part the sandy shoals are more extensive, and the
7, 43M, 73A/4, 72H/12, 64A/14, 63N/11, 73M/13, main channel of water seems to be branched. Some
79F/14, 73 L and P, 741, 65H/4, 65L/5 and 48L/13. of the important tributaries coming frtnn the southem
plateau may be noted below:
M irzapur and Adjoining Region 1. The Ojhala nadi which is known as the Harrai
nadi in its upper courses over the plateau.
Sheet No. 63KI12.
2. The Khajuri nadi, which is known as the
madho nadi in its middle and the Kuardari nadi in
Introduction its upper courses.
The sheet No. 63K /12 comprises largely a 3. The Chatar nadi which is called Jamthua nadi
portion of the M irzqiur District except a few patches in its uppermost course falls into the Ganga (Ganges)
of the Banaras District and, Banaras State in the outside the region. 'Hie land along this river and the
north. The region depicted on the sheet covers an Harrai nadi is highly broken.
area of about 272 square miles. It stretches between
All the above streams becomes dry in summer
25° 0 N— 25° 15^^ and 82° 30'E—82° 45'E.
and flooded in the rainy season. They receive
numerous small nallahs which aj^jear to cut deep in
Physical Feature the soil and thus m ake the land u seless for
At the first glance over the map (Fig. 114) two agricultural purposes. The rivers of the plain, in
outstanding features become obvious: (i) The Ganga general, have wide flat floors with low banks (vide
Plain, and (if) the Vindhyan Plateau. The Ganga Figure 115).
Plain lies, more or less, north o f 25° 5' N orth,
occupying about two-third area of the whole region. The Vindhyan Plateau
The entire plain is flat with a few low swells like It is a part of the Kaimur which is the northward
knolls with an elevation of about 300' above sea extension o f the Vindhyas. It occupies nearly one-
level, 2 or 3 miles south of the town of Mirzapur third area of the whole region depicted on the map.
and west of the Robertsganj— Mirzapur road. The It appears to be a highly dissected plateau with a
average elevation of the Plain is below 300 feet very undulating surface. It has a general elevation
above sea-level. This is clearly exhibited by certain of 500' above sea level. The junction of the plateau
Bench Marks: Bench Mark near the pontoon bridge with the plain is formed by 350' contour. The surface
 i n t e r p r e t a t io n o f t o p o g r a p h ic a l m a p s 101

I Qalotio
* U
Horsingorpur

Oosaundi

' RonibdrL i

/■

MobQnpur

^Cfiitpur I . Bharpura

wojghot

0«Q^hulwo

^ 2 ^ 3

Fig. 114. I-Plateau; 2-Seulements; 3—Metalled road; 4-Unmetalled road; 5-River.

Of the plateau is dotted with a number o f residual

marked [Vide Fig. 115 (a)]. These iwo Unes o f hills
and flat topped isolated hills. Most important o f them
now isolated by low saddles appear to be two low
axe as follows: (i) Deophulwa, the highest hill o f the
ndges running parallel to each other in an east-west
region with a height of 683’ above sea level appears
d ^ e c tio n . P ossible they at one tim e form ed
to be conical in profile; (ii) Murli. 648'; (///) Rajghat,
571'; (iv) B andra, 571'; (v) Shakar Pawa 549’- contmuous ranges which have been now carved out
Chaupahra. 425'; (vii) Kugahi. 523'; and (viii) Bala into isolated hins due to age-long weathering ^ 1
520'. Saddle-shaped contours of Chinchal, Bandra denuitouon. TTk former ridge line is not broken by
and Harmanid. forming one line, and Tharpahra, any s ^ ; while the latter is cut through by the
Chaupahra, Kugahi and Dhirwa, etc., forming the tight hand tributaries o f the Chatar. The former
other line in the south-east part of the map may be t o w s a spur southwards and the latter, northwards
The streams in general have formed notches on the

A
102 ELEMENTS OF HIACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

409'

ChjMhol

km 4#?

Fig. 115 (a)

face of the plateau; their valley is at some places

narrow ‘V ’ -shaped. Along their course some falls
and rapids occur here and there, which may become
obvious by their longitudinal profile (Vide Fig. 108).
The famous Tanda Falls on the Harrai nadi is about
70 feet high [Fig. 115 (b)]. The Madho nadi seems
to cut a gorge-like valley almost throughout its course
"Rm
over the plateau, with 30' to 40' high banks. The
valley of the Chatar nadi is comparatively much Rg. 115 (b)
wider which is joined by two notable tributaries, the
Jogiadari and the Simaria nadi. Harrai and Madho
nadis receive only minor streams. The direction of kuahdapi n. deophulwa.
the flow of the major streams like the Harrai, Madho
and Chatar indicates that the plateau in general slopes
towards the north. The plateau does not gradually
m erge into the northern plain, but it descends
abruptly, that is, with a very steep face 150' high Fig. 116. Showing a profile section drawn along a line from
Deophulwa Hills to Rajghat (63 K/12).
(See Fig. 116). This may further become obvious
when you actually measure the gradient o f the
(i) in the ravine lands, chiefly along the Chatar and
M irzapur— Robertsganj road where it descends the
Harrai nadis, and (ii) at the foot of the plateau and
plateau.
hUls in the south-eastern comer of the plain where
the ground is rock y . V illages are in g en eral
Vegetation surrounded by artificially planted trees nearly all
The northern plain seems to be cleared off of
over the plain region. The plateau is still mosUy
natural vegetation. The most of the area is cultivated.
forested except a few patches o f clearing which are
Only a few extensive uncultivated patches are found:
 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 103

eith er c u ltiv ated or co v ered w ith grass. Such where the Ganga can be easily crossed because its
extensive unforested areas or clearings are found in bed is narrowest here; there are four ferries on the
the western part o f the plateau. The forests are more river in its neighbourhood, (ii) The main current of
extensive along the river valleys and in the south. the Ganga washes the Mirzapur side of the river;
Only the Chatar valley seems to be nearly devoid of this ensures good navigation throughout. (Hi) The
any vegetation. Hill slopes and tops are also clad in bank of the Ganga is steepest and highest here over
forests. Forests are at places mixed with scrub a long distance so that the danger o f flood has been
vegetation. minimised, (zv) There is a pontoon bridge linking
Mirzapur with the small town o f Chilh opposite it.
Settlements (v) All the impcHtant means o f communication of
Villages are scattered evenly all over the plain the area are centred on i t (vz) It is quite close to the
region except at the following places where the plateau in the south, being about 5 miles from it;
topography is characterised by, m ore or less, thus it can easily communicate with the plateau
complete absence of settlements: (/) On the western region also, (vii) The town is hemmed in between
margin opposite Vindhyachal; (ii) on both the sides E .l J i, and the Ganga. (viii) Further extension of the
of E.I.R. (now N.R.) between the Khajuri and Chatar town seems to be possible south-eastwards in the
nadis; (zv) along the Chatar valley. Moreover, in the fork of the E.l.R. and Mirzapur— Robertsganj road.
two loops of the Ganga and in the Ojhala valley (ix) The extension of settlements opposite Mirzapur
there are comparatively fewer villages than over other will not be possible due to the shelving nature of
areas on the plain. The most probable cause of such the bank: the small town of Chilh has grown up on
a low density of population is the flood of the river. the terminal points of the Mirzapur—Jaunpur road
The practically empty spaces are more or less on the and the B. N. W. R. (now N E R .) Mirzapur Ghat
shelving banks o f the river which spreads over a Extension, (x) This is the m ajor collecting and
wide area close to it during floods. Along the Chatar distributing centre of the region.
valley the land is highly broken and as such is not Next to Mirzapur is Vindhyachal. This is a
suited for agricultural purposes. The cause o f the religious centre as is shown by the presence of
absence of settlem ents in the fourth area is not innumerable temples. This has also grown o f the
apparent from the map, which can be investigated Mirzapur side o f the Ganga and there is a ferry of
by field-study. The density o f villages is greater 10 boats on the river. This town also extends between
along the ro a d s w hich p ro v id e easy m eans the G anga and the E .l.R . It is connected with
of communication for the people to market their M irz ^ u r by a metalled road also.
products. North of the Ganga there are two small market
The most o f the plateau is very thinly populated. towns: (z) Khamaria, and (ii) Kachhwa. At Khamaria,
There are a few scattered villages in such areas where Mondays and Tuesdays are market days. It is situated
the land can be cultivated. The Madho and the Chatar in the north-west comer of the region and is linked
valleys are devoid of any settlements. Regarding w ith the Jau n p u r— M irzapur road by a m inor
the character o f settlem ents, the plateau region metalled road. In the town there is a small carpet
presents a great contrast to the plain. In general, factory. At Kachhwa, Tuesdays and Saturdays are
villages appear to cling to tanks which are perhaps market days. It is situated in the northeastern comer
the main sources of water supply for domestic use o f the region, nearly a mile east o f the Ganga. It lies
as well as for irrigation. about 8 miles away from the Raja Talab R. S. on
T he m ost im portant town o f the region is the O. T. R. (now N £ .R .). Kachcha roads radiate,
Mirzapur situated on the southern side of the western more or less, in all directions from it except to the
loop at a point where the river is narrowest. By south and south-east where there are practically no
closely examining the site of the town, the following settlements.
facts become obvious: (z) It is situated at the point
 V
V

104 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

M eans of Com m unication following facts regarding the pattern of rail-roads

Two railways serve the region: (z) East Indian and roads: (/) All are mainly centred on Mirzapur,
Railway main line (now Eastern Railway) with broad (if) the Ganga valley is much better served by roads
gauge; {ii) B. N. W. Rly. (now known as N. E. R.) and railways than the plateau; (Hi) the western half
with metre gauge. The former passes through the o f the region enjoys b ette r facilities for
heart of the region with four railway stations— communication than the eastern half of the region;
Pahara, Jhingura, Mirzapur and Vindhyachal. A loop (zv) the eastern half of the plateau has no means of
railway runs southwards from Pahara to a quarry communication except footpaths.
for about a mile. The rail-road in its eastern half has The Ganga with a fairly deep and permanent
been constructed on embankments from 6 to 15 feet water channel provides a waterway communication
high. The latter runs along the northern margin of by small boats. It is crossed at eight places by boat
the region from east to west; it is a part of the ferries to connect the roads on either side.
Banaras-Allahabad branch of N. E. R. from Madho
Singh R. S. to Chilh R. S. There is also a branch M eans of Irrigation and W ater Supply
running parallel to Jaunpur— Mirzapur road. There Wells and tanks are the only important means
is no railway bridge to connect Chilh with Mirzapur of water supply both for domestic purposes and for
because the flow to traffic from Chilh side to irrigation. Wells serve over the plain and tanks in
Mirzapur side is not perhaps enough to justify its general over the plateau. The w ater supply in
construction. There are no rail-roads over the plateau. Mirzapur town is obtained from the Tandadari Tal
There are about 22 miles of rail roads in the region. of the plateau near the Tanda Falls. This is the
It means that on the average every 12 square miles biggest tal of the area which has been constructed
of area is being served by one mile of rail-road. by throwing an embankment, 25 feet high across a
All kinds of roads may be observed in this area. tributary of the Harrai nadi. From here the water is
The metalled roads are generally found in the! western pumped and sent to Mirzapur through a pipe line,
part of the area, radiating in all directions from more than 8 miles long. The Chandewa Tal is another
Mirzapur which is the focus of practically all traffic perennial tank in the north-eastern cwmer of the area.
of the region. The follov/ing metalled roads may be This tank becomes shallow and marshy in the dry
noted in the region: (1) The Great Deccan Road. (2) season. The density of wells and tanks is greater in
M irzapur— R obertsganj R oad. (3) Jaunpur— the more thickly populated parts of the area.
Mirzapur Road. (4) Chilh—GopiganJ Road. (5)
Mirzapur— Allahabad Road. (6) Mirzapur— Bhatauli N ature of O ccupation
Ghat Road. Besides these main metalled roads, some That the region is predominantly agricultural is
minor metalled roads are also found: One skirting exhibited by the mainly rural character o f the
the edge of the plateau between the Harrai and the settlements. Over the plain, cultivated land is very
Madho nadis serves the stone quarries; the second extensive, while on the plateau, it is in patches. On
runs from Mirzapur to Tanda Falls which is at places the plateau, subsidiary occupations are: (i) lumbering,
Kachcha; the third is running from the Jhingura (if) cattle and sheep rearing, and (Hi) quarrying. Over
Railway Station southward, ascending the plateau the plain some industrial establishments are also
near Karanpura. Then there are a few important found, such as cotton mill near Mirzapur and carpet
unmetalled roads: one linking Mirzapur with Chunar factory in Khamaria. Some of the important quarries
via Pandri Shivgarh which is metalled in its western are as follows:
half; the second from Mirzapur to Kachhwa; the (z) Near Pahari Bhojpur connected by a rail­
third from Mirzapur to MaharajganJ. Moreover, a road to Pahara R. S.
number of Kachcha roads have connected Kachhwa (if) North of Umaria, served by a Pukka road
with Chunar, Raja Talab, Chhateri Manpur and leading to Pahara.
Maharajganj. Now you may note in general the (Hi) S outh-east o f M ohanpur, along the
\
INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 105

Cmihai*p(j

RANGHARWA

SHAKLMfiHAM

^AJMUWPASS

Fig. 117. Showing the longitudinal valley o f the Asan i

106 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

M irzapur— C h u n ar R oad via P andri A series of terraces may be marked along the
Sheogarh. left flank of the Jum na (Yamuna) river. For detail
(/v) About 2 miles west o f Shankar Pawa hill, See Fig. 87 in Chapter 4.
c o n n ected by a m etalled ro ad w ith It may be marked that the valley slopes are clad
Jhingura R. S. in dense forests which are reserved. The hill tops
(v) N ear B arkachha K hurd, connected by seem to be comparatively bare of vegetation. In the
a m etalled ro a d w ith M irzap u r— valley, particularly in the South-eastern portion, tea
Robertsganj Road. gardens may be weU marked. The cultivated lands
are also seen on the valley bottom and along the
D un Valley lower slopes.
Sheet No. 53F/15 represents the heart of the With regard to the distribution o f settlements
Dun valley which extends over a number of sheets, and means of communication, the importance of the
such as 53F/11, 53F/14, 53F/15, 53J/3, 53J/4, etc. Asan valley may be noted. Settlements are found in
For the convenience of the students we shall discuss general over the valley bottom and on the southern
here the important features depicted on the sheet slopes of the central Himalaya. But the settlements
No. 53F/15. For detailed study of the topography are more concentrated on the floor of the valley
the sheets mentioned above may be consulted. than on the slopes. The most outstanding feature of
The term Dun is synonymous with a longitudinal the settlements is in connection with the urban area.
valley. This character of relief is prominently shown Though the residential portions of the town of Dehra
by the sheet. The river Asan is flowing through the Dun lie 3 miles east of the sheet, some important
centre of the area in S.E. — ^N.W. direction, hemmed portions o f the tow n, like the Indian M ilitary
in between two ranges running parallel to it. Thus Academy, tea garden and factory settlements have
three sub-regions of the area become obvious; (0 been established, in the fork o f the river Asan and
The Asan valley; (//) the S.W. hilly region, and (Hi) Tons. The settlements cling to the roads and are
the N.E. hilly region; (Vide Fig. 117). The character found on the divides of the tributary streams. The
of these broad relief features may be clearly revealed roads are generally running parallel to the river Asan
by drawing a profile section along a S.W.— N.E. and Jumna. Only one metalled road is coming from
line across the region (See Fig. 118). The two the south across the Siwalik in the south-east comer
ranges— extension* of the Siwalik in the S.W., and going to Dehra Dun.
that of the lesser Himalaya in the N.E., which enclose
the Asan valley, form the main water partings of the A lm ora an d A djoining Region
region. It may be noted that none of the tributaries The sheet No. 5 3 0 /1 0 represents the Almora
of the Asan river crosses these dividing ranges. Hilly Region o f U ttar Pradesh. This is a typical hilly
Thus, three main drainage systems may also be region with an average elevation of more than 5,000
observed: (0 South-westerly drainage; (ii) North­ feet above sea level. The whole topography is mgged,
easterly drainage; and (Hi) the Asan river system in traversed by numerous narrow and elongated ridges
the middle. The valley walls are asymmetrical in and spurs. The gorge-like beds o f the Kosi river and
profile as the south-western slope of the valley is its tributaries are remarkable. The hill slopes are
comparatively steeper than the N.E. slope. mantled by coniferous trees, and at places where the
forests have been cleared, they have been terraced
into cultivated fields. M ost of the forest areas have
been reserved to avoid further cleanng.
The development o f the town o f Almora over a
saddle shaped ridge is by far the most important
feature o f the area (See F igs. 119 and 120).
Settlements are scattered unevenly over the ridge
Fig. 118. Profile section from Kasumri Pass to Birsani.
 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 107

tops and hill slopes in general, near the cultivated

patches. The forest areas are usually devoid of
settlements. The settlements are generally at the edge
of the forests and the cultivated lands so that people
may utilize the products o f the forests also. The
control of physiography over the development of
the means of communication is reflected by the fact
that except one metalled road that leads you from
Ranikhet to Almora, no other modem means of
comm unication are found here. The Ranikhet—
Almora Road follows the ridge top along most of
its way.

N ainital an d A djoining Region

The sheet No. 530 /7 comprises mostly a part of
National District. At a glance, two sub-regions may
be identified : (/) The Siwalik foot hill region, and
tt; (I’O the Terai region. The rugged topography o f the
hilly tract presents a keen contrast to the flat lowland
to p o g rap h y o f the T erai reg io n . The stream s
emerging from the hills on the plain below are
strikingly divided into num erous branches and
channels. Note the rivers Dabka, Nihal and Bhakra,
all o f which present the same character over the
foot hill plain. In the hilly region the main water
Fig. 119 parting may be marked distinctly, which m ns from

Fig. 120. Showing Physiography of Almora and the adjoining region.

108 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Nainital north-west ward, separating the south­ water forming the present Tal and the remaining
westerly drainage from the north-easterly drainage portion of the basin is studded with habitations.
which is carried by Jokh nadi, Ghora Gad, and Moreover, the students may note the narrow ‘V ’-
Mawani Gadhera, etc. The extensive Tal around shaped gorges and the breaks in the longitudinal
which the town of Nainital has grown up presents a profile of the rivers in their hilly courses. In their
remarkable feature at an average elevation of about upper reaches the gradient of the streams is very
6,000 feet above sea level. The Tal was probably steep, and the moment they descend to the plain
more extensive in the past : the main rim of the they become gentle with subsequent decrease in their
basin may be easily marked along the line from capacity to carry heavy loads which are deposited
which the drainage is flowing into the present Tal in their beds, and thus, the main channel is divided
on the one hand and also going outwards in all into numerous branches. Forests mantle the plain
directions on the other. {See Figs. 121, 122 and and the hill slopes in general.
123.) Thus the bottom of the basin is occupied by Settlements are unevenly and thinly scattered

Phuht

fp
r
' — -
NAINITAC

, \K fiu r p a ,

ng. 121
 INTERPRErATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 109
all over the region. In the hilly region settlements
I NAINI TAL SHERKAOANOA
^ generally found over the hill tops and hill sides.
On the Terai, linear setUements have grown up along
the s te a m s and canals, w here w ater is easily
available. The urban setdements o f Kaladhungi on
the plain and th at o f N ainital on the hill are
important. The region is made conspicuous by the Fig. 122. Profile section from Khuipa Tal to Sher Ka Danda
Peak.
scarcity of modem means o f communication The
circuitous nature o f the metalled road that leads you
T he S k ard u an d the A djoining Region
from Kathgodam to Nainital will exhibit the true
nature o f terrain w hich stands in the way o f The sheet No. 43 M represents the Skardu
constructing roads in the hills. Valley {Fig. 124) and the adjoining lands. In general
the country is characterised by a m ountainous

Fig. 123. Physiography around Nainital

/
 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
110

iSKARDOf *

Fig. 124. Showing Skardu and adjoining region.

 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 111

topography which is marked by a very high establish his strongholds even in the high and snow-
elevation. The land rises over 10,000' above sea level, covered Himalayan region.
culminaung into peaks 20,000' above sea level
Mountain ranges and ridges seem to run in all Ranchi District
directions throwing spurs on their sides. The high The sheet No. 73A/4 includes mainly a portion
ridges are covered with permanent snow and the of Ranchi District and adjoining lands of Jashpur
presence of many glaciers in the northern part, like Md Eastern States. This area typically represents a
the Chogolugama and Biafo glaciers is the unique very highly dissected plateau which is at places
feature of the topography. The morainic deposits greatly denuded to form peneplanes. Flat-topped
along the glaciers may be observed.
elongated ridges with a uniform sky-line separated
The region furnishes an example of glacial by wide ‘V’ shaped river valleys characterise the
topography. The cross-section of the Skardu valley topography of the entire plateau region. The general
assumes a ‘U ’-shaped profile which clearly indicates
the former glaciation of the area. It is through this
valley that the Indus river flows in a S.E. N.W.
direction with its consequent and subsequent
tributaries. The tributary streams have cut narrow
‘V’-shaped gorges and the longitudinal profile of
the streams shows remarkable breaks. This suggests
the presence of waterfalls and rapids which are
common features of the rivers.
Except a few coniferous trees scattered over
higher elevations and sometimes over foot-hills, the
region is devoid of any vegetation. SetUements are
found in the river valleys, especially along the foot
of the hills and along the valley-walls. Here the
distribution of water supply in the form of m ountain
springs and stream s appears to be the chief
controlling factor. The seulements are mostly located
in the Skardu valley which is comparatively wider,
with flat floor. The abundant water supply and the
availability of agricultural lands are double
attractions for settlements to grow here. Minor tracks
run along the rivers which provide a link to
neighbouring valleys. Skardu has developed on the
junction of such routes. Just north of the town the
Shigar river which is an important tributary stream,
meets the Indus. Thus, the town may communicate
with the Shigar valley too. The town is backed by
a hillock (8,853') and is defended by a fortress. Such
fortresses are common features which form points
of defence for the valley tribes. It is evident,
therefore, that in a mountainous country like this it
is the river valleys, fertile and sheltered as they are,
that may provide ground for human settlements. In
passing, it may be noted how man has been able to
Rg. 125

X
112 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

elevation of the plateau is above 3,000 feet above broken by a few rounded hillocks which rise a few
sea level, while the peneplane shows an elevation feet above the surrounding countryside. The general
of about 2,000 feet above sea level. Even over the character of the relief of the hilly region may be
peneplane isolated, rounded flat-topped dome-shaped visualised by the profile section drawn along the
hills may appear giving rise to radial drainage line AB (Figs. 126 and 127). The sharp crested
system (See Fig. 125). Such features are formed ridges mnning parallel to the streams and a number
generally due to granitic intrusion. The rounded hill of spurs serving as divides between the tributary
between the Chitra nadi and Laphri nadi may be streams may be noted. Isolated hillocks rising about
well marked. The region is drained by the Sankh a hundred feet above the general level of the
river and its two important tributary streams, the adjoining land will not escape our notice. The
Lava and the Basa. Incised meanders may be noted contour of 1,500 feet marks the junction of the N.E.
in the Sankh and other streams which point out to peneplane with the central low hilly tract which
a change in the base-level of erosion after the rivers culminates into a peak of 2,268 feet above sea level.
have reached their maturity. The hills are covered Note how the land is badly broken along the Barasoti
with scattered trees. Over the peneplane artificial nadi and its tributaries Chomi nadi, Ghaghri nadi,
groves are found near settlements. etc. The south-western peneplane lies at a higher
It is very remarkable that the region, particularly elevation than the north-eastern peneplane. The
the dissected plateau surface, is very thinly settled. former lies over 1,800' above sea level and the latter
Habitations have grown up either on the top of the over 1,200 feet above sea level. That the northerly
hills and ridges or at the foot of the rounded hills. flowing streams seem to possess greater erosive
The river banks here seem to attract very few power than the southerly flowing rivers may be
settlements. Over the peneplane, generally two or shown clearly by measuring their gradients.
three miles away from the river banks consolidated The central hilly tract is covered with open sal
settlements are found. The entire region becomes jungles and also at places with open mixed jungles.
conspicuous by the absence of any modem means Trees are also scattered over the peneplanes. Besides,
of communication. There is only one Kachcha road artificial groves surround the rural settlements and
which runs from Chainpur to Rajadera, a branch of the Grand Trunk Road is also lined with trees.
which goes to Lohardaga. Consolidated settlements are marked on the
‘P ats’ and on the cultivated lands over the
H azaribagh District peneplanes. The badly eroded lands on the
The sheet No. 72 H/12 represents a portion of peneplanes and the central hilly region are almost
the Hazaribagh District. At a glance over the map devoid of settlements. In the hilly region a few
three main features of relief become obvious; (i) habitations have grown up at the foot of the hills.
The central hilly region; (ii) the north-eastern Except the Grand Trunk Road and Hazaribagh—
peneplane; (Hi) the south-western peneplane. The Bagodar Road there is no other modem means of
divide between the north-easterly flowing rivers and communication. Most of the region is served only
the south-westerly flowing rivers is prominently by foot tracks.
broad and extensive, with a scarp face on the north
or north-east and very gentle slope on the south or Badland Topography of the Rewa State
south-west. Such extensive and level-topped divides The sheet No. 64A/14 shows a typical bad land
are locally known as Pats. The rim or edge of the topography in Rewa State, along the Bhadar nadi
Pat aR)ears to be formed by the 1,950 feet contour. and its tributary, the Halphal nadi (Fig. 128). It may
The divide is generally decreasing in elevation be marked here that even the forest covered areas
towards the south-east where the average height is have been badly eroded by the running water. These
only 1,900 feet above sea level. But in the south­ lands present a contrast to the adjoining agricultural
east, the monotony of the surface of the divide is land with regard to the pattern of settlements. The
 \

in t e r p r e t a t io n o f t o p o g r a p h ic a l m a ps 113

9arKot^.Q

^bhni

P ig h ib « t^

Fig. 126

former is made conspicuous by more or less complete which are evenly distributed. These settlements are
absence of setUements there, while the agricultural connected with one another by camel roads which
lands are studded with consolidated rural setUements traverse the entire region, forming geometrical
designs over the surface. It may also be noted that
the plateau surface is above 1.500 feet and the ridge
PU T
tops are also devoid of settlements.

•eocf Gorakhpur District

The sheet No. 63 N/11 dqiicts the portion of
Fig. 127. Profile drawn ilong SW to NE on Fig. 126. . ^ been recenUy
included in Deona District. TTiis is a typical plain of
114 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

the Ghaghara presents a contrast to the divide of the

Ghaghara and R ^ ti with regard to topography. Here
the surface is rarely affected by floods and the Tals
and lakes are insignificant featiures. The settlements
are evenly scattered and the population seems to be
vCTy dense, while on the Ghaghara—^Rapti divide,
extensive tracts are devoid of settlements and only
a few habitations are unevwily scattered. There are
two important collecting and distributing centres to
serve this agric u ltu ra l region: (z) Barhaj, and (li)
Dohrighat Both of these urban centres have grown
up on the Ghaghara river which provides a good
waterway. The main lines of communication of the
region also centre on these towns. They are also
reached by the branch lines of the B.N.W.R. which
is now known as N.E.R. It may be remarked that
the region, as a whole, lacks good means of
communication. Kachcha roads and foot paths are
common lines along which the rural traffic may flow.

Plains of West Bengal

The sheet No. 73M/13 represents portions of
Bok«ii Birbhum, Burdwan and Murshidabad Districts of
West Bengal. The plains here are characterised by
exclusively rural settlements. The establishments are
permanent and evenly distributed, but the villages
are fairly large containing clustered houses. The
villages are separated by patches of cultivated land
Fig. 128 and are linked together by footpaths and minor roads.
The effect of physiography on village-setting is
the Ghaghara and the Rapti rivers. It is charactCTised well marked (See Fig. 111). Habitations seem to
by a uniformly flat surface whose monotony seems avoid generally marshy lowlands and seem to hug
to be broken not even by a mound. The most relatively higher grounds which are quite immune
remarkable feature of the region is the Ghaghara— from the flood waters of the rivers. Meander loops
Rapti divide which is studded with a number of tals are vacant spaces, while higher banks in the concave
and ox-bow lakes formed by highly meandering side of the rivers are not unfavourable sites for
rivers (See Fig. 129). The Ghaghara and Rapti are human settlements. The influence of water supply
notorious for their huge flood during the rainy season on the site of settlements is remarkable. Habitations
whens they change their course from time to time. arc genially found close to the tanks. The size of
It is at this period when they cut through the the villages is large with compact pattern. This is
meanders and straighten their courses. Mark the bed probably due to the collective effort required for the
of the Ghaghara which is at places, more than two c(xistruction of tanks. Another important feature is
miles broad and is blocked by sandy shoals. These plantation of trees around the viUages. Here the
shoals are sometime very extensive over which orchard is not unimportant is the village planning
because it provides the people with nutritious food
settlements grow up and the rivCT is brided.
which compensates for the lack of adequate nutrition
The tract lying east of the Rapti and north of
V
INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 115

aaN.iRit

Fig. 129

ai 10

» •
MASULIF^ATNAM
1

BANDAR
a S . FO R T

Fig. 130
 7"
116 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

in rice which is the chief diet of the people. Thus, There are no consolidated settlements except a few
the tanks and the trees play an important role in the ones like Firoqiur and Umedpur, both of which have
setting of the rural habitations of West Bengal. grown up along the water courses of the Baleshwar
and Kachar.
The absolute absence of tanks is the marked
feature of the area {See the bottom square from the
left in Fig. 111). The reason is not far to seek. The
hydrographic control on the distribution of
population is obvious. The presence of innumerable
streams is a good insurance of innumerable streams
is a good insurance against water supply. Therefore
the settlements are very small and scattered along
the river courses. It may be noted that there are
practically no settlements along the main Baleshwar
A N X D A river which is a tidal stream. This is probably due
to the inundation of the adjoining areas during rains.
Here too, the role of the orchard is not
insignificant The dwellings are located within the
enclosures of trees and in the forests. On the north­
west of the Baleshwar river the settlements are
located mainly on the patches of the forests and
seem to avoid cultivated fields. The dearth of
agricultural economy is compensated fw by forest
economy. The palm trees are abundant in the region,
whose fruits are commonly used by the people.

Orissa Coastal Region

The bottom square from the right in Fig. I l l
represents a part of sheet No. 73L and P and 741.
The linear pattOTi of rural settlements may be maiked
here. Both permanent and temporary habitations are
found in the region. Temporary huts are located near
the coastal margins in the areas which are liable to
inundation by high tide water. The houses cling to
the roads and avoid river-sides which are not free
from the danger of floods. As the genwal level of
the land is low, settlements have been established
over high levels and along embankments which
Fig. 131 provide safety fixMn floods. The tempcaary huts are
probably fishing centres used during the fishing
East Bengal Plains season.
Sheet No. 79F/14 rqjresents portions of the
Bakarganj and Khulna Districts of East Bengal. This M asulipatam and the Adjoining Region in the
plain regicHi is characterised by scattoed types of Kistna District
settlements. The region is dotted with p^manent Sheet No. 65H/4 dqncts the coastal to p o g r ^ y
establishments being evenly distributed throughout near Masulipatam. The m(Kt remarkable feature of
 INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS 117

the region is the emergent coastline which is Most of the hall^alle zamindari tract seems to be
characterised by its unique straightness and backed marshy and is liable to flood. The tendency to
by extensive mud flats traversed by shallow creeks reclaim this marshland is shown by the presence of
(vide Fig. 130). Tlie sand deposits near the coast a few cultivated patches there. The site of
made by waves may be noted. The vast area south Masulipatam with Bandar Fort area may be carefully
and east of Masulipatam and north and east of the examined. All the lines of inland communication
Kistna river is uniformly low flat land formed by converge on Masulipatam. The Bezwada-
mud deposits, and it is liable to flood by rising tide Masulipatam Railway (M. & S.MJi.) goes up to the
water. The entire bed of the Kistna river lying in wharf of Bandar Fort. The Masulipatam canal with
this region is affected by tidal currents. The old port its many miles of distributaries serves nearly the
of Masulipatam, now lies about 4 miles inland due whole agricultural tract
perhaps to these mud deposits extending sea-ward.
The whole of the mud flat is covered with tidal East Godavari lilstrict
forest vegetation, and particularly the Bandar Fort Sheet No. 65L/5 rejrosents the Cocanada Bay
forest is reserved. The ‘protective bunds’ erected and the adjoining coastal region. The most
on both the sides of the Kistna river throughout its outstanding feature of the area is the long hook which
length may be marked. Nearly all the settlements of encloses the Cocanada Bay on the east (See Fig.
the Kistna valley have been established above these 131). Note how the hook has been formed by sand
embankments. It may be further noted as to how the deposits to a height of 10 or 15 feet above highwater
mud flats are made remarkable by the complete line. The sand deposits are still continuing along the
absence of settlements. Consolidated rural margins which lie below the high water line. Not
settlements have grown up west of the Kistna river unlike Masulipatam area the coastal region is
and west and north-west of Masulipatam as this traversed by shallow tidal creeks and covered with
whole area needs to be reclaimed and then cultivated. tidal forests vegetation. The mangrove swamps and
Coringa Reserved Forest and Coringa Extension
Reserved Forest are remarkable. The mud fiats and
forest areas are devoid of any settlements. Very small
rural settlements are scattered in Polekurru Zamindari
tract over open scrub lands. The residential portion
of Cocanada lies on€ mile west of the Jetty which
is connected by a railroad. The lighthouse and
beacons may be noted there.

Mangalore Coastal Region in the South Kanara

District
Sheet No. 48L/13 represents the coastal
topography in the neighbourhood of Mangalore
which is backed by the Western Ghats. The most
remarkable feature of the region is the offshore bar
sheltering the pc« of Mangalore which has grown
up in the foik of the Netravati and Gurpur rivers
(See Fig. 132). The sea near the coast is 5 to 10
fa^oms deep. The coastline is strikingly straight,
with 50 feet contour running almost parallel and
close to the coast. The background of the coast
Fig. 132
presents highly dissected plateau surface with very
lis ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

ibw relief and nowhere rising over 700 feet above to the coast and the other about a mile inland on
sea level. The general elevation of the highly both the sides of a metalled road, the formw being
denuded plateau appears to be about 400 feet above perhaps the coastal fishing settlem ents. (Hi)
sea level. The whole surface is cut into low and Alignment of settlements along the foot of the hills
flat-topped hills separated by relatively wide valleys. and in the rivCT valleys, (iv) Absence of settlements
The bed of the Netravati and Gurpur rivCTs studded on the hill tops.
with sandy shoals and islands may be noted. All The main lines of communication are also
over the region the poor growth of vegetation will running, more or less, parallel to the coast The port
attract our notice. Palm trees may be seen along the of Mangalore is reached by the S J. Railway coming
coast and in the river valleys. from the south. The cuttings and embankments made
Regarding the pattern and distribution of for laying out the railroad exhibit the uneven nature
settlements, the following points may be noted: (i) of topography even immediate to the coast. The
The urban settlement of Mangalore with the site of inland t^xain seems to be difficult for tran^xxt which
the port (ii) The double line of rural settlements is gwierally traversed by foot tracks or kachcha roads.
north of Mangalore, one lying quite close and parallel
 Chapter 6

W EATHER MAP

A weather map is the representation of the weather of 1914-18 the Department was expanded and the
of a portiwi of the earth or part of it on a flat surface. central office shifted to Poona.
The term weather denotes the condition of the In India at present there are some three hundred
weather elements at a particular place and time. and fifty observing stations. These are grouped into
G enially six weath^ elements are recognised. These five classes. The first class observatories have along
are temperature, {xessure, wind, humidity, cloud and with eye-reading instruments self-recording
precipitation. Dust and atmosphmc electricity are instruments also. These transmit observations twice
sometimes also included. Thus we can define a daily to the forecasting stations. The second class
weather map as a map of the wcx-ld or part of it stations have generally only eye-reading instruments,
showing at a stated time numerically and with the and these also telegraph weather messages twice
help of symbols the temperature and pressure daily, the third class observatraies differ from 'the
conditions, and direction and velocity of wind, second class in that these telegraph observations to
humidity, clouds, visibility, nature and amount of the forecasting centres only once a day. The fourth
precipitation. class stations record only temperature and rainfall
It cannot be stated definitely when the first conditions and they do not telegraph messages daily.
weather map was prepared. It is obvious that the The fifth class stations only record rainfall and they
necessity of having a weather map was felt most by telegn^h at 8 hours local time the amount of rainfall
sailors. In 1688 Edmund Hailey published a map for during the past 24 hours, if any.
30° N and 30° S latitudes which showed trade winds At fixed hours in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd class
and the direction of the prevailing mcwisoon. This observattxies the trained observer reads the barometer
map cannot be takwi to be a typical weather map or barograph, notes the temperature and the directions
because it denotes the weather condition ovw a and strength of the wind; also the amount and type
period of time. For the preparation of a weathCT map of cloud; amount of precipitation if any and the
showing the weather elements at different places fcM* visibility. AH these results are transmitted by code,
a particular point of time a quick system of s id in g to the forecasting stations. These are supplemented
inf^ormation was necessary. Thus, with the advent of by observations from the 4th and 5th class stations
the electric telegn^h it became possible to prepare and also by the weather messages received from
such weather maps. With further improvements in ships approaching the coast. Since the messages are
the system of news transmission by the wireless sent by telegnq>h or by wireless telegraphy they are
telegraph, weather information fix)m a large area received in a short time at the central office where
could be gathered at a central station. the observations are immediately entered on a
The necessity of starting a Meteorological weather map. Upper air observations which help in
Service in India was first brought to the notice of forecasting are procured from hill stations,
the Government by the Asiatic Society of Bengal. aeroplanes, pilot balloons, etc., and are plotted
The service was started by the Government in 1864 separately.
with its headquarters at Simla. After the World War

X
 X

120
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

The Observations Other liquid. The aneroid barometer is a sort of a

metallic chamber with a thin lid of elastic metal,
Pressure ^ m o st all air has been extracted from the box and
Of all the weather elements it is hermetically sealed. There is a spring inside the
which enter into the preparation box pressing the lid outwards against the pressure of
of the weather chart atmospheric the atmosphere. When the pressure of the atmosphere
pressure is the most important. increases the lid is pressed inwards; and whens the
If we take a thick-walled tube pressure decreases this spring inside the box forces
closed at one end and of a length the lid outside. These relative movements are made
of about 33 inches, fill it with to rotate a needle ovct a dial which, thus, indicates
mercury and after closing the open the atmospheric pressure. (See Fig. 134).
end with the thumb invert the tube
and immerse it in a bowl of
mercury and then remove the
fmger, we shall fmd that although
the mercury in the tube drops a
little, the length of the column
remaining in the tube is about 30
inches. This shows obviously that
the pressure of the atmosphere on
the surface of the mercury in the
bowl balances the mercury column
in the tube. The weight of the
downward pressure of the
atmosphere is equal to the weight
of the mercury column. If the area
of the cross section of the tube is
known we can calculate the
pressure of the atmosphere per unit
area. This pressure is equal to a
weight of 15 lbs for every square
inch. This is the principle in the
construction of the barometer. It
is not necessary to go into the
ccxistruction of the barometer and
it will suffice to state that when
Fig. 133. Mercury
the atmospheric pressure is high it Barometer. Fig. 134. Aneroid Bvometer.
balances a higher column of
mercury than when it is low. The instrument is so Due to its light weight and portability the aneroid
constructed that accurate measurements can be taken barometer is convenient for many puiposes, e.g., in
on the height of the column of mercury. (See Fig mountaineoing and exploration. The defect is that
133). the readings do not remain accurate for a prokmged
The pressure of the atmosphere can also be period and that is why in obsovatories the mercury
type is generally used.
measured with what is known as the aneroid
In fuat class observatories a continuous record
barometer, which does not contain mercury or any
of the atm osph^c pressure is obtained with the help
 WEATHER MAP 121
of a barograph. The working principle is the same pressure over the globe a mercurial barometer at the
as that in an aneroid barometer. There are a number pole would read lower than one at the equator. To
of vacuum boxes placed one above the other so that eliminate this error all barometric readings are
the displacement is large. A system of levers corrected to the value of a standard latitude which is
magnifies this displacement and the movement is taken to be 45“. When the pressure values have,
recorded by a pen on a paper attached to a rotating thus, been corrected (other corrections are also
drum. The reading of a barograph is not, however,
applied), they are plotted on a weather map, and
very accurate and frequently it is to be standardised
isobars that is, lines joining adjacent places with
by comparison with a mercury barometer.
equal pressure values are drawn.
In most countries for meteorological purpose
the pressure is measured in millibars. Formerly the Wind
units were inches of mercury or millimetres of
The horizontal movement of air is measured
mercury. A millibar is equal to a iM-essure of 1,000
under the term “wind”. Generally on weather maps
dyTOs per square centimeter. “A dyne is the force
two things are indicated regarding wind. These are
which applied to a mass of one gram during one
direction of movement and the velocity of movement
second will produce a velocity of one centimetre per
second.” A pressure of 1 bar or 1000 millibar (also Wind Direction
written as mb.) corresponds to 750.076 millimetres
T^e direction from which a wind blows is the
or 29.5306 inches of mercury at 273“ Absolute (32“
F.) £md in latitude 45“. direction of the wind; fw example, if wind is blowing
from east to w est it is an E wind. The direction is
The observed barometric pressures are chiefly
CMTCcted for: always specified in terms of the geographical
direction Md not magnetic or compass direction.
(fl) The altitude of the place.
The direction from which the wind is blowing is
Q>) The temperature of the instrument.
also krown as the “windward” side, and the direction
(c) The latitude of the place.
to which it is blowing is known as the “leeward”
The pressure of the atmosphere on a surface
side. In our example east is the windward, and west
decreases with altitude, i.e., the pressure becomes
is the leeward side. Sometimes the directitxi is also
less and less as one ascends higher and higher. So
stated in degrees when the zero reckoning is the
all readings are corrected to sea level value before
geographic^ north, and is measured from this point
b«ng plotted on the weather m ^ ; because if it is
in a clockwise direction. The wind never blows with
not done the pressure variations indicated on the
steady motion for any considerable time. It blows in
map would be largely due to variation in the local
a senes of gusts and luUs caused by obstrucUons
configuration. The reduction is easily done with the
like trees, houses, etc. When the variation is large
help of a table. It amounts approximately to a
the wind IS said to be gusty; and when the variation
reduction of 1" for every 900 feet of ascent (or 3
IS small it is caUed steady. In choosing a site for
mb. for every 100 ft). The correcticMi for temperature
wind ^servation it is, thus, important that it should
is necessary because due to relative expansion an
be as far as possible away from obstructions. As the
instrument placed in the warm air of a room would
velocity of wind varies with height above sea level
indicate higher pressure than one placed in the open
It IS nwessary to specify the height at which the’
coolo- air outside. The pressure values are reduced
parucular velocity was observed. On weather maps
to a standard temperature which is commonly taken
^ v e t o y and direction refer to a height of a b ^ t
as that of the freezing point of water, i.e., 32“ F. The
33 ft. When wind changes steadily in a clockwise
poles are nearer to the centre of the earth than places
on the equator and so the force of gravity reaches a ^ u o n U is said to “veer” and when it changes in
maximum at the poles and a minimum at the equator. T- ^ “ “'>ack” (See
At a given time if there were uniform atmospheric Fig. 135). The direcUon of the wind is measured by
an instrument called a windvane or a weather-cock
122 ELEMENTTS OF PRACTICAL CTOGRAPHY

VEERIKKB

BACKING

Fig. 135

which is essentially a balanced lever which turns

fieely about a vertical axis even with a slight wind. Fig. 136
In its simplest form it consists of a light woodCT
structure which presents a pointed face towards the per second (m. p. s.). Long before anemometers were
direction from which the wind is blowing and a broad known the vel(xity of wind was determined from
face towards the leeward side. The structure rotates the effect of wind on objects which are commonly
(HI a v^tical lod which also carries a cross just below moved by wind, e.g., leaves and Inanches of trees,
the vane. The arms of the cross indicate the four etc. As early as 1806 Admiral Beaufort proposed a
cardinal points. (See Fig. 136). scale fcH estimating wind velocity. The scale was
originally meant for sailors but it is being used with
Wind Velocity slight modification even at the present day (see
The velocity of the wind is measured by means Table 1)
of an anemcHneter. The most common type is the For the rec(Hding of wind velcx:ity the observer
ciq) aneiiKHneter. It consists of four hemi^ierical notes in an anemometer the average wind over a
hollow ciq>s mounted on horizontal arms which are few minutes and not isolated gusts. Then he converts
attached to a vertical spindle. When the wind Mows the velocity of Beaufort number from a table and
the cup>s are pushed, the horizontal arm rotates and then after notmg die direction of the wind a telegram
this causes the vertical spindle to rotate. At the is sent to the 0entral StaticHi in a ctxlified fcam. The
bottom of the spindle there is a recording mechanism value is plotted on the weather map. The Fig. 137
which indicates the wind velocity in miles per hour shows that at the station A, a gentle wind is blowing
(m. p. h.) or feel per second (f. p. s.) or in metres from the west with a velocity of 10 miles per hour.
 WEATHER MAP 123
\
T able I. Wind character, 33 Ft. above the ground (rfter A. Beaufort, 1806

Beaufort Wind Arrow Speeds Common effects

No. m. p. h.

0 Calm 0 Calm. Smoke rises vertically.

1 Light air V 2
— O Direction of wind shown by smdce drift, but
not by wind vanes.
2 Light breeze 5
\ ------ o Wind felt on face; leaves rustle; ordinary vane
moved by wind.
3 Gentle breeze \ n 10
-------o Leaves and s m ^ twigs in constant motion, wind
extends light flag.
4 Moderate breeze W ------ o 15 Raises dust and loose paper, small N’anches are
moved.
5 Fresh breeze \\ n 21 Small trees in leaf begin to sway, crested
wavelets form on inland waters.
6 Strong breeze \\\ 28 Large branches in motion* whistling heard in
' telegraph wires; umbrell^used with difficulty.
7 Moderate gale WN n — 6 35 Whole trees in motion; inconvenience felt when
walking against wind.
8 Fresh gale \\\\ 42
——O Breaks twigs off trees; generally impedes
progress.
9 Strong gale WWs ——0 50 Slight stmctuial damage occurs (chimney pots
and s l a ^ removed).^ ^
10 Whole gale 59
\\\\\ Seldom experienced inland; trees uprooted,
considerable structural d ^ a g e occurs.
11 Storm \\\\\^ 69 Very rarely . experience, accompanied by
widespread damage.
12 Hurricane \\N \N \ Above Most destructive. *
75

Deflection o f Winds V'

and was put forw^d by PerrelTn the form of a law
From the weather map No. 151 it will be seen which states that b^ause of the earth’s rotation every
that winds blow from a region of high pressure to a body moving oh the surface of the earth is deflected
region of low pressure. But they do not blow straight to the right in the northern hemisphere; and to die
from the high pressure to the region of low pressure left in the southern hemisphere. A similar law was
but are deflected to the right in the northern stated by Buys-Ballot in 1850 which states that if an
hemisphere and to the left in the southern observer stands with his back to the wind the low
hemisphere. This deflection is an effect of the Earth’s pressure lies on his left in the northern hemisphere
rotaUon. The diagram No. 137 shows by dotted and to the right injhe southern hemisphere.
arrows the direction which wind would take in the
From the same weather map it is ciear that the
northern hemisphere on a homogeneous non-iotating
wind Wows with a greater veipcity in legions where
earth and the complete arrows show the direction
the isobars are closer than where they are drawn
due to the rotation of the earth. The deflecting force
fairer apart This is what is expected and it shows
was first lucidly mathematically explained by Coriole
w h w the change of pressure in an unit distance is
124 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

\ \ -o A

L.P.

Fig. 138
fig. 137
and away from buildings, that is, the most open area
high. In other words, we can say that where the is chosen. In tropical countries because of the intense
gradient is steep, that is, the change in pressure in a heat of the sun rays, thatched roofed huts with open
given distance is large, the wind velocity is also sides are generally used as shelter, but experiments
large, and where the gradient is light the wind have shown that Stevenson’s screen also gives quite
velocity is small. The pressure gradient can be easily good result and in India a large number of the
determined by measuring the perpendicular distance thatched shelters have been replaced by Stevenson’s.
between two consecutive isobars and then dividing Screen (Fig. 138).
the pressure difference between these two isobars Both the maximum and minimum temperatures
by this distance. attained during the past twenty-four hours are
recorded. The mean temperature for that day is
Tem perature obtained from the average of the two readings. The
In meteorology the real air temperature is monthly mean temperature is the average temperature
generally obtained by means of a sheltered of the daily means for all the days of the month. The
thermometer. The shelter is used to screen the normal temperature for a particular day, say, 1st of
thermometer from direct sunshine or reflected radiant January is the average of temperatures of that day
heat The Stevenson’s screen is generally used for fw large number of years, e.g., 30 or 40 years.
this purpose. It is a double walled wooden box which Similarly, the normal maximum temperature and the
admits a free movement of air. The box is painted normal minimum temperature for any day can be
white on the surface to reflect direct heat. The box found out.
stands at a height of three feet six inches from the Since temperature varies with the altitude of the
ground and the height of the thermometer bulb inside station above sea level, the temperature values shown
the box is at about 4' from the ground. The screen on weather mjq>s are reduced values. On the average
is placed in an area not enclosed by walls, or trees. the temperature decreases 3“ F. per 1000 feet of
 WEATHER MAP 125

ascent If lines are drawn through places having the zero, when objects cannot be easily seen beyond 25
same temperature, we get what are called isotherm metres, to visibility 9, when objects can be easily
lines and these help to indicate regions of high and seen at a distance of 50 kilometres. This scale with
low temperature.
slight modifications is used by the Meteorological
Departments of the various countries.
Humidity
The term humidity indicates the condition of Coludiness
the atmosphere in respect to water vapour; when the
The amount of sky covered by cloud is usually
air has a high moisture content is may be described estimated in tenths of the sky covered with clouds.
as humid. The amount of moisture that the air can
On this scale 0 represents an entirely cloudless sky,
hold increases with temperature, i.e., warm air can
and 10 represents a sky totally covered by clouds;
‘hold more moisture than cold air. The maximum
and if the cloudiness is 7, it means that 7/10 of the
amount of water vapour (expressed in grams per
sky is covered with clouds. The observers usually
cubic feet or in grams per cubic metre) that the air
sub-divide the sky mentally into four quadrants and
can hold at a given temperature is called the vapour
then combine the estimates of each quadrant For
capacity. The air is said to be saturated when it
symbols of cloud cover on Indian daily weather
holds the maximum amount of water vapour that it maps. See Fig. 173.
can hold at that temperature. Fw instance, if the air
at a temperature of 70° P. contains 8.0 grams of Cloud Form
water vapour per cubic foot, it is saturated. The air
In p n eral 10 cloud form are recognised and for
is not always saturated with respect to water vapour
convenience these are grouped into three classes as
and the actual amount that it contains at a given follows:
temperature is known as the absolute humidity at
that temperature. The relaUon between the actual 1. High clouds (25,000—35,000 ft.)
amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere (0 Cirrus (Ci.): Detached feather like clouds.
at a given temperature, and the maximum amount of Generally white in colour and of a silky appearance.
water vapour that the atmosphere can hold at that (ii) Cirrostratus (Cist.): A thin whitish ^veil
temperature is caUed the relative humidity. This ratio covering the sky, and it produces haloes of the sun
IS always expressed as a percentage. If, for instance, or moon.
a given air at 70° P. contains 4 grams of water vapour (Hi) Cirrocumulus (Cicu.): Small globular
per cubic foot then the relative humidity is masses arranged in groups or lines which often
The actual amount of water vapour resembles the ripples of sands on the seashore.
present per cubic foot 2. Medium clouds (10,000—25,000 ft.)
_ . xlOO
ine maximum amount of water vapour (iv) Altocumulus (Acu): Rather large flattened
that it can hold per cubic foot at globular layers or patches arranged in groups, in
that temperature lines or waves.
(v) Altostratus (AsL): Similar to cinoslratus it
=ixlO O IS striated or fibrous in appearance but without halo
8 phenomena.
= 50 p.c.
3. Low clouds (up to 10,000 ft.)
Visibility 1 StratTCumulus (Stcu.); Rolls of large
This term is used to indicate the transparency globular ttok clouds ananged in groups, in lines or
of the atmosphere and is measured by the distance in waves. Scunetimes the edges join together and the
cloud extends over the whole sky.
at which prominent objects can be seen and the
details discerned. The scale of visibility varies from ( '’'O N im bostratus(N bst.): A (iark grey uniform
layer of low amoiphbus rainy cloud.
 7^

126 ELEMENTS OF HlACnCAL GEOGRAPHY

(viii) Cumulus (Cu.): Thick clouds with a c : generally cloudy—detached opening clouds,
horizontal base and dome-shaped upper surface. d : drizzle.
(ix) Cumulonimbus (Cunb.): Known as the e : wet air without rain falling, a copious deposit
“storm” of “thundo’ clouds.” A flat base generally of water on trees, buildings, etc.
with rain or snow. The upper surface shows great f : fog, visibility 220— 1,1(X) yd.
vertical develc^ment with cumuliform summits rising fe : wet fog.
in the form of mountains or towers. fs : fog over sea (coast station).
(x) Stratus (Sl): The lowest type of cloud formed fg : fog on lower ground (inland station).
by the condensation of lifted fog. It appears in F : thick fog, visibility less than 220 yd.
horizontal sheets or layers of uniform cloud. g : gloom,
h : hail,
Rainfall i : intermittent.
The amount of rain is recorded with the help of jp : precipitation within sight of station,
a rain-gauge. There are quite a number of patterns ks : stOTm of drifting snow.
of rain-gauges in use; in all these the aim is to collect KQ : line squall.
all the rain that falls in a given area and to prevent 1 : lighming.
loss by evaporation. In general the rain-gauge m : mist, visibility 1,100—^2,200 yd.
consists of a circular funnel usually 5" to 8” in o : overcast sky, i.e., the whole sky covered
diameter which collects the rain. The collected water with one impervious cloud,
is conducted by a narrow bare tube into a copper p : passing showers,
can or bottle. There is an outar can of copper sheet q : squalls,
which supports the funnel. In case the inner vessel r : rain,
becomes fiill, the outer can collects the overflowing s : snow,
water. It is essential that the rain-gauge should be rs : sleeL
placed in an open situation with the rim generally t : thunder,
12" above ground level. The water collected is tl : thundCTStorm.
measured by a measure-glass commonly graduated u : ugly threatening sky.
to tenths and hundredths of an inch. V : unusual visibility of distant objects,
The am ount of snowfall is measured by w : dew.
collecting the snow and expressing it in: terms of X : hoar-frost
inches of height or in terms of weight of water after y : dry air—^less than60 per cent humidity,
melting the snow. z : haze, range of visibility1,1(X) yd or more,
but less than 2,200 yd.
Capital letters indicate intensity o f the
Weather Symbols phenomenon, and slight intensity by a small suffix
On weather maps for the sake of convenience, 0 . Repetition of letters indicate continuity and
rainfall and other elements of weather are represented intermittence by prefixing the letter i. Thus :
by symbols or abbreviation of names. Such a system R : heavy rain,
was devised by Admiral Beaufort in 1806 and was r : (moderate) rain,
later modified by him in 1830. The same table is or : slight rain.
even now being used with a few additions (Table 2). RR : continuous heavy rain. ^
IT : continuous (moderate) rain,
Beaufort NotatkHi iro : intermittent slight rain.
b : blue sky—ot more than a quarter covered Actual existing weather is demarcated from
with cloud. preceding conditions by a ‘solidus’, thus: b/r, blue
be : ^ partly cloudy—one-half covered. open sky after rain. The sign (—) indicates decrease
 WEATHER MAP 127

in the intensity of the particular phenomenon and observation. This rise or fall in pressure is known as
the sign (+) indicates increase in intensity. the barometric tendency and the nature of the change,
A symbol enclosed within brackets thus: (1) whether the fall or rise was continuous or there was
indicates the occurrence of the phenomenon in the first a fall and then a continuous rise or any other
vicinity of the station. Indices o, 1,2, may be used variety of change, is known as the “characteristic”
to denote intensity.
which is also reported. If lines are drawn through
On weather maps in addition to the above places having the same tendency we get what are
obsem tions generally the barometric tendency is known as isallobars.
also indicated. The stations which are equipped with In modem weather maps the type of cloud and
barogr^hs report the amount and nature of change the individual amounts of different types are also
in pressure in the three hours preceding the time of indicated by symbols.

T able 2. Forms o f Meteorological Symbols approved by the

International Meteorological Organization, Warsaw, 1935

Pure air
0 Shower of Snow i__1 Hoar Frost
GO Haze Shower of Rain & OO Glazed Frost
— Mist Snow (Sleet) Soft Rime
V
— Fog V < 1km Soft Hail Hard Rime
V
Shallow Fog Small Hail
A Gale
' ''K
— Ground Fog Hail
▲ O Sunshine
Frost Fog Distant Lightning © Solar Halo
9 Drizzle
R Thunderstorm Lunar Halo
©
• Rain Drifting Snow
A (High up)
© Solar Corona

Snow Snowstorm
'X Lunar Corona
Sleet Drifting Snow
A Rainbow
(Near the Ground)
A Granular Snow Dust or Sandstorm
S-
Aurora Borealis
A Grains of Ice Dust Devil
>CX Mirage
Ice Needles m Snow Lying
Zodiacal Light
V Shower of Rain Dew
 128 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Some Weather Phenomena Defined Squall

A blast of wind of higher velocity than average
Hail which rises suddenly and after lasting for a few
More or less transparent, hard pallets of ice of minutes dies away comparatively suddenly.
various shapes and sizes, which fall from
cumulonimbus clouds. These attain a great size and Line Squall
the recorded weights range up to 2 lbs. When the A heavy squall of wind associated with the
grains are opaque white and very in size between 2 passage of a long arch of low, black cloud stretching
to 5 mm in diameter it is called a soft hail. In case for several miles in approximately a straight line.
the grains consist of a nucleus of soft hail covered The heavy increase in velocity is accompanied by a
by a thin layer of clear ice, it is called a small hail. veering of the wind.

Snow
Corona and Halo
A feathery or fine needle like precipitation of These are coloured rings surrounding the Sun
ice crystals. The crystals may fall singly or a number or Moon. In the case of a corona which is produced
of them may combine to form large flakes. by diffraction of light by water drops the space
immediately adjacent to the luminary is bluish white
Sleet while the outer ring is brownish red. In case of a
Precipitation of either snow and rain or melting halo which is fOTmed by refraction of light the colour
snow and rain together. sequence is just the opposite.
Frost
Aurora Borealis
Sometimes the temperature of the air falls below
A luminous meteoric phenomenon seen in
freezing point and the water vapour is directly
greatest magnificence in the Arctic region. It is
converted into crystals of ice. A deposit of these
believed to be electric in origin, and usually sp e ars
crystals is called frost or hoarfrost. When the
in the form of streams of light ascending towards
temperature of the air is below freezing point, rain
the zenith and stretching in an easterly and westerly
falling on exposed surfaces freezes to a layer of
direction. A similar phenomenon in the southern
smooth ice. This is known as glazed frost.
hemisphere is known as the Aurora Australis.
Rime
Zodiacal Light
Soft rime: When frost and wet fog occur
together rough ice crystals grow-out to windward or “A cone of faint light in the sky, which is seen
exposed objects. stretching along the zodiac from the western horizon
Hard rime: Ice crystals deposited from wet air after the twilight of sunset has faded, and from the
or drizzle chiefly on vertical surfaces. eastern horizon before the twilight of sunrise has
begun.”*
Mist and Haze
In both the cases the visibility is less than two Mirage
kilometres. In case of mist the obscurity is due to Due to refraction of light by the atmosphere
ccmdensed water particle and in case of haze the certain illusory appearances are produced, e.g.. the
obscurity is produced by foreign solid matter, such appearance of the illusion of a sheet of w at^ in the
as dust or smoke. desert, the duplication of distant objects, etc.

^Meteorological Glossary, H.M.S. OfGce, p. 222.

\ J
 ■kt

129

jttled type
sssion and
30 changes
, Although
it different
all and the

Weatb<i ;h debated
lation of a
2 to a low.
f warm air,
s a circular
lepression.
jhown that
C I
cold rather
latitudes
lonths th ^

mation of
nd cold air
heories put
and that of
h-. C!
ount of the
clo u t 3ry will be
jssions are
K; I of air with
3se contact,
e northern
south-west
•uth-west to
'.V : I c latitudes,
le by side,
imes one is
W ing the two
c surface of
pes slightly
K) to one in
^id :
th- ould always
sr equatorial
winds may
V vv- ection. The
liscontinuity
ig properties
3ld,^-|^y
opy&,^ir is* "s
 128

Some We

Hail
More 01
various sh
cumulonimb
the recordec
grains are o\
to 5 mm in
the grains c(
by a thin la>

Snow
A feath<
ice crystals.'
of them ma)

Sleet
Precipitt
snow and ra

Frost
Sometinr
freezing poi
converted in
crystals is (
temperature i
falling on e:
smooth ic e .'

Rime
Soft rim
together roug
exposed obje
Hard rin
or drizzle ch

Mist and Hs
In both t
kilometres. Ii
ccxidensed w
obscurity is {
as dust or sn
-

*Meteon^
 —
-----
..r

WEATHER MAP 129

Isobaric Systems other depressions are very slow. An unsettled type

The isobars on weather maps are sometimes of weather is carried along with the depression and
ged in regular fashion. These isobaric shapes the change in the type of weather depends on changes
are o various types and they are generally associated which take place in the depression itself. Although
wi particular types of weather. Only the more the weather varies in minor details with different
common systems wiU be considered here. depressions, there is a family likeness in all and the
weather is of a defmite type.
Depressions or Cyclones The origin of a depression is a much debated
... isobars are arranged in circles or question. Older ideas associated the formation of a
ellipses with pressure lowest at the centre, the system depression with local heating giving rise to a low.
is known as a depression or a cyclone {See Fig. pressure at the base with rising column of warm air,
139). If this system is followed on successive days and the low pressure cat the centre creates a circular
it will be seen that the system moves in a definite wind giving rise to the formation of the depression.
direction from day to-day and perhaps after a few This theory was rejected when it was shown that
days it gives place to some other pressure system. depressions on the average tend to be cold rather
The size of a dejwession varies greatly, SOTie may than warm. Moreover, in temperate latitudes
be only a hundred miles in diameter and others may depressions are more frequent in winter months than
have a diameter of over two thousand miles. In some in summer.
the pressure near the centre is much lower than the Modem theories ascribe the formation of
surrounding area, while in others the central pressure depressions to the interaction of warm and cold air
is only slightly lower than the surrounding areas. masses. Notable amongst these are the theories put
forward by V. and J. Bjerknes of Bergen and that of
Prof. Exner of Vienna. Here a brief account of the
more commonly accepted Bjerknes theory will be
given. According to the theory, depressions are
formed only in regions where masses of air with
diverse characteristics are brought into close contact.
Such a condition is produced in the northern
hemisphere where cold north-east to south-west
moving polar winds meet the warmer south-west to
north-east moving winds from middle latitudes.
These air masses sometimes flow side by side,
sometimes against each other and sometimes one is
paitly above the other. The line separating the two
Fig. 139 air masses is termed polar front. The surface of
disconunuity is not vertical but it slopes slightly
The former kind is known as a deep depression northwards with a gradient of one in 100 to one in
and the latter a shallow depression. In the northern 200.
hemisphere the wind round a depression blows
It is not essential that the polar air should always
inwards in an anticlockwise direction and in the flow from N. E. to S. W. and the warmer equatorial
southeni hemisph^e the movement is clockwise. The
(tropical) air from S. W. to N. E. These winds may
strength of the wind depends on the steepness of the
curve round and flow in the same direction. The
barometric gradient; when the gradient is steep the
essential fact is that there is a surface of discontinuity
wind is also strong. The velocity of movement of a
depression varies greatly; some may move with a along which two air masses of contrasting properties
meet. {See Fig. 140). The polar air is cold,.
velocity of, say, 600 to 700 miles per day while
generally has a clear sky whereas l|e tropj^,aii-
 130 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

called the “lien of occlusion”. The depression is said

to be occluded and soon begins to decrease in
intensity, i.e., the cloud shower will gradually
diminish with the passage of the depression but the
line of occlusion will mark the passage of the cold
front with sharp showers.
The approach of a depression is generally
indicated by the appearance of cirrus clouds.
Obviously these clouds have been framed at the tip
of the wedge and as the warm front approaches the
observer the cirrus changes to lower clouds like
e f cirrostratus, also stratus and finally to nimbus which
precipitates rainfall. The rainfall is light at first and
grows in intensity and is heaviest when the warm
front has reached the place. The wind also is light
in the beginning and gradually increases in intensity
with the approach of the warm front. With the
passage of the warm front the falling barometer
becomes steady—the wind veers to south-wesL There
Hg. 140 is very little rainfall but the weather is muggy and
misty. With the forward progress of the depression
warm, moist and the sky is generally cloudy. Such the locality soon experiences the passage of the cold
a condition is not very stable and waves develop on front which is marked by a veer in the wind from
the surface of separation in the form of tongues or south-west to west or even north-west and a drop in
projections. It will be seen from the diagram that temperature. The pressure increases suddenly, rainfall
now the currents do not flow any more parallel to diminishes in amount and finally blue sky appears
each other but at the region of the bulge warm air when the depression has passed. This is somewhat
pushes up over the cold air in the front portion and an idealised picture of the sequence of weather
heavy cold air tries to drive a wedge in the warm air experienced at a station directly on the track of the
at the rear of the bulge. The part AC known as the depression.
warm front is a region of rising warm air with
consequent condensation and copious precipitation. Tropical Cyclones
The part AB at the rear known as the cold front, is These are essentially alike to the temperate
a region where the cold air tries to undercut the depressions and the only notable difference is the
warm air giving rise to short heavy precipitation greater intensity of tropical cyclones. Although the
which with the forward passage of the depression pressure values at the centre and outer edge are
changes to almost a clear sky—a form of weather similar both in tropical cyclones and temperate
which is associated with polar air. The area in depressicm (say, about 900 mb. at the centre and
between the two fronts called the warm sector has about 1,020 mb. at the edge) the trt^ical cyclones
moist warm cloudy weather with very little have usually smaller diameters than 600 miles
precipitation. whereas the tem perate depressions may have
If we follow the diagram it will be seen that diameters varying from 1,000-2,000 miles. This
due to the wedge action of the cold air the two indicates steeper barometric gradient in case of the
fronts gradually draw closer and ultimately the pocket tropical cyclones, and thus, they are more intense
of warm air is pushed completely into the cold air. than the temperate depa-essiOTS. The trqjical cyclones
The line alonf which the warm air is lifted up is are also characterised by the presence of a calm
 WEATHER MAP 131

centre with usually fine weather and moderate following table shows the jM’ecentage frequency of
cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea
The Indian weather is much influenced by the (Table 3 ) :
Bay of Bengal and Arbian Sea cyclones. The

T able 3. Percentage Frequency o f Cyclones and W. Disturbance. Annual Variation (1 8 9 1 - 1 9 3 5 )

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apl. May June July Aug. Sep. OcL Nov. Dec.

Bay of Bengal 1 .9 0 .0 0 .6 2 .5 6 .1 9 .8 1 4 .4 1 5 .7 1 5 .5 1 4 .8 1 2 .5 6 .2

Arabian Sea 0.0 0 .0 1 .6 4 .7 14 .1 3 1 .3 7 .8 0 .0 6 .2 8 .7 1 0 .9 4 .7

Western Disturbance 1 5 .0 1 4 .1 1 7 .0 1 3 .8 8 .3 3 .2 1.3 1.01 2 .6 5 .9 7 .0 11.8

(From Sc. and Cult. Vol. 3, p. 458)

It will be seen that they are more frequent in Anticyclone

the pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon The term anti-cyclone was first introduced by
periods. Sir Francis Galton in 1 8 6 1 for a type of pressure
The mechanism of the formation of Indian system which in most respects in just the opposite
cyclones during the transition periods has been to the cyclone or depression. They are generally
studied by S. C. Roy and A.K. Roy and they attribute distinguished by a series of closed isobars oval or
the formation to the interaction of a land-wind from roughly circular in form with the highest pressure in
the north-west with an oceanic wind from the seas. the centre and spirally outblowing winds in a
The latter is composed of two air currents, one clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere. The
blowing from the south-east and the other from the pressure gradient is rather low and the winds are
south-west The encounter of these three winds gives accordingly light with frequent calms at the centre
rise to three fronts. The boundary between the north­ (See Fig. 1 4 1 ). The.weathw is usually find with
west land wind and the south-east wind is called the perhaps a slight drizzle but rain seldom occurs. The
Active front which is characterised by heavy rainfall; sky is not always clear and in this respect two types
and the front between the land air and the south­
west wind forms a feeble front with light
precipitation. The boundary between the south-west
oceanic air and the south-east oceanic air is not well
marked, because their properties are almost similar
and the front has been termed as the deflection front. ^0•4;
The Indian cyclones of the mcmsoon period have
been studied in detail by S.L. Malurkar and he
attributes the origin due to the encounter of three air
masses—one tropical continental» tropical maritime
(land wind), another maritime air from the south­
west and the third a far eastern Positional air which
reaches the head of the Bay of Bengal or the Arabian
Sea from the far east.
Fig. 141
132 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

of anticyclones may be distinguished. In one the sky Since in both the primary and the secondary
is clear or only partly clouded with light winds and depressions the wind circulates in an anticlockwise
brilliant sunshine. This is the type of weather which direction in the northern hemisphere it is obvious
is generally associated with anticyclones in popular that the region between the depressions should have
conception. In the other the sky is overcast with light and variable wind and strongest wind round
stratocumulus clouds. In this type also rainfall seldom the secondary would prevail on the side away from
occurs but the weather is of the most depressing the main depression.
kind.
The diameter of anticyclones is generally large Trough of Low Pressure (V-shaped Depression)
and when formed they persist for days together and When a surface of discontinuity of a depression
their movement is very slow. meets the earth’s surface there is usually a great
refraction in the trend of the isobars. Sometimes the
Secondary Depressions isobars take the form of a pointed V when they are
Sometimes the isobars round a depression show sometimes called a V-shaped depression but at the
bulges which cause deviation in the general present day they are termed as troughs of low
circulation of the wind system round the depression. pressure; (See. Fig. 143). Obviously, the weather
These distortions may vary from slight sinuosities will depend on whether the troughs are warm front,
to isolated enclosed centres of low pressure with cold front or occlusions. In a warm front type there
separate wind systems from the parent body; {See is usually continuous rain followed by mild cloudy
Fig. 142). Such distortions associated with a large weather. In a cold front type the rain commences
primary depression are called secondaries. The just before the arrival of the front and the weather
weather associated with secondaries is very variable. clears quickly with a heavy shower with the passage
It may have feeble wind circulation sometimes of the trough. If the trough is an occlusion is
ending in thunder storms or the secondary may resembles the cold front type and the only difference
become very intense and surpass the fMimary in wind is that the rain commences much earlier.
velocity and amount of precipitation. A secondary
depression moves with the primary and also rotates
round the primary in a counter clockwise direction.

Wedge
Sometimes in the region between two
depressions the isobars are shaped like a wedge with
a rounded point. It resembles a trough but there the
Fig. 142. A Secondary Depression. ‘V’ is invmed and the pressure is high within the

X
 WEATHER MAP 133

HIGH

COL

Fig. 144

V and not low; See. Fig. 144. The motion of the HIGH
wedge follows that of the depressions, the weather
in the front part is that associated with the rear of
the front depression and the weather in the rear part
of the wedge is that associated with the front part of Fig. 145
the rear cyclone. That is, in the front part of the
wedge the weather is commonly fine with good
visibility and at the rear the fine weather changes to
a cloudy muggy weather.

Col
The region between two lows and two highs
usually has the appearance of a saddle back and is
called a Col; See Fig. 145-147. It is a regitm of
variable light wind and the weather depends on the
past history of the wind reaching the region—that
is, whether the wind is of polar or tropical origin.
The direction of the wind depends on the relative
intensity of the two lows and highs. If the temperature
is low the region is apt to be dull or foggy and if the C—Cyclone; A-
fig. 146. C—Cryclonc; A—Anti-cyclone;
-Anti-cyclone; W—Wedge;
W- T—
temperature is high it gives fine weather frequently Trough; S—Secondary. K—Col.
interrupted by thunderstorms.
(2) The Hot weather, from early March to
early or mid-June.
Indian Weather (3) The Rainy weather, from early or mid-
June to the end of October.
It is customary to divide the Indian year into
three distinct seasons: The winter weather does not quite set in from
October. The weather of this month is rather variable
(1) The cold weather, from November^ towith the decrease in the amount of rainfall there
the end of February. is a slight rise in the temperature and it is not before
say, November that one feels the cool breeze of the
134 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

the Meteorological Office, Poona. Before January,

1949 these weather maps showed the pressure
distribution, wind direction and velocity and rainfall
only. Since January, 1949, the condition erf the dey
and a number of other weather elements have also
been added. Still some important weathCT essentials
like temperature, barom etric tendency and
characteristics, etc., are lacking. Apart from the main
weather map there are two small maps showing the
departure of pressure and temperature of the day
from nmnal. A summary report stating the salient
features of the Indian weather during the previous
twenty-four hours and a forecast for the country are
also given.
In the present publications the appended tables
C> T -T r» 0 j « . give detailed weather information; but much of it is
in a codified form.
Fig. 147 Now we can proceed to discuss the weather
winter monsoon. The Indian climate is so much conditions prevailing in India during the different
dominated by the two monsoons that it is justifiable seasons.
to adopt the grouping of the Indian Meteorological
Department. But there we shall use the terms wintCT (I) Cold-Weather Season
an summer monsoons in place of north-east and The months of January and Fel»iiary represent
south-west monsoons. The terms north-east monsoon the cold-weather season in India. During these
and south-west monsoon are only strictly applicable months the weather is one of the most charming,
to the monsoons over the Bay of Bengal and the and this is specially the case for the plains of
western half of the Arabian Sea. In the land area the Northern India. Here the cool north-westerly and
directions of the monsoons vary fixxn one part to westerly winds set in driving away the patches of
another, and this variation is well maAed between stratocumulus clouds firom the sky, and heralding
the northern plains and the Peninsular region. Thus, clear and fme weathef, with pure air and azure-blue
the modified classification of the Indian sky. The days are warm and sunny and the n i^ ts
Metewological Department is as follows: are cold. Sometimes due to the passage of westoii
disturbance through Northem India the seenity of
1. The Season of winter monsoon:
the weather is disturbed and we ge: some rainfall in
(a) January to February, cold-weather
Northem India.
season.
Fig. 148 shows the average pressure,
(b) March to mid-June, hot-weather
temperature, rainfall, wind direction and velocity for
season.
the month of January. It will be seen that the isobars
2. The Season of the summer monsoon: trend east to w e t almost running parallel with the
(a) Mid-June to mid-September, season of latitude. The pressure value increase fiom 29.9" in
general rains. the south to 30.1" in the north. The temperature
{b) Mid-September to December, season decrease from 80“ F in the extreme south to 50“ F
of retreating monsoon. in the north. The rainfall shows a decrease from the
Punjab to the plains of Bengal and then it increases
Indian W eather Maps again to the south along the Madras coast. The
Indian daily weather maps are published from gradient of pressure being low, the wind is light
 WEATHER MAP 135

more pronounced and a wedge extends down to the

south-east, covering a large part of Northern India.
The sky was clear almost throughout the subcontinent
indicating a sunny weather at all places excepting
locally in Assam and Madras where the sky was
partly or totally clouded. The pressure gradient being
low the wind velocity was slight; and these being
mostly land wind there was very little rainfall. This
type of weather map with a wedge of high pressure
and a clear rainless weather is very commonly met
with amongst the weather maps for the cold season.
Such formation of a wedge provides an easy gradient
for the wind to blow down from the north-west, and
as is natural these winds are liable to be cold.
Sometimes when there is snowfall over the North-
Fig. 148 West India the wind blowing down is particularly
cold and we get what is called a cold wave over the
throughout the whole suo-continent. The foregoing plains of Northern India. This was the case shown
is the average condition for the month and the day- in the present map and the low temperature condition
to-day weather would naturally vary much from this of North and West India is clearly indicated from
average condition. We shall deal here only with the the small map showing the departure of minimum
four types of isobaric situations which are commonly temperature from normal, See Fig. 150.
observed on the Indian weather maps of the month
of January. These four types are as follows: FRIDAY rtlJ jA N 1949
j D e p a rtu re of minimum tem p eralu n
N from norm al
(/) A Wedge o f High Pressure: This type is
shown in Fig. 149 which is the weather map at 8’
i+ 0
hours fcR- Friday, the 7th January, 1949. Here the ,+4 0

usual high pressure of the north-west has become

-12

FRIDAY JANUARY, 1949 +4

-O

(ii) A Trough o f Low Pressure: On the weather

map shown in Fig. 151 it will be seen that the isobars
on the west coast of India make a slight bend
northwards. Sometimes this slight bend in the isobars
develops into a pronounced loop indicating a trough
of low pressure. This state is shown in Fig. 151
Fig. 149 .
which is the weather map of 17 hours for Monday,
 N

136 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL CTOGRAPHY

Nizamabad recorded +10 and +9 respectively.

l« » O A T rT^JUUARY (» 4 9 Pendra, Raipur, Kanker and Chanda in M P. recorded
+3, +3, +2, +5, above nanial. In all these places,
excqiting regicms under cloud cover the tempaature
was unifainly high.
It should be noted that the formation of a low
O ® pressure over Peninsular India and its extensitxi to
the north is more marked in the aftOTioon charts
(i.e., 17 hrs.) cm days of clear weather ovct the
Peninsula; and naturally this low pressure gets more
pronounced if there is some cloud cover over West
and North-West India. This was the case on the day
under discussion when due to a shallow dq>ression
over Sind, Western Rajasthan and Southern Punjab
there was considerable cloud cover over W eston
Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Rajasthan.
Fig. 151 (ill) Anticyclone over Peninsula: Anticyclonic
condition, that is, the existoice of high pressure over
January 17th, 1949. It will be seen that a {ronounced
the Peninsula is another ccmimcm feature of the
low pressure ftMined covering a large porticm of
weather m ^ of the cold seascm. Such a type is
Southern Bombay (Maharashtra), Mysore State,
shown in Fig. 152 which is the w eatho map of 17
(Karnataka) and South Western Madras (Tamil
hrs., cm 16th January, 1949. High pressure condition
Nadu), and the low pressure extended to the North
existed over almost the whole of Peninsular India
in the fcHm of a broad trough and Western India. In
and the anti-cyclone also covoed parts of Orissa
keeping with this anomalous barometric feature light
and Madhya Pradesh. This jHX>nounc^ fcmnaticm of
wind blew round the low pressure area in an
a high pressure can be attributed to a clear sky and
anticlcKkwise direction. Thus, warm moist south­
rapid radiation during the jnnvious night Relative
easterly wind prevailed over the whole of South-
areas of low pressure covered Uttar Pradesh and
E astao India and northerly and north-westerly winds
North-Eastern Assam. The extensive area t)f h i ^
extended to the southern parts of Uttar Pradesh and
pressure gave a bright weather with light variable
almost over the whole of Central India. This is
winds. The rainfall in the far Ncwth-West was due to
somewhat different from the previous map in which
the intruding westerly depression.
ncHlhwestCTly winds inevailed over the Northern
Plains and north-easterly and easterly winds swayed (rv) Cyclone over North India: The mcMKHony
over almost the whole of the Peninsula. Such winds of the winter weather is sometimes relieved in
caused by the extension (rf the trough erf low pressure, NcMthem India by the intrusion of dqH^ssions from
iMtHight in a rather warm and damp weather over a the north-west These depressions have been traced
large part of the Peninsular India and portions of the to the Mediterrarrean cyckmes and scMnetimes also
Northern India. In Orissa, places like Balasore, to the Atlantic cyclones. The temperate cyclones that
Chandbali, Cuttack recorded + 11, +6, +15 humidity visit India are g en ially in an cxx:luded stage. These
above normal of the day. In Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow, cyckmes on their way to the E.-N.-E. through u{q)a'
Bahraich, Jhansi, Agra, Mainpuri recorded +24, +12, Iraq and Turkey induce secondaries to be fcHmed
+34, +34, +26 above ncMtnal erf the day. Similarly, over regions o f relative low pressure which
in Central India, Nowgong, Satna, Neemuch, and correspond with rdatively warm areas like (1) Aral-
Indore recorded + 22, +32, +38, +25 above mxmal Caq)ian basin, (2 ) Black Sea, (3) L owct Nile basin,
of the day. In North Hyderabad, Aurangabad and (4) The Red Sea, (5) Lower Persian Gulf, (6) North
 WEATHER MAP 137

Arabian Sea. Out of these, the secondaries formed

TUESDAY te'*’ JAN. I9A9
over Aral-caspian basin and the Black Sea do not
reach India on their E.-N.-E. journey. Sometimes
when the secondary from the lower Persian Gulf is
passing over Baluchistan and N.W.F. Province it
induces on its turn the formation of a subsidiary
seconday over north Arabian Sea, near the Mekran
coast and infrequently this secondary may fc»m lower
in the Arabian Sea, and travel E.-N.-E. through the
Peninsula giving considerable rainfall.
On reaching India these depressions follow like
their primaries an E.-N.-E. direction reaching
Kashmir and the Western Himalaya or they take on
an easterly course and travel over the plains of
Northern India and may reach upto Assam. On their
way to the E.-N.-E. or East these depressions give
fairly widespread rainfall over the plains of the
Fig. 153
Punjab and West Uttar F*radesh. If they reach the
Western Himalaya they cause considerable snow­ Baluchistan, Northern Sind and North-Western
fall over Kashmir and the East Punjab Hills. Rajasthan. It increased in intensity to a minimum
In Figs. 152 and 153 the passage of western central pressure of 1012 mb.The sky was moderately
depression over North-West India has been shown. clouded in South Baluchistan, and moderately to
On the 16th the cyclone covered a small area of heavily clouded in Sind and North-West Frontier
northern Baluchistan and the central pressure was Province. The cyclone caused nearly general rain in
about 1016 mb. This caused unsettled weather over Baluchistan and the rainfall varied from 0.9" at
North-Western Frontier Province and Northern Ormara, 0.7" at Chaman, 0.6" at Quetta to 0.5" at
Baluchistan. The cyclone proceeded in south-east Dalbandi and Nokkundi. Sind had some local rain
direction and on the 17th it covered Southern when Karachi recorded 0.4" and Pasni, Hamai and
Hyderabad each had 0.3". A few falls were also
SUNMV 10'*' JANUARY )9 4 9
recorded from North-west Frontier Province when
1700
Dras has 0.2". In the next twenty-four hours the
cyclone took a due north-east direction and at 8
hours, on the 18th it was situated in North Rajasthan
with its centre near Bikaner. It caused considerable
rainfall over this part of the country. Rainfall was
almost general in Punjab and Rajasthan in the region
immediately to the north and south of the central
low pressure. The chief amounts of rainfall were
Fort Abbas 1.5 , Sialkot 1.6", LahOTe 0.7", Dalhousie
0.5" and Ludhiana 0.4" in Punjab, and Ajmer 0.8",
Mount Abu 0.7" and Udaipur 0.5" in Rajasthan. The
rainfall had been local in the West U.P., Kashmir
and North-West Frontier Province. The amounts
varied, Roorkee 0.4", Dehra Dun 0.3", in U P
Miranshah 0.6", in the N.W.F. Province aid Srinagar’
xFig. 152 and Dras each 0.7" in Kashmir, Chiefly in the form
 138 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

of snow. From North Rajasthan the cyclone moved

in an E.-N-E. direction and on the 19th at 8 hours rmOAy <949
its centre was some 190 Km. South-west of Ludhiana 900
in the Punjab. It caused widespread rain over the
region extending from M.P. and the East U.P. to the
North Punjab, and local rain or snow in Kashmir.
Isolated light showers were also reported from the
Konkan. The chief amounts were Dharampur 3.3",
Lahore 1.3", Sialkot 1.0", Ambala 0.9", Ludhiana
0.5", in Punjab. In Uttar Pradesh, the amount varied
from Dehra Dun 1.8" in the north-west to Jhansi
0.5" in the south. In Rajasthan Brijnagar recorded
1.0 , Ajmer 0.7 and Jaipur 0.4". In M.P. Nowgong
had 0.6", Bhopal 0.3" and Indore 0.2". Since the
18th the cyclone showed signs of filling up and on
the 19th after causing considerable rainfall as stated
above it became very weak and vanished in the
afternoon {Fig. 154). Fig. 155

(2) Hot Weather Season (March to Mid-June)

With increase in the heat of the land the cold
weather season changes to warmer and warmer
weather. The high pressure of the North-Western
Sub-continent so characteristic of the cold weather
season gradually changes to a low pressure of the
hot weather. Sometimes during the early part of the
season feeble western disturbances reach the northern
plains and break the monotony of the warm dry
weather. Apart from these disturbances local
thunderstorms occasionally form over the Peninsula
and the northern plaids which give some rainfall to
Eastern and Southern India and generally end in dust
storms with cool moist winds in the Northern Plains.
The low pressure over North-Western Peninsula
indicates a local convection. With the advance of
Fig. 154 the hot season, temperature increases over Northern
India.
Fig. 156 shows the weather condition of 28th
Between 16th and 17th it had an average velocity of of March, 1949. It will be seen that the low pressure
20 Km per hour and during the next twenty-four region over Southern Punjab and Northern Rajasthan
hours the average velocity was 23 Km per hour but is the remnant of a western disturbance which caused
after 18th due to decrease in intensity and due to its locally slight rainfall and cloudy weather, and a large
approach near the Fhinjab hills the velocity decreased low pressure area gets established over the warmer
to 10 Km per hour. On the 21st a secondary tracts of Western India. Due to large difference in
depression again developed over western Baluchistan temperature between the land mass of the Peninsula
and it caused local rain or snow in N.W.F.P., Kashmir and the surrounding seas the isobars over the
and the East and North Punjab {Fig. 155). Peninsula from deep southerly loop. Fig. 157 is the
 WEATHER MAP 139

pressure in Western India. Over the Peninsula wind

blows chiefly from the sea towards the land in
keeping with the looping of the isobars over the
land.

(3) Season o f General Rains (mid-June to mid-

September)
O '
The suddenness in the change of weather
brought in by the bursting orf the Summer Monsoon
is well marked almost all over India. The rain season
sets in by the first week of June in Pegu and Arakan.
Almost simultaneously or a few days later the first
monso(Mi rains are felt on the Bombay coast. In
Bengal the average date for the setting in of the
rains is about the 15th June, and in the Punjab it
usually reaches by the first of July. The whole of
Fig. 156
India excepting the Madras coast derives the bulk of
its rainfall during this season. Nowhere the rain is
continuous for more than a few days. Rainless,
MONMY l6 ^ MAY 1949
sometimes sunny periods intervene between the
downpours. The change in the weather from the dry
. O '"
hot season is not only marked by the high humidity
of the atmosphere but also by an appreciable fall in
temperature and reversal in the wind direction which
takes on a south-westerly direction over the Peninsula
and south-westerly, south-easterly or easterly
direction over the northern plains.
The weather maps for the month of July typify
the monsoon weather. A comparison with the weather
map for the Hot season (May) indicates a slight fall
in the average pressure in the north and a slight rise
of pressure o t the Travancwe (Malabar) coast in the
south. The refraction in the isobars of the May chart,
forming a southern loop over the Peninsula is no
Rg. 157
longer pronounced. The isobars now run obliquely
across the Peninsula from west to east The normal
weather map fw 8.30 hours, on 16th May, 1949. trend of the axis of the trough of low pressure over
The low pressure in the north-west is well marked the Ganga plain is from Gaya to Allahabad. The
and the trough extended down to the plains of B ^gal. shifting of this axis either to the north towards the
The looping of the 1008 mb over the Peninsula is hills or to the south much influences the distributicxi
evident The unsettled weather in the Southern of the rainfall. In Fig. 175 it will be noticed that the
Peninsula is due to a local thunderstorm. axis much shifted to the south of the nrxmal trend.
The wind during this season in the north is This enabled easterly monsoon winds to prevail over
chiefly finom the west and north-west—a continuation a large part of Northern India giving rainfall to the
of the cold weather trend, and the intensity decreases dry tracts of Punjab and Rajasthan. The shifting of
from March of May with intensificaticm of the low the axis to the ntxih causes te m p rx ^ interruption
 140 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAKIY

in the rains and the monsoon cannot reach Northern reach only as far as Central India or South-West
India. Such a case is shown in Fig. 158 which is the Uttar Pradesh, or they might even travel to Punjab,
weather map at 17 hours for Thursday July 9th, 1964. Sind and Kathiawar. Instances are known when Bay
It will be seen that a shoulder of a high pressure of Bengal cyclones crossed the entire breadth of the
protruded towards the north from the south-west. Peninsula and on reaching the Arabian Sea they
This northward bend of the isobars over Gujarat, freshened up due to supply of warm air and caused
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh pushed up the trough cyclonic weather over the Bombay and Kathiawar
of low pressure towards the hills. Easterly wind from coast (See Fig. 163 and 164).
the Bay of Bengal which prevailed only to the north The Arabian Sea cyclones are usually of lesser
of the axis failed to penetrate far into the plains and frequency. From the Arabian Sea they generally
dry westerly winds swayed over much of the area. move to the east or north-east and after causing
It might be noted in passing that the 17 hours cyclonic weather over the western coast they recurve
maps all show considerably low rainfall and this and proceed over Kathiawar and Sind towards the
possibly indicates that the condensation of moisture low pressure centre in Baluchistan. But more
and consequent rainfall is facilitated during the cooler commonly they fill up before reaching Baluchistan.
hours between 5 P.M. in the evening and 8 A.M. in In Figs. 159, 160,161, and 162 the growth and
the morning.
progress of a Bay of Bengal cyclone has been shown.
The monsoon rain is occasionally intensified by On the 6th July, 1940, conditions were unsettled at
cyclones formed either over the head of the Bay of the head of the Bay of Bengal. The 8 A.M. pressure
Bengal or ovqr the Arabian Sea. During their passage was—20 from normal of the day and the wind was
over the country they cause heavier rainfall along almost clam. The isobars showed a characteristic
their track. The cyclones which form over the Bay concentric form. By the 7th this unsettled condition
of Bengal usually proceed towards the N.W. during developed into a cyclone with a central pressure of
the early monsoon period and they take on almost a 29.25". At 8 A.M. on that day its centre was some
westerly direction during the rest of the monsocxi 112 Km south-east of Calcutta. It caused stormy
season. All through the monsoon season at greater weather and heavy rainfall over Southern i>«igal
or shorter intervals these cyclones succeed one and Orissa coast. Sandheads and Saugor Island
another. Depending on their intensity some of these recorded 6.3" and 2.6" respectively, Chandbali and

THUftSDAY 9 ? JULY, IM 4
AT 1790 ^
^ 1940

Fig. 158 Fig. 159

 WEATHER MAP 141

i»4o
1»00«f».

Fig. 160 Fig. 162

5.0", Chaibasa 2.1", Gaya 1.8", Cox’s Bazar 1.7",
Calcutta 1.1". In the next twenty-four hours the
cyclonic storm weakened and the central pressure
rose to 29.35". On the 9th at 8 A.M., its centre was
near Pendra, almost due west from Calcutta. With
<“A
71X__ >y the shift of the cyclone towards the west the zone of
heavy rain also shifted to the west of the former
areas of heavy rain. The Central and Eastern Madhya
Pradesh and the Southern Uttar Pradesh lay under
the sway of the cyclone, and rainfall decreased in
Orissa and Bengal. At 8 A.M., 10th July the centre
of the cyclone was some 80 km west of Pendra and
was of much lesser intensity. It is obvious from the
map that it then received more moisture supply from
the Arabian Sea monsoon than the Bay of Bengal.
A belt of heavy rainfall extended from the centre
Fig. 161 towards the south-west. TTie chief amounts were
Amiaoti 4.0", Nagpur 3.7", Raipur 3.0", Chanda 2.3",
Balasore in*Orissa received 3.2" and 2.2" of rainfall. Punchmarhi 1.9", Akola and Bhopal 1.5" each,’
The influence of the cyclone extended up to Western Hoshangabad 0.9", Parbhani 0.9", Mercara 0.8",
Bihar. During the next Twenty-four hours the cyclone Seoni and Jubbulpore 0.6" each. By 17 hours of the
moved to the north-west and at 8 hrs. on the 8th its same day the cyclone totally filled up causing a dry
c ^ tre was near Calcutta. It increased in intensity period over almost the whole of Northern India. As
and the central low pressure was less than 29.20". already noted such dry periods are quite a common
Due to cyclonic weather heavy rainfall was recorded feature during the summer monsoon. It will be
from Orissa and the rainfall had been nearly general observed that the belt of heavy rainfall was all
over West Bengal and Chhota Nagpur. The chief through confined to the southern half of the cyclone
amounts were Balasore 6.1", Sambalpur 5.7", Cuttack and this is quite in keeping with the fact that the

%
142 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

THORSMY z Y ^ S E P T l9 < 9
MONDAY 20**' SEPT 1948

Fig. 163 Fig. 165

cyclones receive their moisture supply from the Bay storms sometimes reach Southern Bengal. Most of
of Bengal or the Arabian Sea monsoon. these cyclones of last September and October period
from lower down in the Bay and they move towards
(4) Season o f the Retreating Monsoon (mid- the Northern Circar coast Some of these cyclones
September to December) cross the entire breadth of the Peninsula and a ft^
In Northern India the summer monsoon almost reaching the Arabian Sea they intensify and proceed
creases by the middle of September. The serenity of over the west coast towards the Baluchistan low
the w eather is occasionally disturbed by the pressure centre. Such an occasion has been shown
appearance of sporadic cyclones. In Bengal and in Figs. 163— 166 which show the passage of a Bay
Assam the rains last well into October and cyclonic of Bengal cyclone over the Peninsula. On the 20th

WEDNESDAY 2 9 '’' SEPT 1948

WEDNESDAY 22P^SEPT t9 4 8 0 8 3 0 rtr t

0 SCO 400

/ O'

Fig. 164 Fig. 166

 WEATHER MAP 143

September at 17 hours, the cyclone was centred close

to Vishakhapatnam. It caused some local rainfall. In
T u e s d a y iz is OCTOBER, i94e
the next twenty-four hours the cyclone crossed the AT 0 8 0 0 Hn,
east coast and on the 22nd it was situated in the east
of Hyderabad with its centre near Hanamkonda. Due Eow,
to the cyclone heavy rain fell in Bombay Deccan
and presumably near Hyderabad from where no
record was available. The chief amounts of rain were
Bijapur 1.85", Sholapur 4.4", Miraj 2.1" and
Kolhapur 1.7 . On the 23rd before 8 hrs., the cyclone
crossed the west coast and at 8 hrs., it was situated
as a deep depression with its centre about 50 km
west of Hamai. Under the influence of the cyclone
heavy rain was recorded from West Deccan and
Konkan. The cyclone moved on in a N.N.W.
direction and on the 24th at 17 hrs., it was situated
with its centre near Veraval. It increased in intensity,
the central pressure fell to 994 mb. It caused cyclonic Fig. 167
weather over Konkan and Kathiawar coasts. During
die next few days the cyclone much decreased in T u e s d a y istto c T O E tE R , is a b
intensity and on the 28th morning was recorded as AT 0 8 0 0 Hr*.

a trough of low pressure extending from the Sind

coast to the West Kathiawar coast. The central
pressure increased to 1002 mb, and it exerted very
little influence on the weather. A fresh cyclone
developed on the Orissa coast on 29th Sept 1948
(Fig. 166).
By October the monsoon completely retreats
from Northern India and the influence of the Bay of
Bengal monsoon is felt only along the eastern coast.
Low pressure of North-Western India still persists
but the intensity is much reduced, see F/g. 167. Such
local centres of low pressure are also noticed over
the Peninsula. The retreat of the Bay monsoon is
felt along the east coast by light north-easterly winds
Fig. 168
and these bring some amount of rainfall. By the
middle of October or little later the Madras coast In November the replacement of the north­
receives heavy rainfall due to predominance of moist western low pressure by regions of high pressure is
north-east wind. Fig. 168 shows the setting in of well marked. In some of the weather maps of this
heavy rain all along the Coromandal coast, and the month the low pressure is completely replaced and
summary report for 8 hrs., states it clearly—“The in others the Baluchistan low pressure still persists
north-east monsoon has set in the South Peninsula in a weak form. Local low pressure areas develqp
and has been vigorous along the Cwomandal coast” over the warmer Peninsula in the south. The isobars
The chief amounts of rainfall were Madras 3.6", show much sinuosity due to variation of pressure
Nellore 2.3", Kodaikanal 1.6", Neg£^atam 1.5" and from one places to anbther and thus indicate a
Alleppy 1.2". transition period. The cyclones which develop during
144 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

this period originate farther south than the cyclones a north-west direction. On the 19th it was located in
of the previous months. the Arabian Sea within two degrees of latitude 12°
The Bay of Bengal cyclones of this month N and longitude 68° E. Befwe 8 hrs., on the 21st it
usually originate either over the S £ . or S.W. part reached Kathiawar coast as cyclone and later in the
and move in a N.W. direction. Some of those which day it increased in intensity causing severe damage
originate over the S.-E. portion move almost in a to communication. Afterwards it move over the
noi^erly direction and affect southern Bengal. The Konkan coast and on the 22nd it was located with
four maps {Figs. 169-72) show the movement of a its centre S.-W. of Dahana. It caused severe weather
cyclone of this month. It developed as a shallow over Bombay and adjacent areas. Later on as it
trough over south-west Bay of Bengal and moved in moved inland it decreased in intensity and on the
23rd it was covering Berar and the adjoining parts
of M.P. {Fig. 171). It persisted till the 25th forenoon
as a shallow low pressure area and vanished in the
afternoon {Fig. 172).

rvCHAV0 * 3 0 NX IM*

Fig. 169

SUNOAY 21*^ NO/. I»46

1 7 0 0 Hfi

Fig. 171

The December weather is of a more settled type.

The trend of the isobars is more regular and the
serenity of the weather is rarely disturbed by either
tropical or temperate cyclones.

Reading a W eather Map

Before proceeding to read the Indian Daily
Weather Map one should get familiar with the
various symbols used on such maps.
The following points are to be described while
reading the Weather map:
1. Pressure
Fig. 170 {a) location of bar high.
 WEATHER MAP
145

(fl) pressure in the millibars, (p) wind direction and

TMUMMAV tS " NOV speed in miles, (c) rainfall in inches and sea-
ITOOHr*
condition. There was, thus, no indication of cloud
L JE -y cover on the weather-maps. The symbols used were
also different from those of later weather maps.
On 1st January, 1949 various new informations
regarding cloud cover and other atm ospheric
phenomena were introduced. The new maps, thus,
gave a better picture of the weather conditions than
the old maps.
Further modifications, though only minor, have
been made since January 1, 1957 so as to represent
mwe clearly the wind condition on the weather-maps.
Fig. 173 shows the changes introduced during
the past one decade in the Daily Weather Maps of
India.
Fig. 172
Metric Units for Weather Reports
(^>) location of bar low, From 1st January, 1957 weather reports in India
(c) trend of isobars, are giving rainfall in millimetres, temperatures in
(d) gradient of pressure. degrees centigrade and cloud heights and distances
of visibility in metres and so on. W ind speed
2. m n d
generally m eant for navigational purposes will
(a) direction, (b) velocity.
In relation to pressure variation. ccRitinue to be printed in knots as hitherto, while
those for other purposes will be expressed in
3. Sky condition kilometres per hour, consequently an inch of rainfall
(a) cloud cover, at any statitxi will be repcrted as 25.4 millimetres of
(b) nature of the cloud. rainfall; 2 inches as 51 millimetres and so on. The
(c) other atmospheric phenomena. conversion is very simple being proportional at a
4. Precipitation rate one inch = 25.4 millimetres.
(a) general distribution. In the case of temperature, the conversion is not
(b) special area of heavy precipitation. so simple. To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees
Centigrade, equations are used-t
5. Pressure departure from normal
6. Temperature departure from normal The table 4 gives some equivalents:
7. Sea-condition
T able 4 |

Some Notes on the Weather Maps of India

Fahrenheit, x" Centigt ie, ' f
With a view to making improvements in the
representation of weather conditions several changes
100 37.48
have been introduced in the ‘Weather Repwts of
80 26.47
India’ in recent years. Up to the end of the year
60 15.56
1948 the weather maps in the ‘Reports’ used to show

tx “ Fahrenheil = — (x - 32)“ celsius (Centigrade) y “ Centigrade = |- (y - 32)“ Fahrenheit

9

\
146 ELEMENTS OT PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

WIND RAIN
0 - 1 mile per hour 4 9 -5 6 mites per hr. 0 - *09" neglected
2 - 3miles *• ■ m v
5 7 -6 5 » O '0 " - *‘7 "
4 —7 " •» ft m
Above 65 (g ) • 18* - •37’’
8 —11 » » n SEA CONDITION @ *38" - *67*
Cm Calm
^ 12-16 1. Sm (§ ) -6 8 "- *87“
Smooth
— 17-21 •» SI Slight O * 8 8 '- I 24*
2 2 -2 7 .. Mod moderote
@ 1 « 2 5 “- 1*74'*
Ro rough
'^ ^ 2 8 - 3 3 - © 1 - 7 5 " - 2-50*
v; ro very rough
34-40** Hi 0 2 * 5 1 " - 3*49"
high
^ ^ 4 1 -4 8 .. V.Hi Vhigh Qc. 8k;.
Ph phenomenoi
WIND CLOUD WEATHER
Less thon 3 knots Amount low or
medium High Haze
"SKy----- § Dust Devil
5 knots 1/8 covered 0 G
= Mist
10 n
1/4 « 0 O Z. ~ Shallow Fog
3 /8 •• 0 G = Fog
15 •• 1/2 M
0 Squall
20 » 5 /8 « r Dust or
Sond storm
50 3 /4 .. (B
n - t - Drifting snow
RAINFALL
7 /8 t. o A Hall
less than 9 cm neglected overcast f Drizzle
- - 0 1 0 to 0 1 7 cm •k y obecured
# Rain
rest octual omount ^ Snow
plotted out side the Sea condition shown os V Shower
circle. above K Thunder storm
^ Lightning
WIND In 1730 hrs. weother mops, roinfaii
—6 knots omounts indicoted refer to post 9 hours.
V-----10 «
In 0830 hrs. weother mops, roinfaii
Vi--- 15 ’*
S amounts indicated refer to post 24 hours.
o — 50 **
Rolnfoii in cm
— • 0*25 to 0*44 cm clo u d , weother 8 seo conditions shown os
v> obove.
Fig. 173
 itmtft'i

WEATHER MAP 147

50 10.00 (ii) The cyclonic storms and depressions travel

40 4.44 as definite entities from one part o f the country to
30 1.11
— another and their movements can be easily seen by
20 — 6.67 marking the positions of the centres o f these systems
10 — 12.00 on a succession of weather charts. For an instance
0 — 32.00 of a cyclonic storm which formed in the Bay of
— 10 — 23.00 Bengal and weakened into a depression after moving
—20 — 28.50 inland and lay over Uttar Pradesh see the maps in
— 30 — 34.00 the Indian Daily Weather Reports for the period 12th
—4 0 —40.00 to 18th August, 1948. It will be seen from these
maps that cyclonic storm was centred about 240 km
In the case of distances the conversion factors south-west o f Calcutta at 08 hrs., on the 14th August,
are (for details see Appendix IB): 1948. It lay as a depression centred near Pendra in
Madhya Pradesh on the 16th August, 1948, and over
1 inch = 2.54 centinraetres. the southern districts of Uttar Pradesh on the 18th
1 yard = 9 1 .4 4 centimetres. August, 1948. It will also be seen that the departures
1 mile = 1.61 kilometres. of pressure from normal (see the smaller map in the
The above changes have been affected as a result Report which gives the 17 hours pressure departures)
of the decision o f the Government of India to change was considerably negative in the region of the
over to metric system in all phrses o f the activities cyclonic st(Rm as well as the depression.
of the country. Therefore, the data included in the (Hi) A thunderstorm is a very much more
publications o f the Indian M eteo ro lo g ical localised phenomenon. It may occur, for instance, in
Department, like the Indian Daily Weather Reports, Varanasi but not at a place even 24 km away. It is
Weekly W eather Reports, Regional Daily Weather also a shortlived phenomenon; it hardly lasts for
Reports and also all data which are being supplied more than 2 ot 3 hours at any particular station. As
to daily new spapers for publication are being its name implies it is accompanied by peals of
expressed in the metric units with effect from 1st thunder. Thunderstorms also move from place to
January 1957. All data included in weather warnings place but they travel very much less distance than
and messages are also given in the new metric units. cyclonic storms and depressions. Thunderstorms may
or may not occur in association with low pressure
Cyclonic Storms—Depressions—Thunder systems. For occasions when thunderstorms were
Storms
not connected with any low pressure system see the
(0 A cyclonic storm appears on the weather maps of the I.D.W. Reports for the 13th and 16th
map as a system o f closed isobars enclosing a region May, 1949 recorded at 08.30 hrs.
of low pressure. The winds blow around these isobars In view of the above it will not be correct to say
in an anticlockwise direction and with a speed of 34 that a thunderstorm occurs only around a low
m.p.h. or more in at least some part o f the storm pressure area.
area. When the winds, however, do not reach 34 The area" of thunderstorms may not always be
m.p.h. the system is called a depression. In the area evident on maps in the I.D.W.R. In order to find out
where a cyclonic storm or a depression is situated the area where the thunderstorms are occurring or
the pressures will also be much lower than they have occurred, one has to refer to the columns WW
would nOTmally be in that area on that particular and W against the various stations in the tables
date. In other words the departures of the pressure published in the Daily Weather Reports. If, however,
from iKMmal o \e r that region will be considerably
a thunderstorm was occurring at the tim e o f
negative. ^
observation (represented by the weather map) at a
148 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Station printed on the Daily W eather Map, it will be In the southern part of the Bay o f Bengal off
shown by the appropriate symbol (for thunderstorm) South-Eastern Ceylon there was a large area of
to the left of the circle for the station. For instance, relative low pressure enclosed by the isobar of 1,012
it will be seen from the map o f the I.D.W.R. for 16- mb.
5-1949 that a thunderstorm occurred at Dibrugarh at (c) Trend o f the Isobars: The seasonal trends
08.30 hrs. I.S.T. on that day. of the pressure lines were much disturbed due to
local variations of pressure.
E xam ple I
(d) Pressure G radient: The w idely spaced
Date isobars indicate that a gentle gradient o f pressure
The map No. 174 shows the weather condition existed throughout the whole sub-continent excepting
observed on Tuesday, 18th January, 1949, at 8 hrs. at a few localities like the region near Bombay coast,
I.S.T. Northern Bengal and the extreme southern portion
of the Peninsula where the isobars were relatively
1. Pressure closer and the gradient moderate.
In general the pressure increased from south to
north with local variations. 2. Wind
(a) Location o f Bar High: Two areas of high (a) Direction: In keeping with the general law
pressure were well marked. One was in the north­ of wind motion from high pressure centres to low
western part of the subcontinent where the isobar of pressure areas land wind prevailed over the sub­
1018 mb enclosed a small area round Quetta in continent blowing out from the relative high pressure
Baluchistan and the northern portion of N.W .F. over the land towards the seasonal lows on the seas.
Province and Kashmir. The other areas o f high The direction of wind motion in the north-west was
pressure occupied almost the central part of the sub­ chiefly controlled by the seasonal high and the
continent The boundary was demarcated by 1,018 cyclonic low. Local variations were observed at
mb isobar which enclosed south-eastem Rajasthan, Quetta and Peshawar where apparently the wmd blew
West-Central India, almost the whole of Madhya from regions o f low pressure to areas o f high
Pradesh, Eastern Hyderabad and Eastern Bombay pressure. In Northern and Eastern India the wind
Province (Maharashtra). blew from almost wes't to east and was controlled
by the low pressure trough at the foot o f the
(b) Location o f Bar Low: The areas of low Himalaya. The direction o f wind over the Peninsula
pressure existed ovct the sub-continent and another was determined by the tongue which projecte4 to
over Southern Bay o f Bengal. O f the two sub­ the south from the centre of high pressure over the
continental L P . areas, one was in the form of an middle of the sub-continent. Over the eastern half,
oval patch covering Central and North-Eastern Sind the wind had an alm ost north-west to south-east
and Southern, W est Punjab. The area was encircled direction, excepting in the open sea where it blew
by 1,016 mb. It was the rem nant o f a shallow from north-east to south-wesL Over the western half,
temperate depression which travelled in from the the direction was from some quarter in the east to
w est. The o th er sub -co n tin en tal low pressure that of the west. It varied from north-east to south­
extended as an elongated trough along the foot of west direction as was at Cochin, Calicut, Gadag and
the Himalaya from the W est Uttar Pradesh of North- Veraval to almost south-east to north-west direction
Western Assam. It was a bit more deeper than the as was at Marmogoa and Trivandrum.
former and had an isobaric value of 1,014 mb. The
temperature in this region had been uniformly high (b) Velocity: The velocity primarily depends on
for the last few days and the low pressure might the g r ^ e n t of pressure; and since the gradient was
have been created due to local convection. gentle the wind velocity almost throughout the whole
 - 149
WEATHER MAP

lOISmb TUESDAY 18® JANUARY, 1949

>1016 mb y AT 00 0 0 Hrs.
HIGH

km
;>-.-IOI4mb
1016 mb
LO W 1014mb

1018mb HIGH

1016 ml> mb
Sm »c»«

Sm

Cm
,5 »

LO W

Departure of minimum v^.jv. Departurd of P re ttu re

Temperature from / from normal at 0 8 0 0 hrs.
normal

jf
44
+4

^4

600

Fig. 174
 150
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

sub-continent was low. Calm to light conditions Dehra Dun, Bahraich, Lucknow, Allahabad in U.P.;
prevailed over West and North-West India, Uttar A hm edabad, Sholapur and G adag in B om bay;
Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal and Assam. Light air was Gujarat; A nantpur and M asulipatam in A ndhra
recorded at Dehra Dun and Calcutta; light breeze at Pradesh and Balasore in Orissa.
places like Mainpuri, Gorakhpur, Darbhanga, Pumea,
Naya Dumka, Jalpaiguri, Burdwan, Asansol, Decca, 5. Pressure Departure fro m Normal
Dibrugarh, Gauhati, Sibsagar, etc.; and moderate The pressure was uniform ly below norm al
breeze at Delhi, Lucknow, Gaya and Daltonganj. In throughout the whole o f Northern India and the
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Hyderabad and Bombay departure varied from 0 to — 2 mb, excepting locally
the wind was mostly calm or light. Over the east in Western Rajasthan, Sind, North-Eastern Punjab
coast light air to light breeze had away excepting at and Kashmir where the pressure was less than — 2
Madras where wind with a higher velocity than 10 mb from normal. In the South, Western Hyderabad,
knots was recorded. The Konkan and Malabar coast South-East Bombay, South Central M adras and
had also light air or light breeze. Mysore had +2mb pressure above normal.

3. Sky Condition 6. Temperature Departure fro m Normal

The minimum temperature was below normal
(a ) Cloud Cover: In Northern India the sky
in Travancore, Central and Southern Madras (Tamil
was almost clear of cloud excepting locally at a few
Nadu), Eastern and Southern Mysore (Karnataka),
places where the cloud cover varied from 1/8 to
1/2. One notable exception was eastern India where Eastern Bombay (Maharashtra), Western Madhya
Pradesh, Eastern Rajasthan, South-Eastern Punjab
at Dibrugarh and Tezpur the sky was overcast. In
the south at many stations 1/8 cloud cover was and North-West Uttar Pradesh. It was below — 4° F.
from normal in the extreme Southern Travancore,
recorded, and at Cuddalore and Trivandrum the sky
was more than 3/8 clouded. Southern M adras, W estern A ndhra and round
Vishakhapatnam. It was +4° F. in Northern Bombay,
(b) Nature o f the Cloud: Low clouds prevailed Western Rajasthan, Northern Sind and South-West
over Assam and Bengal. High or medium clouds Punjab in the west, and North-West Orissa, Western
were recorded from Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and Northern Bengal and almost the whole o f Assam
and Sind. The Peninsula had chiefly high or medium in the east. It was +8° F. in the N .E. region—
clouds excepting at few places in the south like Dibrugarh, Tezpur, Sibsagar and Silchar in Assam.
V ellae, Nellca-e, and Cudd^ore where there had been The fo o th ills o f the P unjab had m inim uni
low clouds. temperatures just below normal.

(c) Other Atmospheric Phenomena: The sky was 7. Sea-Condition

obscured at Cherrapunji and Akyab. Thunderstorms
In accordance with light winds over the north-
w ere reported from D ibrugarh, T ezpur and
eat coast the sea was mostly calm. Further south the
Cherrapunji. Fog and mist were noted at Akyab and
winds were stronger and the sea was slightly wavy
Rangoon respectively.
near Coconada, Madras and Pamban. The sea on the
west was calm along Malabar coast and smooth in
4. Precipitation
Konkan, Kathiawar and Sind coast.
Highest amount of rainfall was recorded from
North-East Assam where Dibrugarh had 1" and
E xa m ple II
Tezpur 1/4". Rest of the sub-continent was almost
dry except a few scattered showers ranging from Date
0.10" to 0.17" at places like Ormara and Sandeman Fig. 175 shows the weather condition observed
in Baluchistan; Jodhpur and Jaipur in Rajasthan; on Thursday, July 30th, 1964, at 17 hrs.
 WEATHER MAP 151

996 mb THURSDAY 304?> JULY, 1964

9 9 4 mb
AT 1730 Hrs.
0 400
-1-----1 I
km

LOW lOOOmb '002 mb

998mb

• 0 0 6 mb

HI GH
sm ^

HI GH
[5 -^ ^ "" >^4nr

C^c Ov^orture of Moximtifn "v--^ winds. Front* and

' '“ y Tatnporofuro from ^ / Dltconfinuitis* of 1-5 km
noriiKri • .5 obove moon Sea Level
O
/u - V (irs o h re j

' J-2 '

r ‘ )

FI r. 175
152 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAFW

1. Pressure pressure, from a south-east to north-west direction

in the Southern Bengal and Assam, and changed
(a) Location o f Bar High: An area of high
gradually to a east south-east to west-north-west wind
pressure of 1008 mb was located in the South-East
in Northern Bengal and Bihar and finally in U.P., it
Bay of Bengal near the Nicobar Island.
took on an east to west course. In North-W est and
(b) Location o f Bar Low: The 994 mb isobar Western India the direction was controlled by the
marked the boundary of the seasonal low pressure Baluchistan low pressure area. Apart from local
area. It enclosed almost the whole o f Baluchistan variations the wind nw lh o f this low pressure area
and a belt of country about 300 km broad extended in Rajasthan and the Punjab in keeping with the
in a north-west to south-east direction. general low was blowing from some south westerly
to a N.E. direction. South of the low pressure area
(c) Trend o f Isobars: In the north the isobars
in Southern Baluchistan, Sind and Kathiawar it was
formed a trough the axis of which extended from
blowing from west to east.
Southern Sind to north-western Gujarat. A trough of
low pressure extended over most of northern plains. {b) Velocity: O ver the w estern h alf o f the
Over the Peninsula the isobars had an almost NNW Peninsula where the isobars were relatively closer
to SSE trend, w ithout much refraction and on than the eastern portion the wind was chiefly gentle
reaching the east they curved round the Central to moderate tH’eeze varying in velocity in different
trough of low pressure. p an from 12 to 25 km per hour. Over the eastern
half due to decrease in pressure gradient the velocity
(d) Gradient o f Pressure : In general the pressure
was lower and the wind was mainly light breeze
increased from north-west of south-east. In North-
varying in velocity from 6 to 10 km per hour. Here
W est India coverin g po rtio n s o f N o rth -E ast
at a few places like Jabalpur in M.P., and Cuttack in
Baluchistan, Southern N.W.F. Province and North
Orissa calm conditions prevailed. In Bengal and
Punjab the isobars were sinuous and indicated much
Western Assam where the pressure gradient was
local variaticMi in pressure. In the rest of the area in
moderately steep the wind velocity was moderate
the north there was uniform rise in pressure from
and at many stations like Chittagong, Mymensingh,
west to east; rather with a slow gradient over the
D hubri and D in ajp u r a m o d erate breeze was
western half and a moderately steep gradient on the
recorded. The rest of the areas excepting North
eastern half. Over the Peninsula there was almost
Assam where the velocity was slower, had light to
uniform rise in pressure and the isobars spaced farther
gentle breeze. In Bihar and U.P., the wind was almost
apart as they tended towards the east coast from the
of a similar nature as over Bengal. In the Punjab the
wesL wind in general was of a slower velocity than in
U P ., and at places like Simla, Dalhousie, Khusab,
2. Wind M ontgom ery and B ahaw alpur, calm conditions
ia) Direction: Over the southern half of the prevailed. Over the region covered by the trough of
Peninsula in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Mysore, Southern low p ressu re in B a lu ch istan , S in d , S outhern
Hyderabad and Bombay Deccan the wind was chiefly Rajasthan and M.P., the wind was of a slower nature
blowing from west to east. Further to the north, in compared to any other part of the continent Here at
Northern Bombay, Northern Hyderabad, Southern different statictfis it was either a calm wind o f velocity
M.P. and Orissa it was blowing from south-west to 0 to I mile per hour, a light air of 2 to 3 m.p.h. or
north-east. The goal of these winds was the central a light breeze of 4 to 7 m.p.h. The coastal stations
trough of low pressure. On the east, north-east and with on-shore winds recorded higher velocities.
north o f the trough in Bengal, Bihar and U.P.
resp ectiv ely the w ind blew n atu rally in an 3. Sky Conditions
anticlockwise direction round the trough o f low Not shown.
 WEATHER MAP 153

4. Precipitation Coconada and M asulipatam had 0.5" and 2.2"

respectively.
{a) North-East India (Assam, Bengal, Bihar and
Orissa including Bangla Desh): There was general
5. Departure o f Pressure
rain in Assam, Bihar and Orissa, and lcx:al rain in The 8 A.M. pressure of day was below normal
Bengal. The ch ief am ounts in Assam were in Southern Sind, North and Cwitral Bombay, West-
Cherrapunji 2.4", Dibrugarti 1.6", Tezpur 1.5". In Central India, West M P . and North-West Hyderabad
Bihar Ranchi and Naya Dumka had 0.4" each, (now in Andhra). The pressure was below — 5 in
Giaibasa, Hazaribagh and Patna 0.3" each, Gopalpur, Northern Bombay Province south of Ahmedabad
Sambalpur and Chandbali in Orissa had 4.6", 3.6"
covering a region of about 8(X) km by 240 km
and 1.2" respectively. In Bengal C ox’s Bazar,
round the coast From the normal line the pressure
Narayanganj and Barisal had 0.8" each.
increased towards the east and north to a value of
(b) North-Central India (U.P. and M.P.): There +20 in portions of North and East and NcMth-West
was nearly general rain in West M.P. and local rain Punjab.
in the East U P . The chief amounts in U.P. were
Jhansi 1.1", Lucknow and Mussooree 0.5" each and 6. Departure o f Temperature
Agra and Mukteswar 0.4" each. In M.P. Guna had The mean temperature of day was below ncHmal
1.6" and Neemuch 0.7", Chanda and Seoni had 1.1" in almost the whole of the Southern Peninsula, N £ .
each, and Bhind 0.8.” India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, N.W. India, and
Pakistan. The temperature was above normal in
(c) N orth-W est India Including Pakistan
Gujarat, M P ., parts of Rajasthan and A.P.
(Kashmir, N.W.F. Province, Punjab, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Sind and Baluchistan); There was general
7. Sea-Condition: It is not shown
rain in East Rajasthan and Gujarat and local rain in
Winds, fronts and discontinuities at 1.5 km
the East and North Punjab, the North-West Frontier
above mean sea level are also recently introduced,
Province and West Rajasthan. A few falls occurred
which are depicted on the right side inset Over most
in the South-West Punjab, Kashmir and Sind. The
of northern India wind velocity is over 20 knots as
chief amounts in Rajasthan were Udaipur 0.9" and
also in Kerala coast and over Palk Strait. In Pakistan
Ajmer 0.6". In Gujarat, Rajkot had 2.1", Deesa and
and Bangladesh the velocity is below 5 knots.
Baroda 1.6" each, Bhuj 1.4" and Dwaraka 1.2". In
Punjab Khusab had 1.9", Ludhiana 1.2", and Ambala
0.9". Badui and Hyderabad in Sind had 1.7", and Weather Forecasting
0.7" respectively. The processes involved in the formation of
weather phenomena are on a very large scale and
{d) The Peninsula: There was general rainfall
the complications so numerous that it is difficult to
in the Konkan, Hyderabad and Malabar and local
predict with certainty the condition of the weather
rain in the Bombay Deccan, Mysore, Madras and
that would prevail in the future. A thorough
the North Madras coast. The chief amounts of rain
understanding o f the laws and p rinciples o f
in the Konkan were Marmogoa 4.2", Katangiri 2.6"
meteorology is implicit in any attempt of weather
and Bombay 2.5". In Hyderabad Hanamakonda had
forecasting. Meteorological conditions vary so much
2.2", Raichur, 1.3" and Hyderabad 1.2". In Malabar,
from time to time that no defmite rule can be laid
Mangalore had 3.7", Trivandrum 1.1" and Calicut down in weather forecasting. Success in forecasting
1.0". In Bombay Deccan Khandla had 3.4" and chiefly depends on the experience of the forecaster.
Belgaum 1.4". Chitaldrug in Mysore, Coimbatore, He should be familiar with the local weather and
C uddapah, B ellary, Visakhapatnam and should be able to correlate the existing atmospheric
Calingapatnam in Andhra-Tamil Nadu each had 0.1". conditions and forecast the future w eather.
 154 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Metewologists in different parts of the world have M em oirs and S cientific N otes o f the Indian
developed m ethods o f forecasting w hich are Meteorological Department.
ai^licable for a particular region mily. Thus, the
method of forecasting should be developed within Sum m er Monsoon
the country itself; but certainly the results achieved The long-range or the seasrxial forecasting of
by investigators in other parts of the world would be the summer monsoon as already noted depends on
of much help in the formation of the first principles. the study o f the pressure condition near South
L ong-range forecasting is concerned in America. The fresh monsoon air that determines
predicting the g e n » ^ characteristics of weather over rainfall in the Indian region has been traced to pulses
a long penod of time. For example, Bruckner of of air travelling westwards from Buenos Aires,
BCTne in 1890 concluded from the examination of Cardoba and Santiago in South America. Thus, the
rainfall data that in Europe there is an alternation of air mass has to travel 220° of the longitude before
wet and dry period each of 17 years duration. A reaching Indian area. And at the rate of 650 to 800
similar period of 19 years for Australia has been km per day it takes about 30 days. Thus a study of
established by H.C. Russel. Similarly, the relatirxi the pressure conditions over the Sopth American
between sunspots and terrestrial weather has been stations would indicate possible trends o f monsoon
much emphasized by many meteOTologists. Attempts in the Indian region a month later. The crossing of
have also been made, with some success, to establish this air mass across the equator in the Indian area is
cwrelation co-efficient between weather conditions affected by the existence of low pressure area north
occurring in one part of the world and another set of of the equator or due to the obstruction created to
weather conditions occurring later in another region; the westward journey by the Madagascar wedge of
for example, the pressure condition near South high pressure.
America and the monsoon rainfall in India. Weather If this pulse of fresh monsoon air crosses the
forecasting would be more precise by satellites. equator earlier than usual and if the supply is
Short-range forecasting aims at predicting the continued, an early monsoon can be p re d ic t^ for
weather in detail during the next 24 or 48 hours. India. The existence of such an u n st^ le air mass
Generally a short-range forecast states the following: would be indicated by the fcHmaticxi of thunderstorms
in the Peninsula and dei»essi(xis in the lower latitudes
1. Wind: Anticipated direction and force. of the Bay o f Bengal and the Arabian Sea. So the
2. Sky: Nature and amount of cloud cover and early formation of depressions in the lower Arabian
type of precipitation, if any. Sea and the Bay of Bengal would indicate an early
monsoon.
3. Temperature: Departure of temperature from The short-range forecasting or day to day
normal fw the time of year. variation in the intensity o f the monsoon is not very
perfect but certain isobaric types are well observed.
4. Atmospheric phenomena: Thunderstorm, fog
If the isobars on reaching the west coast of India
or night frost, if any.
cross the country without much refraction or bend,
5. Additional matter: When the forecast is fw a a good monsoon day is indicated and on a weak
special purpose e.g., for aviation, statement regarding monsoon day the isobars over the Peninsula show
wind at different heights, visibility, etc., are essential. much looping.
If the axis o f the low pressure trough over
6. Further outlook: General condition likely in Northern India shifts towards the hills the rain in the
the 24 hours following the period of f(»'ecast. plains decreases and this constitutes a break in the
monsoon. This is shortlived during June and July
For the convenience of the students some salient lasting for three or four days while it extends to a
facts regarding weather prediction in India have been formight or might mean the end of the monsoon
summarised below from articles published in the during the months of August or September.
 WEATHER MAP 155

The intensity of the seasonal low i»^ssure areas (d) A wedge of high pressure or a mountain
in and near India has a marked effect on daily range might form an obstacle and cause the
weather. depression to fill up.
The dq)ressions which form during this season
at the head o f the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian With the help of w eath^ maps which do not
Sea have much influence on the strengthening and show isallobaric condition it is not very practicable
the “break” of the monsoon. It is but natural that for the students to apply the above criteria for
these dq)ressions have received much attention from detom ining the direction o f travel o f a depression;
meteorologists and their study has helped in the they should not the most common track followed by
understanding of the weather during this season. the depressions. From the North-western part o f the
Bay of Bengal the July or early August dq>ressions
Almost all the dq>ressions of this season form at the
move on to North Orissa or South Chhota Nagpur;
head of the Bay of Bengal and only a very few
from h o e to Pendra in East Madhya Pradesh, then
originate in the noth-east c ( ^ ^ of the Arabian Sea.
on to Saugor. From this place it either travels of
It is evident that whCT the pressure departure at the
Brijnagar in East Rajasthan or towards the Punjab
head of the Bay o f Bengal is negative, only a hills. If the depression is influenced by westerly
depression is likely to be formed. We need not d^ressitxis travelling far north, from Brijnagar it
discuss here the air masses involved in the formation proceeds to Neemuch, but on the way it might fill
of these cyclones. It may be noted that temperate up if there is no supply o f fiesh monsoon air fix)m
depressions require two air masses while three air- the Arabian Sea current If the Arabian Sea current
masses are essential for the proper development of feeds the depression it moves on to Mount Abu.
these depressions. From h o e it e ith a travels towards Banner in West
The Bay of Bengal dq>ressions which develop Rajasthan or to Bikaner in North-West Rajasthan.
during the month of June travel in a more less north­ The alternative tracks dq>end on the intensity of the
westerly direction and reach the hills of the East seasonal low pressures Baluchistan and North-
Uttar Pradesh. The depression of the months of July Weist Frontier Province, whichever h a i^ n to be
and August take on a more westerly direction. The intense, arxi so the depression moves towards i t
directions o f travel could be determ ined for The depressions which form at the head of the
forecasting from: Arabian Sea, because of their location near a dry
tract and because of nearness to seasonal lows do
(a) The direction of motion of the air at 4, 6 not survive long. Their usual track is towards the
and 8 kilometres which indicate the direction in low pressure areas of Baluchistan and N.W.F.
which the depression is likely to move. Province. Sometimes they travel west and move
(b) The depression will move in the direction of towards the Gulf of Oman.
the steepest fall of pressure. This is determined from The depressions of the Bay of Bengal while
isallobar-charts. under the influence of the Bay monsoon current give
(c) The intensity of the seasonal low pressure heavy rain towards the south and south-east sector,
areas in and near India has a marked influence on and only sporadic thunderstorm-showers occur in
the direction of travel. This is because these the northern half. If the depression moves towards
depressions ultimately merge into one of these low the hills, these regions receive heavy rainfall. When
pressure centres and the most intense of these has the depression reaches Saugor in M.P., it comes
the greatest attraction. Thus, mental computation of chiefly under the influence of the Arabian Sea current
the relative strength of these seasonal lows would and the south-west sector of the depression also gets
indicate the possible line of advanced o f the heavy rain. With the depression travelling to west of
depression. The Arabian Sea de|xessions can travel the Aravallis the rain belt naturally shifts to the south­
far because of the nearness of the low pressure areas. east of the depression.
156 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

The speed of travel o f the depressions varies

from one to another depending chiefly on the
intensity of the geostrophic winds in the different
sectors. In general, they travel faster over water
masses than over dry land and they also travel faster
during their early than later stage. An average speed
of 8 to 10 km per hour over the land is quite
common.
T he m ap series (Figs. 176-79) illustrates a
depression developed in the month o f November over

Fig. 178
cr

TrOChoft^0

Flg. 176

Fig. 179

•tt. the Bay o f Bengal to the north-east o f Ceylon, which

gradually got intensified to form a cylone. T he first
three m aps o f the series (16th, 18th and 20th
November, 1950) may be carefully examined to marie
off the changes in the weather conditions associated
with the movem ent o f the depression, and the last
map indicates the trajectory o f the cyclone which
u ltim a te ly v a n ish e d in the m o rn in g o f 2 1 s t
November, in the Assam Valley.
Fig. 177
From the trend of isobars and nature of winds
 4'

WEATHER MAP 157

shown in the first map it is clear that the depression

is likely to be deepened within next 24 hours and
move north-east-wards almost parallel to the coast.
The second map (18th November) confirm s the
prediction and by the morning o f the 18th November
it developed into a strong cyclone, ^ p ro a ch in g the
Ganga Delta, causing heavy precipitation (3"— 8").
T he th ird m ap (20th N o v em b er) show s the
weakening o f the cyclone over the Assam valley,
and the developm ent of a secondary, more or less,
in the area of its origin.

W in ter M onsoon
It has already been observed that the monotony
of the winter weather is modified by the travel of
depressions over north-west India. These disturbances i
are generally the secondaries o f the disturbances that K
travel across Iraq. These depressions bring rainfall
to Northern India. But if the supply o f moist air
which is essential for the formation o f the secondary croro
is held up due to the formation o f a depression south
of the equator a dry condition would prevail over
India. But if the southern depression approaches
within 12° S of the equator it might cause rainfall in
the extreme South Peninsula. As already noted these /}
western disturbances travel in alm ost ENE or E
direction and give fairly widespread rainfall over
their eastern half. These may travel over the plains
of Uttar Pradesh to Bihar and even to Bengal and
Northern Assam. As they travel towards the east the Fig. 180
fog or mist region moves along the sub-mountain
regions o f these States. cyclone and the other with that associated with an
Som etim es during the passage of a western anticyclone.
disturbance over Northern India a belt of rain or
thunder-showers is observed to move from some 1. Cyclone o r D epression
place in the Deccan in a north-east direction to Orissa
Date
and Bengal.
Fig. 180 shows the weather condition which
prevailed over Western Europe on the 30th March,
West European Weather 1928, at 18 hrs.
The weather of Western Europe varies much
from day to day. This variation is chiefly due to the Pressure
passage of cyclones, anticyclones and other isobaric A low pressure in the form of a cyclone covered
system s w hich bring with them ch aracteristic the whole of the British Isles. The lowest isobar had
weather. Here we shall briefly describe two weather a pressure of 976 mb and was centred over North-
maps, one showing the weather associated with a W estern England. A small area o f relative low
 158 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

pressure o f 996 mb was located on the north central and the wind velocity varied from 35 to 42 miles
region o f the Spanish Meseta. per hour. On the eastern part of the cyclone the
A reas o f high pressure were located in the gradient was less steep and the wind velocity was
northern and southern parts o f E u r c ^ . From the gentler.
north the high jwessure extended to the south in the
form of two broad tongues, one covering portions o f Temperature
Greenland and Iceland, and the other almost the In the warm sector over the Mediterranean the
whole o f Scandinavia and the Baltic. In between, a temperature varied from 61° F over the north-east
trough o f low pressure extended as a bulge from the Spanish coast to 50° F over the French Riviera.
cyclone and covered almost the entire region o f the Further north in the interior o f the continent the
North Sea. In the south two areas o f high pressure, temperature was 61° F and the highest temperature
one over the Azores and the other over the Western o f 63° F was recorded in South-Western Germany.
Mediterranean were separated from one another by From there the temperature decreased to 52° F over
the low over the Meseta. the north Spanish co ast to 25° F in N orth
The cyclone as is evident from the map was Scandinavia. In the interior of the continent the
due to the interaction of a cold polar air from the
north and a warm tropical air from the south. The
central isobar indicated a pressure o f 976 mb and *
the gradient of pressure was moderate. The other
low pressure centre over the Spanish Meseta was
due to local convectitm.
^ f \ \
Wind
The direction of wind was determined by the S7HIGH

location of the cyclone centre. The wind moved in

an anticlockwise direction round the cyclone. In the
J '
fo r ,
southern half of the cyclone in the warm sector over
\H IG H •' *;32
South-East France and Northern Germany the wind
has a south-easterly direction. On the west o f the
warm sector in the region o f the cold sector over
Northern Spain, Western France, Belgium, Holland
and Denmark the wind had a westerly to south­
westerly direction. In the northern half of the cyclone
in the front part, over Southern Scandinavia and
Northern Britain the wind was moving in an easterly
r / c
or north-easterly direction. In the rear, over Ireland be

and North-W est England the wind was chiefly from 4 5 /-

0/
e
the north-west. The low pressure trough over the r ' '4 5 —
North Sea off Scandinavia created a local south­ . 46^ ^ 6 0 b
ofQ
easterly, or easterly wind over Norway.
The velocity of the wind varied according to
the pressure gradient In the high pressure areas the •• V
gradient was gentle and wind velocity varied from
LOW
a calm condition to winds at fifteen miles per hour.
In the immediate vicinity o f the cyclone centre in
the north-west and west the gradient was steeper Fig. 181
 \

WEATHER MAP 159

temperature varied fincMn 46“ F to 52° F. In Britain a Wind

temperature o f 49“ F was recorded from the south­ In general the w ind was blow ing ou t in
east and the tem poature decreased to 41“ F over the clockwise direction frwn the high pressure centres.
northern islands. Over the Scandinavian Peninsula, In the eastern part o f the anticyclcxie over
excepting certain localities with a slightly higher Scandinavia, Denmark, Germany, Holland, Belgium,
temperature, the record was below 35“ F. France and South-East Great Britain the wind mostly
blew from the N orth-east Over Northern England,
Sky Condition Southern Scotland and Ireland the wind was chiefly
On the continent the sky was cloudy in Spain, from the south east. In Northern Scotland and North
France and Germany. In Northern Holland and Scandinavia the wind was blowing from the west.
Denmark the sky was overcast. In South-East The grad ien t o f p ressu re w as low and
England and the Brittany coast, the sky was partly consequently wind velocity in general was very low.
cloudy. O ver N orthern B ritain and Southern Calm conditions prevailed over Southern France,
Scandinavia the sky was cloudy at some places and Western Ireland and South-Western Scandinavia.
overcast over a few other stations. Light air to light breeze with velocities varying from
2 to 5 miles per hour swayed over East-Central
Precipitation France, N orthern Germ any, Denm ark, most of
Continuous light rainfalls were reported from Southern Scandinavia and portions o f >4orthem
South-Western Germany, Central Denmark and the Ireland and Scotland. Gentle and moderate breeze
south coastal regions of Norway. Heavy rain and with velocities of 10 to 15 miles an hour were
hail occurred in South-West E n ^an d and Southern recorded from the coastal areas o f South-Eastem and
Wales respectively. The Orkney and Shetland islands Southern England and also from the North Baltic
north o f B ritain also received som e rain. region.
Thuixlerstorm with slight hail and thundersttxm with
slight rain were reported from two stations in Central Temperature
France. With certain local exceptions in general the
temperature varied between 45“ to 50“ F. Higher
2. Anticyclone temperatures varying between 52“ to 55“ F .w ere
Date recorded from the coastal areas of Holland, East
Fig. 181 shows the weathCT ccmdition of Western England, Brittany, Northern Spain and Southern
Europe at 7 hrs on a day in October, 1927. France. In Scandinavia along the North Sea coast
the temperature varied from 50“ F in the south to
Pressure 32“ F in the north. In the interior lower temperatures
Almost the whole area of Western and North- varying from 27“ F to 30“ F were recorded.
Western Europe was under the influence o f an
anticyclone. The major pcxtion o f France and the Sky Condition
whole of Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Germany, In general two types o f sky conditions are
Scandinavia and Great Britain had a highest pressure common with anticyclones. In one the sky is clear
higher than 1,024 mb. The pressure isobar of 1032 with bright sunshine and in the other the sky is mostly
mb in the form o f oval patches covered portions of overcast and the weather is depressing. This second
N orthern E ngland, and Southern and C entral type prevailed on the day under discussion.
Scandinavia. Mostly cloudy or overcast sky prevailed over
Areas of relative low pressure existed over the the area while only a few stations reported partly
Western Meditenanean, over the Atlantic off the open or blue sky. M ist was recorded in North
coast of Spain and near Iceland. Germany and slight fog fircMn Southern France, north­
west of Spain and Iceland.
 7 ^

160 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Germany recorded slight drizzle. Over Iceland, the

Precipitation
Slight precipitation in the form of snow, hail north coast had continuous slight rain and the
and rain was reported from coastal regions or southern coast continuous slight drizzle.
Northern and Central Norway. A station in Northern
 Chapter 7

REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA

Not unlike economists and statisticians, a 00 geographical diagrams. Daily, monthly and
geographer also makes use of statistical facts. They annual production figures of pig iron, steel ingots,
provide him raw materials for drawing diagrams, etc., of Tata & Co., may be shown by diagrams
diagrammatic maps, graphs, cartograms and which will be purely statistical diagrams; while the
distribution maps. Statistics vary; the method of their
production figures of India, U.S.A. and U.K., etc.,
representation will also vary with these. Climatic
may be diagrammatically shown together so as to
statistics, like temperature, pressure, rainfall, etc.,
give comparative idea. In this sense even statistical
may lead to the drawing of isotherm, isobar and
diagrams may be called geographic diagrams as the
isohyet maps respectively; while agricultural and figures do refer to certain places which are pivotal
industrial statistics may be represented in a different points in geography. When some geographical facts
way. say, by dots, symbols, colour, shading, etc. in respect to location, relief, etc., are represented in
Not wily this, their use is made in drawing other
a greatly, abstracted foim to stress some particular
illustrations also. The method of illustration or point it becomes a diagrammatic map or, sometimes
drawing not only varies with different statistical facts, called a sketch-map (See Figs. 182-84). From Fig.
but a single fact may also be represented in different 182 it is obvious that the position of Delhi is such
ways in accwdance with its type, intensity and time that it has attracted all means of communication and
factor. For instance, the distribution of population also the flow of human energy through them so much
over an area may be shown by dots when it is so that it has become a capital town. Thus, it is to
required to emphasise its nature or pattern in general; emphasise one geographic fact, i.e., geographical
when the density of population is to be shown, location, a primary cause in the development of the
different shadings or colours may be employed to town, that the scale and detailed relief features have
express various densities; while the distribution of been purposely omitted. Similarly, soil profiles.
population in different years or intervals of time may
be best shown by graphs w diagrams. In this way
cartogr^hers have evolved different methods and
designs fw representing given data, of which only a
few most impwtant forms will be discussed in the
sequel, on account of the limited scope of the book.

Diagram and Diagrammatic Maps

A diagram may be detined as the representation
of statistical data, or a geographic element in a highly
abstract and conventionalised form by laying
emphasis on one selected element. Thus, two types
may be distinguished; (/) statistical diagrams-
Fig. 182. Showing Position of Delhi.

X
 V

162 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

diagrams or diagrammatic maps {see Figs. 182-84).

These are, indeed, very useful in teaching. From
SOIL
Fig. 184 the character of the distribution of main
mountain ranges in the heart of Asia bordering
different plateaus and highlands may be very easily
visualised by students. It may not be so simple to
grasp the idea of broad relief features of Central
A BED ROCK Asia by a general relief map of the continent.
In draw in g a d iagram the follow ing
considerations may be had: (0 W hat is the main
idea or object to be shown? {if) Selection of method.
{Hi) The extent of abstraction or the amount of
approximation. The data may give simple information
regarding certain things; they may show some
comparative idea or relationship with other facts.
Consideration of all these helps in fmding out the
Fig. 183. SoU Profile. m ethod o f rep resen tatio n . The degree o f
mountain ranges, river basins, routes, etc., may be approximation is definitely greater than in other
diagrammatically simplified so that they may be more drawings. It depends on the scale and maximum
impressive and illustrative and their main idp" may and minimum figures. On a large scale the omission
be easily visualised. All such simplified may be insignificant, whereas, a small scale may
representations may be regarded as geographical not escape large omissions. When the scale is 1 inch

/C n o f

y '-*

Fig. 184. Showing the Relief of Asia.

 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA
163
- one thousand units, only a few units may be M ethod of D raw ing D iagram s
ignored; while one inch reps’esents one bkh, a few
The statistical diagrams can be grouped as
hundred will be omitted. If the figures are in millions,
(0 one dimensional, such as, bars, line diagrams;
then thousands may be ignored; if they are in
(ii) two-dimensional, such as, circular diagrams,
thousands, it may affra-d to omit a few hundred. The
r^ tan g u la r diagrams, squares etc., (Hi) three
limitation o f space occupied by the diagram depends
dimensional, diagrams, such as, block pUes, spherical
on the type o f m ethod used for it. N ecessary
diagram, cubes etc. Further, the statistical data can
adjustments are made in statistics in relation to the
also be condensed in a form o f pictorial diagrams
size and scope of the diagram. A bar may occupy
and graphs o f various types.
more space than a circle or a block in representing
the same quantity (see Fig. 185). The relative merit 1. Bar or Pillar or Column
of various methods may also be judged on this
ground. Representation o f quantities by bars is the easiest
and simplest type of diagram. Bars may be shown
by a straight line or like a pillar or column with
some uniform width. Their length may vary in
proportion to the quantity to be represented on a
selected scale. They may be Vertical or Horizontal
and Simple or Compound. Labels of the horizontal
bars can be read more easily than those of the vertical
b ^ s and so the former may be prefeired to the latter.
Simple bars have no sub-divisions and as such they
represent one fact only; e.g., a column may be erected
straightway to show 80 thousand million towns of
coal reserve of India (vide fig . 186). At the same
time the column may be sub-divided to show the
distribution of coal reserve over various parts of
India.
Such a sub-divided column may be termed a
compound bar because it shows not only total coal
reserve of India but also its distribution over various
100
regions of the countiy. The bar may. likewise, be
sub-divided according to percentage figures. The total
Fig. 185
length of the bar will represent 100 units and on it

F T I I M 1111 ---------- 1----------\---------- 1

— ........................................... s vV-v ^
B C D E
Fig. 186. Showing Coal Reserves of India in 1,000 Million Tons.

A
 e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l g e o g r a p h y
164
Hints fo r construction—(1) Adjustment of
sub-divisions may be made at equal or unequal
statistics; (2) Selection of scale; (3) ringing o f sub­
distances showing the shares of different regions
division of the bar; (4) Labelling.
which may be equal or varying. Thus the bar showing
the total production of coal in India may express
percentage of its use of railways, factories, etc. (vide Fig. 186:
By adding up the figures, the total reserve comes
Fig. 187). Sometimes more than one bar may be
to be 80 thousand million tons. The maximum share
raised together to give comparative ideas. (See Fig.
of the region is 25,000 milUon tons and the minimum
188). figure is 150 million tons. Find out the multiple of
80,000; 25,000 and 150 by which the three figures
10 20 30 ^ 00 ^ I y J ? I may be conveniently divided. Let the number be 10.
But if the sub-divisions are to be shown upto 100
milUon, then either the length o f the bar wUl be too
2 3 4S •
great or it will be too difficult to mark 8,000 divisions
on it for showing 80,000 million tons. Now, a suitable
Fig. 187. Uses of coal in India.
multiple, say, 1,000 may be taken so that most of
the regions may be well represented. In this way 8
primary divisions and 80 secondary divisions may
be made on the line showing the scale. Then the bar
may be made closely parallel and equal to the line
of scale. Finally, sub-divisions may be made on the
bar according to the share of the regions A, B, C, D,
etc., respiectively. In order to make it prominent and
distinct each region is shaded differently.

Fig. 187:
In this case is given the percentage of the use of
total coal produced in India by railways, mills and
factories, etc. A little adjustment o f statistics is
needed here. Take a suitable line to represent 100
units. Divide it into 10 primary divisions and divide
the first primary into 10 secondary divisions (see
Chapter 2 on scales). Make a horizontal bar close
and equal to the line. Sub-divide it according to the
u 40 percentage of the use of the total coal and label it
according to share in other.

Fig. 188:
Here great adjustment is needed because the
quantity of coal produced in India by states is given
in tons. Find the total by summing up the figures of
(O a all the states. Calculate the percentage share of total
C/) UJ
coal by each state as shown in the table. Then erect
bars to represent the production of coal—total and
by states, as in the previous case. Here no sub­
divisions are required.
Fig. 188. Production of Coal in India.
 '/
X .

REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 165

E xample :
Construct bar diagrams to represent the following data:

T ab le 1. Inddan Coal Reserve in Million Tons

Regions Million Tons

A. Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro and Karanpura 25,000

B. Singrauli Basin 20,000
C. Wardha— Godavari valley from Arora to Bedadanura 18,000
D. " Sone valley, Auranga to Umaria and Sohagpur
10,000
E. Chhattisgarh and Mahanadi valley 5,000
Satpuia Region— Mohpani to Kanhan and Pench valley 1,5000
F. Giridih, Deogarh and Rajmahal hills 350
_Daijeeling and Eastern Himalyan Region 150

Total 80,000

T able 2. Uses o f Total Coal Produced in India, 1970-71 (in per cent)

1. Railways 16.04 '

2. Iron and Steel 25.81
3. Textiles 2.06
4. Cement 5.02
5. Bunkar 0.04
6. Others 50.85

T able 3. Coal Production in India, 1968-69 (in ’000 Tons)

States Production in Tons % o f Total

1. Bihar 31,794 44.90

2. W. Bengal 20.071 28.34
3. M P. 11,586 16.36
4. AP. 3,971 5.61
5. M aharashtra 1,562 2.20
6. Orissa 1,305 1.84
7. Assam 510 0.71
8. Others 15 0.03

Total 70 814
99.96
 'T

166 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

2. Blocks.
Blocks may be either simple, giving two dimen­
sional effect like rectangles and squares, or they may
be complex, producing three dimensional effect like
cubical blocks— single or plied, cylinders, spheres,
etc. In the form er case the area o f the block
proportionate to the quantity shown by it; in the
latter the volume of the block is made commensurate
to the quantity represented. The former is easier and
the undergraduates may study its drawing; while the
latter is difficult and may be followed by degree
students. Moreover, block diagrams are also prepared u .i. I.
to show landforms, with one-point perspective or 0 LO
two-point perspective. (See Chap. 4). Fig. 189

E xample : which will be 7 X 6, 6 X 4, 5.8 X 6.7 and 2 x 1.5

Draw rectangular blocks to represent the data respectively. In Fig. 189, ABCD represents the total
given in Table 4. production; EFGD, JKLD, MNOD and PQRD show
the production of rice, wheat, millets and barley
T a b le 4 . Production o f Foodgrains in India, respectively. Considering all blocks the maximum
1970-71 error is 2.8 per cent, and the minimum error is 0.5
per ce n t Errors below 5 per cent may be admissible
Grains Million Tons Size o f the Block in such diagrams.
In order to avoid errors to the greatest extent,
1. Rice 426 7x6 the same facts may be represented by grouping
2. Wheat 23.4 6x4 together a number of even-sized small squares or
3. MiUets 38.9 5.8 X 6.7 any other geometric forms. Each unit square may
4. Barley 2.9 2 x 1.5 represent some conveniently selected quantity. Such
a method is advantageous in comparison with the
Total 107.8 12 X 9 rectangular block method in two ways: (0 It is
comparatively much more accurate; (ii) it may be
Fig. 189: easily commensurable by counting the number of
Sum up the figures. The total production comes unit squares. For the representation o f above data
to be 107.8 million tons. If one small unit square the number of unit squares will be: 42.5 for rice,
represents one million tons there will be 108 unit 23.3 for wheat, 39 for millets, 3 for barley and 108
squares to represent the total production. Find out for the total production, when one unit square
the dimensions of the rectangle to show 108 unit represents one million tons (See Fig. 190)
squares. The convenient size of the rectangular block Sometimes we may afford to ignore fraction
may be 12 x 9 units; if a square block is required, when in doing so the amount of error is not over 5
then its one side will be 10.5 units. In the former per cent
case, the block will show a positive error of 0.2
million tons; in the latter, there will be a positive 3. Block Piling Method
error of 2.5 million tons. So in this particular case, This method involves the piling up of a number
the former may be preferred to the latter. Similarly, of unit cubical one above the other in such a way
that each on of them may be easily counted. This
the dimensions of the sub-blocks to show production
also produces three-dimensional effect. Its one side
of rice, wheat, millets and barley may be calculated
 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 167

This method is advantageous in comparison with

□□□□□□□□□□□ others in the following ways: (/) It is more
□□□□□□□□□□□
□□□□□□□□□□□ impressive; (ii) the full meaning o f the block can be
□□□□□□□□□□□ understood easily because the sub-divisions are
□□□□□□□□□□□ □□□
□□□□□□□□□□□ □□□□□□□□□□ marked on the block itself, which facilitate exact
□□□□□□□□□□a □□□□□□□□□□ m easurem ent o f the quantity represented by it;
□□□□□□□□□□□ □□□□□□□□□□ (Hi) it occupies less space than a bar, or rectangular
□□□□□□□□□□□ □□□□□□□□□□
t o ta l r ice block o f circle, a quality which makes it suitable for
□ □□□ being used as symbols in cartograms and distribution
□□□□□□□ maps (See Fig. 225). But it may be noted here that
□□□□□□□ □□□□□□
□□□□□□□ □□□□□□ a sp h ere re q u ire s m inim um o f space fo r the
□□□□□□□ □□□□□□ □ maximum o f volume. So in maps where we cannot
□□□□□□□ □□□□□□ □□ afford to give more space for a small volume, spheres
MILLETS WHEAT BARLEY
may be preferred to these block^ but it is easier to
Fig. 190. Production of Food grains in India. construct the latter than the former and moreover,
is deeply shaded or pitched so that the block may calculation o f radii o f spheres presents further
become impressive. It is a simplified form o f three difficulty; this restricts the use o f spheres to very
dim ensional blocks, provided by cubes, spheres specific end.
cylinders, etc. The difficulty o f finding out the
E xample :
volumes of various geometrical forms required to
Diagrammatically represent the data given in
make them proptMtionate to the quantity represented,
Table 5 by block-pile method:
has been avoided in this method by assuming a small
unit cube to represent a certain quantity. The such Table 5. The production o f some crops in
unit cubes may be piled one above the other to India in 1970-71
produce one full block, one side o f which may be
sub-divided into 10 equal parts, and thus, one sub­ Crops Production in Metric Tons
division may represent one u n it In Fig. 191, such
Cotton 4555.7
piled blocks showing 1/2 unit, 1 unit, 10 units, 22.5
Jute 4905.2
units, 45 units, 100 units, 162 units and 1000 units
may be noted. Tobacco 350.0

7 / / / Z / '7

m m m

1 10 22^ 45 100 162 1000

Fig. 191
168 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Let one-tenth inch cube represent 10 metric tons. to .3" and .4" respectively. OF is parallel to AB and
Then the number of unit cubes will be 455.6 for equal to .5". PL is parallel to AB and equal to .1".
cotton, 490.5 for jute and 35.0 for tobacco. The CD is parallel to BG and equal to .3". DE and OR
w hole numbers may be easily represented; the are parallel to AB. SR is parallel to LG, FE and BC
fractions may either be deleted or approximately and each equal to 1/10" except BC. Sub-divide AB,
represented. Let us take the tobacco block first In BG, CD, GF and AS at 1/10" interval. Thus, the
this case 30 cubical blocks may be piled together block ABCDEORS may be obtained to represent
one above the other and 5 unit cubes may be attached 350 tons of tobacco. The block gives a visual picture
with it. In Fig. 192 AB is of one inch length. Ten of the pile of tobacco and its quantity is measurable
sub-divisions at an interval of 1/10" are marked on to the decimal point. Similarly, blocks of other
it. BG and AS are perpendicular to AB and are equal production figures may b e tn a d e (See Fig. 192).

COTTON JUTE tobacco

P ig . 1 9 2 . S h o w in g production o f C otton, Jute and Tabacco.

4. Wheel Diagrams space than these, a fact which makes it more suitable
Circular diagrams are sometimes known as for distribution maps. This diagram may also be made
wheel diagrams or pie diagrams. The basic principle commensurable when the circumference of the circle
underlying this diagrams is that the area of the circle is divided into 100 equal parts, the sub-divisions
is made proportional to the quantity or number being marked along its circumference (See Fig. 178).
represented by i t It gives a good visual idea of the
fact it represents and also looks pleasant; but it is E xam ple:
not easily commensurable as the bar and the blt^k. Draw a wheel diagram to represent the data
It has advantage over them in that it occupies less given in Table 6.

Fig. 194 Fig. 195 Fig. 196

Fig. 193
 r e w ie s e n t a t io n o f s t a t is t ic a l d a t a 169

T able 6. Land use in India (in Mill, acres) maximum quantity or the minimum quantity. Then
the other concentric circles will be drawn to represent
Total area 1,000 smaller or greater quantities. The radii o f the circles
1. N et area sown 360 will be prqx)itionate to that o f the first circle, that
2. Cultivable waste 170 is, the radius of the circle will be proportionate to
3. C urrent fallow 80 the square root of the quantity represented. Say, the
4. Others 390 radius of the first circle to represent current fallow
is 1/4"; then the radius o f the next circle will
Draw any circle to represent the total area of
India. Find out the angles for each sectCM’ to represent, be times the radius o f the first circle and that
360, 80, 170 million acres respectively. As 1,000
million acres are represented by 360’, to represent of the third will b e ^ ^ ^ times and that of the fourth
360 X 360 _ 1on V80
360 million acres, — izy.o vvill be re-
1,000 circle ^^QOO- = 3.6 times. In this way the radius of
quired. Similarly current fallow will be shown by V80
28.8° and cultivable waste by 61.2°. From the centre each circle may be found out and four concentric
of the circle draw the sectors with corresponding circles may be drawn and shaded differently. Then
angles. Shade each sector with different shading to a ring will be formed (See Fig. 195). Such
bring out distinction (see Fig. 193). representation may be called ring diagrams.
From the diagram , thus, prepared, one can The same fact may be shown by spherical
simply visualise the relative size of the land lying diagrams also. In this case the radii of various
under each head. If we want to know the exact area spheres will be proportionate to the cube roots of
from it, we will be disappointed. In order to make the quantities. That is, if 1/4" be the radius of the
the diagram com m ensurable, the circle may be spheres representing 80 million acres, the radius
divided into 100 equal parts at 3.6° distance. The o f the sphere representing the total land will
sub-divisions may be marked on the circumference. u 1rwv^
Now the percentage share of each item to the total be times the radius of the first sphere.
IS O
acreage may be calculated; thus we may find that 36 In this way the radii of other spheres may also be
per cent of total area is under crops, 8 per cent calculated and spheres drawn (See Fig. 196). It is
fallow and 17 per cent cultivable waste. Then the now obvious that the sphere occupies much less
sectors may be easily marked on the circle. (See space than a circle representing the same data. So,
Fig. 194). in the map showing the distribution of population,
Sometimes data may be given in percentage in particular, when a number of towns are to be
instead of absolute quantity. Then the circle will shown on it, sphere may be advantageously used
represent 100; i.e., 100 will be represented by 360°. instead of circles which will occupy more space and
Then we m ay easily calculate that 36 per cent as such, may encroach upon rural areas. Spheres
may give better comparison regarding the relative
will be represented by — . Similarly, size of the towns. The detailed discussion of relative
1(X)
others w ill be represented by 28.8° and 61.2° importance of spheres and other geometrical forms
respectively. Then the diagram may be completed representing population will be discussed elsewhere
as in Fig. 194. in the sequel.
M oreover, the above data may be represented
by different concentric circles which may give better 5. Pictorial Diagrams
com parison. In this case the outer circle or the Statistical data may be represented by pictorial
innermost circle may be drawn first to represent the symbols like sacks, bales, tanks, discs, etc., used for

/ \
 T

170 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

grains or cement, cotton or other fibres, oil, income, 6. Star Diagrams

etc., as they symbolically r^ re se n t them. Sometimes These are also known as direction diagrams. In
pictorial designs o f a particular object may be these diagrams, like the rays o f the starts, radiating
emptoyed to express the quantity or number of the lines are drawn from a centre to represent certain
same; for instance, man-power of different countries numbCT or quantity. These radiating rays give the
may be shown by unit symbol of man to bring out diagrams an appearance o f a star, hence the name.
comparison; likewise animal population may be The length of each ray is proportional to the quantity
shown by the corresponding animal symbol and represented. Wind-roses provide a commwi example
automobile data by automobile symbol, etc. In all o f this type o f diagram . As there are sixteen
the above cases a unit of suitable size is taken in the directions, 16 radiating rays may be drawn from the
same way as a small cube forms a unit in the block-
pile d ia^am and the total quantity may be shown
by the calculated number of such units in propcMtion
to the quantity represented. F w example, to present
108 million tons of foodgrains fxtxluced in India,
10.8 sacks may be hei^jed together when the unit
sack is supposed to represent 10 million tons. Like­
wise, 42.6 million tons of rice, by 4.26 sacks and
millets, by 4 sacks and barley, by one-third sack
{See Fig. 197). Such pictorial diagrams give a true
visual idea of the object shown and these are also
easily commensurable. So from educational point of
view they are very im portant Diagrams and maps
prepared on these lines may be used for teaching
students o f lower classes. But drawing of these
diagrams is not so easy as it will require some artistic
sense.

Hg. 198

centre {Fig. 198). Each ray will denote the number

of hours the wind blows from the corresponding
direction during a particular period. Then the end
points may be jointed to give a starlike appearance.
The numbCT o f hours when the wind is calm may be
shown by a small circle in the centre, the numbo"
iMu.rrs being entered in it. As they indicate direction also
they may be called direction diagrams. In Fig. 199
the small circle rejM^sents the number of calm days,
which is 37 as is shown by the number entered in it
and the num ber o f days wind is coming from
Rtce
different directions has been shown by lines drawn
in propcMtion to them on the basis of the given data
(Table 7).
n g . 197
 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 171

T a bl e 7

No. o f days Winds coming from

51 N.
22 N.E.
17 E.
42 S.E.
1-3. 4* r4-4 r >-12 M.PM.
55 S.
57 S.W. 20 30 40 50
32 W. No o f doy*
52 N.W.
37 Calm. Fig. 200. Left: Compound wind-rose;
Right: Wind and visibility-rose
These w ind-roses are commonly shown on (After Monkhouse).
climatogical maps and pilot charts.
nonetheless, they have some limitations too. They
may be accused of approximation.

Graphical Representation
Like diagrams, statistical data may also be
represented by graphs. Graphs involve the drawing
o f regular lines— smooth or curved, each point on
them being determined by two co-ordinates. For
convenience squared papers are used, which are
popularly called graph papers. Some authors have
made graphs synonymous with diagrams. Any way,
this is also a method of representing statistical facts.
Fig. 199. Wind-rose of Calcutu. It is in this sense that all methods are graphical as
well as diagrammatic. The graphs are, however,
Sometimes wind-rose columns are subdivided notable for their accuracy and exactness. Their
to show frequency of wind velocity for various drawing is also relatively easy. They clearly bring
directions. See Fig. 2(X). These are called compound out the relationship between two facts or elements
wind-roses. Wind-roses may also express relationship as both of them are shown together, one along the
between visibility and wind direction. Fig. 2(X) right horizontal axis and the other along the vertical axis.
They are generally used to show relation between
Importance of Diagrams time and certain elements. For instance, graphs may
Diagrams, particularly in geography, are useful be drawn to show the variation o f temperature,
in many ways: (0 they express at a glance the main pressure, etc., with reference to a day or month, etc.,
idea or significance of a series of statistical facts to show growth of population from year to year or
without any reference to their unpleasing long list. decade to decade, etc.; to show rate of production
(iT) They provide for good comparison. (Hi) They from day to day or month to month, etc.; and so on.
are more illustrative and as such, render much help When it shows relationship between two thing it
in teaching, (iv) Their drawing is easy and simple may be called a simple graph, e.g., temperature
and so they may be drawn by anyone who has even graph, rainfall graph, etc. Sometimes an ensemble
a very m oderate aptitude for draw ing. B ut
of relationships between more than two elements
 \

172 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

may also be shown. These may be called compound we can read from it the population of the town for
graphs, such as, climograph, hythergraph, ergograi*, any year betwe«i 1861-1951. Supposing we want to
bandgraph, econograph, etc. fmd out the peculation in 1926, we should mark the
Simple graphs do not require much artistic sense. point to represent the year 1926 along OX and at it
Here some points are marked on the squared paper erect the perpwidicular to meet the line BR at K.
whose co-ordinates are given. Then these points are Then the horizontal line KS will denote the number
joined with a line, straight ot curved. Let us represent of people at S, say 240 thousand approximately. So
the data given (Table 8): this is an additional quality of this graphical method.
The per c a it o f error is insignificant If out of lakhs
T a ble 8. Growth o f Population in Kanpur a few thousand people are left unrepresented, then
the amount of error will certainly be less than one
Year Population Year Population per cent
Sim ilarly, rainfall and tem perature graphs
1871 1,22,700 1931 2,43,755 showing average conditions may be plotted. In this
1881 1,51,444 1941 4,87,324 case 12 months, from January to December may be
1891 1,88,712 1951 7,05,383 shown along the horizontal axis and temperature or
1901 202,797 1961 9 ,7 6 3 1 rain fall, along the vertical axis. Som etim es
1911 1,78,557 1971 1 2 ,7 5 3 2 temperature and rainfall figures of a particular station
1921 2,16,486 or region may be plotted on the same base. Such a
representation will show g e n ia l character of the
Mark the axis OX and GY on the squared paper. climate of the particular region. This is why climatic
Show decades along OX taking 2 units to represent charactmstics of different regions are commonly
each decade. Mark the population scale along OY shown by graphical method. A fairly good practice
with I unit represwiting 50,000 people. With the help in drawing such climatic grains of different regitms
of two co-ordinates, AB and EC point B is helps the student in identifying typical clim ate of
determined; E is fixed by DE and FE. Similarly, the the world. ThCTefore, the students in their under­
points L, M, P, Q and R have been determined. By graduate classes should practice the drawing of
joining these points the curved line BR has been climatic graphs of various regions. Fw this necessary
formed, which shows the variation of populatiwi in data are given in the exercises.
the town of Kanpur, since 1861 onwards {Fig. 201), Compound columner diagrams may be
Every point on this line has two co-ordinates and so graphically drawn to show deviation of temperature
or rainfall from mean conditions. See Fig. 202.

Water Balance or Budget Graphs

These are line graphs depicting the
superimposition of the mean monthly rainfall and
the mean monthly evapotranspirations; both potential
and actual evapo-transpirations graphs may be
superimposed.
The variation of the water surplus or water
deficiency amounts from place to place is a fact of
great agricultural, biological, and geographical
importance. The important controlling factors are
climate, soil moisture supply, plant cover, and land
management. The water surplus and the water
Fig. 201
deficiency over Meerut District during a normal
 r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f s t a t is t ic a l d a t a 173

ALLAHABAD

lO O -
Extreme Max. Record

Meon Absolute Monttily Mox.

Meon Ooily Moximum

Monthly Meon
Meon Doily Minimum

Meon Absolute Monthly Min.

Extreme Min. R e c o r d

M O N T H S

Fig. 202. Means and Extremes of Temperature at Allahabad.

rainfall year are shown at monthly intervals in Fig. loss of soil moisture or it activates the recharge
203. In this figure the rainfall and the potential process; it is completed by the middle of August.
evapotranspiration (PE) curves have actually been The perpendicular line drawn on the graph indicates
superimposed. Beginning with January the amounts that the soil-moisture has been fully restored. This
of rainfall (in cm) are: 2.4, 2.2, 1.5, 0.9, 1.4, 7.5, soil moisture is indicated by the water balance struck
19.0, 15.5, 12.5, 1.6, 0.2, and 1.1; correspondingly, up to a depth of 10 cm. The amount of this soil
amounts of PE are: 10.0,12 .5 ,2 0 .0 ,3 0 .0 ,3 7.5 ,3 0 .0 , moisture conforms to the level o f field-capacity. The
15.0.10.0, 11.3,15.0,1 2 .5 and 10.0. The combined surplus of water obtained after saturation level of
influence of the evaporation and the transpiration the field capacity is reached is expressed as water
p ro cesses is u sually d esig n ated as e v ap o ­ surplus (from middle of Aug. to Sept.). This water
transpiration. It represents the transport of water from runs as either surface flow or percolates underground.
the earth back to the aunosphere, that is the reverse Since October PE exceeds precipitation again and
of precipitation. Potential evapotranspiration is an this situation prevails till June. As a consequence,
index of the amount of water that would evaporate the stored soil moisture begins to decrease and by
and transpire if it were always available from the about the middle of this very month it is compeletely
soil and the plants. exhausted; this soil moisture is equivalent to 10 cm
It is obvious from the figures that from January water. Another perpendicular line in the graphs shows
to June PE exceeds precipitation, that is, there is complete utilization o f soil-moisture. This line again
water deficit during this period. Again, precipitation indicates water deficit with effect from middle of
exceeds PE during the period from July to September. October, which continues up to June. Total annual
Some part of this water surplus compensates the water deficit amounts to 158.7 cm water and the

\
z :
 174 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

W ater balance graph is, therefore, helpful in

^ p o te n t.a le v a p o tr a n s p ,r a t,o n ( 3 vvater s u r p l u s
RAINFALL evaluating the problems concerning agriculture and
Q W A T E R D E F IC IT
water supply.
SOIL M.OISTURE RECh Ar GE
SOIL MOISTURE UTILIZATION C lim ograph (or Clim ogram )
Climograph was introduced by Griffith Taylor
in the second decade of the 20th century, though
this type was first conceived by J. Ball
‘Climatological Diagrams’ (Cairo Scientific Journal,
Vol. IV, Cairo 1910). Koppen used the diagram to
summarise variations in world climatic conditions;
his ideas were expanded by J.B . L eighly for
comparing the climates of different parts of the world.
This shows inter-relationship between three variables.
The ordinates— horizontal and vertical, show wet-
bulb tem perature (F) and relative hum idity as
monthly averages. Twelve points, every one o f them
corresponding to each month, are determined on the
e-\ squared paper in relation to the two ordinates. By
joining these points the twelve sided figure is
obtained, which is called the climograph of the station
it represents. A tentative scale o f discomfort has
also been suggested by Taylor; 40° F — 45° F very
MONTHS rarely uncomfortable; 45° F— 55° F ideal; 55° F —
60° F very rarely uncom fortable; 60° F— 65° F
Fig. 203. (After R.N. Mathur) som etimes uncom fortable 65° F — 70° F often
comfortable; 70° F— 75° F, usually uncomfortable.
total water surplus, to 47 cm; the periods of water Also the significance of adjectives—raw, muggy,
surplus and water deficit show clearly that the scorching and keen, put in the S.E., N.E., N.W. and
movement of rain water throughout the year does S.W. comers respectively should be marked out. Raw
not correspond at all to the changing water demand denotes wet-bulb tem perature below 40° F and
by vegetation. relativ e hum idity o v er 70 p er cent, m uggy,
By analysing the water balance graph one m^ny temperature over 60° F and relative humidity over
find out the period and amount of water deficit and 70 per cent, scorching, temperature over 60° F and
water surplus both. During the period of water relative humidity less than 40 per cent, and keen,
surplus the amount of precipitation is greater than temperature below 40° F and relative humidity less
the need of vegetation. Thus, by the recharge of than 40 per cent. The climograph was devised to
ground water and surface flow of water, the supply show the scale of habitability for white settlers within
of water is available. During the period of water the tropics. The graphs approaching the four comers
deficit the need for vegetation is greater than the indicate discomfortable climate. Hot and cold desertic
conditions are indicated by “Scorching” and “Keen”
amount of rain water received, so far the plants to
comers respectively. The shape of different climo-
attain maximum growth irrigation is necessary.
graphs show ing various clim ates varies. W ith
Meerut district, therefore, needs irrigation facilities
reference to the very shape of the typical climo-
from November to June for successful cultivation
graphs, the students may compare unknown climates
equivalent to the amount of water deficit. easily. TTie dry continental climate is represented by

A .
 r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f s t a t is t ic a l d a t a 175

m ore o r less spind le-sh ap ed c lim o g rap h s, climographs.

M editerranean climate by diagonal graphs; monsoon
climate by diagonal elongated in the other direction; E xam ple (Table 9):
ideal B ritish type o f clim ate, by “full bodied” Draw a climograph o f Calcutta.

T able 9

Moruhs J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

Wet-bulb Temp. P 64.8 68.5 70.5 78.1 82.9 82.3 80.8 80.7 80.0 78.0 68.9 68.4
Rel. Humidity, % 40 44 38 38 57 69 81 79 75 72 48 48

etc., with their respective co-ordinates. Join the points

30 <0 50 GO eo%
to get 12-sided figure which will be called the
climograph of Calcutta (Fig. 204). Mark that it is
80 30
confmed between scorching and Muggy comers. This
may be compared with the climographs of other
stations o f India (Fig. 205) and outside and main
points of difference noted by students. Figures 206
60
and 207 illustrate some other types of climographs.
50
The form er is based on U .S.A. Departm ent o f
50
Agriculture, Climate and Man, p. 249 (Washington,
40 40 1941). This expresses climatic conditions in terms
of human comfort; while the latter figure has been
d e v is ^ with the help of Thomthwaite’s scheme of
30 40 50 60 70 80%
R e lo tiv e H um idity climatic classification. (See also Monkhouse: Maps
and Diagrams, 1st Ed., pp. 162-163).
Rg. 204. Climograph of Calcutta.
100r
Let the horizontal axis OX represent relative Limi) obov« which p u lM
le m p e ro tw r* riM ra p id ly
humidity and GY, wet-bulb temperature. Mark the co ,itln u * d i x p o t u r f .

point J denoting January with the co-ordinates o f 40

per cent and 64.8° F. Similarly, mark the points F, c 70
M, A. etc., to denote February, March and April,

climograph op ALLAHABAD

•0-

t.o 80 80 100
A
i Dry bulb ttmp In d tg rtt* F
Rg. 206
I
40
H yth erg rap h
20 40 •O 80 Like the climographs, hythergraphs were also
R e lo tiv e H u m id it y %
devised by Taylor. These are also twelve sided
Rg. 205 figures showing average monthly temperature and
176 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

H ot
no
Worm
65
Mild
SO
Cool J.0

Cold

Frigid
-» Fig. 208. Hythergraph of Agra.
P roclpltotlon A in eiio t climatic character o f different regions as affecting
the cultivation of crops like wheat, cotton, rice, etc.
Fig. 207. (After E.E. Foster).

rainfall conditicMis at a particular station. They are E xample:

drawn in just the same way in which climographs Draw hythergraph of Agra with the help of the
are drawn. The ordinates show monthly temperature data (Table 10) and show how it satisfies the climatic
and rainfalls and the twelve points, each for a month, requirement o f the cultivation of wheat crop. Draw
are plotted on the squared paper in relation to their comparison with other wheat lands.
co-ordinates. These are drawn to compare the

T a b le 10

Months J F M A M J A S 0 N D

Temperature (P .) 59.6 63.8 69.2 81.8 94.7 90.8 86.2 87.2 82.6 78.0 65.0 58.4
Rainfall (") 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.4 2.2 8.8 7.4 4.1 0.7 0.1 0.3

As in the case of climographs, plot the twelve

points, every one of them denoting one particular HYTHERGRAPH OF ALLAHABAD
ICO
month. (See Fig. 208). The hythergraph with twelve
sides has been obtained by joining the points J, F, 90-
M, etc. Similarly, draw hythergraphs of other stations
for which date are given in the exercises and
com pare. It w ould appear that the shape o f
hythergraphs of the stations of hot wheat lands or IboH ot
any other homoclimes will be more or less similar
(compare Fig. 209 fw Allahabad).

Ergograph SC­
It im plies the graphical representation of
statistical data to show relationship between season, AD
climate and crops. The cycle of plant growth closely
Roinfoll in inch«t
corresponds to seasons. Different seasons come with
different climate and crc^s. Some crops are annual. Fig. 209

- 4 . .
 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 177

some bi-annual and others may require only a few horizontal axis— the primary base line, the acreage
months to mature. Thus these graphs show many of various crops is shown on some selected scale.
variables. The climate is represented by graphs
showing monthly average temperature and rainfall E xample :
and relative humidity marked along the vertical axis; Prepare and ergograph o f Sind with the help of
the horizontal axis shows twelve months. Below the the data given in Table 11 a and b.

Table H a . Monthly temperature, rainfall and humidity.

Months J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

Temperature (F) 62 64 72 84 90 91 90 86 84 80 70 62
Rel. Humidity (%) 50 48 46 46 50 52 63 68 64 54 48 50
Rainfall ( '0 .1 .2 .15 .05 .15 .3 2.6 1.9 .8 0.1 .05 .1

T able 1\b. The net acreage o f various crops and their growing seasons.

Crops Growing Seasons N et acreage in thousands

Rice May to Gctober 100

Wheat Gctober to April 1,100
Cotton June to December 600
Jowar July to Gctober 350
Bajra June to Gctober 300

Let OX and GY be the two axes. that there is a close relationship between crops and
Show temperature, rainfall and relative humidity seasons in general. Rice and cotton also correspond
along GY and XY and twelve months from January to the monsoon period, that is from June to
to December along GX. Plot the points for each December, when humidity is comparatively high.
element and draw the graphs. {See Fig. 210). Another type of ergograph has been presented
Downwards of GX show the net acreage of each by A. G eddes and A.G. G gilive to show the
crop by separate rectangular blocks taking the scale, continuous rhythm of seasonal activities. Circular
say, one unit sq. = 5,000 acres. The length of each curves may be drawn showing the amount and nature
block should correspond to the growing season and of work done each month in the form of a circular
its breadth will be calculated according to the selected compound graph (vide Fig. 211).
scale. Now, the relation of crops with season and
Band G rap h
climate may be noted by students. The preponderance
This is also known as a comp: and or aggregate
of wheat and cotton seems to be anomalous when
line graph. It shows the trends o f ' dues inperc?ntage
we consider the rainfall figures. The cultivation of
or numbers or quantity in both Uk: total and its parts
these crops has been possible with the development
by a series of lines drawn on the same frame in
of canal irrigation, other things remaining the same.
which the vertical axis may ix present the time scale
The climate is suitable for the cultivation of Jowar
and the horizontal scale, the values. The. correspond­
and Bajra, which now occupy less acreage and seem
ing sub-divisions are shaded differently to form
to be less significant. But it may, however, be noted different bands {vide Fig. 212).

X
178 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

!^20' 1201241

M-

[■•:v.y.|^)OMESTtC WORK
^^AGRICULTURE ^^^FOREST PURSUITS
H^ANIMAL hUSBANORV OTHER ACTIVITIES
FISHING |]]|j|j|l|:|SLEEP

F ig . 211
1971

TO

J F M A M J J / ^ S O N D 69

67
66
6S

E3 r e p r e s e n t 10 A C R E S

Fig. 210. Ergograph of Siud. 63

62
Compound Pyramids
Population pyramids showing sex and age
structure, growth and occupational structure are well 60
familiar. In the compound pyramids each tier may
99
be subdivided to depict the rural and urban population
for each census year according to different categories.
Each tier should be so arranged that a white band is 1967
left between two tiers (v id e Fig. 213). Superimpo^d 200
pyramids of p>opulation—rural and urban, showing
F ig . 2 1 2
age and sex ratio may also be drawn. (See Fig. 214).
 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA
179

CLASS OF TOW NS

22222

1951

500 !000 1500 2000 2500 3000

THOUSAND PERSONS
Fig. 213

JABALPUR DISTRICT

OVER 8 5 FEMALE

percent PERCENT
URBAN

Fig. 214. Superimposed Pyramids of PopuIaUon

a RURAL

Ag^e Grou” LId°s*^*^'°" Superimposed over the Urban Population by

 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
180
sense a cartogram may be likened to a cartoon. Its
It is not possible to discuss econographs and
frequent use is made in explaining the facts of
other compound graphs within the scope of this book.
political geography or geo-political problems. It may,
For these, reference may be m ade to General
however, be noted that cartograms are one of the
Cartography by Raisz, III Ed., pp. 239-41.
most important tools of a geographer. Their develop­
ment sull awaits perfection. Out of a series, we may
Cartograms discuss here a few important types.
Cartograms are representation of statistical data
on a map in a diagrammatic way by purposefully 1. R ectangular C arto g ram s
distorting the original shape or appearance of the These cartograms comprise the representation
area concerned. The cartogram differs from a of number or quantity. The rectangles are made to
diagram m atic map in that the latter is highly follow the outlines of sub-divisions so that if there
abstracted to make it much illustrative or to give too be need, the outline of the region with its sub-regions
much prominence to a single idea; while in the may be marked easily and only with slight
former, the exact location of other features and modificauon. The use of squared paper may be made
sometimes outlines of the area also may be altered to complete the drawing quickly. The scale should
only to make the main idea more impressive on the be so selected as to represent a round number, say,
map. Some authors label all statistical maps as 1,000 to 1,000,000, etc., by one small square.
cartograms, which express a single idea. The most
conservative group considers those m aps as E xample;
cartograms in which exact location of features and Make a cartogram to represent the data given m
their outlines as well may be modified. In some Table 12.

T a b le 12. Population density, percentage o f total area cultivated and

rainfall o f U.P. in 1941.

Density o f 1941 Percentage o f Rainfall in

Natural division
total area inches

124 8.7 67.17

1. Himalaya West
482 55.9 37.82
2. Sub-Himalaya West
710 68.9 59.83
3. Sub-Himalaya East
630 62.7 23.42
4. Gangetic Plain West
41.8 29.26
5. Gangetic Plain Central 638
70.3 45.21
6. Gangetic Plain East 879
48.4 32.64
242
7. Central India Plateau
I 25.7 45.22
208
8. East Vindhyas
I

____
X

REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 181

Three separate cartograms will be prepared, each cultivated land, the density of population becomes
to show one elem ent That is, each of eight rectangles m aximum in rural areas. For exam ple, in the
with uniform width will be made to represent the Gangetic Plain East and the Sub-Himalaya East the
density o f population of the various regions in one density is very high with a rainfall below 60 inches
map; in the second map, each rectangle will show but more than 40 inches and over 60 per cent of net
rainfall and in the third map each rectangle will cultivated land. Neither the maximum amount of
express net area sown. For the drawing of rectangles rainfall attracts higher density nor very low amount
similar methods may be followed as in the bar of rainfall repels i t For instance, Himalaya West
diagrams or rectangular blocks. The disposition of with a rainfall of over 67" is most thinly populated;
these rectangles, no doubt, may be vertical or while the Gangetic Plain Central and West with a
horizcHital according to the outline and extent of the rainfall below 30 inches show moderately high
sub-region. In this case, rectangles to represent density. In the latter area low rainfall is compensated
Himalaya W est, Central India Plateau and East by artificial irrigation facility.
Vindhyas may be vertical while the rest may be
horizontal. (See Fig. 215). 2. Traffic Flow C arto g ram
By putting all the three cartograms together, as These cartograms show the nature or degree of
in Fig. 215, not only the nature o f variation of each concentration of traffic— goods or passengers, along
element over different sub-regions may be clearly different lines of communication. For this purpose,
visualised, but the interrelationship between rainfall, the lines along which the traffic flows are made
agriculture and the distribution of population may thick or thin in proportion to the total traffic
also become obvious. It may be noted that with movement over them during a certain period. In order
moderate rainfall and a very high percentage of to make the diagram easily commensurable, a line

JL. n.r-**—
rtf'
' 400 > 0 0 1200 P«r 8q. m ilt

Fig. 215
182 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

of uniform thickness may be taken as a unit and one There are, however, some obvious difficulties
or more such lines may be drawn closely parallel to in computing these cartograms, which cannot be
each other to express different amount o f traffic easily avoided. The difficulty o f obtaining accurate
moving along respective lines. (See Fig. 216). The data regarding the flow of various types of traffic is
lines may be straightened without deviating from great particularly in the case of the railway traffic.
the general direction on the map and the scale is Some goods may show less value for great bulk
also kept, more or less, true at least along the main while the others, more value f(X less bulk. So the
lines. W hen the traffic along a particular line of total load or tonnage may give an erroneous idea.
movement is a hundred or thousand times greater W e may depend on the freight charges but their
than along othCTS, the lines may not be proportional. distribution on the different lines is not known,
In such a case, an index o f lines with decreasing because the charges arc paid at som e particular
thickness need be made and shown in any comer of station of a certain line though the goods may have
the map, in which the thickest line will ccnrespond to pass over a number o f lines.
to the maximum traffic flow. In case the traffic is However, some beautiful traffic-flow cartograms
very highly concentrated on a particular station or have been used in the advanced countries o f the
place, a separate traffic flow map of the particular world like U.S.A., U.K., and U.S.S.R. The traffic-
place may be prepared on such a large scale that the flow cartograms o f Great Lakes and St. Lawrence
huge concentration may be shown conveniently and Waterway and the Canadian Pacific Railway are
may be placed in the main map as an inset map. known almost to every student o f geography. These

PATNA

NAWADA

V:D.A5.tcngA'?ij , GIBIOtH I K ! ^

A 0 > ^ C-T

_^S.?ATfOMS V.ITK SOO B’JSCS

50 "
20 "
lO w

2 eUS SCRV!C£
- oi LOv/ : BUS SERVfCe

to O
- K K z i,'

Fig. 216. Bus Trafftc Flow in South Bihar.

X
X

REHUESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 183

cartograms are really very illustrative and at (Mice 20. Gorakhpur—C ^ tain g an j—
bring home the vivid picture of the business activity Chhitauni Ghat (N.E.R.) 4
of a region. They appear like the arterial system of 21. Katihar—Gorakhpur— Lucknow 6
a living organism through which the vital energy 22. Gorakhpur— Nautanwa via Pharenda 4
continues to flow. The method has also been used in 23. Gorakhpur—Gonda via Uska
atlas maps to show the shipping routes in accordance Bazar 4
with the amount of international traffic moving over 24. Gonda— Katamian Ghat (N.E.R.) 4
them.
To construct the traffic-flow cartogram on the
E x am ple: basis of the above data, take a thin line o f uniform
Draw a traffic flow cartogram of Eastern U.P. thickness to represent the minimum number o f trains
on the basis of the data (Table 13). moving on the railroads and then prepare a scale at,
more or less, uniform interval to represent upto the
T a b le 13 maximum number of trains moving on the railroads.
The thickness of the lines, thus, will be propcwtionate
Number o f to the number of trains moving on the rail tracks
Rail Roads Trains (See Fig. 217).
per day
3. Isochronic C artogram s
1. Banaras (Varanasi) to Allahabad These cartograms represent the speed of travel
(NJ^.) 2 from a central place in all directions at some definite
2. Banaras to Allahabad (N.E.R.) 6 interval of time. Man has been continuously making
3. Banaras to Gorakhpur „ 6 vigorous attempt of tide over the limitations of time
4. Banaras to Ballia (N.E.R.) 6 and space. In earlier times America was much far
5. Banaras to Lucknow via Janghai apart from India and now she has become, much
(N.R.) 16 closer to her on account o f the steady progress made
6. Banaras to Moghal Sarai 20 in the means of travel. With the intrcxluction o f air
7. Banaras to Fyzabad (Faizabad) travel the longest of journeys have become shortest.
via Jaunpur 10 One may now reach from Varanasi to Bombay,
8. Moghal Sarai to Allahabad (E.R.) Calcutta and Delhi in a much shcMter time than to
16
9. Moghal Sarai to Patna (E.R.) Azamgarh which is, in distance, much closer to it.
14
10. Moghal Sarai to Dehri-on-Son There are still such interiors in undeveloped countries
12
11. which are many miles away from any mcxlem means
Allahabad—^Janghai— ^Jaunpur
(N.R.) of communication and transport. So travel in these
4
12. nooks o f the world will require much longer hours
Allahabad— Sultanpur—^Fyzabad
than it would take to reach far distant places lying
(N.R.) 6 on regular air routes. It is to bring out such contrasts
13. Fyzabad—Lucknow (N.R.) 10 that the isochronic cartograms have been devised.
14. Dildamagar—Tarighat (E.R.) 4 These may also be used to show the speed of
15. Allahabad—Rae Bareilly (N.R.) 4 earthquake waves and tidal waves in seconds and
16. Mau— Azamgarh—Shahganj hours respectively.
(N.E.R.) 4 The construction of these cartograms for the
17. Mau— Ballia—Chapra (N.E.R.) 4 world or a fairly large region may require some use
18. Aurihar—^Jaunpur (N.E.R.) 6 of such projections in which both distance and
19. Gorakhpur—Padrauna— Siwan direction are correct, e.g., the Oblique Zenithal
(N.E.R.) 6 Equidistant Projection. This falls beyond the scope
184 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

V,
Nonporo 'X /

Bohraleti

“V. ^ rtjdutonwos

S«*wo Baza
Oondo

Manhopur Pharanda
Nofkatiopowi^^*^^ (
CaptalaganJ
Rozotti

Ayodhyo Padrou

Gorakhpur
Folzobo

Tonda

Akbarpur
B hatn
Oohrighot
Sultonpur S iu o n

ShOhganoj Azomoarh

Protopparh

Jo u n p u

a r i h o u V ^ ^ » P '! £ A rroh
Phaphom au
Jonghoi Saidpur
A lia h o b o d

Nairn V oronati

Mughal Saroi

Mlrzopur
Sooaram

Fig. 217
 r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f s t a t is t ic a l d a t a 185

o f this tex t Isochronic cartograms for a small region It may further be noted that the areas round
may be simple, which may be dealt with here. The Azamgarh and south o f Mirzapur appear to be very
cartograms representing the speed of travel in early distant and least accessible in respect of time factor,
days will be circular and different concentric circles as no regular, direct and quick transport service from
will be required to show iL Their shape will, V aranasi to these areas is available at present.
however, depend on the pattern and density of the Likewise, cartograms to show the degree o f acces­
means of communication. They may be fan-shaped sibility from Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, etc. may be
when the lines o f communication run mainly in four drawn.
directions, they will be starlike when they radiate in
almost all directions from the centre.
Distribution Maps
Example: As already noted in Chapter 1, the distributional
Construct an isochronic cartogram to show the maps represent the pattern of distribution of any one
speed of travel from Varanasi in the Eastern U P . element based on some definite statistical data. They
See Fig. 218. The data for its construction are resemble cartograms in that they, too, express a single
based mainly on the Time Table of E. R. and N P .R . idea and actual location of other features may be
and bus services along roads. The isochrones have altered in them also. The difference lies in the fact
been roughly drawn at the interval o f 30 minutes. that the former is much less diagrammatic than the
The method of their drawing is, mwe or less, similar latter. W hen a d istrib u tio n m ap becom es
to that o f con to u rs. B ut referen ce to the diagrammatic, it may be called a cartogram. But in
communication map is essential for making true some sense all small-scale m ^ s may be regarded as
leixesentation. It may be observed that the isochrones diagrammatic, because it is not possible to depict
arc not circular; but they make ‘V ’-shaped bends the original pattern of the earth on a plane surface
over the inter-spaces between the railways, etc. This without inviting some distortion or alteration. While
is because the speed of travel from Varanasi is not making distribution maps, reference is made to the
uniform in all directions; that is, along the railways, corresponding physical m ap and it is alw ays
etc., it is much quicker than over the inter-spacings. attempted to adjust the distribution o f a particular

Prot«

BoIIm

km

Fig. 218. Isochranic Cartogram of East U.P.

 \

186 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

elem ent, as far as possible, to relief and other showing deserts, rainfall, etc. (4) A soil map of the
topographic features. Whenever unavoidable, some area in case the distribution of crops is to be s h o ^ .
minor iteratio n s in othw features may be made. (5) To show population distribution, topo-grap^^^al
Their details would be shown in the sequel while survey maps showing urban and rural settlements
discussing various methods applied in making them. are required so that the dots may be placed in
No doubt, before the introduction of exact accordance with the sites of settlements.
methods, the distributional map used to be simply
diagrammatic. The distribution of wheat in India M ethods of Drawing D istribution M aps
might be shown by writing the letters W H E A T In Chapter I we have already enumerated chief
over Punjab, W estern U.P. and elsewhere; the methods which vary with different types of maps.
distribution of tribes like the Nagas, Bhils, etc., by Here we may discuss the technique o f their drawing
putting the letters “N A G A S” over Assam and and relative merits and dem erits. Some of the
B H I L over Rajputana and Central India. These important methods are charted on below.
maps had neither any quantitative basis nor did they Based on the elem ents o f distribution, the
conform to exact localities. With the advance of the following important types of distribution maps may
science of Geography more exact methods to show be distinguished: (/) Population maps; (n) Stock
distribution pattern over the map have been evolved. maps; {Hi) Crop maps; (/v) Climatic maps—Isotherm,
Now such methods are widely used to represent Isobar and Isohyet or Isopluve maps; (v) IndusUial
statistical facts by geographers. The exacmess of maps; (vO Mineral maps. The distribution maps may
these maps may be further shown by the fact that be classified on the basis of methods used for their
a particular group o f projection is selected for draw ing such as: (/) C horochrom atic maps;
their drawing in which area may be equal {See ’ (zi) Choroschem atic Maps; (Hi) Isopleth maps;
Chapter 10). (zv) Chropleth maps; (v) Dot maps; (vz) Diagrammatic
maps. The application of any one method for all the
G eneral R equirem ents for the C onstruction of types o f distribution maps is not possible. One
D istribution M aps method may be applied to one or two types only.
Besides correct statistics, the following are
needed : (1) An outline map of the region drawn on 1. Colour or Tint Method
some equal area projection showing district or other This is also known as chorochromatic method.
administrative or natural divisions as may be desired This method, in general, makes use of different
by the map; such outline maps together with data colours to make the distribution of various features
form the very basis of disyibution maps. (2) A relief distinct on the map; for instance, in a vegetation
map of the corresponding area showing contours, m ap forests m ay be show n by green colour,
depressions and marshes, etc. (3) A climatic map grasslands by yellow and desert vegetation by brown.

Methods of Distribution

1------------ 1 ------
Colour Symbol Regular lines of Shading Dots Diagrammatic
or or Equal Value or or
Tint Choroschematic Isopleths Choropleth
or
Chorochromatic
I I
Bars Blocks Circles Spheres Others

/nr-
 r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f s t a t is t ic a l d a t a 187

and so on. Here a colour index is necessary to be 3. Isopleth M ethod

shown in a corner of the map. At the same time, the TTie term isopleth— isos+ plethron; isos meaning
distribution o f a single element may also be shown same and plethron means measure. Thus, isopleths
with different colours; for example, the distribution are lines of equal value in the form o f quantity,
of various types of forests may be shown with intensity and density. They are drawn as contour
different colours. In this case, if different tints o f the lines {See Chapter 3) at some selected interval. The
same colour, say green, are used, the map will spacing o f lines expresses the rate o f variation. If
produce better effect. This tinting method may also the lines appear much apart, variation is gentle and
be called layering method which is commonly used when they are closely set, variation is sharp. Each
in relief maps to show different elevation. The main line is labelled according to the quantity or number
defect of this method lies in the fact that it entirely it indicates. Their use is limited by (/) the amount of
obliterates all other features. It may be advant­ information or data, and (//) the extent of transitional
ageously utilised for showing density o f population. b e lt When the data in detail are not available, the
Tints may be used to make the isoplcth maps more isopleths cannot be drawn and even if they are drawn,
effective, i.e., colours may be put in the interval they will give a highly generalised or erroneous
between-two isopleths. picture o f the facts. W hen the transitional belt is not
extensive, that is, when variability is great, such as
2. Symbol or Choroschematic Method in the case o f the distribution o f population, the
One or m ore elem ents may be show n by isopleths lose their significance. It is due to this
conventionally selected symbols o f equal size or reason that this method has been commonly used
varying sizes as the case may be. Initial letter o f an for isotherm, isobar and isohyet maps because these
element may be adopted as a symbol to represent elements are uniformly distributed over wide areas.
that; for instance, W for wheat, C for cotton, etc., in T he iso p leth m ethod is also used in ratio or
the case of crop distribution maps; S for sheep, C percentage maps. Reference for these may be made
for cattle in stock maps; G for gold, C for coal, etc., in “R atio and Isopleth M aps” by Jones, W .D.,
in mineral maps. W hen only one element is shown published in Annals, o f Assn. o f American Geog.
on the map, the letter of uniform size may be used Vol. 20, 1930, pp. 177-195.
as a unit and the number of letters may be found out
with reference to the quantity to be represented. Then 4. Shading or Choropleth M ethod
these letters may be distributed over respective This is in some way similar to the colour or tint
districts. Such a map may be easily commensurable. method. Here too, the distribution o f one element is
Sometimes, to emphasise the relative importance of shown by different shades to represent varying
different areas with regard to different elements intensity or density. A suitable scheme of shades of
shown on one map, each element may be shown by various intensities may be prepared and shown in
a leuer of varying size— the size varies in proportion some com er of the map. The lighter shades, just like
to the quantity represented, that is, the height o f the lighter tints, show lower densities and deeper or
letters roughly corresponds to the square root o f the darker shades, like deeper tints of the same colour,
quantity. Cressey has used this method in his China’s show higher densities. The shading generally follows
Geographic Foundations to show the distribution the administrative boundaries, because the very data
of minerals. The general defects of the method are: are available in reference to them; the actual variation
(0 the map may not be easily measurable; (ii) though may not necessarily correspond to these boundaries;
represented with the same height, some of the letters so the boundary of different shading may not follow
may appear sm aller than others; for instance, T the exact line o f variation. Moreover, the element
showing iron looks smaller than C showing coal. may not be distributed uniformly over large areas;
The chief advantage of this method is that many so some very small areas showing a higher density
elem ents may be shown together on one map. will be obliterated by areas o f moderate density.
188 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

T his d efect m ay, how ever, by m inim ised by by some authors.

increasing the num ber o f shades, th at is, by Sometimes absolute numbers may also be s wn
decreasing the gradation o f scale so that the interval by this method just as by dot method. In such c a ^ s
o f variation becomes small. Further, little con­ the transitional belts are so selected that the gradation
sideration is possible regarding unused or waste lands o f shading may be uniform and the differences
such as deserts, marshes, rugged and rocky areas, between two belts may not be large. S u p p o ^ we
hills, mountains, etc.; they all disappear beneath the have to represent the distribution o f population in
shading. Such lands have been called negative areas the Mirz£q)ur district as given in Table 14.

T a b le 14

Tehsil Area, sq. miles Population Density

Personslmile^

1. Chunar 562 2,19,989 391

2. Dudhi 988 1,10,913 112
3. Mirzapur* 1,185 3,79,421 320
4. Robertsganj 1,633 1,89,606 116

The interval may be selected thus: (i) Below showing the distribution of population, stocks, crops,
150 thousand; (ii) l^ tw een 150— 200 thousand; m ineral products, industrial products, etc. This
(Hi) between 200-250 thousand; (iv) between 250- involves the use of dots of uniform size, each dot
300 thousand; (v) betw een 300-350 thousand; representing certain number or quantity. Nearly all
(vz) betw een 350-400 thousand. By adopting a the general requirements for constructing distributiOT
u niform in terv al o f 50,0 0 0 , the v ariatio n o f maps as described sin the foregoing are needed for
population by Tehsil may be clearly shown, but 4th making dot map. The chief problems with regard to
and 5th intervals will not be represented on the map, the computation o f distribution maps by this method
which is immaterial. If you take an interval o f 100 are: (i) selection o f scale, i.e., the number or quantity
thousand, then the gradation of shades may be: (i) represented by each dot; (ii) placing of dots on the
below 150^thousand, (ii) 150-250 thousand, (Hi) 250- map; (Hi) to make the dots uniform. Regarding the
350 thousand; (iv) 350-450 thousand. In this way first problem three points may be considered: (/) the
the number of shades will decrease from 6 to 4 but scale o f the map; (ii) minimum and maximum
the two Tehsils— Chunar (2,19,989) and Robertsganj figures; (Hi) the type o f element to be shown on the
(1,89,606) will come within one belt. Moreover, the map. If the scale o f the map is small, the quantity
p op u latio n o f the fo u rth b elt w ill be highly shown by each dot should be so selected that the
exaggerated. It is, therefore, important to note that number of dots may not be too many, because too
the interval should be wisely selected not only with many dots put on a small scale map will produce a
reference to maximum and minimum figures but also blurred effect, that is, the areas having low density
to intermediate figures so that wide gaps may not be will also get a dark appearance. If the scale of the
left. Here it may also be noted that the limits of map be large, too few dots will produce similar
belts should not be regarded as isopleths. effects. Secondly, a wise selection of unit for each
dot should be made with reference to the maximum
5. D ot Methods and minimum figures for the thanas or districts, etc.,
This is now the most common method for so that, as far as possible, no area is left unrepresented

•Mirzapur includes the town population which is 70,944. (1941 census).

 V

189
r e p r e s e o t a t io n o f s t a t is t ic a l d a t a

translated into the former. (4) The dot method can

on the map. Thirdly, the number represented by each
be used for many more purpose than it would be
dot may also vary with the type of element to be
possible by other methods. For example, besides
shown on the map. For showing the distribution of
showing the distribution of population, stock, crops,
cattle, the number shown by each dot will be less
manufacturing products, etc., dots may be used to
than that for sheep or goat, because the n u m ^ r of
mark the sites of markets, fairs, factories, etc., in
cattle to be reared over a certain area will be
agricultiual regions according to their size which
definitely less than that of sheep or goat over the
same area. Thus, if the unit for each dot in the case may be determined by the number of inhabitants or
of the former be 100, it may be 400 to 500 in the workers employed. They may also denote the site of
mines in a map of coal fields, etc., their size varying
cases of the latter.
Placing o f dots requires great care and in proportion to the number of workers employed or
precaution. Dots should not be placed over negative the net output.
areas. In order to have an idea of such areas, other But the use of dot system is not without a limit.
accessory maps of the same area should be consulted This method cannot be employed for showing ratio
like physical, relief maps, etc., as already pointed and percentage for which isopleth and choropleth
out in the foregoing. The negative areas should be methods may be preferable. The dot method is
marked lightly with pencil and after finishing the preferred for educational purposes while the isopleth
placing of dots on the map, the pencil marks should method is more appropriate for scientific purposes.
be erased. The marking of the negative areas depends
on the scale of the map under construction. A large- 6. Multiple Dot Method
scale map may provide relatively great scope for Sometimes dots of different sizes are taken for
marking these areas as compared to small-scale maps. showing the distributional pattern correctly. The dot
But even in small-scale maps broad negative features of each size represents a certain number or quantity.
may be marked easily. Moreover, dots should be When a very densely populated area is close to a
concentrated in highly dense regions. Some patience very sparsely populated area, no single dot unit will
would also be required to put the dots in exact be helpful to depict the true picture in both types of
number. Each dot should be so placed that it may areas: if the unit dot denotes a small number then so
represent the centre of gravity of distribution in the many dots will be required to be placed in the densely
adjacent region. But in small scale maps the centre peopled areas that the dots will be intermingled and
of gravity cannot be determined; on large-scale maps it will be difficult to decipher the map; while if the
showing population, such centres may correspond unit dot represents a large number, the pauem of
distribution in the sparsely populated areas will not
to town and village sites.
The size of the dots cannot possibly be made emerge truly as the population will appear to be
uniform by ordinary pens. For this purpose, various concentrated at a few points. Under the circum­
ballpoint pens like Le Roy, Payzant, etc., may be stances, if the dots of three or more different sizes
are selected, they may be placed according to the
used.
The dot method is advantageous in comparison different size of village found in various parts (vide
with others in many ways: (1) The dot method Fig. 219). A multiple dot map will, thus, give also
exhibits a more vivid and exact picture of the an idea of the distribution of settlements of various
distribution pattern because the darkness of the map sizes in an area. National Atlas Organisation of India
is alw ays proportionate to the intensity of has used this method in its Population Series Maps
distribution. (2) It is easily and exactly of India on 1: 1 million scale.
commensurable except when the dots overlap or
seem to intermix due to the smallness of the scale of 7. Diagrammatic Method
This implies the use of diagram to represent
the map. (3) The dot map may be transferred into an
isopleth or choropleth map but the latter cannot be statistical data over the map, such as bars, blocks,
190 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

r e l ie f

tCHAKIA

OVER 1000
600'-1000
soo'-eoo'
OUDHI UNDER SOO*

P O P U L A T I O N MAP
DOT M ET H O D MULTIPLE OCT METHOD

r J - * '- : ' :. • .•••t * • V* . • . 4

^ V - v y ;;
. ' -i.
PO PU LA TIO N );’•■,■ -._•-,
200 RURAL % --v ;
• 1000 URBAN 1 . ' ■ * * 200 PifMM
KKK)
d 5000 { tn : y m • 5000 •>
10000

100000

Fig. 219. Population Distribution in Mirzapur District.

 REraESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 191

circles, spheres, etc. The method of drawing these absolute numbers, the dot method will prove much
diagrams has already been discussed in the foregoing. better than the shading or the isopieth method. When
Now, the main problems lies with their placing on the density of population is to be shown, the latter
the map. They are made to correspond with the exact method will give better impression of the distribuUtxi
localities whose data they represent, such as the of population on them. At the same time, when the
centres o f circles and spheres would correspond to rate of variation in population is shown over the
the site of the towns or the centre of the region they various districts, say, U.P. from time to time, the
represent. The base of the bars too would be placed diagrammatic method will hold good. As already
at the exact centre of the region or at any point to noted, the shading method gives a uniform picture
be so selected that it may lie, as far as possible, of the distribution of population over one belt leaving
within the limits of the area concerned. This method out any consideration of either negative areas or
is employed for some specific purposes: (1) Certain highly concentrated small areas within the belt, like
facts can exclusively be represented by diagrams on towns, etc., while the dot method exhibits the
the maps; the maps showing the land use in the distributional pattern vividly. But the best
different regions necessarily adopt circular diagrams; distributional pattern of population will be shown
the population of big towns iD a population map by the settlement method. Take on inch or half inch
may be best shown by spheres. (2) When it is desired maps and trace out the settlements—rural and urban.
to show variation or subdivision within the main This will give a true index of population distribution.
distributional f ^ u r e s ; for instance, the distributicxi But this is possible only for a small area. For a
of temperature may be shown by various grajrfis for fairly large area, say, even a small district, such a
different sub-regions in order to bring out monthly settlement map will not be feasible in one sheet,
variations o f tem perature at different stations. while the dot method may be used advantageously.
(3) When adequate statistics are not available fw No doubt, in the placing of dots, help will be taken
drawing isopleths, the data may be shown
from various half-inch and one-inch maps-so that
diagrammatically on the map, such as, for showing
negative areas may be avoided. Thus, for a fairly
the distribution of water-power—potential and
large region, the dot method will be the best. This
developed, by States in India; or for showing the
is precise and concrete and more graphic.
value of coal, by States in India.
The presence of large towns in a region creates
Now, after analysing the technique of different
difficulty in the case of the dot method. Over­
methods of drawing distribution maps, it is equally
crowding, overlapping and intermixing of several
important to study some particular types of these
maps prepared on different systems and their relative dots, representing a large town, make the dot system
importance. defective in that the quality of commensurability is
lost Different methods, therefore, have been used to
1. Populcaion Maps represent towns on the map. These are: (0 Circle,
The distribution of population on a map is shown (//) Ring, (Hi) Sphere, and (zv) Block pile. The town
with the help of satistical data obtained from Census population may be represented by circles of varying
Reports. Census Reports of India are published after size. The radii o f the circles may be made
every decade, say, 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, proportionate to square root of the number of persons
1931,1941,1951,1961,1971. So a population map residing in the town. Their centres will correspond
of India may refer to a particular year when the to the town. To show comparison regarding their
census is taken. The data may show absolute number size, the ring diagram may be adopted, as already
or density— the number of people per square mile or discussed in the foregoing.
per km^. Both the types of figures cannot be The main defects of the circle and ring method
represented truly by the same method. In representing are: (i) they occupy more space; and (zT) they are not
192 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

vt^B AN c m m
1 0 ,0 0 ,0 0 0

5.00.000
mmm
2 .0 0 . 0 0 0
1, 0 0.0 0 0
50. 000
.
20 000
20 . 0 00
ONE DOT MPRESENTt
2 .0 0 0 rural p o p .

'i

Fig. 220. Population of U.P. (1961).

\
 /

REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 193

easily commensurable. The spheres have been used If a sphere with 1/10" radius represent a town of
for this purpose as they occupy much less a space 50,000 population, then the radius of the sphere
dian circles. This has been already shown in the representing
foregoing. The spheres are not easily measurable
and are also relatively difficult to construct. It is for 1,00,000 people will be V1,00,000 x J _ = .13";
this reason that block-piles may be employed to show V50,000 10
town population, which give a better comparison likewise, the radii of spheres representing the other
and may also be measurable. towns may be found.
Fig. 221 represents the population map of Uttar
Example; Pradesh showing density by the choropleth method.
Population maps of U.P. may be prepared by It may be compared with Fig. 220 which shows the
dot and shading method using the census data. absolute population.
On an outline map of U.P. showing district Some Specific Problems and Techniques fo r
boundaries, the rural population may be shown by Population Mapping: Figure 222 comprises eight
dots and the urban by spheres {see Fig. 220). The illustrations representing spatial distribution of
number of dots for each disU:ct may be calculated population (both quantitative and qualitative) in a
by taking a suitable unit represented by each dot. part of Central Kansas, U.S.A. as brought out by
Supposing each dot represensd 10,000 people, then George F. Jenks (1963).
the number of dots for the Jhansi district will be 83, Fig. 222A presents a more or less realistic
excluding the urban population (259,167 in 1961) distribution pattern of population at the selected scale
from the total population of the district (1,087,479 involving considerable time and effort. Rural
for 1961). Similarly, the number of dots for the other population is shown by dots, one dot representing
districts may be calculated. The radii of the spheres 50 rural population; the dots are carefully placed
representing various towns may also be calculated. looking into the topographic controls with the help

* - r ,' PtfiOM/km2
/ '• y .‘ j (^BCLOW 100
□□ 100 - 200
' ’" ' T i V ' - ' V - - / ^ 200-900
300 - 400
go *00- 500
>1 19 ‘2 > r - y ''v 500 - 600
BOVE 000
V-

n '

Fig. 221
A Realistically D i s t r i bu t e d B Evenly D i s t r i b u t e d Dots C Smoothed Statistical D Two I s a r i t h m i c I n t e r v a l s
Dots Surface

- 'x j. •,

* *0. • •
•*.o.
N
^ •. • C : •• -: T ’>
... 'VJ • • . ;• f e . y - * *• P -.’’
L-" • *■- *> > r>-• •' V
pn
G
. 20.000
. . 20,000
■10.000
U rban .10.000 Ru.ai Urban Rural
....50
. -50 Population Population
P opu latio n Population

E Geometric Isarithmic F Stepped St at i st i cal G Ch or op le t h H Five Dasymetric §

Intervals Intervals
S u rf ace
m m m
m m M k
wmmm. ''/'/a
m m m .
o
m
::yy/V/////:/,y mwA

m m m • ri ; .: x:: :■: J

F ig . 222 (A dopted from G .F. Jekins, 1963).

 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA
195

o f large scale maps. To achieve best results, field A; such a combination will produce a more effective
observations might be necessary. Urban centres are population distribution map than by using any other
shown by transparent circles drawn proptMtionately method, though it may be quite a time consuming
to population size. Illustration 222B also depicts and somewhat costly reproduction process.
relatively realistic picture o f population distribution
employing more or less the same method as in case 2. Stock Maps
of A; in case of B, however, the rural dots are evenly
For these maps either the dot method or the
and randomly distributed within individual township
shading method may be followed. The absolute
rather than being placed at actual setUement sites.
number may be advantageously represented by dots
Moreover, the extent of built up areas of large cities
whereas the number per unit area by shading method.
is marked within the circles.
The im portant p o in ts to be noted here are:
Fig. 222C presents smooth statistical surface
(0 selection o f a unit represented by each dot, and
drawn by interpolation among elevated control
(/7) consideration of the vegetation map. As already
poin^, one for each township. Here population
indicated in the foregoing, the unit dot in the case of
density values are graphically shown, varying from
cattle will be smaller than that in the case of sheep.
place to place according to the assumptions made.
Secondly, the dots must be placed over the moors or
This concept is basic to the isarithmic method
grasslands and not elsewhere; moreover, more dots
employed in maps D and E. These isarithmic maps
should be placed over the rich pastures than the poor
arc drawn by means of selected contours. In case of
ones because the former can provide for more cattle
D an isarithmic interval of 2 has been used for areas
or sheep than the latter.. In the mixed farming regions
showing densities of less than 10 persons per square
the difficulty is increased. Sometimes pictorial
mile and for higher densities the interval selected is
methods are also used for showing the distribution
10, mainly because of steep gradients around the
o f animals on the map. The unit in this case is the
larger cities. The isarithmic interval in map E has
picture of the animal concerned. It gives better
been adopted on a geometric progression. The lower
impression and the map is also commensurable. But
limits of the seven categories are: 1.6, 2.9, 5.3, 9.6,
its defect lies in the fact that other features are quite
13.3, 31.4 and 57.0 persons per square mile. It may
ignored; thus, the relationship with the actual location
be noted that the scheme of intervals in such a is blurred.
method is limitless depending as it does upon the
nature of the data and the purpose of the map. 3. Crop Map
The stepped statistical surface is shown in
Both the dot and the symbol methods are
illustration F involving the choropleth and dasymatric
generally used for showing the distribution of
systems of mapping. The elevation of the prism is
agricultural products like wheat, rice, cotton etc.,
proportional to the density of population o f the
according to their absolute acreage. The dot or
concerned town, so that it is possible to represent
symbol—W for wheat, C for cotton etc., denotes the
each density value precisely to scale. The step surface
selected number of acres occupied or the quantity of
may, however, be generalized into several intervals
production of the crop. These methods can, however,
or values and a choropleth map may be produced as
give only the general distribution pattem of the crop!
in case of G. The lower limits of categories for 0 as
When it is desired to show the share o f the crop of
well as H are: 1.6, 5.3, 7.3, 31.4 and 57.0.
the total cultivated land, none of the above methods
It may be rem arked that a more realistic
can hold good. For this purpose, wheel diagrams are
statistical surface is depicted by the dasymetric
better, and, as such, they are commonly used. These
method (as shown in Fig. H) than in either isarithmic
may also be used when the relationship with other
or choropleth method. If it is possible to use two or
crops and other forms of land use is to be shown.
m ore colours, the dasym etric method can be
With the help of these diagrams, even irrigated and
combined with dot and circle method used in Figure
unirrigated porUons of total cultivated areas may be
196 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

distinctly marked. In order to show the zonal coloured map is much more costly than that of shaded
distribution of crops, the shading method is generally maps. Therefore, shading method is frequently used
employed. Colours may also be applied to mark the for the distribution maps to be reproduced in text
zones o f various crops but the reproduction of books.

T able 15. Cropping Intensity in U.P., 1967-70

Percentage o f Total Cropped Area in

Total
Administrative Cropped
Divisions Area in Sugar­
’000 Hec­ Wheat Barley Gram Rice Millets Maize Pulses cane
tares

1 8

1. Garhwal S021 ? 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
2. Kumaon 211A5 7 7 7 7 7* 7 7 7
3. Meerut 2224.64 30.3 1.8 4.1 7.5 10.2 4.3 18.7
4. Agra 2994.71 28.3 5.8 9.3 6.3 17.7 10.3 8.4 2.8
5. Rohilkhand 2945.22 28.4 1.5 7.7 18.2 8.6 5.3 5.9 10.4
6. Lucknow 2721.22 23.0 7.5 11.3 16.0 9.5 8.2 7.3 6.0
7. Gorakhpur 3451.70 23.6 6.2 5.8 33.3 6.9 9.4 7.8 4.9
8. Allahabad 2919.71 16.1 10.7 11.8 27.3 12.5 1.3 11.0 2.6
9. Varanasi 2533.74 10.0 15.9 6.6 29.1 9.1 6.0 13.2 7
10. Bundelkhand 2025.32 26.9 2.2 33.7 5.7 18.2 0.8 7.3 0.3

In fig . 223 on the outline map U.P. showing arc reduced to sea-level, before the isotherms and
boundaries of administrative divisions the circles isobars may be drawn. For every 300 feet of ascent,
represent the cropped area in each division. Sub­ 1° F. of tem perature is reduced and one inch of
divisions indicate the percentages of areas under pressure for every 900 feet of elevation is added to
different crops such as wheat, rice, etc. (cf. Table the actual baromeU’ic readings. If the data are not
15). reduced to the sea-level, then the map may produce
erroneous effects, especially in regions of diversified
4. Climatic Maps relief, where the temperature and pressure gradients
Here these, will include isotherm, isobar and may be increased out of all proportions. For instance,
isohyet or isopluve maps. The distribution of a station on a highland may show 28 inch pressure
temperature, pressure and rainfall, etc., is generally and another, more or less at sea-level but lying only
shown by lines of equal value, though in weather a few miles distant, may show 31 inch pressure;
maps only pressure is shown by isobars (See Chapter when these will be shown on a map by isobars, a
6). For the preparation of these maps detailed number of isobars will be closely set, which means
statistical information is needed. The isotherms and that the gradient is very steep and thus the speed of
isobars are generally drawn to sea-level that is the wind would be very strong.
tempierature and pressure figures of different stations The intervals between the isopleths are
 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 197

T eJo I er<^p«(; c r« o (M«e.

1,600,000
90^,C00
400,000

s.

{ffl

Fig. 223. 1. Wheal; 2. Barley; 3. Gram; 4. Rice; 5. Millets; 6. Maize;

7. Pulses (excluding gram); 8. Sugarcane.

sometimes coloured by different tints of the same

may be used. The darkness o f shading is pro­
colour. The isohyet maps are direcUy prepared from
portionate to the value it represents. The greater
the figures; in this case no reduction to sea-level is
variability is shown by darker shadings. Sometimes
needed, but they are drawn in the same way as the
graphical representation is preferred for showing the
iso th erm s and isobars. W hen the p ercen tag e
variations o f tem perature, pressure, rainfall etc.,
variability o f rainfall is shown, the shading method
according to time factor— daily or monthly, etc.
 198 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

E xam ple: 37. Saugor (Sagar) 1,769 63

Draw isotherms on the basis of the data in 38. Sama ' 1,040 61
Table 16. 39. Jubbulpore
(Jabalpur) 1,341 62
T a b le 16. Mean January temperature o f different 40. Patna 183 61
41. Darbhanga 166 62
stations in India and Pakistan.
42. Pumea 125 62
Stations Elevation Temperature 43. Gaya 375 64
in fee t in °F. 44. Hazaribagh 2,007 61
45. Burdwan 99 66
Quetta 5,501 40 46. Calcutta 21 65
1.
Leh 11,503 18 47. Jessore 33 65
2.
Murree 6,344 39 48. Dacca 22 66
3.
Simla 7,048 41 49. Chittagong 87 67
4.
Ranikhet 6,069 46 50. Cuttack 80 72
5.
Daijeeling 6,912 41 51. Sibsagar 333 59
6.
Shillong 4,792 51 52. Silchar 104 64
7.
Panchmarhi 3,528 58 53. Seoni 2,030 64
8.
Chikalda 3,656 64 54. Raipur 960 67
9.
Mount Abu 3,945 58 55. Nagpur 1,025 69
10.
Ootacamund 7,252 48 56. Surat 36 70
11.
Wellington 6,200 55 57. Bombay 37 74
12.
Peshawar 1,100 50 58. Mangalore 52 76
13.
Rawalpindi 1,652 49 59. Cochin 11 79
14.
Sialkot 830 52 60. Poona 1,849 72
15.
Lahore 732 54 61. Sholapur 1,590 72
16.
Ludhiana 812 52 62. Belgaum 2,550 72
17.
Delhi 718 59 63. Bellary 1,455 73
18.
Sirsa 662 56 64. Bangalore 2,981 67
19.
Dera Ismail Khan 573 52 65. Masulipatam 10 74
20 .
Multan 420 54 66. Madras 22 76
21 .
Jacoababad 186 57 67. Trichinopoli 275 76
lilt 22 .
I' . > ■
Hyderabad 94 63 68. Coimbatore 1,348 74
23.
24. Karachi 49 65 69. Madura 448 77
1,1 Bikaner 744 61
25.
26. Jaipur 1,431 61 B efore locating the tem perature figures
27. Ajmer 1,611 58 corresponding to different stations, reduce the
28. Dehra Dun 2,232 55 temperature to sea-level. Then draw the isotherms
29. Roorkee 887 56 as in Fig. 224.
30. Meerut 737 57
31. Agra 555 60 5. Industrial Maps
Lucknow 369 61 These involve the distribution of a particular
32.
Allahabad 307 61 industry over a country or region. The distribution
33.
34. Banaras (Varanasi) 267 61 of an industry may be shown: (1) by dots or small
Indore 1,823 64 circles of varying size, the size being proportionate
35.
Jhansi 855 63 to the workers employed in the factories or their net
36.
 REPRESENTATION OF STATISTICAL DATA 199

Kerala 3
Maharashtra 33
Karnataka 8
Tamil Nadu 16
W. Bengal 1
Orissa 2
Assam 1
Punjab 5
-G ujarat 3
Haryana 4

Total 201

In Fig. 225, the number o f factories in each

state has been shown by a block-pile. If one factory
is shown by one unit cubical block, then the number
of factories in each state may be shown by the block-
pile method.

9 aoo 400 600

F ig . 2 2 4 . January T em perature.

o u ^u t, at a particular place. The centre of the circle

or the dot will correspond to the location of the
factory. Block pile method or pictorial method may
also be employed for the construction o f these maps.
The block pile is used particularly when there is a
great concentration o f industry in a certain locality,
for example, the cotton textile industry in Bombay,
Jute industry along the Hooghly near Calcutta and
sugar industry in Gorakhpur and other districts of
the Terai.

E xamine:
Showing the distribution o f sugar industry in
India with the help o f the data in Table 17.
b
T a b l e 17 F ig . 2 2 5 . S ugar Industry in India.

States Number o f Factories 6. Mineral Maps

T hese m aps m ay be prep ared : (/) by a
U.P. 71 combination of shading method and dot method, and
Bihar 29 («) by symbol method. In the former case, the
Rajasthan 2 approximate areas where minerals may occur, are
M.P. 4 shaded by lines or colours and actual mining centres
 X
X ,

200 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

are marked by dots, the size o f the dots varying with A dvantage an d L im itations of
the net output of the mine. Secondly, initial letters D istribution M aps
o f a mineral may be regarded as a unit to represent . It is needless to emphasise the importance of
its distribution (See Fig. 188). distribution maps in geography today. Distributional
maps, based as they are on some concrete facts,
E xample : have considerable value— both educational and
Show the distribution o f coal in India with the geographical. Some o f the most important maps of
help o f the data given on p. 165. geography belong to this group. W hile dot and
On the basis of the table 3 given on page 165 diagrammatic maps are important from the teaching
showing the total coal reserves of India, shade by point o f view, isopleth maps are equally important
horizontal lines the areas where coal may occur and from the scientific standpoint. In general, they give
locate the coal fields by rectangular dots, the size of visual picture o f facts which would not be possible
each dot being proportionate to the production of from the long list of data. These maps are used in
the corresponding coal field. (See Fig. 226, compare other sciences also like economics.
Fig. 188). But any distribution map may not be considered
too literally because it is limited by the amount of
certainty and the correctness o f the statistical data.
The statistical facts which form the very basis of
these maps, may be variable or steady in reference
to a particular period; hence the distribution maps
O 200 <00 <00 may or may not conform to the real facts. Census
Reports are published after every ten years and,
sometimes, during the intervals, an abnormal change
may occur, such as the great influx o f refugee
population in India during 1945-50. In this case, the
population map o f India, based on 1941 census, may
not conform to facts if it is consulted in 1949.
Likewise, in regions where migration o f flocks of
sheep are seasonal, the distribution pattern of the
stock will be blurred because the statistics are
generally computed for one year and not seasonwise.
It is for this reason that, before representing the facts
on maps, averages o f many years, or, different
periods are taken.
It may, however, be noted that if the distribution
maps do not give a true conception o f the facts, it is
not due to the fault o f the method or map. Other
things being equal, the distribution maps are very
F ig . 2 2 6
much useful.
 Chapter 8

STA TISTICA L M ETH OD S AND TECH N IQ U ES

The ‘statistical m ethod’ is a comprehensive term (0 census survey level, or by {ii) sampling process
which includes almost all the methods involved in or sample design method. The former, consisting of
collection, processing, condensing and analysing the the enumeration o f each and every individual or item
data. As a result, it is being applied in most of the in the field, is a much more costlier, time taking and
scientific studies where investigations of facts are a strenuous task. It is rarely the work o f an individual
done. Formerly, the interpretation and inferences in but requires a team of workers. In Indian conditions,
this discipline were mainly derived from data paucity of funds becomes the greatest obstacle in
condensed in the form of maps, charts, diagrams the way of the investigators. Therefore, the latter,
etc., which used to be more qualitative rather than that is, the sampling process is o f prime importance
quantitative. But the recent tendency towards the to geography.
quantitative analysis of data by statistical methods Sampling means the selection o f some more or
does rem ind us o f the p racticability o f Isaiah less representative item s o ut o f the w hole or
Bowman’s statement made long back, i.e., universe.* As it is to represent the whole population,
“geographical thought involves measurement”. In it is to be drawn cautiously because a faulty sample
Statistics, though it is regarded as a science of design leads to a fallacious inference. Biased samples
approximation, the results are seldom unreliable seldom help the investigator in arriving at valid
because every science has certain controlling factors conclusions of universal merit.
or conditions to be satisfied while taking
observations. Types o f Sam pling
Before the various methods of analysis are The main aim of the investigator in drawing the
discussed, it will be worthwhile to introduce to the samples is to reduce the unmanageable heterogeneous
students the methods of collecting and tabulating population to a handy one, so that all the types are
data. The raw material, i.e., data for analysis, can be adequately represented in it. The inferences are
had either from: (/) primary sources, i.e., direct reliable because it is mathematically proved that
methods, or {ii) secondary sources. Hence it is known sample mean is the best estimate of population mean.
as primary and secondary data. Geography being a The same holds good for other measures of location
field science, where the observations are not confined and dispersion. Broadly, sampling can be classified
to the four walls of the laboratory or to the available as: (/) Subjective or P urposive sam pling, and
records, provides the researchers with a vast natural {ii) Objective or Random or Probability Sampling.
laboratory (the field), where homogeneity is rare. The subjective sampling is one where the samples
The surveys conducted by the individual for are drawn according to certain rules. Here the per­
collecting the materials can be organised either on: sonal elem ent dom inates and the predeterm ined

* -n ,e w ord u n iverse or p opulation in sutisU cs m eans the w h o le field o f o bservation.

 202 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GECX3RAPHY

choice of the investigator comes into play. For and d e p th ) w a t e r balance, etc. T his leads to
example, if one is to select 20% sample towns from substratification of the area under question.
a lot for studying their characteristics and generalis­ Apart from the above methods there are other
ing it over all the towns, he may, for some reason sampling designs such as (1) Systematic sampling,
or the other (nearness, approachability, etc.), have (2) Quota sampling, (3) Double sampling etc., among
weakness for some of them and may even try to which the first is worth mentioning here. It is based
include them in the samples whether they represent on the grid m ethod. T he soil scien tists and
the group or area or not. In the latter case, i.e., ran­ geographers have often made use of this method in
reconnaissance or grid surveys. The samples are
dom-sampling, the samples are drawn haphazardly.
Nit drawn at a systematic interval of 5 or 10 from the
Each and every item or individual has an equal
grid maps. While selecting the villages for taking
chance to be selected. Hence, it is also known as
soil samples, the area is first divided into small grids
probability sampling. Samples are drawn by chit or
with the help of latitudes and longitudes. It is then
card methods or with the help of random number
superimposed over the settlement map of the area
table of Trippett.* All the items are placed on the
and the points are selected accordingly. This is,
chits and then the required number of chits are taken however, somewhat subjective in nature.
out. It can be performed ‘without replacement After the cases of observation have thus been
method’. ascertained, the data is collected by either of the
As already remarked, geographical field is rarely following methods:
hom ogeneous. Random sam pling may lead to
1. Personal field observation.
unreliable inferences because from one type of field
2. Distributing questionnaires in the area.
there can occur more units, while lesser from the
3. Entrusting the work to some reliable persons.
others, and some classes may remain unrepresented.
In order to arrive at more correct inferences, it is 4. Published records and documents.
advisable to divide the heterogeneous universe into The d ata co llected are p ro cessed and
homogeneous classes, called strata, based on certain system atically tabulated such th at m axim um
information can be had from a single table. Table
grounds, and then draw the samples randomly. Thus,
should also be short, and, as far as possible, self-
^ e random sampling can be grouped into two: (0
explanatory. It must indicate the source of data. All
simple random sampling, and (ii) stratified random
the parts of the table, heading, captions and stubbs
sampling.
should be well defined.
In geographical investigations it is the stratified
random sampling which has proved to be more
Types of Tables
helpful than the other sam pling m ethods. For
A table is called, single, double, manifold table
example, in an investigation regarding the assessment
according as one, two or many characteristics are
of per hectare yield of a certain crop, widely grown
used for classifying the information.
in a geographical unit o f complex nature, it is
advisable to take samples from all types of lands
1. Unifold Table
within the area under study. The method of stratified
random sampling in this particular case will be to
Heading
divide the area into physiographic units, e.g., uplands,
rolling ground, plains, lowlands, etc. They will Years (caption) population
present the various strata. W ithin these groups,
sam ples should be taken or drawn from areas Stubbs
representing all possible combinations of the variable
factors affecting the yield, e.g., soil (composition Foot Note-Source

*T h e U b lc is appended (j^jpendix-l 1; and 12).

X

STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 203

2. Two-fold Table metres and not in 0— 500 metres and so on. In the
latter case the values are always as whole numbers,
Population i.e., 1, 2, 3. The classes like 1— 3, A— 6, 7—^9, etc.,
can be made. The gaps between the lower and upper
Years Male Female Total class limits of two consecutive classes are observed.
In the absence of any fractional observation in
Source such phenomena, the grouping is scientific one.
Discrete series suffers from a serious drawback, i.e.,
3. Many-fold Table it cannot be applied to most of statistical treatments
in its present form. Therefore for analytical
Population treatments, it is to be converted into a continuous
series.
Years Male Female In case o f a large number o f observatitxis it is
advisable to group the data, taking a suitable class
L it Illit. Total Lit. lU it Total interval or range. A table is prepared where in the
left hand column the class intervals are written. Every
Source observation is ticked and vertical line cme for each
is put before its respective classes. After every four
Similarly, rural, urban population can be one more lines together, a fifth slanting line is drawn to cut
variable. them. These are known as Tallies. The numbers are
easily counted and written in the respective horizontal
Frequency Distribution lines to give the frequency of the class.
The collected data are arranged either in discrete
or continuous form. If the number of observations E xample 1
are appreciably large, it is often advisable to group Prepare a frequency table from the following
them such that they become more compact and data, taking a suitable range.
handy. A suitable range or class interval is selected Unitwise relative relief in metres in an area
such that the groups lie between 10 and 20. In 750, 725, 25, 75, 100, 50, 70, 135, 160, 90, 80, 75,
excqitional cases, i.e., when number of observations 175, 200, 190, 170, 150, 50, 190, 20, 70, 112, 125,
are less or the total range is small, the groups may 800, 700, 550, 725, 590, 100, 150, 90, 70,135, 105,
be less than 10. 95, 500, 50,225, 100,165, 210, 900,425, 375, 300,
A continuous distribution is one where the 667, 280.
observations can assum e all possible values whether The above data gives the values from 25 to
fraction or whole number. Often the phenomena 900. Hence the class range of 50 may be taken and
the groups jM^pared as in Table 1.
which jTOvide a continuous arrangement are included
The average of the two limits of a class gives
in COTtinuous series; as is the case with the elevations
the middle value or class mark of the respective
from sea level, temperature, rainfall figures, slope,
class. Once the data is grouped, the frequencies are
relative relief, drainage density, etc. Phenomenon
assum ed to be located at the m id-value (Vide
like number of persons per family or house, drainage
Table 1).
frequency, censal age classifications etc., represent
Arrangement of data in ascending cw descending
a discrete series. In the former case, say, the height
order is known as the arraying of the data, as in
above mean sea-level is always g ro u p ^ as 0-500
Table No. 1 the heights are arranged in ascending
metres, 500-1000 metres etc. In such classes the order. In an arrayed frequency table the frequencies
lower limits are always inclusive whereas the upper of successive classes added together are known as
limits are approached but not included, i.e., the height cumulative frequency. Two limits are generally
of 500 metres is included in the class 500-1000 considered for addition, i.e..
 7 "

204 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

T able 1

Mid-values Cumulative frequency

Class Interval Tallies Frequency or
class marks < Lower limit< Upper limit

0— 50 I 1 25 0 1
50— 100 IKIjlflll 13 75 1 14
100— 150 jKIIII 125 14 22
1 5 0 -2 0 0 jHIIII 175 22 30
200—250 3 225 30 33
250— 300 1 275 33 34
300— 350 1 325 34 35
3 5 0 -^ 0 0 1 375 35 36
4 0 0 -^ 5 0 1 425 36 37
450— 500 0 475 37 37
500— 550 1 525 37 38
550— 600 2 575 38 40
600—650 0 625 40 40
650— 700 1 675 40 41
700— 750 3 725 41 44
750— 800 1 775 44 45
800 and above 2 825 45 47

47 47

1. Less than the lower limit of the classes. G raphical R epresentation o f F requency
D istributions
2. Less than the upper limit of the classes.
The table can well be plotted on graph paper
It is better to add by less than the upper limit with class intervals on the abscissa and frequency
method. on the ordinate. The points obtained, if joined by
Cumulative frequency table is useful in straight lines give frequency polygon, (Fig. 227)
ascertaining the total frequency upto a particular whereas Joined by smooth curve, give a frequency
value. For example one can easily point out the curve. The graph illustrates the nature o f the
number of units having a relative relief of 400 meters distribution w hether it is sym m etrical or
from the table No. 1 asymmetrical. The details regarding this will be
X

STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 205

that o f previous group. Such a diagram is known as

a histogram. Here it may pointed out that if the
frequencies of individual classes are plotted
7-
separately as in case of discrete groups they appear
as simple bar charts resembling rainfall diagram.

Ogive o r C um ulative F requency C urve

When the class intervals and cumulative
frequencies are plotted on the graph against each
other and a smooth curve is drawn, this curve is
known as Ogive or Cumulative Frequency Curve.
(Fig. 228). It may be either ascending or descending
ogive. This curve is o f stretched S-shape in nature.
Once the graph is prepared the cumulative frequency
against any value can be easily located over it. It is
suitably used for graphical calculation of median,
quartiles, deciles, percentiles, etc., which will be dealt
with later.

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220

an n u a l ra in fa ll in cm
2 4 -1

Fig. 227. Hislogrom and Frequency Polygon (Varanasi).

22 -

further discussed in connection with skewness. ^ 20-

Frequencies can be taken as absolute or as the
percentage.

Histogram
The classes and the frequencies can also be 14-
represented by erecting proportional rectangles. As
the class intervals are uniform the base on the
abscissa will be equal and the heights will vary in
proportion to the frequencies. In certain cases where
the end class has frequency higher than o f previous
class, it may appear to be erroneous as in the case
of age groups and frequencies. The age group of 70
to 75 may have a frequency of about 1% and the
p o u p 75 or more, a frequency of 1.5%. Hence if it
is plotted as 75-80 the height of rectangle will be 2-
greater than that of its previous group which
practically appears to be wrong. It is sure that certain
4 0 60 80 100 120140 160 180 200 220
persons may be of the age of 90 years or more, but
annual rain fa ll in cm
all are included in one group. Hence the ending class
is stretched such that the height becomes lesser than F ig . 2 2 8 . O g iv e or C u m u la tiv e freq u en cy C urve (V aranasi).
206 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Measures of Location or Central /i + + . . . = N. Then X is given as

Tendency
—_ X i / i + X a/g-f-........ - { - X j/j- h .........X n fn
The data collected from the field for a number
f \ + / 2 + ........+ / * + ......./»
of items vary greatly in their qualitative as well as
n
quantitative nature. The distribution, which is to be % X Ji
analysed in various respects, needs such a value i= l
which can be taken as the base for the measurements. ~~ n
Such a central value is known as the measure of X fi= N
location or central tendency. This also reflects the z‘--= 1
location point o f the distribution as a while like the where N is total observation and n = number of
class mark in a grouped data. These measures are o f units.
d ifferen t types, b u t m ost com m on in use are
(1) mean, (2) median, and (3) mode. Geographical E x am ple 2
phenomena are much more variable than others so The monthly average temperature figures for a
the variaticHi must be appreciably g reat For example, station were given as 16.2, 19.0, 25.2, 30.5, 33.4,
the rainfall at a particular station is irratic in nature 32.9, 29.7, 28.9, 29, 23.4, 20.6 and 16.4’ C ,
and shows variations from day to day, month to respectively from January to December. Find the
month and year to year. It is always essential to mean annual temperature.
allot a representative value for each day, month and
M ean ( 1 6 .2 -f 19 . 0 - |- 2 5 .2 f 3 0 .5 + 3 3 . 4
year as a whole. Hence the respective records for a
+ 3 2 .9 + 2 9 .7 + 2 9 .9 + 2 9 .0 + 2 3 .4
number of years are added together and then divided
+ 2 0 .6 + 1 6 .4 ) - M 2
by the number o f years under consideration. The
quotient obtained is known as mean or Arithmetic 3 0 5 .2
' = 2 5.45°C
average. If there are N N umber o f years under 12
consideration and X j, X^, X^ are the values, then the
E xa m ple 3
mean X is given as
From 100 fields o f one hectare each the yield of
_ _ Xj-j- ~}~...... wheat was recorded as follows :
N
which can symbolically be written as Yield in quintals No. o f fields
n
X1 fi
2 Xi
1=1
N 10 7
X i.e., capital sigma stands for summation, X. is the
value of the z'* observation and N is the number of 15 10
years. 20 15
In weather studies it is always expressed as
25 20
‘norm al’ for temperature pressure, rainfall, relative
humidity; may be daily, monthly or annual. 30 18
In the above method all the observations have 35 14
unit frequency. If, the frequencies are more than
40 12
one, it is custom ary to sum up the m ultiplica­
tions of values and their respective frequencies 45 4
and then divide it by the total frequencies to
obtain the mean. If Xj, X^, . . . X., . . . . are the Find the average yield of wheat per hectare. Arrange
values and/j,/^,/]........../ , the frequencies. Such that the data as in following table (2):
 STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 207

T a ble 2 mj, ..., stand for the mid-values

o f n groups and . . .J .. . for the
I 2 3 4 5 respective frequencies, their mean is given as

X.1 /;■ -a ) = d A xd / 1+ / 2 + . + /„ ~
10 7 70 -2 0 - 140 fi n
15 10 150 - 15
X n iifi X n iifi
- 150
20 15 300
£ -J_ _ /= !
- 10 - 150
25 20 500
n N
-5 - 100
30 18
X fi
540 0 0 i= l
35 14 490 5 70 where n = stands for number o f groups and N =
40 12 480 10 120 total number of observations.
45 4 180 15 60
Stw rt Cut M ethod fo r Calculation o f Mean
U It is applied to avoid larger multiplications. In
= 100 2710 -2 9 0 a discrete distribution a value nearer to the mean is
selected as assumed mean. The differences from this
2710
X= = 27.1 q u i n t a l / h e c t a r e . mean are summed up, giving due considerations to
their signs, and divided by the total num ber o f
observations. This value added to the assum ed mean
M ean o f a G ro u p ed D ata
gives the correct value o f mean. Similarly, the
In a grouped data the mean is derived by method is applied to the grouped data. In nutshell,
dividing the sum m ation o f the mid-values the correct mean is the sum total o f the assumed
multiplication o f and their respective class mean and the mean o f the differences. The three
frequencies, by the total num ber o f observations. If formulae can be given as
1 fl)4 -..........(xn—a) n
X fi{ m ~ a )
1=1 _
~ ---------------\-a = a -\- d .....................................
X (X i— o) 2 /i (m ) F o r a classified d a ta
i= 1 -
\-a= a-{- d . I h ere a stand s fo r
•(/) F o r a discrete series
w ith one frequency classm arks
assum ed as m ean.
each.

2. Y ^ f ^ ^ x - 2 d) -}- f n j X n — d)
/ 1 + / 3 -H .........+ / « .
n
X fi (X i- a )
1=1 _
n -+ a = a + d ..............................................
^ fi
/= ! than

■+a
+ /n
208 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

f . {m^— d) ^ (m .— a) , ( m .- g ) (7X7n— g ) ■
■-r ft
X = c \^ ^ c ^ + .......................c
^ /x + / 2 + + fi+ -/n

4. ....... - + 4 + ........ - 4 1

where all the letters have their respective meanings; For still larger data even the differences from
a = assumed mean which in case o f grouped data is assumed mean are divided either by the cell interval
the mid-value assumed as mean; n = number of or any number which can reduce it to smaller units,
groups and N = total number of observations and d suitable for multiplication. This is known as the
= mean of the differences and m. = mid-value of zth change of origin and scale. Now the mean o f this
group. new variate u is calculated, then multiplied by the
number by which the differences were divided. This
E xample 4 value added to the assumed mean gives the actual
1. In the above example No. 2 let 25 be the mean, i.e..
assumed mean. Then differences are, - 8.8, - 6.0, + Let ^ be replaced by u. then
0.2, + 5.5, -F 8.4, + 7.9, + 4.7, -f 3.9, + 4.0, - 1.6,
- 4.4, - 8.6. X= a + C -F- • -fiUj -F .. .f^Un + \
The summation gives 5.2. Hence the actual mean I N
I = f l + - ^ = 2 5 - | - . 4 3 = 2 5 . 4 3 “C.
1= 1
= a +c
2. In the second case colum n 4 gives the N
differences d from assum ed m ean 30 and the
= a +c u
multiplication of d with frequency/ . Summation fx d
= - 290. E x a m pl e 5
7 -2 9 0 The table 3 gives the distribution of units under
H ence d = = - 2 .9
100 different height groups in a certain region. Compute
andX = a + d = 30 + ( - 2 .9 ) = 2 7 .1 . the mean height of the area.
T a b le 3 (a)

Height groups 0 -4 0 0 4 0 0 -8 0 0 8 0 0 -1 2 0 0 1 2 0 0 -1 6 0 0 1 6 0 0 -2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 -2 4 0 0
in meters
No. of U nits/. 138 270 535 262 ■80 15

T able 3 (b)
Class Mid-value m\ - a
m. fi - a = d. “= c ul
0 -4 0 0 200 138 -1 2 0 0 -3 -4 1 4 9 1242
4 0 0 -8 0 0 600 270 -8 0 0 -2 -5 4 0 4 1080
8 0 0 -1 2 0 0 1000 535 -4 0 a -1 -5 3 5 1 535
1 2 0 0 -1 6 0 0 1400 262 000 0 0 0 0
1 6 0 0 -2 0 0 0 1800 80 400 1 80 1 80
2 0 0 0 -2 4 0 0 2200 15 800 2 30 4 60

1300 -3 1379 2997

'— ^

STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 209

Let assumed mean a = 1400

and C = 400
n where = Lower limit o f median class
' t f i Ui Lj = Upper limit o f median class
_ ^ ^ i= l_ -1 3 7 9
m ean X-\-a-\-cu now « = ~ /v BOO™ fm = frequency o f median class
m = median observation
= - 1 .0 6
cf = cumulative frequency upto previous
hence X = 1400 + 400 ( - 1,06) class.
= 1400 - 424 In the analysis o f rainfall figures and its nature,
= 976 meters. this measure of central tendency is frequently used.
Dispersion diagrams are prepared for monthly and
M edian annual figures where quartiles are also considered.
It is that value of variate which lies mid-way Quartiles are those observations which divide the
when the variates are arrayed in order of magnitude. entire observation into quarters. Quartiles marking
Before the median value is ascertained it is essential the limits of lower and upper quarters are known as
/V-E 1 1st and 3rd quartiles, respectively. Middle one is
to know the median observation which is th called the second quartile which coincides with the
o b serv atio n , w here N is the total num ber o f median itself. Similarly, the particular values which
observations. In a discrete distribution it is the middle divide the total observation into 10 and 100 equal
observation if is odd but when even, it is the p arts, are respectively know n as D eciles and
mean of the two innermost observations. As in the Percentiles. The quartiles are denoted by Q^, Q^, Q y
example 2 the 12 values are given, the median whereas deciles and percentiles by
and Pj, P y . . .. P y etc., respectively.
observation is the / 6.5th observation. The quartile observations are ascertained by the
2 following formulae:
Let the data be arranged as 16.2, 16.4, 19.0, 20.6,
23.4, 25.2, 28.9, 29.0, 29.7, 30.5, 32.9, 33.4. Now Q ^= th observation.
the data lies in ascending order and the 6th
observation is 25.2 and 7th is 28.9. Hence the median e .= - ^ t h „

value will be + 28.9 _ 5 4 J_ _ 27.05°C.

2 2
In case of a grouped data it is always essential
In a discrete Series its value is also easily
to convert it into a continuous form if given in a
computed but in a continuous distribution the quartile
discrete form. Median observation is ascertained by
classes are first marked and the following formula is
above method. In the arrayed data the median class,
applied :
i.e.. the class in which the median lies, is located. It
is computed with the help of cumulative frequency i q — c)
column. In the median class the values are supposed
to be distributed uniformly. Thus, the class interval where and are the upper and lower limits of
divided by the frequency gives the value of each quartile class.
observation within the class. The median value is fq. = frequency of quartile class
calculated according to the proportion of the distance <7; = quartile observation
of the median observation from cumulative frequency c = cumulative frequency previous to quartile
of the previous class which is known. class.
210 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Similar methods may be adopted to calculate In the given data

deciles and percentiles, as Q jth o b se rv a tio n is — ^ = 6 .2 5 th
observation.

e^th is = 12.5th
2
6 3 th is 1 ( 2 4 + 1 1 = 18.75th
4
Qjth class = 80— 100
and Z ) = L i -
fd e ,th .. = 100—120
with usual notatio n s, fijth .. = 120— 140
Now applying the respective formulae
and P , ~ observation.
= 80 + ^ (6.25 - 4 ) = 80 + 4 X 2.25
•> ■= 89 cm.

Median A/ = 0^ = 100 + ^ (12.5 - 9)

= 100 + 2.5 X 3.5 = 100 + 8.75 = 108.75 cm.
and P = L j i-----
fP Similarly,

M = Q , = D , = P ,,. 03 = 120 + ^ (18.75 - 17)

E xam ple 6 = 120 + = 120 + ^

3 3
The following table gives the rainfalls at
= 131.66 cms.
Varanasi for 2 4 years. Calculate the median and Apart from these mathematical calculations the
quartile values. values of median, quartiles, deciles and percentiles
can also be computed with the help of ogive. Marking
T able 4
the respective observations on the ordinate, the
corresponding value on the abscissa is calculated
Rainfall range No. o f Cumulative
(vide Fig. 228).
in cm years frequency
< upper
M ode
limit
It is that value which occurs most often in a
distribution. In the grouped data the class having the
40—60 2 2 maximum frequency is known as the modal class.
60—80 2 4 Generally the distribution o f certain phenomenon is
often expressed in terms o f modal value rather than
80— 100 5 9
in terms of mean and median values. Mean and
100— 120 8 17 median require calculations, whereas a mere glance
1 2 0 -1 4 0 3 20 at the table can very often give the modal value. At
any station the average number o f occurrences o f
140— 160 2 22
fog, thunderstorms, or days with snowfall, wind
160— 180 1 23 direction, etc., are most realistically presented by
23 modal values. It is a bit difficult to compute the
180— 200 0
actual value in a multi-modal distribution, i.e., a
200—220 1 24 distribution having more than one mode.
 STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 211

Among the above measures of location, mean geography is well conversant with this measure as
is calculated by exact and fixed formula whereas the he studies the range of temperature, relief features,
median and mode are only approximate values. The fluctuation of temporary water table between wet
mean has the advantage of taking all the values into and dry seasons, etc.
consideration whereas the other measures do not take
into account the values other than the concerned. B. Mean Absolute Deviation or Mean Deviation.
Hence the tail values have no effect over median It is the mean of the departures of variates from
and mode but have more effects on mean. Apart central value taking all positive (-i-). It is given as
from this mean can be advantageously utilized in Mean Deviation, MD =
further analysis of data due to its mathematical
( X j — X ) + ( X 2 - - X ) - f . .(X / + X ) + . .-f (X « —X )
property but the median, mode and quartile values
N
have a disadvantage in this respect.
N
l( x ,:- X ) |
Measures of Dispersion or Variability __ 1
Uptil now the discussion went round the first N
characteristics of frequency distribution which does
with usual meaning o f letters.
not lead to the com plete analyses o f the data.
Measures of location, no doubt, provide the average I I = Symbol is termed as modulus which means
values of the distribution; but these values are that signs have no significance. Its use is not more
insufficient to examine the nature of the distribution, significant for geographers as well as to other
whether uniform or scattered. There must be some scientists.
value which will associate the variates, i.e., individual
observations with the central value. These values C. Quartile Deviation. It is given as
axe known as dispersion and the analyses as the
Q_ Q\
measures of dispersion. It is with the help of these ^ 2
values that distances of the variates from the central
where Q = Quartile deviation and and Q 3 have
value are assessed. Generally there are two types of
their usual meanings.
measures of dispersion.
(1) Absolute, which assume the units of the D. Standard Deviation. Deviations from mean
distribution. are - ve as well as +ve such that the summation
(2) Relative, which is a numerical expression becomes zero. The mean deviation ignores the signs
having no unit.
but if the signs are also to be taken into account, the
The latter measures are more valuable for deviations are squared and then added together. This
comparative studies.
value divided by the number of observation gives
the variance, denoted by ‘a^’, (Sigma square). The
1. Absolute Measures o f Variation or Dispersion
square root of variance, i.e., ct, is called the Standard
A. Deviation. This value helps in ascertaining the
Range. It is the simplest measure of variation
which is nothing but the difference of maximum distance of a particular variate from mean in terms
and minimum value of the distribution. Often the of standard deviation. It is most frequently used in
range is significant in a climatic data where it is the studies of the functional classification of towns.
expressed to give the general condition prevalent at Say in the occupation o f manufacturing in certain
a station. The range may be daily, monthly or annual. region some towns may lie within one S. D., some
It is the difference of the two extreme values, hence within two S. D., and some beyond that on -i-ve side.
does not take cognizance o f the manner in which Further placed the town beyond mean, more
the mid-values are distributed. A student of important is the particular occupation in those.
212 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Standard deviation is given as

cr= N

i.e. (T
For the unclassified data.

Letters have their usual meanings.

Hence it may be defined as the square root of W here the letters have their usual meanings as in
the difference of the m ean o f squares o f the case o f computation of mean.
observations and squares of the general mean. i.e., X = a cu
For a classified or grouped data. X. = a + cu.
X = a + cu

E xa m ple 7
From the data given in example 5 compute the
standard deviation.
In the table (3) given in the solution o f the above
data two columns Nos. 7 and 8 are added giving u.
H ere X. stands for the class m arks and n = ^ a n d f.u .\ _
number of groups. / «
I ^
I n _ _ n
N ow ^ w ith usual n o tatio n
I Xf i X- ^i 2A S /,X - X^afi
I ir=\ _
from the table No. 3. It is noted that
V /, ^ fi
1=1 e=l
V 2 / , M,-2= 2997
z=l
n
X fiX r m= - 1 .0 6
i= l
/ 1,1236
V N
AT=1300
The deviations from mean may occur as
fractions and may make the computation processes H ence a = 4 0 0 IJ;221 j |2 3 6
V 1300
lengthy. So it is often advantageous to change the
origin and scale, i.e., the method similar to that -_^400 V 2 T 0 5 - 3r.l24'
applied in case of computation of mean the formula = 4 0 0 V ri8 T
is given as = 4 0 0 X 1 .0 8
= 4 3 2 m etres.
n
I ' i f uc
z -l The comparative values of the above measures
N of dispersion are assessed on the basis of then utilities
-V
and degree of accuracy they possess. Quartile
 STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 213

deviation takes into account only the values of the nature of extremes. Hence it is the co-efficient
and Q j, w hich change when the num ber of of variation which is mathematically most correct
observations are changed. It does not consider the and possesses greater potential for assessing yet
value but the number o f observations. S.D. is by far further the characteristics o f the data under review.
the most im portant measure of dispersion as it takes Higher the co-efficient of variation, more scattered
into account all the values. The extremes show is the nature of distribution. It is least for most
greater influence. In spite of this it jx)ssesses all the uniform distribution.
properties for samples like Arithmetic mean and can Median values can also be used for calculating
be applied well to further mathematical treatments. the co-efficient of variation as C.V. Hounam (1962)
used the following formula:
2. Relative Measures o f Dispersion C (I»ter quartile range)
These are the measures expressed in terms of M edian
ratio, percentage and co-efficients, and are widely
used in geographic studies. Percentage departure of The results of the above analysis can well be
rainfall, percentage variations in production, land use, plotted in the form of maps and diagrams to make
demographic structures etc., are some of the common it more illusu-ative to a non-mathematician.
fields in which it is readily applied. The more Isomeric maps, showing the monthly rainfall of
frequently used co-efficients include the co-efficient a counUy as per cent pf the annual figure at various
of variation, correlation, regression etc. Apart from stations can be drawn by isoplcths of the same
these pluviometric co-efficient had been used by percentage. Similarly, the C.V. isopleths can be used
B.C. W allis (I9 I7 ) in analysing the rainfall of Java. for showing the variability of phenomena in a counu^
Pluviometric Co-efficient {Cp) o f a month may be or a region. Even absolute derivations can well
expressed as the ratio of actual rainfall in the month represent the categories of deviation from the mean.
to the proportion according to the annual figures: In the same fashion isopleths for the ranges and
quartile deviations can be adopted for the purposes.
C p — -^-where C/?= Pluviom etric coefficient
Based on the dispersion figures, the dispersion
R diagram is the most frequently and profitably used
^ '3 6 5
columner diagram {Fig. 229). Specially the rainfall
r = rainfall in a month dispersion diagrams have become an important tool
R = Annual rainfall in the analysis of rainfall distributions. For arriving
^ = number of days in that month. at a more rational estimate of rainfall variability and
Co-efficients of correlation and regression will for classifying rainfall regimes, median, quartile and
be dealt with later. It may be out of way to leave the similar values have greater significance is some cases
co-efficient of variation (C.V.). In any distribution it than the mean, or, co-efficients derived from it. It is
is the ratio of the S.D. (a ) and mean { X ), expressed drawn by putting a dot for a year in columns for a
as percentage, and has no unit. number of years. The median and quartile points are
i.e., C . V = - Z ^ . 1 0 0 . indicated over there. For more detailed analysis even
X decile points may be located. It may be prepared for
W here C. V. = Co-efficient V ariation.
annual figures as well as monthly, but latter figures
In the data given in example 5 the mean was
976 metres and S.D. 432 metres. are more advantageous in analysing the data than
the former.
432 When plotted for a station for twelve months,
H ence C. X 100
976
the discontinuities in the nature of rainfall can well
= 44.2 be estimated from an inspection of the median and
Two sets of similar data may have same means quartile points for adjacent months. The discontinuity
but S.D. and C.V. may be different depending on or break is major if the interquartile band o f one is
214 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

beyond that o f the adjacent, i.e., the value o f lower G ra p h C h a rts

qqartile o f one is m ore than the value o f upper
quartile o f other. The break is considered to be nunor Semi-log-graph
or sem i-discontinuous if the median and L.Q. of one Any frequency distribution
are m ore than those o f the adjacent one. If similar plotted with reference to two 0 - 10 r
9 -
conditions are satisfied for alternate months rather axes X and y gives a line chart e -
9 - 90
than the adjacent, the break is known as graded or graph chart. In the graph, base ■U4 - 7 -
^ .7 7
one. These diagram s can well illustrate at a glance should always be taken as zero. 6 -

/ - -69 5 -
the n a tu re o f the d is trib u tio n w ith a ll its If, however, some figures below
4 -
characteristics and can be adopted for demarcating a certain limit are not required, b -

the regions o f similar breaks. For drawing dispersion the continuity o f the scale can 5 - .4 7 3 -

diagram s it is advisable to take figures for 30 years be broken by suitable symbol

or more. but the plotting must be started i - 50 2 -

A part from this the percentage departure of from zero (vide Fig. 230). Only
rainfall, pressure variations, daylight durations, etc., two exceptional cases, w here
may also be represented by colum ner diagrams. zero is not required are (I) when
■- 0 oL
Monthly rainfall figures plotted for a station, indicat­ the ratio scale is used, (2) when
ing thereon the mean, a and probable error along % figures are plotted with 100
with maximum and minimum points in the columns as base, say, production as per Fig. 230. Graduation of
cent o f requirement. Loganthmic Scale.
8 0 -1
Often two scales are adopted :
70- 1. Natural or Arithmetic scale.
2. Ratio or logarithmic scale.
60-
The students of geography are well familiar with
the plotting on natural scale as they often prepare
50- graphs o f population growth, production from year
to year, cross profiles, etc. Here a few rem arks will
-j 4 0 - be made regarding the ratio or logarithmic scale.
This scale is used for larger values. It visualises
the rate o f change rather than absolute change.
2 30-
Logarithm o f a num ber is the pow er to which 10
must be raised to equal that number. The paper is
20 -
graduated according to the log values, not the actual
values. No doubt the log values are plotted on natural
10 -
MAX scale but are replaced by the value o f antilogs (c.f.
Table 5).
To prepare a logarithmic scale, first a simple
MO N T HS scale is taken along a line and divisions are marked
Fig. 229. Dispersion Diagram of Bhagalpur. from 1 to 10. Now the log values of integers from
(Interquartile Bands Shaded).
I to 10 are located on this line. Further these values
is know n as a com pound hyelograph. Similarly, are replaced by their respective anti-logs and scale
monthly temperature variations are also plotted in is ready (Fig. 230). The saiicnt feature of this scale
colum ns, with indications of monthly mean, mean, is that the distances apart between integers having
mean daily minimum and maximum, mean absolute same ratio are equal, i.e., 2, 4, 8, arc equispaced.
m onthly m inim um and m axim um and extrem e Similarly, spacing between 1— 3 and 3— 9 are equal.
maximum and minimum recorded (vide Fig. 229). This complete set from 1 to 10 is known as a ‘cycle’

/
 STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 215

or phase o f ratio scale. Papers having one or more the value of lower limit. Say, for example, if here
cycles are commonly used according to the require- bottom is 1, top will be 10; if bottom is 10, top will
m en t Upper limit of every cycle represents 10 times be 100, and so on.

T a b le 5. Comparative Assessment o f the two Scales

Nature o f Distribution Representation on

Arithmetic scale Logarithmic scale 1

1. Constant absolute increase. Straight line tending SW-NE tending curve I
SW-NE. with convexity upward. 1
i'
■
2. Constant percentage increase. SW-NE tending curve Straight line trend. ■
convex to the base. ;
3. Constant absolute decrease. Straight line tending NW-SE tending 1
NW-SE. c u r/e the base. 11
4. Constant percentage decrease. NW-SE tending curve Straight line trend. 1
convex to the base. -

A logarithm ic graph paper is known either The ratio scale will never represent zero. This
(1) semi-logarithmic paper if only one axis has ratio is a drawback of this scale.
scale or (2) double log or log-log graph, if both the
axes have ratio scales. Skewness
F requency distrib u tio n s are som etim es
Interpretations o f Semilog Charts:
symmetrical around the central value, i.e., mean but
1. (a) A series in creasin g in G eom etric som e tim e assym m etrical. In the sym m etrical
Progression is represented as a sU'aight line with distribution the three measures, that is, mean, median
upward slope. and mode are coincident but differ in an
(b) A series increasing at decreasing rate gives assymmetrical one. The measure of assymmetry is
a curve concave to the base. known in statistics as skewness. It may be either
(c ) A series increasing at increasing rate gives + ve or - ve. Considering the mean and mode, a
a curve convex to the base. frequency curve has + ve skewness if mode is nearer
to the origin than the mean but - ve skewness in
2. (a) A series d ecreasin g in G eom etric
reverse case (Fig. 231). A symmetrical distribution
Progression is represented as a straight line with
downward slope.
(b) A series decreasing at decreasing rate gives
a curve with downward slope and convex to the SKEWNESS
base. v«
(c) A series decreasing at increasing rate gives
a curve with downward slope and concave to the
base.
3. Two series showing same rate of change will
plot parallel together.
4. Steeper slope gives faster percentage change.
Fig. 231
216 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAmY

has a zero skewness. Specific value to measure the production figures of a commodity from year to year,
degree of skewness can be ascertained by different annual rainfall, decennial population figures plotted
formulae, the simplest being based on the relative on the graph will give time series graphs. The overall
position of mean and mode. The co-efficient of change in the figures may be due to variety of factors
skewness is given as, which cannot be easily discovered and analysed. The
analysis can be done in four general ways which are
Cs = - — ^ where Cs = Co-efficient of skewness
o _ called as the components o f time series.
X = Mean 1. Secular trend, i.e., a long term variation either
Mo = Mode -F ve or -v e as may be the case with cultivable lands.
a = Standard Deviation. 2. Cyclic variation, i.e., regular fluctuation after
Greater the value more the skewness. a particular period as the annual rainfall figures for
In terms of quartiles, it is expressed as stations in India.
3. Seasonal variations.
4. Irregular variations due to random or irregular
Q i~ Q i causes.
Where letters have their usual meanings. The trend in a Time Series can be measured:
1. By smoothening the drawn curve by free
K urtosis hand-drawing.
This aspect of a frequency curve is associated 2. By fitting a curve with the help o f least square
with a symmetrical distribution. It relates with the method.
nature of the crest or hump of the distribution. Every 3. By smoothening it with the help of moving
symmetrical curve cannot be mistaken to be a normal average method.
one in nature. Sometimes its hump is more tapering,
while other times it is flat, and sometimes it occupies
a middle position. The three types are respectively
called as Leptokurtic, platykurtic and mesokurtic
(Fig. 232).

5
i

Fig. 233. Measurement of Variabality Index (Based on

A. Geddes method).

The trend can be of a straight line if it fits best

or parabolic or exponential curve. Generally in
geographical studies the production follows a straight
Fig. 232
line trend w hereas the population grow th, an
exponential trend.
Tim e Series To assess the curve of best fit broadly one has
It is defined as the chronological arrangement to depend on the differences of the variates, i.e., if
of successive values of a variable, for example the the first differences are more or less constant a

/
 STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 217

Straight line w ill fit; if the 2nd differences are

constant, a parabola o f second degree and so on. An 5 years average
exponential curve will fit only when the differences
Xi + X2 + ^3 + ^4 + ^5 ^2 + ^3 + ^4 + ^5 + ^a
of the log values o f variate are constant. as
s ’ 5 ‘
Logistic curve is a curve resembling the ogive
which gives the best fit for the growth o f population
o f a country. E xample 8
The equation is given as From the data in Table 6 regarding the export
trade o f India, draw the curve and assess the bend
^ = a + be ‘
Xt with 3 and 5 periods moving average.
where is variate and a, b and c are constants.
T a b le 6 (a)
It gives 4 distinct stages: (1) a period of slow growth;
(II) a period o f a very rapid growth or accelerated
Export in Export in
growth; (III) a period o f decelerated growth; and
Year crores o f Year crores o f
(IV) a period of saturation or stability.
Rs. Rs.
The expontential curve has been used by
A. Geddes for measuring the variability index of
1 9 5 0 -5 1 600 1956— 57 610
population. These indices give a mean to demarcate
1951— 52 720 1957— 58 620
the region o f d ifferen t indices. The decennial
1952— 53 590 1958— 59 580
population figures, along with known crisis period
1953— 54 570 1959— 60 640
are plotted and the trend curve is superimposed over
1954— 55 590 1 9 6 0 -^ 1 650
it. The marked deviations of actual curve from the
1955— 56 600 1961— 62 662
trend curve are noted as percentage. If the deviations
are noted at n points, the summation divided by
(n +1) gives the variability index. In practice the
T a b i£ 6 (b)
trend line is taken as the straight line joining inter
censal plottings.
Export in 3 years 5 years
In case of India (Fig. 233) the deviations noted
Year crores o f moving moving
at 4 points are 8%, 22%, 22% and 14%, respectively.
Rs. average average
Hence the variability index

V = : -E 22 -h 22 + 14 _ 66 1950—51 600
5 5 1951— 52 720 637
= 13.2% 1952— 53 590 627 612
1953— 54 570 583 612
Often in censuses the variability in population
1954— 55 590 587 592
is concealed and hence the curve smoothed.
1955— 56 600 600 598
1956—57 610 610 600
The M oving Average M ethod
1957— 58 620 630 610
The curve in this case becomes smooth by taking
1958— 59 580 613 620
the averages o f the variates for 3 periods, 4 periods,
1 9 5 9 -b O 640 623 630
5 periods, etc. While selecting the jieriods, the regular
1960—b l 650 ^ 651
fluctuations should be covered as long as possible.
1961— 62 662
If Xj, Xj, Xj .........., etc., are the observations, a
moving average or running mean o f 3 periods will
Thus the table is com puted and the figure
be as plotted. (Vide Fig. 234).
218 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

aoo
In spite of the mathematical processes the missing
nx) values can also be estimated with the help o f graphs,
t eoo
obtained by plotting the figures.

Scatter Diagrams, Correlation and

Linear Regression
VE/>«'L» FIGUBCS
A scatter diagram may be defined as the diagram
3 YEflOS MOVING ftVEWflOE obtained by plotting any frequency distribution,
5 YfOHSmoving uvEHfiCE
provided that the points remain independent, i.e.,
not joined together by any curve, no matter the points
are congested or scattered unsytematically (Fig. 235).

V E « N 5

Fig. 234. Time Series Graph.

Interpolation
r« 9998
It is the process o f calculating the missing or 938 4 3 ,-l0 6 0 _
00.000
unrecorded observations from a set o f observed
values. As for example the decennial population of
a country or city may be given for some census
years. It may be that the figure for a census year has
been lo s t The assessment o f the population of that
year is done by the method of interpolation. A student
o f geography is well conversant with the term as he
interpolates the isopleths on maps.
There are two main methods o f estimating the
values:
(I) N ewton’s Formula which involves binomial
expansion and is applicable only for equidistant
values.
(II) Lagrange’s Formula. It is applicable to any •000
00 200 300 400 »
short of distribution whether equidistant or not. It c e n t r a l it y sco res

states thus Fig. 235. ScaUer Diagram.

(X — X ,) (X — X3) ................(x—xr)
But depending on the nature o f the distribution they
\ x , — Xo) (X i— X3) (Xi— xr) can visualise a trend whether linear or curvilinear.
They can also tend to locate in a circular form.
( x — X i) (X — X3) .............. '.(x—xr)
C orrelation m eans the d ependence o f one
"(X 2— X i) (Xa— X )........ (X 2— x r )
variable over the other, i.e., how two or more
I rj ...............( x — x r — 1) phenomena are related. Correlation co-efficient is a
• '' ( x r — X i) ( x r — X2) ...........(xr—xr— 1)
measure o f degree o f dependence o f one variable
H ere f/j, .... are the values over the other. It is always associated with bivariate
corresponding to x ,, x j -x^- or multivariate distributions. It provides the observer
This formula has the advantage of being used with the idea how one variable changes with the
in any case but requires heavy computational labour. other. As in geographical studies it is seen that slope
 STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 219

depends on Relative height. Food production depends differences of assumed and true means o f the two
on availability of agriculture lands, Relative Relief series.
on absolute relief, drainage density on R. R.; food p
supply of population growth etc., it is the property then r = -------
ax ay
of the co-efficient to show as to what degree they
_ fli) (yj— 3i9)— n ( 3c — fli) ( y — ^ 2 )’
depend upon one another. No doubt other factors
n ax ay
are also there which exercise their influences but the
effects are not so pronounced. The correlation can The work of calculating the standard deviations
be +ve if the dependent variable shows an increase separately can be avoided by further reducing the
with every increase in other, i.e., the scatter will formula (I):
tend S.W., N.E., direction, -v e if the variates show
an opposite tendency and the scatter gives a Trend r= y )
n a x ay
in N.W., S.E., direction. The Cor. C. varies between
- 1 and + 1. If it is nearer to - 1 it is said to bear y d _ :^ Xj-y ^ y i~ x .
perfect -v e correlation, if nearer to + 1, a perfect n n n n
positive correlation and if it is 0, then there is no
correlation. It is always the case with independent
variables.
The very often used formula is that o f Karl V n ' n
Pearson, known as product moment correlation co­ y X %yi , S x l'
efficient. It is given by the formula n 3 3------ I------ 1—

n.ax ay ............. .(I)

where r = co-efficient of correlation
X. = values of the variates in one distribution
X = mean of the distribution
Y. = values of the variates of other distribution
Y = mean of above distribution
n = number of observation
= Standard deviation of x distribution
= » » o fy „ ^ x iy i —
The differences from mean sometimes are whole
num ber but som etim es fractions which require
greater computational work. To overcome this it is
always advantageous to assume an arbitrary mean
and then take the products of the differences. Now
if be the correct mean of the products of C orrelation Co-efficient for G rouped D ata
differences, it is given as For sm aller num ber o f item s sim ply the
multiplication by frequency will do because the
standard deviations, the means and the summation
where and are the assumed means and other of the products will be computed separately. A
letters have their usual meanings. double classification (metric systems) is applied for
i.e., the average of the products of difference a larger number o f data and the class marks are
from assum ed m ean minus the product o f the denoted by x ,, x 2, and y ,, y ^ The results

X
X
220 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

are tabulated in a table with k rows and m columns or ruv = -

or depends on the choice o f innumerator. Frequency
of the first cell is known as the frequency of first
class of X j and y j. It may be denoted a s / (x j y j). V
Similarly a general notation m ay be w ritten as - - Ui Y i f i X i y i )

/ (^i ) for the cell frequency o f (/ j )th cell. The i J

large data is reduced in terms o f u and v which are n
obtained by dividing the difference o f class mark
assumed as mean and other class marks by the cell
^ 2
interval. In fact, this change o f origin and scale has It
no effect over the nature o f the variables hence the )(
correlation co-efficient also remains unaffected. Thus,
instead of calculating the correlation co-efficient of
xy, i.e., r^ , it is proper to compute the correlation
co-efficient of u and v, i.e., r^ , which is simpler to
compute, i.e..
E xample 9
The table 7 gives the distribution of absolute
rxy= ru v= and relative relief in certain area. Prepare a correla­
tion table and calculate correlation co-efficient along
^ 2 U iV jfiX iyj) with actual means and S.Ds.
i j
T able 7

R Ji. in
\ meters
0— 200— 400- 600— 800— 1000— 1200— 1400— Total
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
A .R . \
in meters \
>1 \

0 --4 0 0 139 139

400— 800 180 82 8 270

8 0 0 -1 2 0 0 239 221 74 6 540

1 200— 1600 32 84 65 62 17 261

1600— 2000 14 14 12 7 3 7 3 60

2000— 2400 3 1 4 2 10

590 401 162 80 27 4 11 5 1280

 T abli- 8
Correlation Table
1 \ Relative
\
Relief
J
000- 200- 400- 600- 800- 1000- 1200- 1400- fx u i f x Ui ^ f x UiVi f i x , y)
\ R. R.
A. R. \ 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Absolute \
Relief \
Yi 100 300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500

Xi »/v —3 —2 —1 —0 1 2 3 4

c/3
834 -h834 H
>
0-400 200 —2 139 —278 556 d
c/3
139 d
n
540 164 8 4-712 >
r
400-800 600 —1 270 —270 270
180 82 8
0 0 0 .0 0 o
o
800-1200 1000 0 540 0 0 c/3

239 221 74 6
—96 - -168 —66 0 4-17 4-17
1200-1600 1400 + 1
i 32 84 66 62 17 261 261 261 —330

1600-2000 1800 + 2 —56 —28 0 4-14 4-12 -F42 4-24 4-92

14 14 12 7 3 7 3 60 120 240 — 84

4-9 4-6 4-36 4-24 -h75

2000-2400 2200 + 3 3 1 4 2 10 30 90
1730 J
fiy) 590 401 162 80 27 4 11 51280 —4143
vfy
^ify — 1770 — 802 — 162 0 27 8 33 20 —2646 = 1316
y l f y

^i^fy 5310 1604 162 0 27 16 99 2 7298

J4-1374 4-164 4-8 4-40 4-18 4-78 4-48 17307
mf{x,y) —414( 1316 1316
1 —96 —224 —94 0 s>
S)
222 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

C olum ns and rows added for preparing the R egression Lines

Correlation Table 8 {p. 221). In any distribution the line o f best fit is known
1. A column and row each for class marks. as regression line. In a bivariate distribution there
2. A column and row each for u. and v .. are two regression lines because there are two
X i-a \ , variables. If j: on y are two variables we get the
Ui = ——— where a ^ = class mark assumed as
Cl regression o f x on y and also of y on x, i.e., by
mean in x series. Cj = class interval allotting a set of values to x one gets a set of values
for y whereas a set o f values for x can be obtained
Similarly vj = ^ — — where a , = class mark respective to a set of values o f y .
Cl
assumed as mean in y series. = class interval The lines can be plotted by means of least square
3. A column and row for u. f {x) and v. /( y ) m ethod, i.e., the sq. o f the deviation from the
respectively. expected values are the minimum.
4. A colum n and row for f(x ) and v^f(y) The equation to the regression lines are given
respectively. ' ^ as
5. A colum n and row for u. v . f (x, y ) and 1. for y unknown and x known
V. u j ( x , y ) respectively.
Let a = 1000 and = 700
The results are enumerated as 2. for X unknown and y known
^ u j(x ) -1 3 7
- 0 .1 0 7 m d x ~ 7 = = r~ {y —y )
n 1280
1000—42.8= 957.2.
_
C l c u w h e re c r u ~
j f x i ui^ 2 I 1417 Regression Co-efTiclent
V " V 1380 The value which gives the numerical relationship
- 0 .1 1 4 = 1 .0 4 between two variables x and y is know n as
ax = 4 0 0 x 1 . 0 4 Regression co-efficient.
It is given by
Sim ilarly,
ay
r — f o r y u n k n o w n a n d jc k n o w n .
^ = a ,+ c ,; a n d ;- = - M O L L - 2 6 4 6 _ ax
n 1280
>»= 700— 4 1 3 .4 r _ '^ n n a n d r-* ^ fo r x u n k n o w n a n d y k n o w n .
<jy
= 286.6 ^
a n d (Ty= Q cry E x a m ple 10

I 7 298 Compute the equation for regression lines from

n V 1280 the data given in the above example.
ay= v r r - = ^ : 2 i = A. Regression equation when y unknown and
oy=^ 200 y. 1.2 X known
= 240
Xu v f (xy)^ OX
-u V
n
ru v= - substituting the values o f r, a^, x and y from the
(Tu av
above example.
1316
1280 ( - - 1 0 7 ) ( - 2 .0 6 7 )
y - 2 8 7 = .0 2 ^ ( x - 9 5 7 )
1 .0 4 X 1.2
_ 1.02 — .22
= 0 .6 2
or y = .35 jc ^ 7 .9 5 - . ( 1)
1 .248
 STATISTICAL MFITIODS AND TECHNIQUES 223

B. Regression equation when x unknown and and Xj = 856 + 650.11

y known. = 1506.11.
From these values the two regression lines can
= r - - ( y - y)
ay be plotted as in Fig. 236.
Substituting the respective values Regression lines are being increasingly used in
urban studies.
• V - 9 5 7 .2 = .6 2 ||( y - 2 8 7 ) Attempts are also being made to extend its use
in physiographic analysis and industrial geography.
;c = 1.07 y + 650.11
Isopleth maps o f residuals from regression are
For drawing the regression lines
1. From y = .35x - 47.95 prepared to give the pictures of deviations from the
giving X values 1000 and 2000 expected values. The items showing more departures
y = 350 - 47.94 atu^ct more and invite further studies in such cases
= 302.05 which can reveal the causes o f its seclusion.
and y^ = 700 - 47.95
= 652.05 Rank Correlation
Similarly from equation x = 1.07 y + 650.11 giving Rank correlation can be determined by
y values 200 and 800, respectively. Spearman’s Rank difference method. According to
X 1 = 214+ 650.11 • this method, to find co-efficient correlation of two
= 864.11,
variables, the ascending or descending values of their
observations are arranged in their sequence and
thereby their rank can be determined. Then the rank
difference of the variables and the square of the
difference are calculated. Afterwards, the rank
correlation co-efficient can be found out with the
help of the following formula:

61D-
/? = 1 -
2 N{N-^— \)

g where p = rank correlation co-efficient, D = rank

c
difference, N = number of observations.

Meon E xample

2
Urban population and literacy ratio of ten areas
oU) are given in table 9. Find the rank correlation co­
A
<x efficient between these two variables?

_ 6x18 108
p= ]~
N (N ^-]) 10(100— 1) 990

f^eio tiv e R e lie f 'm 0 0 M etres

=1 - - , 3 = 0 89.

Rg. 236. Regression Lines for Absolute and Relative Relief.

-4-
tt:
224 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

T a b le 9 (a)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Urban
Population (%) 60 35 15 22 18 38 47 5 12 9

Literacy (%) 73 29 36 14 20 48 45 12 13 10

T a b le 9 (b)

SI. Urban Literacy Rank o f Rank o f Rank Square o f

No. Population (%) Urban Pop. Literacy difference D rank difference
(%)

1 60 73 1 1 0 0
2 35 29 4 5 -1 1
3 15 36 7 4 + 3 9
4 22 14 5 7 -2 4
5 18 20 6 6 0 0
6 38 48 3 2 + 1 1
7 41 45 2 3 -1 1
8 5 12 10 9 + 1 1
9 12 13 8 8 0 0
10 9 10 9 10 - 1 1

T est of Significance then the observed values are retained, otherwise

(Chi) test. This test is based on the rejected. It also explains how far the observed values
comparison of the differences between the observed are retain ab le or rejectab le; this is know n as
results and the theoretical results given in the x^ — confidence limit. Determination o f the degree of
table (Appendix-2). The following formula is used freedom can be made ^ follows:
to calculate x^ values: (0 if the number of rows is 1 and the columns
are n, degree of freedom ( d f ) = n - l .
(ii) if the rows are m and the columns are n,
then d f = (m - 1) (n - 1).
w here = observed frequency, = expected
frequency. E xample
According to the above formula the values are The frequency o f Blocks is given in five groups
obtained and in reference to the degree of freedom, o f intra-village spacing (Ivd ). The null hypothesis
the theoretical values given in the x^ table (Appendix- assumes that there is no difference between observed
2), are com pared to determ in e the level o f and expected frequencies, due to the setting o f the
significance of the observed values. If the calculated region in the homogeneous environment. Now the
values are less than the values given in the table. hypothesis may be tested as given in the table 10.
 STATISTICAL METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 225

T a b le 10. Test. Saran Plain (Bihar).

SI. No. Ivd (Km) group f (fo-fef

fo-f. (fo-ff
fe

1 < 0.6 0 0 0.00

2 0.6-0.7 18 10 100 12.50
3 0.7-0.8 10 2 4 0.50
4 0.8-0.9 3 -5 25 3.12
5 >0.9 1 -7 49 6.12

Total 40 40

Since the calculated value of is greater than w here and are the m eans o f the two
the tabulated values for 4 degrees o f freedom even samples, and N^ are sample sizes, Sp is a statistic
on 1% level, it indicates the r^'jection of the null- known as the pooled estimate o f variance, calculated
hypothesis. This reveals that even small variations as
in the environmental conditions have affected the
intra-village spacing (For Fisher and Y ates’ Table, \ / « l + « 2 —2
see the Appendix-2).
w here and 5^ ^ are the variances o f the two
Among the other tests, t and F tests are very
samples.
frequently used, t test is generally applied when
After calculation o f t values, it can be compared
two means are compared and the sample size o f the
w ith the t values given in the table (see the
distribution is small. This test is the modified form
Appendix-4).
o f the normal distribution, which is tested by the
For the comparison o f means of more than two
statistic Z, as
sets of observations, an alternative test is needed on
the basis o f variance. This involves calculating the
variances within the selected samples and comparing
where and are the two sample means, n^ and it with the variances between or among the samples.
are the sam ple sizes, and ct is the standard deviation. The ratio o f the two is designated by F, i.e.,
According to this statistic the greater is the Z value, Si2
the larger is the chance for the rejection o f null
hypothesis (Appendix 3).
where is the greater variance estimate and 5 / is
t test is also known as Student’s test calculated
the lesser one. Similar to Z values, according to this
by the given formula.
test the greater is the F value, the larger is the chance
for the rejection of null hypothesis. For tabulated
S P V { \ I N ,) + { \ I N .) values of ‘f ” , see appendix 14.
Chapter 9

SYSTEM ANALYSIS, M O D EL BUILDING AND

C O M PU TER IZA TIO N

M odem geography is more inclined towards the (zv) Control Systems. Process response systems
analysis of spatial structures and processes associated can be modified by human intervention to affect the
with man, organizations and the physical environ­ system’s operation. Although at many places, natural
ment, as such various statistical techniques are barriers restrict the flow, yet due to human inter­
advanced'to measure such associations at different vention it receives a new stimulation.
levels and orders. These associations are interrelated River basins are examples of systems treated on
to each other within the frame of the system through all four levels; morphological relations between
the process of regulation, control and automation in channel and slope characteristics can be linked to
space, being called as ‘geochorosystems.’ In order the input-output relations of rainfall and stream flow
to highlight some issues related with this aspect, it to form a combined process-response system which
is attem pted to discuss some selected measures in turn is controlled to reduce flood hazards. In
frequently used in geography. human context settlements may be treated as systems
on four levels: morphological relationship between
A. System Analysis resource availability and landscape characteristics can
Geographers analyse systems on four main levels be linked to the input-output relations of demand
of abstraction: and supply of goods, forming a combined process-
response system, which in turn is controlled by the
(0 Morphologic Systems. Relations between equilibrium system of human intervention, as such
individual components are analysed with statistical finally a balanced stage is achieved in the settlement
association to produce certain positive or negative system.
bonds. Changes in the level of measurement cause With this view certain selected spatial methods,
change in the nature and trend of interrelationship. and techniques are discussed here.
(z'O Cascading Systems. Generally it has been
found that relation between individual components 1. Nearest Neighbour Analysis
involves transfer of energy as output, which may be Most popular statistical analysis concerning
used as input for another component. This system spatial association and distribution in NNA which
controlled by the regulators through the feedback has been formerly introduced in mathematics by
processes, is known as cascading system. P. Hertz (1909), but its systematic use has been
initiated by two American plant ecologists, Clark
(Hi) P rocess-response Systems. This is the and Evans (1954) in context to two dimensional
byproduct of the two systems mentioned above. In measurement of the phenomena distributed over the
this system both the statistical associations and input- earth-surface. It has been assumed that in Euclidean
output transfers form a link, which is a subject of plane, the distribution of points will be random
variation according to time and scale. according to Poisson probability law, as such it can
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 227

be represented and measured with the help of index uniformity. The Rn values are comparable to Di
o f randomness. The technique to measure this index values as described in the sequel.
is known as Nearest Neighbour Distance Approxima­ Among the statistical indices compared to the
tion, which can be generally measured upto sixth varying Rn value. Variance index (V) and Standard
order.
Variate of the normal curve (C^) are very important.
^ The index of randomness (Rn) represents the Variance index is calculated with the formula,
ratio between mean observed distance of points (rO) V = (4 - n)IAdn
and the expected distance in random situation (rE), = 0.0683086/ii
as such
w here d is the density o f points. The in ter­
Rn = rO/rE, in which pretation of V can be done with the help of
Table 2 .
rO = t n In
n i
where r^,. . . , are the nearest neighbour distance T a ble 2
of different points, and n is the total frequency
observed; rE for different orders can be computed (0 rE >V, uniform distribution
with the help of the following formula, (rO V > rE, clustered
rE = (2;) ! ; / V d (2 J.! f {Hi) rE/V = 1, Random distribution
where j denotes the order (1, 2, . . ., 6) and d
represents the density of points in a given area. For selected values of d, rE and V are given
Since for different order the value of rE is the upto five decimal numbers which help to compare
subject of variation, the formula to compute Rn will the calculated values (Table 3).
also change. For general use formulae for Rn and rE
T a ble 3
are given in Table 1.
Density (d) rE V
T a bl e 1

1.00 0 .5 0 0 0 0 0.06831
Order rE Rn Max. value 0.95 0.5 1 2 9 9 0.07191
o f Rn 0.9 0 0.5 2 7 0 5 0 .0 7 5 9 0
0.85 0.54233 0.0 8 0 3 6
1. 0.5000Hd 2.0000 rO J^d 2.1491 0.8 0 0.5 5 9 0 2 0 .0 8 5 3 9
2. OJSOOHd 1.3333 rO.J^d 2 .4 8 1 6 0.75 0 .57735 0 .09108
3. 0.9375/V^f 1.0666 rO J^d 2.2924 0 .70 0.59761 0 .09759
4. 1.0931 H d 0 .9 1 4 3 rO J^d 2.5994 0.65 0 .6 2 0 1 7 0 .10509
5. \2 3 0 5 H d 0 .8 1 2 7 rO J^d 2 .6199 0 .6 0 0 .6 4 5 5 0 0 .11385
6. 1.3535/V d 0 .7 3 8 8 rO J^d 2 .7502 0.55 0.6 7 4 2 0 0 .1 2 4 2 0
0.50 0.70711 0.1 3 6 6 2
(Based on DeVos 1973; Barr, Lindsay and Reinelt, 0.45 0.7 4 5 3 6 0.1 5 1 8 0
1971). 0.40 0.79057 0.17078
Generally the Rn value is calculated for the first 0.35 0.84515 0 .19517
order, but for heterogeneous or inhomogeneous 0.30 0.91287 0 .2 2 7 7 0
region, more than first order is needed to give the 0.25 1.00000 0.27324
conclusive results. In the first order for specific type 0.20 1.11803 0.34155
0.15 1.29099
of distribution, there are three constants ranging from 0 .4 5 5 4 0
0.10 1.58114
0 .0 , 1.0 to 2 .1 4 9 1 , representing three types of 0 .6 8 3 1 0
0.05 2.23607
distributional pattern i.e., complete concentration, 1.36650
complete randomness, and complete regularity or (Adopted from M.F. Dacey, 1964).
228 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

The second statistic which also shows the trend that the greater the difference between rO and rE,
of randomness is Standard variate of the normal curve larger will be the values of Cs, i.e., there may be
(Cs), and is calculated as, greater probability that the observed pattern is non-
random, Trend towards lower value of Cs will denote
rE -rO
Cs = . the random pattern, while the values in decimal will
crE
show trend towards clustering. The calculation of
were GrE is the standard error (discussed in the this index will be more suitable when the n fs at
sequel). least 1(X). In the example cited (Saran District, Bihar),
This statistic having normal distribution and except five cases, in rest of the 10, this statistic is
standard normal deviate, is used to test the probability
more suitable (see Table 4).
of occurrence of chances. It is clear from the equation
T able 4 . Spatial Analysis o f Rural Settlement Distribution, Saran District, Bihar (see Fig. 237).

S. No. Block n dlKm3 rO rE Rn V GrE Cs H s,km Di

1. Chapra 94 0.47 0.840 .729 1.15 .145 .039 2.82 1.565 0.535
2. Revelganj 34 0.30 1.214 .912 1.32 .228 .082 3.63 1.961 0.617
3. Jalalpur 125 1.06 1.039 .490 2.14 .064 .022 25.17 1.042 0.997
4. Manjhi 114 0.53 1.153 .689 1.67 .129 .033 13.79 1.474 0.781
5. Ekma 91 0.60 1.149 .645 1.78 .114 .035 14.24 1.385 0.828
6. Baniapur 142 0.65 0.862 .620 1.33 .105 .027 8.82 1.329 0.646
7. Mashrakh 132 0.53 1.031 .689 1.49 .129 .031 10.96 1.474 0.698
8. Taraia 134 0.66 0.878 .617 1.42 .103 .028 9.42 1.320 0.663
9. Marhaura 110 0.72 1.025 .591 1.73 .095 .029 14.81 1.267 0.809
10. Amnaur 118 0.87 1.127 .537 2.09 .078 .026 22.95 1.151 0.979
11. Parsa 117 0.69 1.040 .602 1.72 .099 .029 15.15 1.292 0.803
12. Darlapur 151 0.67 0.764 .613 1.25 .102 .026 6.04 1.311 0.585
13. Sonpur 85 0.51 0.862 .701 1.23 .134 .039 4.09 1.505 0.572
14. Dighwara 43 0.48 1.366 .724 188 .142 .057 11.26 1.550 0.899
15. Garkha 100 0.56 1.045 .671 1.56 .122 .036 10.41 1.434 0.727

To test the significance of the level of rE, firstly and thus the range of random matching can be
the value of standard error (crE) is to be computed demarcated {see Fig. 237A).
as,
crE = 0.26l36H(nd) E xample
where d is the density of points, and n is the total In table 4 on the level of community
number of points. On the basis of rE, 95% confi­ Development Block, number of villages, village
dence limits—both upper and lower can be found density { d !K m \ and mean observed inter village
out as, \ distance {rO) are given, on the basis of which rE,
= (2orE ±rE)lrE Rn, V, GrE and Cs have been computed with the
After the computation of upper and lower limits of help of formulas given above. Finally the range of
random matching for each unit, two points will be randomness has been fixed {Fig. 237A). The spatial
plotted which will be transferred into curve by joining pattern of the nature of randomness (based on Rn
each other in upper and lower plane systematically. value) has been grouped into five categories and
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 229

SARAN DISTRICT; NATURE OF DISPERSION OF R U R A L S E T T L E M E N T S

(A)
MWpur f ^ T1~r^"!~! '

A ftdor jM onJW 5 <»m vahi# \ L _

■iiiilk
1-5 e a rk h o • Mthrakh
M -.k « - i.k -a
-
•larolyo f
>R «v«lgm ) •BoiHopur B

10
of Itondom motehino of
i-» > 9 5 % Probability lovbl.
- l . l ..i.,l .1.1 I » J , . i - » ^ „ . i - J . I ■■*..» j
«0 KO 180
n u in b o r o f v ll lo g o o p a r B lock

Fig. 237
plotted over the map of the Saran District (Fig. formulation of an appropriate working hypothesis to
237B). This map shows the increasing Pend from give focus to the investigation, the proper definition
randomness to uniformity, due to the fact that the of line length and the interpretation of the LRn, e.g.,
region belongs to homogeneous environmental along a well defined arterial road or a river valley.
setting.
E xample
Use ofN N A in Linear Situation. Rn statistic can
In Fig. 238 three imaginary areas are selected,
also be used for the pattern analysis o f points
where along the river 15 towns are located. The
distributed along a line, i.e., uni-dimensional
situation. In such case Rn is transferred as LRn, which
can be computed in the same way as
LRn = LrO/LrE
where LrO is the observed average distance between
nearest neighbours in linear pattern, and LrE is the
expected distance, calculated as,
LrE = 0.5 [L/(n - 1)]
Thus LRn = LrO /{0.5[L/(n - 1)]) or
2LrOI[LI(n - 1)}
or 2L rO (n - l )
L
where L is the line length, and n is the number of
points. In effect, this means that the predicted random
average is half the mean distance that would separate
the points if they were distributed with perfect
regularity throughout the entire line length.
Similar to that of Rn statistic, the value of LRn
will also deviate from 0.0 to 1.00 and upto 2.1491.
W hile using this technique, particular care need be
taken at three crucial stages in the analysis, viz., the Fig. 238

X
 230 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

length of the river is 78 km. Calculate LRn for three distribution is regular. Under such condition the
areas—A, B and C. density of points given in any areal unit can be
Firstly, it is necessary to measure the LrO, for transformed into uniform space and represented by
three areas : the Index of hypothetical spacing {Hs), calculated as
A = 0.50, B = 3.81, C = 5.97 Km. Hs = 1.0746/Vii
then using the formula, where d is the density of points per areal unit.
LR„ _ 2 (0 .5 0 )(1 5 -I) To normalize the mean disturbance factor, the
78 expected distance in uniform space can be correlated
LR „ (B )= , 3 ^ 3 with the observed distance, so that the effect of
different densities and measurement scales can be
L R n (C ) = -2(^ » 7 )(1 5 -1 ) removed. This normalized or Uniformity dispersion
78 = 2 .1 4 3 .
index {Di) is given as,
D i = r(9/{1.0746/Vrf)
Thus these values o iL R n clearly show the trend = r(9(V^f)/1.0745,
of clustering, randomness and uniformity in distribu­ where rO is the mean observed interpoint spacing,
tion {Fig. 238). and d is the density.
Spacing in Uniform Plane. The concept of The value of D i corresponds to the value of Rn
uniform plane is the best known example of the in positive way. Their corresponding values and
Christaller’s hypothesis, where it is assumed that nature of distribution are given in Table 5.
due to homogeneous isotropic condition, the

T able 5 . Corresponding values o f Rn a ndO i and Nature o f Distribution

R^ Value D Value Nature o f Distribution

0.00—0.30 0.000—0.140 High Clustering

0.30—0.59 0.141—0.279 Moderate Clustering
0.60—0.89 0.280—0.419 Least Clustering
0.90— 1.10 0.420—0.512 Random
1.11— 1.45 0.513—0.674 Least Uniformity
1.46— 1.80 0.675—0.838 Moderate Uniformity
1.81— 2.15 0.839— 1.000 High Uniformity

Hs and D i values for the spatial distribution of indices are used which are based on three basic
rural settlements in the Saran District, Bihar are given param eters: (/) num ber o f separate (i.e., non­
in Table 4. connecting) subgraphs in the network (G), («) the
number of edges (links) in the networks (E), and
2. Graph-Theoretic Measures (Hi) the number o f vertices (nodes) in the net­
The best use of graph theory is applied in works (V). Some important indices are given in
comparing sets of networks. For such purpose, many Table 6.
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 231

T able 6 . Elem entary Topological measures o f network structures.

M easures based on gross characteristics

(0 C yclom atic num ber (|i) = E -V +G

(ii) Beta index (P) = E /V

(/«) A lpha index (a ) = (E ~ V + G \

JlOO
\ ~ 2 V = T ~ 'J
F o r p lan n er

1100 g ra p h s
O'v) G amma index(y)

f e - v+g )
(v) A lpha index
For
n o n -p lan n e r
graphs
(v/) G amma index = ( 3 ( kV ) “

E xample clarifies that in the sequential developm ent from A

In Fig. 239 series of networks are plotted with to D , the network becomes more connected. The
constant num ber o f subgraphs (G = 1) and the calculated values o f these indices are given in
num ber of vertices (V = 10), but the num ber o f Table 7,
edges (£) are successively increased. The figure (239)

T able 7

Planner Non-planner*

A B C D E

G 1 1 1 1 1
V 10 10 10 10 10 4
ij
E 9 14 19 24 45
lA 0 5 10 15 36
p (in %) 0.90 1.40 1.90 2.40 4.50
a * (in %) 0 33 67 100 100
y * (in % ) 37 58 79 100 100

* D ir e ct o n e lin k c o n n e c tio n s b e tw e e n all ten v ertices; n o t m apped in F ig. 2 3 9 .

II
ii
232 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

^ ^ a
0 1 O 0
1 O 1 0
X 0 10 1
O 0 1 o
Fig. 240

^ p*
P, 0 1 1 1
10 11
*''■ X t 1 0 1
1 1 1 0

Fig. 241

will be m times m cells in the matrix or rr^. From

this total m cells are deducted in the diagonal because
Fig. 239 a route cannot connect a place with itself, thus the
maximum number will be (rrP - m) cells. One can
The simplest among these indices is Beta index note that once a route is built between place i and
(P) which differentiates simple topological structure y, there is no need to duplicate the route by building
another parallel rule from j to i in a symmetrical ne­
(with low values) from complicated structures (with
twork. So once the diagonal is removed, a symmetri­
high values). Here it is necessary that one may
cal matrix rem ains and half o f it describes the
understand the meaning of planner and non-planner maximum possible number o f routes : 1/2 {nP - m)
graph: Planner graphs are characterized by edges or 0.5 {nP - m).
which have no intersections or common points except
at the vertices, while in non-planner graphs this EXAMPLE
condition does not hold. There are 50 places connected to each other;
Graph Matrix. To describe a network, a matrix what will be the maximum number of routes?
is constructed, i.e., an array of numbers ordered in Using the formula = 0.5 (m^ - m)
columns and rows. In reference to Fig. 240 the places = 0.5(50^ - 50)
in the graph identify the rows and columns (origin = 0.5 (2500 - 50)
and destinations) in the matrix, may be named as X. = 1,225
If a pair of places is directly linked in graph X, one Degree o f Connectivity. It represents the ratio
may put 1 in the corresponding cell in matrix X, betw een observed num ber o f routes { O ) and
otherwise enters zero. maximum number o f routes ( R ^ ) . Thus the index
Take another matrix Y, where every place is of connectivity (Cd) is defined as.
directly connected to each other. In this case, since
C d = Or __ Or _ 2 (Or)
two-ways traffic is permitted on any route, the matrix Rmax ^ {nfi— m) —m
is symmetrical (Fig. 241). In such matrix Y, y.. equals This index can vary from zero (complete
y^.., but if some of the routes are one-way, the matrix non-connectivity) to the unity (m axim um
would not be symmetrical. connectivity, 1).

M atrix and Graph Connectivity. It is interesting E x a m ple

'o analyse the maximum possible number of routes A region has 15 centres connected to each other
in a network having m number of places where there by 17 routes; calculate the Cd.

V
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 233

2(0r) 2(17)
as per form ula C d— this context. In a more precise way shape is defined
m^— rn 225-15”
as ‘that quality of a material object or geometrical
= 0.162 figure, which depends upon constant relations of
In percentage it will be, 100(0.162) = 16.2%. position and proportionate distance among all the
This values shows that the region has very poor parts comprising its outline or extemal surface’. Such
connectivity. definition includes many component properties like
3. Shape Analysis orientation, relief, slope, length-breadth, perimeter
For any spatial analysis or analysis of and area, etc.
organization, region is taken as the base or tool, After Horton’s attempt to formulate an index of
which has distinctive characteristics and territorial shape (5), many scholars have propounded their
limit. So the concept of shape is very relevant in indices as given in Table 8.

T able 8. Indices fo r Measuring Shape

Formula Title Origin

1. A/L^ Form ratio Horton, 1932

Circularity ratio MiUer, 1953

[= v 'T ] / '- Elongation ratio Schumm, 1956

4. AA/TdJ- Shape index Gibbs, 1961

5. A/Pm Pounds, 1963
6. A(100)M jc Cole, 1964

ri 100 100 ~]
7.
2
1=1
Rn n \
Radial Line Ratio Boyce & Clark, 1964

8. 1.273A/L2 Shape index Haggett, 1965

9. L/{2A/[7c(L/2)]) Ellipticity ratio Stoddart, 1965

Variables
A =Area o f the shape
Ax = Area o f the smallest inscribing circle
L = Longest axis
Pm = Perimeter
r. = Radial axes from gravity centre to perimeter
n = number of radial axes
Rn = Summed radial lengths r.
 234 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

The shape indices can be grouped into three S = A/[n(L/2)^}

categories: (i) those based on perimeter, (ii) those = A /{nLy4]
based on long axes length, and (Hi) those based on
= 4A/kL^ = 1.273 A/L^
approximation to regular geometric figures (see
Table 8). It is notable that Miller’s formula has been more
M iller’s formula is very common in physical as or less similary adopted by Haggett, Stoddar, Cole,
well as in human geography. According to this and Gibbs; the only difference is in the notations
formula it has been assumed that the shape index assum ed. The value o f this index varies from
(5) is the ratio of a territory having area A, to the 0.0 (com plete linear) to 0.55 (triangular), 0.64
circle covering that territory with an area of tzR^ and (square), 0.83 (hexagonal) upto 1.00 (complete
longest axis, L, so circle); for contact numbers the Table 9 may be
S = A/ k R^ referred. These values can be further interpreted in
in which R = L/2, thus percentage.

Table 9. Shape Index Vs. Contact Number

Contact No. Shape Index Contact No. Shape Index

3 -^ below 0.596 8—9 0.901—0.940

4— 5 0.596—0.700 9— 10 0.941—0.960
5—6 0.701—0.735 10— 11 0.961— 0.980
6—7 0.736—0.850 11— 12 0.981—0.991
7—« 0.851—0.900 above 12 above 0.991

After measuring the longest axis of a village (ii) all cellsare convex (i.e., it is possible to
and its area, with the help of the above formula link any pair of points within the cell by a
shape index can be computed for any region. For straight line witnout n-aversing any other
250 villages of the Saran Plain, this value has been cells;
computed and histograms are prepared (Fig. 242). (Hi) the minimum number of edges (sides for a
These histograms show that 61% of the villages
cell) is three— as developed with the
represent more or less square shape.
tesselation of series, known as Delaunay
Another view of shape analysis is related with
triangles.
the development of serial polygons in a given space
with a view to considering the exact position of the
Three steps need to be followed in the
centres, as assumed in a cell model.
construction of cellular/serial polygons (cf. Fig.
4. Cell Model 243 A : a, b, c) :
Cell M odel is basically concerned with the 1. Drawing of lines from each point to each
assumption that points (P) are responsible for the adjacent point to make a series of triangles, called
creation of areas (A) associated with them. The as Delaunay triangles;
conversion of PA relationship into cellular net/ 2. Bisecting each of these inter-point lines to
T hiessen polygons/D irichlet polygons/V oronoi get the midpoint of the line; and
polygons/Plant polygons is based on the following 3. Drawing o f a boundary line from each
characteristics of the cells: midpoint at right angles to the original inter-point
(0 they all have straight line edges (vide Fig. line to create a series of convex polygons, such that
243 A,. C,y, the area within each polygon is nearer to the enclosed
 SYSTEM A NALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 235

E FFIQ E N C Y O F ALTERNATIVE T Y PE S O F REGULAR POLYGONS

M RELATION TO DISTANCE FROM C E N T R E S AND PERIMETER
LENGTH 09
B
•3 -^
• lattice
0 non -lattk
/
1-0 KM
/

<07 /

S-iio
• 6-*i
-----
lO -Jk ^ ”
^QRCLE
PERIMETER,KM„ ^

SHAPE CHARACTERISTICS FREQUENCY OF

IN RELATION TO LATTICE ZONES CONTACT NUMBERS

p, X MEAN CONTACT
• NUMBER

1 2 3 4 ‘ 5 -6 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
SHAPE INDEX contact number

Fig. 242. (After R.L. Singh and Rana P.B. Singh, 1975).

point than it is to any other p o in t To fix the boundary The properties o f C ell M odel are given in table
in the rem ained area, from the intersecting point a 10. T he C ell M odel is c o m m o n ly used in the
straight line passing through the m idpoint o f the d elim itation o f the theoretical areas for rainfall,
rightly facing line to be draw n upto the boundary o f m arketing, urban influence, etc. (see Fig. 243. B ,
the selected area. case o f part o f G orakhpur district, U.P.).
236 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

GENERATION OF AREAL PATTERN BY THE C E L L MODEL _

_ o o B AR HAIO '
. PURWA

° HorAei

UiiMto Klittrd !
o ^ •*WLMAwkn»*o* ®
” ■ o
A M W A N m if^ . o

S iheri«
0 M T k M IZ U M
0 r:1(4 f
•itAlMr q .L eHARIHMIfUK'.o °
®I ’fottfl

O VILLAGE Q MARKET CENTRE ^ POLYGON^ EDGE 8WVICE AREA . RAILWAY UNE

FOOTPATH UNMETALLED/METALLED ROAD IDEAL TRANSPORT SET

Fig. 243. (After Rana P.B. Singh. U.P. Singh, 1978).

 SYSTEMANALYSIS, MODELBUILDINGANDCOMPUTERIZATION 237

. Delaunay Triangh: C. S erial Polygons

Rg. 243 (A)

T a b le 10. Movement fo r Properties of the Cell Model

Property Expected Value

Contact number E(N)“ 6 .0 0 0

EW 5.7888
Perimeter E(S)‘ 4/VX
£(5)^ 5.0133/Vco
Length of any edge E iL f 0.66667/VX
E (L f 0.86603/Vco
E(L^» 0.95431/co
Area E{A) lA
E(A^ 1.280A"
Full neighbours E {Q 4.000

X = Expected number of points per unit area; co = expected number of vertices per unit area, i.e. 1.83X
" = After J.L. Meijering (1953); = After M. Dacey (1963).

Taking density (X) and expected number of between the two sets of observations—expected/
vertices per unit area (co) the geometric properties computed and observed/visualized. It is noteworthy,
of the cell have been computed for three areas (A, B, in this context, that the computed results show the
C, Fig. 243) of the Gorakhpur district, on both properties of only 28,44 and 13 polygons (see Fig.
levels—centres and market centres (Table 11). 243 Aj, B^, Cj respectively) which fall entirely within
Through the comparison of computed data (Table the study area; any polygon which partly falls within
11) and the spatial vision of the selected areas (Fig. the study area boundry as one of their edges, is
243), it is obvious that there appears to be a good fit discounted.
 238
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

T able 11. Properties o f Cell Model, three areas o f Gorakhpur

Centres Market Centres

Index
B B
E(N) 5.6786 5.9091 5.9231 5.6000 5.4400 5.7325
E (sr 5.1122 4.2192 6.5081 14.3081 13.2467 35.0486
E(Sf> 4.7364 3.9090 6.0297 13.2562 12.2728 32.4720
E (L f 0.8520 0.7032 1.0847 2.3847 2.2078 5.8414
E(L)^ 0.8182 0.6752 1.0416 2.2899 2.1201 5.6094
E(L^)^ 0.8518 0.5802 1.3804 6.6724 5.7191 40.0370
E(A) 1.6334 1.1126 2.6472 12.7972 10.9671 76.7700
E(A^) 3.4150 1.5845 8.9701 209.5542 153.9563 7544.9176
CO 1.1204 1.6448 0.6913 0.1430 0.1669 0.0238

(After Rana P.B. Singh. U.P. Singh, 1978).

In case of centres it has been found that contact some distinctive designings. The conventional or
numbers E(N), for A. 5 , C are very near to the mathematical representation of the original property
expected value (5.789) or theoretical (6) as the mean is an example of symbolic model, this model does
value for the area is 5.8369; while in case of market not help in visualizing the spatial images.
centres the mean value is 5.5908 which indicates For construction o f a model, at least two
the spatial gaps. This case further shows a level of requirements are notable. The first requirement is to
developing economy having sporadic development state the nature of the problem so that model can
at some places.
represent the real identification. In most of the cases
the basic problem lies in respect to the order and the
B. Model Building pattem of spatial organization. As such, it is primarily
The function of mcxiel is to illustrate the theory needed to hypothesize the nature and trend of the
and summarize the complex relations of the real processes that generate the spatial pattem. The second
world in a more precise way. When well developed basic requirement for modelling is the acquisition of
theory is represented by certain m athem atical information that would effectively provide a
equations, this set of equations in turn represents conceptual basis for the model. At the final stage it
some real world system, such representation is known is essential to formulate some conceptual frame
as mathematical model. These models are the best showing relations and connections among different
representative of the approximation, which can be variables, on the basis of which model can be
constructed within three frameworks—generalized,
viewed atleast at three levels, thus three types of
hypothetical, and sym bolic. G eneralized and
models can be advanced, i.e., iconic, analogue, and
hypothetical models and mostly concerned with the
symbolic, which show increasing level of abstraction
specific case studies, while symbolic models present
successively. Photographs are the best example of same relations between variables in terms of
iconic model, while maps are the analogue model, equations describing the equivalence relations
because here the actual properties are translated into between sets of variables.
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 239

The structural representation of linear representative sets as a, and b\ then it can be written
relationship between two variables can be shown by as,
symbolic model. Suppose there are two variables X b = f( a )
and Y, as given in Fig. 244. The arrow shown in the This mle is sometimes called as mapping of the
element of the set A onto the set B, as shown
X Y diagrammatically {Fig. 245). The sign for inclusion
•-

Fig. 244

diagram shows the direction o f connection (c)

between X , and Y, thus the b represents the relation­
ship and the ‘operator’ (often a parameter) transforms
the variable X into variable Y. This presents a graphic
model of hypothesized relationship, i.e., Fig. 245
Y = bX within a set is G. Thus
Here 'b' is a linear coefficient which gives the value a € A
of Y for any given value of X. With addition of the It is read: ‘a is a member of set A ’. This equation
constant influence of Y, i.e., ‘a , the model can be could be written more fully as
changed a, b = f(a), a e A, b e B
y = a + It means that the functional relationship holds for a
This clarifies that the distribution of Y depends on in set A, and ^ in set fi.
the distribution of X, i.e., Y is the dependent variable, Set theoretic approach is further used for
whereas X is independent of the distribution of Y. analysing regional taxonomy. In geographic view
Here a and b are the parameters of the equation set is defined as containing a well-defined collection
which determine the nature of the relation between of phenomena, while subset is defmed as the set
y and X. which contains some members of another set. Hence
Similarly, many symbolic models can be deve­ a region within a larger region will be considered as
loped to analyse the order, pattern, and relationship. subregion of that larger region.
The model gives the scientific frame of abstraction Fig. 246.1 illustrates a simple Venn diagram
which represents the fundamental characteristics of w here u is the universal set— or the large,
the real world. As such a model developed for a generalized region under study and A and 5 are
region can be easily compared to another and finally subsets of the universal set or subregions within
a more comprehensive model can be advanced, which larger region ‘u ’.
may have wider application in analysing the complex For further subdivisions, it is necessary to defme
problems. some logical connections. When the symbol ‘u ’ is
With this introduction some selected models and used, it refers to union of sets, e.g., A<oB, which
modellings are discussed here. refers to the set that contains those and only those
elements that belong to A or fl—or both {Fig. 246.2)
1. Set Theoretic Approach Towards Modelling The symbol ‘n ’ represents the intersection of
-sets, e.g., A n f i , which refers to that set, which
For the more precise interpretation of functional
contains those and only those elements which belong
relation or interdependency, the use of set theory
to both A and B ' {Fig. 246.3). The A (read as : A
and Venn diagram is very frequently made in modem
tilda) refers to the complement of set A, defined as
geography.
every thing contained in the universal set except A.
One example may be cited. Let A and be as Ordinarily, the complement of A by itself would be
separate sets of objects, and then a function F defined illustrated by the shaded area in Fig. 246.4. However,
in the sets A , and B associated with the elements of if it is desired to examine the set denoted by the
240 ELEMENTS OF PRACOCAL GEOGRAPHY

A n B AD B

7"

A U B A U 0
Fig. 246

A n S , th e n it c o n s i d e r s th a t p a r t of th e
S t a te m e n t Similarly, many associations and probability
o f B t h a t it c o n t a in e d in A, a s s h o w n in
c o m p le m e n t levels through set theoretic approach can be advanced
Fig. 246.5. for the analysis of regional taxonomy.
With these three connections— u , n , and ~ it is
possible to define a number o f other sets. A u B 2. Gravity Model
{Fig. 246.6) is the set defined as the complement of Social scientists have attempted to apply physical
A plus the set of or the set that contains those and laws in the geographical or hum an phenom ena
only those elem ents th at belong either to the through various ways, among which gravity law is
complement of A or to 5 (or to both). very common. In physics, if there are two bodies
The intersect of the complement of A with the with masses and and the distance between
complement of B {i.e., A r\~B) defines the set which them is then there is an interaction between
belongs to the complements o f both A and B. This them, called as gravitation force, F.. as described by
is the shaded area in Fig. 246.7. Newton,
Finally A \ j ~B refers to the union o f the
complement of A and B , as illustrated by the shaded Di 2
area of Fig. 246.8. where K is constant. This model can be used for
These elem entary statem ents can be easily measuring spatial interaction in a modified form as,
applied in defining the regional association. For
F
example, let us consider three activities, occurring D'',i
in three separate areas with overlapping, denoted by where P. and P. are the population or any attribute
letters W, C, and V {i.e., W heat, C orn, and of attraction, D is the distance between two centres
Vegetables). The associations o f this region are I and j , a is an empirical constant, and Z? is a distance
represented in a more abstract form with the help of component (assumed to have a value o f 2.0 in the
the arrangements of set as shown in the Fig. 247. original gravity model).
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MOQEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 241

P \/ h e a t

y e ^ e ta i> le s

( w o(cn v )
:~ (wp.v)u(wnc)
C w nO oTv)

(cnvM’) u f c f i‘./) ^ (v su c )
o 9
(wftv)n(o
Q

cn(v#uv)
(cf»v)n(w
(vAwiufvnc) 6 c//c<^ S^Amatfeo
Fig. 247

E xample
estimated empirically by studying regional situations
Assume that there are two cities of 1000 people in which flow (F), as well as population (P) and
each 10 km apart, with a = 1 and 6 = 2, then the distance (D) values are known.
total flow can be calculated as
Taking this equation Reilley introduced his
F ii= a. P tA _ 1000X 1000 model o f retail gravitation, popularly known as
^ :iT x io “ = breaking point formula as,
and if the cities are at 20 km apart, then ^2= —
1000x1000 1 + V P i/P ,
D \z 20X 20“ Assume that there are two cities having population
of Pj and P^ respectively, at a distance of D , then
Note that the values for the constant a and Z? can be
the boundary line between these two cities can be
242 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

demarcated by using this formula. Suppose there are each town on itself can also be taken into account.
two cities P j, having population o f 20,000 and In the above model, the potential values {P; Pr
5,000 at the distance o f 12 km, how then can the . . . P J determine the flow potential for each town.
boundary line be fixed showing the level o f inter­ Finally, after calculating potentials o f different towns,
action ? {See Fig. 248). isolines can be drawn.

a s per form ula 3. Dimensional Analysis and Modelling

Geographical phenomena are generally
12
:rr=r = -X = 4 k m . considered within three dimensional visions, e.g.,
'1 + V 2 0 , 000/5,000 height, length, and w idth, w hich can be further
This 4 km distance be marked from the side of analysed within the fourth dim ension, i.e., time.
represented as B in the figure. C onsidering such dim ensional attrib u tes, many
measures have been advanced.
For such ^ p ro a c h , one example may be cited.
a Km 4-
Suppose we are dealing with people P, distance, L,
and time T, so the velocity or speed s will be length
per unit o f time, i.e.,
Hg. 248 s = L T - ^ = LIT
Further the energy of the pioneer population p
Potential Surfaces. Concept of gravity models may explain the speed of a settlement process. By
can be further advanced in the context of potential noting the ability o f the pioneers (p) to cover an
surfaces. Assume a set of towns (1 ,2 , 3 , . . . n) each area at an increasing rate, it will be denoted as,
having a population size (A/^, Af^, M^, . . . M ^ . In p = P L ^ T - ^ = PLVT^
such condition the population potential for the town But these m ovem ents will be controlled by the
will be landscape characteristics which may be called as the
viscosity of the landscape (VO, expressed as,
,
v = P L ‘ T-^ = P ILT^
V i„ which shows the ability of people to move over a
for the second town distance in a certain length of time, e.g., settlers per
A/i , „ A/2 km per week. Finally, the speed of the settlement
P o^a- -+a
waves may depend on the distance d. This symbolic
for the th ird town model can be applied for diffusion analysis, where
diffusion of innovation or settling processes are
M A/3 A/n
+ a M l -\-a + ...A considered in time frame.
DK, D K, (*Z)3*)0 D K.
Generally it is found that the cumulative
where, frequency curve in the diffusion process follows S
P, Population potential of town 1 shape, because there will be gross increase, in spite
Distance between town 1 and 2 of low growth rate in course of time. This curve is
Pn =
D* = The distance between town 1 and its also known as logistic curve, expressed as
nearest town U
a = an empirical constant P=-
( a - b .T )
b = a distance exponent (assumed to have 1+e
a value o f 2 in the original gravity In this equation P (the proportion of the establish­
model). ment of distance nodes) is linked to T (the time at
The placing of nearest neighbour component (*) the same point in the diffusion process). The
is introduced so that the effect of the population of numerator U is the upp>er limit at 100% of
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND CX)MPUTERIZATION 243

potentiality, while in the lower case e is the natural geographic research, map is the basic and
logarithm with the approximation value of 2.7183, fundamental device, but the construction of a map is
and parameters a and b are estimated independently often extremely time consuming and sophisticated
for each diffusion problem which will change from analytical uses are frequently ignored because of long
one environment to another. duration of time needed to conduct the computations
This model is similar to that of Distance-Decay and transfer them to the map as a clear summary
Model, which shows that the spatial interaction falls expression. For such purposes many effective
off with distance, represented by the Pareto function: programs have been advanced, among which the
F = a D - ‘> following are noteworthy:
where F is the flow, Z) is the distance, and a and b CONTOUR: Construction of a contour map
are constant Swedish geographers have extensively from a series of data points whose locations are
u ^ this function in their migration studies, and defined in terms of grid squares.
thus derived, a generalized value of b, as such, CONTUR: Uses 30 inch Calcomp plotter to
F = a D -^ , draw contour maps from data given in the form of
which im plies that spatial interaction falls off geographical matrices. Stereograms and perspective
inversely as the square of distance. This inverse- contours can also be obtained.
square relationship is analogous to that used by POPMAP: Produces population maps, with cities
physicists in estimating gravitational attraction*. represented as circles, from co-ordinates and
In comprehensing reality, models are used as population data input using a 30 inch Calcomp
aids, which present the fundamental relationship of plotter.
the real world and provide further base to understand RGRID: Data plotting and isorithmic mapping
the complexities. One of the most common on the line printer using linear interpretation of
simplifications employed in model building is the irregularly spaced data points.
use of selected assumptions to make the task of SYMAP: Highly sophisticated program for
model building more tractable. producing mapped output on the line printer as one
The introduction of topological language and of three types: Contour map, choropleth map and
catastrophe theory of mathematics, which deal with proximal map (Laboratory o f Computer Graphics,
sudden w unconditional changes in any occurrences, Harvard University).
provides a potential field for the model building SYMAP and SYNM AP program s produce
procedures which may be used by coming genera­ shaded maps by printing or overprinting different
tions of geographers. alphabetical or numerical characters to reduce the
required density. An example of SYNMAP contour
C. Computerization map is given in Fig. 248, which shows the popula­
With the introduction of electronic computers, tion distribution in New Hampshire produced by a
geographers are now rapidly handling the more standard line printer.
complex mapping procedures, spatial patterning, Using SYMVU computer system, it becomes
regional taxonomy, and data computation, which are easier to produce three-dimensional representation;
far beyond the capacity of human manipulation or as for example Fig. 249 shows three-dimensional
analytical abilities. Computers help to solve special representation of the general social well being for
distributional problems in inferential statistics. the U.S.A. The higher the surface, the higher is the
Such innovations in geography have changed social weU-being. In this case scores on a general
the nature o f this fundamental discipline whose state indicator derived from the standard score
historical roots go back more than two millenia. In additive function have been calculated and displayed
 7

244 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

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............................... !” !!!!!! I m m i i w t i r f —t — -------- eeeeeeeeoee oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
...............................I . *»«*•«**• OMW ■ M M g i m i l l M H U l l O l l POOaeOOeOlM COOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000
...................................S m OO m o m OOMMMOMBMMHOMOMOO MM M M M M 000000000000000000 0
................................... m o m OOMM OOOOOMMMIMOOOOOOOOOOHO MBMBOOOOMO 00000000000
................................. t l l l l t t l * on«— B Btirr •MMMMBOaaOOHMMaOMi bbm m o o bbbobbb oooooooqpo
....................................... f im M I I I . --------------- ib bm bbm bbm m ocoooooo
............................... . : : i : : : n : s s s s s Sb i i S S i i i B M M OMOMOMMM m b m o m m m ^
. . . •«•♦•«♦♦♦♦ 0000000 wmmwm ^^^ zT izzzZ l—
: . . . . * . ......... 0000000 bbmbm b I I I I I! I
........................ 0000000 OBMBM M M M M M O M M M fO M ^BM BBMBBBBBBBOM
....................... ! ! t . 44 . 4 ..* * GOOOOOOO BOMBBM H M M M O M M M iB U M B M B M ^ M
...4 4 444. COOOOOOO M BMMBO * e * W * W S W W M ^ B M M M

Fig. 248
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 245

Fig. 249

as a continuous surface through the digital plotter operation either arithmetically or by logical
using the SYMVU system. comparisons, calculation of data, arid finally the
A nother important system of computer printing of the results. Computers receive some
cartography is advanced at Lund (Sweden), known standard type of languages, of which four are very
as NORLOC program. The localization program, com m on especially in IBM com puters, i.e.,
NORLOC determines the optical positions for a (0 Machine language {i.e., instruction through
number of facilities with respect to the total m achine), {ii) A utocodar (instruction through
transportation cost, thus it minimizes the function. compiler which translates it into machine language),
The parameters in NORLOC make the program very {Hi) FORTRAN (Formula Translation)— through
versatile. So NORLOC is not only used for locational compiler this language will be fu-st automatically
calculations, but can also be used for delimiting translated into autocodar, then into machine language,
umland boundaries as well as for calculating required and (iv) COBOL (Common Business O riented
capacities and so on. Language)— here different functions are represented
The above information clearly emphasizes the symbolically.
em erging trend o f computarized instructions in In the computer, numbers are stored by Binary
solving geographic problems. Computers at a time system, known as Binary Codal Decimal (BCD).
do many works like storage of numerical data, data Before discussing with BCD, it is necessary to
,246 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

discuss the decimal system. For example, 175 in T a b le 12. B in a r y — Decimal E q u iv a le n ts

decimal system can be written as
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
10" 1(P 102 10' 10°
= 10,000 1,000 100 10 1
1 0001 11 1011
0 0 1 7 5 = 175
1100
2 0010 12
In BCD, generally 2 is taken as base number, 3 0011 13 1101
while it was 10 in decimal system. Thus 175 in 4 0100 14 1110
BCD can be represented as 5 0101 15 1111
6 0110 16 10000
T 2^ 25 2" 25 22 21 2°
7 0111 17 10001
128 64 32 16 4 2 1
8 1000 18 10010
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 = 175
9 1001 19 10011
This is interpreted as 10 1010 20 10100

Ix (2 x2 x2 x2x 2 x2 x2 )
+ 0x(2x2x2x2x2x2) Program M aking P rocedures
+ Ix(2x2x2x2x2) + 0x(2x2x2x2) The planning and development o f the com­
puterized instructions should be done systematically,
+ 1 X (2 X 2 X 2 ) + 1 X (2 X 2) + 1 X (2)
so that one may ensure that it contains no logical
+ 1 X (0) = 175. errors. This procedure must be followed through
Sim ilarly, in the decim al system it can be atleast seven steps.
interpreted as 1 x (10 x 10) + 7 x (10) + 5 x (0) =
(z) Problem analysis. The problem is to be
175. carefully studied and defined. This also involves the
This can be further represented in the BCD chart developm ent o f an algorithm or strategy,
as shown in Fig. 250. Similarly, for other numbers consideration of alternative, and definition of input
also such charts of BCD can be prepared. and output variables. Problem specifications are also
to be noted, including the method of computer
solution.

{ii) Flow charting. The graphic representation

of the strategy is conceived, called as flowchart,
8 2* through which the problem is reduced to discrete
steps. It shows the solution of the problem in discrete
4 1 1 2* steps, with the sequence of steps to be followed as
indicated by arrow {See Fig. 251).
2 1 2’ {Hi) Coding. After making flowchart, each step
of the problem is reduced to an instruction or group
1 1 1 1 2° of instructions in a specified language such as
FORTRAN. These instructions are written on coding
as 175 sheets with the help o f language specifications
manual.
Hg. 250
(/v) Keyboarding. After coding the operator
The transformation of Decimal code into BCD converts each line of instructions into machine-
for values upto 20 is given in Table. 12. readable form through punching into a separate card
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 247

through to see how the program treats these cases.

START
(v/z) Documentation. Documentation is
explanatory material, flowcharts, instructions to the
computer operator, sample test data etc., written up
READ A
as a permanent record and filed. It help others to use
RECORD the program or later modifications.
Among the various steps to be taken, flowchart­
ing is very important, because it provides a visual
overview of the program and shows the logical steps
of the solution. It is the tool for communication
COMPUTE between the programmer, the user of the program,
SCORE
the system analyst, and the com puter operator.
Examples o f simple (Fig. 251) and detail flowchart
(Fig. 252) are shown in the figures. These flowcharts
are prepared with the help of standard symbols as
WRITE given in Fig. 253.
SCORE To give very specific directions to the computer,
FORTRAN language is used, o f which the basic
unit is the statement. It is composed o f symbols,
w ords, and punctuation organized according to
specific rules. FORTRAN has a standard character
set, consists of alphabetic letters A — Z, numbers
Fig. 251 0 — 9 and a group of special characters, i.e., +, - ,
A =. ..), , C, $.
on a keypunch machine (a typewriter-like device).
The set of punched cards containing the instructions
E xample
is called the source program. Instructions and data
Write a program to calculate standard deviation
may also be entered into the com puter from a
(C5).
terminal keyboard, or keyed directly onto magnetic
The standard deviation is a statistical quantity
tape or punched paper tape.
used to measure the scattering of a group o f values
(v) Running and Debugging. After program is around their average, or mean. The first step is to
prepared, it is tested on the computer to see whether express the formula and develop the logic for
it compiles and executes properly. It often happens operation as well as to make flowchart. The formula
that the initial run is unsuccessful and “blows up”, for a is.
then the programmer must change the program to I
correct errors in logic, keying, coding, syntax, etc. — - X -
N
These errors are called bugs, and the process of
The meaning of the terms used in the formula and
rem oving is called debugging, since this phase
their assigned names are,
involves several trips to the computer centre to run
X = one Score (DATA)
the program , a consultant, an instructor, or a
= Square of one score (DATAS)
coworker may help diagnose specific problems.
X = Symbol meaning “Sum o f ’
(vi) Checking. After the program runs, sampl6 'IX = Sum o f scores, or all scores added
batches of test data are used and checked against together (SUM)
known answers. Several different sets of data known I X - = Sum of squares, or all squares added
to have errors or special characteristics may be run together (SUMSQ)
 ELEMENTS O F PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

D E T E R M IN E
OUTPUT
U N IT

R E A D E D IT
M ASK

NZERO
IS R E P L A C E D BY
NZERO a n d 1
READ A
CARD

NO IS N Z E R O IDEP
EQUAL TO ^ I S CODE^ IS R E P L A C E D BY
YES
EQUAL TO DEPARTMENT
ERROR HALT YES NUMBER

NO

NO '' I S l E M P ^ lEM P
EQUAL TO NZERO IS R E P L A C E D BY
\ JEMPV IS R E P L A C E D BY EMPLOYEE
NUMBER
TYPE YES
IE EMP N O S
DO NOT I
MATCH / CURR INM
IS REPEAL E D BY IS R E P L A C E D BY
'IS CODE^ Y ts
H R S * IRT EMPLOYEE NAM E
EQUAL TO

NO
YTD ISS
IS R E P L A C E D BY IS R E P L A C E D BY
CURR A N D IY T D 'IS C O D E ^ YES
SCX'IAL S E C U R IT Y
E Q U A L TO NUMBER

NO
TY PE A NEW lE M P
IRT
YTDCARD IS R E P L A C E D BY
IS R E P L A C E D BY
IMAGE I E R R O R HALT E M P LO Y EE
PAY RATE
NUMBER

PR IN T HRS lY T D
D E T A IL IS R E P L A C E D BY IS R E P L A C E D BY
L!NL HOURS WORKED YEARTODATE
GROSS

252
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 249
fnput/O utput Process Flowline

E J
Crossing of Junction of
Annotation, Comment
Rowlines Flowlines

SPECIALIZED INPUT/OUTPUT SYMBOLS

/ N------
Punched Card Punched Tape Document

Deck of Cards Manual Input

Magnetic Drum

Display
File of Cards

Magnetic Disk
Communication
Online Storage
Link

Magnetic Tape Core Offline Storage

SPECIALIZED PROCESS SYMBOLS

Manual
Decision Extract
Operation

Predefined Auxiliary
Sort
Process Operation

Preparation Merge Collate

o

ADDITIONAL SYMBOLS

Connector
o Teminal Q
Fig. 253
^ Parallel Mode
 250
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

X = M ean, or a v erag e, o f the scores

(AVE) STA RT
r - = square o f the mean (AVESQ)
N = num ber o f scores (CT)
CT = standard deviation in it ia l iz e
C T , SU M , A N D
Thus using assigned FO RTRAN names, the formula SU M S Q T O O
can be written as.

„ = = / W ^ av esq IN IT IA L IZ E
DATAS
(D A T A
A n a ly sis o f th is fo rm u la sh o w s th a t sev e ra l SQ U A RED )
interm ediate steps are to be taken:
1. CT: A count is made o f the total num ber o f 50-60

scores processed. READ A

SCO RE
2. SUMSQ: The square o f each score is found (D A T A )
and added to an accum ulating total.
3. The average o f a group o f values is found by 150
finding their sum and dividing by the num ber o f
EN D CALCULATE
values. OF M E A N (A V E )
4. SUM SQ is divided by CT. F IL E ?

5. AVESQ: The average o f the scores is squared. 160-190

6. A V ESQ is subtracted from the results o f CALCULATE
step 4. IN C R E A S E STANDARD
COUNT D E V IA T IO N
7. The square root o f the result o f step 6 is (C T )
(S D E V )

calculated.
The algorith o f this program involves a loop
that reads in the individual scores and perfom is the CALCULATE
W R IT E
m ean
operations indicated in steps 1 and 2. A test for a SU M A N D
SU M SQ
trailer value terminates the loop and branches to a
sequence o f instructions that perform steps 3 220-230
120-130
through 7. W R IT E
W R IT E STANDARD
This procedure is developed in the flowchart SCORE D E V IA T IO N
{Fig. 254; com pare it to program Analysis discussed (D A T A )

in the sequel).
240

In p u t D escription
Fig. 254
F ield (Columns) Description
1-5 Score P ro g ram A nalysis
78-80 Trailer value Statement No. D escription
10-30 Initializes accum ulating totals
A dditional A ssigned N am es 40-140 Loop that processes individual scores
DEV Interm ediate value 80 C ounts num ber o f scores (Step 1)
LA ST Trailer value 90 A ccumulates total o f scores
100 Square score
SQ RT FO RTRAN library function for square 110 Adds the square (Step 2)
root 120-130 W rites score
SUMS Interm ediate value. 150-190 Calculates standard deviation
150 Calculates average (Step 3)

______
 SYSTEM ANALYSIS, MODEL BUILDING AND COMPUTERIZATION 251

160 Calculate SUMS, intermediate value (Step THE STANDARD DEVIATION IS 90.4
4)
170 Calculate AVESQ (Step 5) There are large number of books dealing with the
180 Calculate DEV, intermediate value (Step computarized instructions. For detailed
6) description and intensive study in geography,
190 Calculate Standard Deviation (Step 7) following references are noteworthy.
2(X)-230 Writes out mean and Standard Deviation. D.F. Marble, Some Computer Pro gramsfo r Geographic
D ata In p u t Listing Research, Evanston, Northwestern Univ. Dept, of
68.4 Geography (1967).
41.2 W. R. Tobler, Selected Computer Programs,
14.8 Ann Arbor, Univ. ofM ichigan,D ept.ofCeog. (1970).
19.0 L. Baker, A Selection o f Geographical Computer
16.0 Programs, London,USE G eog.Papers,N o.6(1974).
23.0 P. M. Mathur, Computers in Geography, A
212.3 Practical Approach, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, (1976).
96.2 D. Maguire, Computers in Geography, London,
10.2 Longmans (1988).
111.7 N. Stern and R.A. Stem. Getting Started with
302.5 Structured BASIC Programming, John Wiley, New
Program York (1990).
C PROGRAM TO CALCULATE STANDARD D.J. Unwin and J.A. Dawson, Computer
DEVIATION Programming fo r Geographers, London, London
C WRITTEN BY GERALD AND JOAN SILVER (1985).
C-----CALCULATE— MEAN— AND— STANDARD S. Nordbeck and B. R ystedt, Computer
DEVIATION Cartography, Point-in-Polygon Programs, Lund, Lund
C INITIALIZE COUNTER AND MATH HELDS Series (C) in Geog. No. 7 (1967).
10 CT = 0.0 S. Nordbeck and B. Rystedt, Computer Car tograph.
20 SUM = 0.0 Range Map, Lund, Lund Series (C) in Geog. No. 8
30SUMSQ = 0.0 (1969).
40DATAS=0.0 S. Nordbeck and B. R ystedt, Computer
C READ IN DATA Cartography, Shortest Route Programs, Lund, Lund
50 READ (5,60) DATA, LAST Series (C) in Geog. No. 9 (1969).
60 FORMAT (P. 5.1,72 X. 13) G.A. Silver and J.B. Silver, Sim plified ANSI
70 IF (LAST) 80,80,150
PERFORM ADD CALCULATIONS FORTRAN IV Programming, Gew York; Harcourt
8 0 C r = CT + 1.0 Brace Jovanovich Inct, 2nd ed. (1976).
90 SUM = SUM + DATA
100DATAS = DATA**2 Conclusion
110 SUMSQ = SUMSQ + DATAS As Gould has suggested there is an urgent need
C WRITE DATA CARD for the balanced and integrated courses of philosophy,
120 WRITE (6,130) DATA mathematics and computer programming alongwith
130 FORMAT (1 H,F5.1) cybernetics in view of the development of geographical
140 GO TO 40 methods and techniques with their modem uends. The
150AVE = SUM/CT suggestion is serious enough because philosophy should
160 SUMS = SUMSQ/CT raise questions and provide logical criticism ;
170 AVESQ = AVE**2 mathematics should provide abstract language of
180 DEV = SUMS—AVESQ structure and process; and finally the computer
190SDEV = SQRT(DEV)
C WRITE MEAN AND STAN. DEV programming andcybemetics will help for geographical
200WRITE(6,210)AVE investigation, data com putation, mapping and
210 FORMAT (1 HO, 15 HTHE AVERAGE IS, F 5.1) interpretation of spatial phenomena. It will certainly
220 WRITE (6,230) SDEV help to provide innovations and many opportunities to
230 FORMAT (IHO, 26 HTHE STANDARD its practitioners in sol ving real world problems. Through
DEVIATION IS, F 5.1) such developments the applied aspects of geographical
240 STOP studies will be well crystallized and, will thus, attract
END the attention of fellow scientists towards its integrating
THE AVERAGE IS 83.2 role.
 Chapter 10

M AP P R O JE C T IO N

M eaning an d Use various process o f non-perspective projections have

M ap projection is a system atic draw ing of been devised.
parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude on a The need for map projections arises from the
plane surface for the whole earth or a part of it on very fact that an ordinary globe is rendered useless
a certain scale so that any point on the earth surface for reference to a small country. It is not possible
may correspond to that on the drawing. The globe to make a globe on a very large scale. Say, if you
is true representative o f the earth, which is divided want to make a globe on a scale o f one inch to a
into various sectors by the lines o f latitude and mile, the radius will be 330 ft. It is difficult to make
longitude. The net-w ork o f these is known as and handle such a globe and uncomfortable to carry
a graticule. A map projection, in other words, it in the field for reference. Not only topographical
denotes the preparation of the graticule on a flat maps of different scales but also atlas and wall maps
surface. Mathematically, the term projection means would not have been possibly made without the use
the determination of points on the plane as viewed of certain projections. So a globe is least helpful in
from a fixed point. But in cartography it may not the field for practical purposes. Moreover, it is
necessarily be restricted to perspective or neither easy to compare different regions over the
“geometrical” projection. On the globe the meridians globe in detail, nor convenient to measure distances
over it. Therefore for different types o f maps
and parallels are circles. When they are transferred
different projections have been evolved in accordance
on a plane surface, they become intersecting lines,
with the scale and purpose of the map.
curved or straight. If you stick a flat paper over the
globe, it will not coincide with it over a large surface
without being creased. The paper will touch the B rief H istorical A spect
globe only at one point, so that the other sectors will Our conception of the very ancient geography
be projected over the plane in a distorted form. The is obtained from writings of Homer and Hesiod.
projection with the help o f light will give a shadowed H omer’s work was based on legend. Astronomical
picture of the globe which is distorted in those parts phenomena were vaguely used for such purposes as
fixing o f localities, marking of times o f day and
which are farther from the point where the paper
night and giving o f sailing directions. H esiod’s
touches it. The amount of distortion increases with
w ork follow ed H o m e r’s and m ade no fu rther
the increase in distance from the tangential point.
contribution to ‘flat earth theoiy’. Crates of Malthus
But only a few of the projections imply this
who died in about 145 B.C. constructed the first
perspective method. The majority o f our projections
globe. About 600 B.C. Thales o f Miletus came into
represent an arrangement of lines o f latitude and
prominence as the first person to predict successfully
longitude in conformity with some principles so an eclipse o f the sun. He is accredited with the
as to minimise the amount of distortion. With the introduction o f w hat is now called G nom onic
help o f m athem atical calculation true relation projection. Anaximander wrote a formal treatise
between latitudes and longitudes is maintained. Thus about nature and considered that the earth was a

y*S9"
 7^

MAP PROJECTION 253

cylinder. Greeks had considerable familiarity with development has been the use of modified polyconic
m athem atics and geometry.- About 540 B.C. or international (1/M ) projection for mapping the
Pythagorus of Samos maintained that the earth was world in 2,222 independent sheets which can be
a sphere. In 500 B.C. Hecataeus completed the assembled together. From time to time many careful
correction of Anximander’s map. Later on Herodotus investigations of the properties of the projections
and D em ocritus produced other world maps. have been made and many new ones proposed, some
Eratosthenes accepted the spherical shape of the earth of which will be discussed in the following pages.
and by measuring the altitude of the sun, deduced
the circumference of the earth. His work was further Classification of Map Projections
developed by Hipparchus and Strabo. Strabo first If you look at an atlas, or, any other set of
stated the idea that a flat map cannot represent the maps, you will find a number of projections used
features of the spherical earth and he suggested therein. Map projection varies with the size and
adjusunent in meridians and parallels. Rolemy made location of different areas on the earth’s surface.
a map of the world on a net-work of curved meridians While conical and zenithal projections are commonly
and parallels. From the time of Ptolemy until the used for mid-latitudes and polar regions, cylindrical
15th century, there was little real advance in geo­ projections are referred for equatorial lands. Not
graphy. Ptolemy’s projection approximates to simple only that, projections also vary with the purpose of
conical projection and to the Bonne’s. Bonne’s the map. While transferring the globe on a plane
projection was further developed by Waldscecmuller surface, the following facts should be kept in view:
in 1507. No advance took place during the Roman (0 Preservation of area, (ii) Preservation of shape,
period. Germanus in 1466 produced the trapezifom (Hi) Preservation of bearing, i.e., direction and
map which later on led to the Ramsteed projection. distance. It is, however, vary difficult to make such
Fifty years later, Glareanus made the first equidistant a projection even for a small country, in which all
polar zenithal map. In 1554, Gerhard Kremer made the above qualities may be well preserved. Any one
a map of Europe on conical projection with two quality may be thoroughly achieved by a certain
standard parallels. Kremer was also responsible for map projection only at the cost of others. So the
the Mercator’s world map. In 1595 was published following groups of projections have been made
a book of maps in which the title ‘Atlas’ was used. according to the quality they preserve :
The subject of map projection has itself ex­ 1. Equal area or homolographical projections.
panded in harmony with the new needs consequent 2. Correct shape or orthomorphic projections.
upon the expansion of sea, land and air travel. Man’s 3. True bearing or ^im uthal projections.
activity is largely confined to the outer surface of In the first group of projections the graticule is
the earth and he must, therefore, design plans and prepared in such a way that every quadrilateral on it
maps regarding the configuration of the earth and its may appear proportionately equal in area to the
parts for his numerous requirements. Thus a large corresponding spherical quadrilateral. It is, however,
number of projections were devised to represent the easier to make the area equal by ignoring the shape.
spherical surface on maps, charts and plans based For instance, a rectangle can be made equal in area
on various map projections. There are now available to a parallelogram by keeping them on the same
a large number of projections out of which the base and between the same parallels.
geographer may choose the most suitable for his The second group of projections is known as
purpose. Broadly speaking, equatorial regions are conformal projection. It is relatively difficult to
satisfactorily mapped on a cylindrical projection, preserve the shape but for a very small area. Strictly
temperate regions on a conical projection, and polar speaking, only a few points of the sphere can be
regions on a zenithal projection ; several modifica­ projected in their true form over a plane surface. In
tions of these projections have been made according order to achieve the quality of orthomorphism, certain
to the purpose of the map. An im portant modifications need be made. The scale is changed
254 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

from point to point; it is true at one point in all the kept at another point so as to reflect or project the
directions. It is possible to make some of the lines of longitude and latitude on the plane. The
meridians and parallels true, i.e., equal in length to shadowed graticule may be modified considerably
the corresponding one on the globe. Meridians and by simply shifting the position of either the plane or
parallels intersect each other at right angles on the light (see Fig. 255). In all cases some forms of
globe. To make the projection conformal, certain
geometrical or perspective projections shall be
devices are made so that they may cut one another
obtained. As the globe is viewed from a point
at right angles over the graticule.
v ertically above it, these are called zenithal
In the third group of projections, correct bearing
projections. They are also called azimuthal because
or azimuths are preserved. This quality is well
achieved in zenithal projections in which the sphere the bearings are all true from the central point where
is viewed from a point lying either at the centre of the plane is tangent to the sphere. The plane may
the globe, or at the antipode of the central point, or touch the globe at the poles, or at the equator, or, at
at infinity. The line of sight in every case is normal any point on the sphere between the poles and the
to the plane of projection at the central point. If the equator. When it touches the globe at the poles, the
map is required to show all directions correctly, then projection is called Polar Zenithal; when it is tangent
the rectangular quality of the spherical quadrilateral at the equator, it is known as Normal or Equatorial^
as well as the true proportion of its length and breadth Zenithal; and when it touches at any other point, it
must be m aintain^. In case, one wants to show all is called Oblique Zenithal. In all cases the view­
distances, correctly, no such map can be drawn on point or the position of light must be on the diameter
a plain sheet of paper. of the globe, or, on the diameter produced to infinity
There are various ways by which the globe can passing through the point at which the plane is
be projected over a surface. A flat paper may be tangent. This infinite line forms the locus o f the
tangent to the globe at one point and light may be position of light. In case the view-point is on the
180*
160*1

J20*

•0* '60*

so* 30*

PO L A R N O RM A L

OBLIQUE
30* 80* 80* 30* 80* 30*
6<5r
30*/ ^0* SO*, N
0* 0*
Jo* 0 * 0*

6 N 0 M 0 N IC STEREOGRAPHIC

O R TH O G R A PH IC
Fig. 255

/
 MAP PROJECTION 255

centre of globe, the projection is called Gnomonic polewards. The cylinder may be made to
or Central Projection: when the light is at the circumscribe the sphere along the equator or along
opposite end of the diameter, it is known as the any other great circle, and you may have perspective
Stereographic Projection; when the view-point is forms too. But the most useful types will be the
situated at infinity so that the rays may all be normal non-perspective equatorial projections in which the
to the tangent plane, the projection is called cylinder is conceived to circumscribe the globe along
Orthographic. Other positions of the light along the equator.
the diameter may also be conceived and subsequently A cone may be imagined to touch the globe of
different names may be attributed to the projections a convenient size along any circle (other than a great
thus derived; but their treatment will not be possible circle) but the most useful case will be the normal
in the scope of this book. one in which the apex of the cone will lie vertically
There are other surfaces over which the sphere above the pole on the earth’s axis produced and the
may be projected. After projection such surfaces surface of the cone will be tangent to the sphere
may be cut open into flat surface. These developable along some parallel of latitude (vide Fig. 257). For
su^aces include (0 cylinder and {ii) cone. When the purpose the parallel selected is one along which
the graticule is prepared by imagining the surface of the cone is tangential. If the selected parallel is
a globe projected on the surface of a hollow cylinder, nearer the pole, the vertex of the cone will be closer
it is called Cylindrical Projection. When the cylinder to it and subsequently the angle at the apex will be
is unfolded into a flat surface, it gives a rectangular increasing proportionately. When the pole itself
shape to the globe in which the meridians and becomes the selected parallel, the angle at the apex
parallels are represented as straight lines, intersecting will become 180°, and thus, the surface of the cone
each other at right angles (vide Fig. 256), Here all will be similar to the tangent plane of Zenithal
the meridians are equal and parallel straight lines Projection. On the other hand, when the selected
spaced at equal distances. Likewise, all the parallels parallel is nearer to the equator, the vertex of the
of latitudes are also equal and parallel straight lines, cone will be moving farther away from the pole. In
but they are spaced at purposely calculated distances case the equator is the selected parallel, the vertex
from the equator. The spacing of the parallels may will be at an infinite distance and the cone will
be accurately calulated mathematically and it varies become a cylinder. Thus, the Cylindrical and
with different projections of this class, employed for Zenithal Projections may be regarded as special cases
varying purposes. In the equal area cylindrical of Conical Projections (vide Fig. 258).
projection, the distances between two parallels The selected parallel is called the standard
decrease proportionately towards the poles; while in parallel because it truly corresponds to that of the
Mercators, in which the shape and direction are globe and the scale along it is also true. This becomes
preserved, the distances proportionately increase an arc of circle after the cone is unfolded along a

I80»W 150* 120* 90* 60* 30'’ 0* 30* 60* 90* 120* ISO* I80*E

Fig. 256. Cylindrical Projection.

\
1^
256 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

special atlas maps, etc. Even some of the Conical

Projections have been modified to suit such maps,
for instances. Bonne’s and Polyconic Projections.
All these modified projections may be called
Conventional Projections.
Thus, now we have innumerable projections
possessing one property or the other. The nature of
these projections are so complex that they often
posses one or more common properties. There is no
projection which can be grouped in a single class.
90' M oreover, if one attem pts to obtain a rational
classification of map projection, it will be rather
difficult to achieve it. There can be as many
classifications, as many bases. Hence following
30* classifications may be suggested depending on
different bases:

A. Based on the method of constructions:

1. Perspective.
2. Non-perspective.
B. Based on the developable surface used:
1. Conical.
2. Cylindrical.
3. Azimuthal or zenithal.
4. Conventional.
C. Based on the preserved qualities:
1. Homolographic or equal area.
2. Orthomorphic.
3. Azimuthal or true bearing projections.

D. Based on the position of tangent surfaces:

Fig. 257 1. Polar.
2. Equatorial or Normal.
plane. There may be one or two standard parallels 3. Oblique.
in conical projections. The axis along which the
E. Based on the position of view-point or light:
cone is flattened, forms the central meridian of the
1. Gnomonic.
map. Other meridians are straight lines radiating
2. Stereographic.
from the vertex of the cone at equal intervals,
3. Orthographic.
dividing the standard parallels into equal arcs. Other
4. Others.
parallels will be concentric with the standard parallel.
Besides the above general types, there are a F. Based on the Geometric shape:
number of modified projections which are little 1. Rectangular.
related to any of them. With the help of 2. Circular.
mathematical calculations, some modified projections 3. Elliptical.
have been developed which are suitable for 4. Butterfly shape.
topographical survey maps, international maps and 5. Others.

/
 MAP PROJECTION 257

(« ) /)
id )
Fig. 258

The above groups have their independent

existence, but a single Tiet can occur in more than
one group, i.e., an azimuthal projection is circular
in nature in its polar case and may show correct area
along with true azimuth of points from centre. This,
no doubt, will be a non-perspective projection.
Similar may be the case with other projections.

The Construction of Map Projections

In the construction of a graticule, both graphical
and trigonometrical methods may be followed. The
former is based on the elementary principles of
geometry; it is simpler and approximately accurate,
Fig. 259
and it will suffice for the under-graduate students;
P erp. ^
while the latter makes use of trigonometrical ^ s i n . Z. A C E ’,
hyp. h
formulae to calculate the radii and lengths of parallels
and also their distances from the equator. In the EC I A C
case of difficult projections like the Mercator’s and
MoUweide’s, mathematical tables are also used. It
A B IB C ^
is, however, essential to get an elementary knowledge b ase
of trigonometry so that the common projections may base b
be easily followed. For the convenience of the E C IA B = = — = cot. LA.CE-,
perp. p
students, various trigonometrical ratios are given as
hyp. h
follows: A C IE C = ^ = _ = sec, ^A C B -,
In the right-angled A ABC (Fig. 259) :
AB/AC = hyp. h
A C IA E = _ = - ^ - = c o s e c . ^ A C B .
 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
258

In order to get the value of the ratios, Log T able 1

tables may be consulted. . . . , P o f longittide

In the construction o f Map Projections the scale
is of much importance. In projection it is generally
0 69.6 miles
expressed by a fraction which is called the
10 68.3 ”
“R epresentative F ractio n ” (R .F.); such as
20 64.8 ”
1 ; 1,000,000 or, 1 : 63,360, etc. The former means
30 59.9 ”
that one unit o f the map is equal to the million units
40 52.9 ”
of the ground and if expressed in miles to the inch,
50 44.6 ”
it shows that one inch approximates to 16 miles.
60 34.8 ”
Similarly, the letter denotes one-inch-to-a-mile. The 23.7 ”
scale as R.F. is used in Map Projecuons so that it 70
80 11.8 ”
may be translated into any standard o f m easurement 0.0 ”
90
(vide Chapter 2).
According to Eratosthenese, the circumference
of the earth is about 25,000 miles and the mean
calculated.
radius 3,960 miles (about 4,000 miles). As a round
number, it may be regarded 250,000,000 inches
because other figures in thousands will little affect
ordinary scale. Thus a small globe of one inch r a i u s
will be 1/(250,000,000) the size of the earth. The
length of the equator of the globe will be equal to e A

the circumference, i.e., 2 k R. In case R = 1 men,

the length of equator will be equal to 2 x 22/7 x 1,
i e 6.3 inches approximately. Latitudes are angular
distances north and south of the equator, and the
s
lines drawn, from those distances parallel to the
equator are called parallels of latitude. Longitudes («) Ftg. 260 (b)
are angular distances measured east and west along
the equator the central meridian, and a meridian of In Fig. 260 (a) O E = O A = R (Radius of the
longitude will be a line passing through the poles. sphere) and the parallel AB is drawn at the distance
All the meridians will be 360, each drawn at a of Z £ O A = <t>.
distance of one degree, and the parallels will number Z A O N = Z, the co-latitude (90 - 0).
181 when drawn at one degree interval. All the Z 0 A C = <|) as they are alternate angles.
meridians will form 180 circles equal to the equator In the right-angled A OAC,
if two opposite meridians are combined together, so A C
XO ^
these are distinguished as great circles. All the
parallels (between the equator and the poles) form or, A C = AO cos 0 .

small circles as their length decreases polewords. = R cos 0 because A 0 = R.

The length of one degree of latitude, for all practical
purposes, may be taken as about 69 miles. It may, s in .Z = R sin.
however, vary from 68.7 miles near the equator to_ ^ = R, sin, Co lat
69.5 miles near the poles. The length of 1° <ot Thus Ihe length o f the parallel a b
arc along various parallels, i.e., the length of one COS. 0 or 2 n « sin. z because A C i, ^ (r)
degree of longitude, decreases towards the poles. of Ute parallel A B. S.m.larly the W
This may be seen from the Table 1.
X

MAP PROJECTION 259

parallels can be calculated by the formula: along the central meridian, starting from the standard
2 n R cos. 0 parallel. As all the parallels are drawn as arcs of
or 2 7c /? sin. co-lat. concentric circle from a centre coinciding with the
For cosine and sine, the mathematical table may vertex of the cone, all the meridians including the
be consulted. central median become their radii, radiating from
The longitudinal distance between two meridians the vertex. So the scale along the meridians becomes
along the parallel A B (45°) can be obtained by correct.
dividing the length o f the parallel A B \>y 360 and
by multiplying the quotient by the distance (d) which
may be 5°, or 10°, or 20°, etc. Thus when R = T ,
the length of the arc o f the parallel A B for a distance
of 10° will be

2 7T i? cos. I tz R cos. 45°10

360 360
2 x 2 2 x lx .7 1 .
= . 12' .
7X 36
The arc distance may, however, be found graphically
also. Draw a circle with the radius A C. Let A B
E
be the diameter. Draw C D making the Z D C R
= 10°. Now D B is the required longitudinal arc
distance at the interval of 10° along the parallel
A B [See Fig. 260 (b)].

Simple C onical Projection w ith one S tan d ard

Parallel
In the sim ple conical projection w ith one
standard parallel, the cone is supposed to touch the Fig. 261
sphere along the central parallel which is truly
In Fig. 261 let K be the vertex of the cone
represented on the graticule. The central parallel
which is tangent to the sphere along the parallel AB.
becomes the standard parallel because the scale is
V is vertically above P, the pole and lies on the
tnie only along this. Other parallels are drawn at
prolonged polar axis of the sphere. If the cone is
their true distances from it, but the scale along them
cut open along V C, the standard parallel will
is not correct. Thus, the scale is exaggerated north
become an arc of the circle drawn with radius V A,
and south o f the standard parallel. This makes it
and cenu-e V. Thus V A is the projected radius of
quite unsuitable for large areas, i.e., areas with more
the standard parallel A C B (vide Fig. 257). While
than 20° of latitudinal extent The meridians are
its true radius (r) over the sphere is A O '. Now the
drawn as straight lines converging on the vertex of
length of V A and the standard parallel A C B may
the cone. They are equally spaced and intersect the
be calculated as follows:
parallels at right angles. They are also drawn at true
In the right Z ed A VAO, Z AVO = ZAOE= 0 ,
distances measured along the standard parallel. The
interval between two meridians may be obtained by VA
dividing the standard parallel by 360, if the interval
be 1°. The central meridian is first chosen, which or VA=OA cot. 0 = R cot. 0 as OA represents the
runs through the middle of the area as a straight radius (R) of the sphere.
line. The distances between the parallels are marked Again in the right Z ed A AOO', Z OAO'=0

Z
 V

260
ELEMEOTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

extent) ly in g
— COS. o r AO'==AO cos. narrow zones (up to 20° of latitu d i^ '^ u itab le for
R cos. 6 ^ nil -latitudes. Moreover, it is '^^pgitic States,
temperate regions, e.g ’ . gg accurately
r= R cos 0 Ireland, etc., which can be, more or
.'. the length of the standard parallel = 2 n r= represented.
2tlR cos. 0 .
Now a line VO may be drawn in the centre of E xample
the paper and with V as centre and radius V A, To construct a graticule on simple conic
draw an arc to represent the standard parallel ACB. projection on 1 : 25 ,000,000 scale at the interval of
The interval between the meridians along the 5° for an area stretching between 50° N—70° N and
5° E— 35° E.
2%R cos (j) X d
standard parallel = when d is the Let the standard parallel be 60° N which will be
360 the central parallel o f the area and 20° E be the
given interval which may be 5 ® 10^ 15°, 20°, etc.
central meridian. The radius o f the sphere on the
given scale:
_ 250,000,0000
= 10' .
25,000,000

Graphical Construction
Draw a circle A E Q with 10" radius. From its
centre O draw O A, making the ZE O A=60°. From
the point A , draw AV as tangent to the circle at A
to meet the polar diameter produced at V. Now
V A is the projected radius o f the 60° north latitude
line. Make the Z r O Q= 5°, the given interval
between the parallels. Qr is the true distance between
two parallels at 5° interval. With centre 0 and radius
Qr describe a semicircle which interests 0 A on the
point a. From a draw ab parallel to £ 0 , the line
ab meeting 0 V dXb. Thus ab is the longitudinal
distance between two meridians at the interval of 5°
along standard parallel (vide Fig. 262).
Fig. 262 Then draw V O in the centre of the paper.
With centre V and radius V A draw the arc ACB.
From the point C mark off the intervals along From C mark off the points Y, Z, M, L along V 0,
the standard parallel and draw straight lines from V, making, C Y, C M, Y Z and M L equal to Qr. With
passing through* the points of division. Then find centre V draw concentric arcs passing through L, M,
out the distance apart between the parallels. The Y, Z respectively. Similarly mark along the 'die ACB
longitudinal points at distances equal to ab Draw
distance = —----- when d denotes the angular straight line from V passing through the mint^ th.K
JoO
distance between the parallels. Mark off the distance marked. In this way complete the graticule f r th
along the central meridian, starting from the point area.
C; the distances between these points and V will
forrn the radii of the respective parallels. Thus the Trigonometrical Construction
projection may be completed for one complete The projected radius of the standard n
hemisphere. But this projection is suitable only for R cot 60° = 10 X .58 = 5.8". The =
of the
 I-..-I-----

MAP PROJECTION 261

Standard parallel=27c^ cos. 60° Simple Conic P rojection with two S tan d ard
Parallels
= — 2 2 x 1 0 x .5 ^ 3 ^ ^,, The distances
In the simple conic projection with two standard
betw een the two meridians along the standard parallels, two of the circles of the cone are equal to
two of the parallels of latitude o f given area. Along
parallel x 5 = .44". The true distance bet- these two lines of latitude, the scale is correct. This
J6U
ween the two parallels at 5° interval = is why they are called standard parallels. Unlike the
simple conic with the one standard parallel here the
360 ^ 63 cone neither touches the sphere along the parallels,
nor cuts through the sphere along them. Instead
The construction may now be completed as in
two circles o f the cone correspond to the two
the foregoing, to produce the required graticule (Fig
263). respective parallels of the globe and form an ordinary
cone independent of the globe [Fig. 264 ( a )]. These
are so selected as to cover two-thirds of the latitudinal
extent of the map. In this way errors are uniformly
distributed on account of which a wider extent of
area may be represented. This is, indeed, an
improvement over the simple conic with one standard
parallel; otherwise the projection has the same
properties. It is misleading to call it the Secant
conic projection as the distance between the standard
parallels does not equal the true Secant distance
between them. Any straight line cutting the circum­
ference at two points represents a Secant of a circle.
While in the projection the use is made of the arc
St distance so that the parallels may be set apart
proportionately the same distances as on the globe
Fig. 263
[vide Fig. 264 (^;)].

(a)
■alJeh (b)' (C )

if the
 /

262 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

In Fig. 264 (a) suppose A C and B D ai& Draw 0 A and 0 B at angular distances denoting
actual radii of the standard parallels and V D be the the standard parallels, 0 j and 0 ^ and O R at given
produced axis of the globe. The distance between interval, say 10°. Describe a semi-circle from O
with the radius Q R to cut 0 B and 0 A at a and
the standard parallels is represented by a straight
c. From a and c draw ab and cd parallel to E Q to
line A B which on the sphere is an arc— the true
meet the polar diameter at b and d . Thus cd and
distance between them. B A is produced to meet
ab represent the spacing between the meridians at
2kR X d the given interval along the p arallels 0 j and 0 j
V, the vertex o f the cone. AB = when d
360 respectively; while O R shows the interval between
is the interval between the standard parallels. Now two parallels [vide Fig. 264 (b)].
the main problem is to find the radii o f the standard Now draw the central meridian VB; on it mark
parallels. In the right-angled A OBD and OAC in A F , the arc distance as straight line which is equal
Fig. 264 ib).
to times the length o( O R when d is the
DB d
= cos 62 ; or D B = R cos when 0 B given interval. From A and B, erect perpendicular
OB
is R of the sphere; A C and B D, making B D = a b and A C = cd.
Join D C and the make it meet V B at V. Then
CA
- cos 61 otC A = R cos. ({)j when 0 A is V A and V R represent the radii of the two standard
OA parallels 0 j and 0^ respectively [ Fig. 264 (a)].
R of the globe.
With these radii, draw the arc of the standard parallels
Now, in Fig. 264 (a) V A : V B :: C A : D B
from the centre V" and complete the rest of the
OT, V A : A B :: C A : B F because A B =V B -
consUiiction as in the simple conic with one standard
VA
parallel.
ajid B F = D B — C A when A F is perpendi­
cular to B D.
E xample
V A. B F = A B . C A
C onstruct a graticule on the sim ple conic
AB . CA p rojection w ith tw o stan d ard p a ra lle ls on a
V A, the radius of the parallel (() =
BF 1 : 25,000,000 scale for an area extending from
20° N to 80°N and from 0° to 80°W at the interval
x d y . R cos. tf>i.
360 of 10°.
R cos, <f>i— R- COS. <
Trigonometrical Construction
V B, the radius o f = V A + A F.
The latitudinal extent of the area = 80° - 20° =
After finding out the radii of the two standard
60°. One-third of this is 20°. By subtracting 20°
parallels on the projection, rest of the process for
from 80° we get the first standard parallel while by
constructing this projection is, more or less, similar
adding 20 ° to 20 °, we get the second standard
to that of the simple conic with one standard parallel.
parallel. Thus, the two standard parallels are 60°
That is the other parallels and meridians are
(({)j) and 40° {(^^). 70° and 30° (4>,) will be a
equidistant and as such other spacings may be better selection because the selected standard
calculated in the same way. parallels should cover between them two-thirds of
the total latitudinal extent of the map.
Graphical Construction According to the given scale.
Draw a circle from the centre 0 with the radius
of the reduced sphere, calculated on the given scale. 2 5 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 0 _ ,_ ,
On the scale of 1 : 25,000,000: 25.000.000 ~ •
250,000,000 The distance between the standard parallels,
25,000,000 say d
 MAP PROJECTION 263.

_ 2 X 22 x 1 0 x ( 6 0 j : : 4 0 3 ^ 3 S'', The projection is, therefore, not very difficult to

3 60 X 7 construct. It is neither equal area nor orthomorphic.
Tj, the radius of the 60° parallel But in atlases it has been usually adopted for the
_ </x R cos.^1 continents like Europe, Asia and North America,
R cos. R cos.^i etc. It is, how ever, one o f the m ost suitable
when d is the distance between projections for mid-latitude countries with small
3 .5 X 1 0 X .5 latitudinal extent.
“ * ( 1 0 x .7 7 ) - ( 1 0 x . 5 )
Tj, the radius o f the 40° parallel B onne’s C onical P rojection
= 6.5" + 3.5" = 10.0". This is modified conical projection designed by
Then describe the arc o f and (t)^, from the Rigobert Bonne, a French cartographer. In this
point V lying on the central meridian o f 40° W system all parallels are true to scale but, like the
passing through the points B and A. From A and B simple conic with one standard parallel, it has only
mark off the points along the central meridian at the one selected parallel (the stan d ^ d parallel) drawn
on definite radius which is the cotangent of the
3.5 X 10 .
interval of I.e., 1.75 . selected parallel multiplied by the radius o f the
20 reduced sphere (R cot. 0 ). The selected parallel
The length of the 60° parallel varies with different areas, as it governs the curvature
= 2% R cos 60 of other parallels. If the main mass of an area is
nearer the pole, the selected parallel will be one
2 x 2 2 x lOx.5
nearer the pole and if it be close to the equator, the
selected parallel will be one nearer the equator.
.'. the longitudinal interval = 2 x 2 2 x 1 0 X . 5 X 10 Supposing for a continent like Asia, if 80° N is the
7x360 selected parallel, then the radii for other parallels
= 0 .8 7 ' will be so short as to compress the shape of the
continent on the map. For it, 40° N will be better
Mark off the points along 60° N parallel at the
because in this case, to start with, the radius will be
interval o f 0.87". Draw the meridians joining these
longer and the successive radii of other parallels
points with V. Thus the required graticule MNLP is
will be conformable so that the map will appear a
obtained (vide Fig. 265). This may also be drawn little distorted. All other parallels are concentric
graphically as discussed in the foregoing. arcs whose radii are found by marking off divisions
along the central meridian true to scale. The central
meridian is a straight line. All other meridians are
regular curves drawn by joining the points marked
along the parallels at true distances according to the
given interval. Every quadrangle, thus formed on
the graticule, is equal in area to the corresponding
quadrangle of the sphere because all the parallels
are drawn true to scale and they are truly spaced
from each other (vide Fig. 266). This is why it is
an equal area projection. The projection is conformal
only along the central meridian. The amount of
distortion increases towards the margins of the map.
It may be used for drawing one hemisphere but its
lateral distortion restricts it suitability for continents
separately. In atlases it has been commonly used
for the maps of all continents except Africa, the
Fig. 265 map of Africa is generally drawn on Sinusoidal
 \

264 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

e!

Fig. 266

projection, w hich is a special case of Bonne’s

projection when the equator is taken as the standard Fig. 267
parallel. The Bonne’s system is also used for the respectively. From these points draw lines parallel
topographical sheets of small countries like France, to E (2 to meet the axis O P at a a and a^
Netherlands, Switzerland and Belgium. etc. Then with the distances D^aj, b^, a^,
a^, etc., mark off the points on the respective
E xa m ple
parallels. Join the corresponding points to get the
Prepare graticule on B onne’s Projection for meridional curves.
North America on the 1 : 25,000,000 scale with an
interval of 10°. Trigonometrical Construction
Let 60° TVbe the standard parallel; the radius of
Graphical Construction the standard parallel = R coL (})=2 x coL 60° = 2 x
According to the given scale the radius (R) of .58= 1.16".
250,000,000 Y which denotes the true interval betw een the
the reduced sphere = 125,000,000 - = 2' .
2 « i? x l0
From the centre 0 and with radius of 2" describe parallels = —
a circle E B P (Fig. 267). Let A be the standard = .35" where the interval is 10°.
parallel and F A be the tangent to the circle at A, X, the longitudinal distances along the parallels
which meets the prolonged axis 6 P at P. Then 2nR cos 6 X 10
draw the central meridian V 0 and from the centre With the help of the above
360
V draw the standard parallel with A as radius, formula, the longitudinal distances along each parallel
which cuts the central meridian at C. Starting from have been tabulated as in Table lA .
C, mark off the divisions on the central meridian
equal \o Q R , when Q O R = 10°, the given interval. Now the graticule can be prepared as in Fig,
With the centre V draw the parallels, passing through 268. In drawing the meridional curves, the use of
these points. From the centre 0 and with the radius French curves may be made. If the radii of parallels
Q R, describe a semicircle which intersects OR, ORj, are too long to be drawn by an ordinary compass,
OR2, ORj etc., at the points Dj, D^, etc.. the use o f a beam compass may be made.
 MAP PROJECTION 265

T able 1A

R
cos. 4> 2% R 2 n R cos. (]) (2nR cos. ^/36) ( 2 tzRI36)

10 .98 2" 12.6" 12.3" .34" .35"

20 .94 99 11.8" .33" 99

30 .87 »» 99 10.9" .30" 99

40 .77 99 99 9.7" .27" 99

50 .64 99 99 8.1" .22" 99

60 .50 99 99 6.3" .17" 99

70 .34 99 99 4.3" .12" 99

Polyconic Projection
The Polyconic Projection was developed by
Ferdinand Hassler, an American cartographer and
surveyor. In principle it represents the piling up of
as many hollow cones as the circles of latitude to
which they closely correspond. Thus all the cones
are tangent to the sphere along the corresponding
parallels of latitudes, all o f which subsequently
become standard parallels. But these are not
concentric circles as in the case of Simple Conic
and Bonne’s, {See Fig. 269). VT, VjTj, V^T^, etc.,
the projected radii of the respective parallels, equal
to the cotangent of latitude x radius of the reduced
sphere, i.e., R cot ^ when <J> is the latitude and R,
the radius of the reduced sphere. The central meridian

/50' 60 '
IZO< 90

F ig. 268 Fig. 269

 266 e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l g e o g r a p h y

and the parallels are divided in the same way as in at Lj, L^, L y etc. Thus Lj E^, E^ Ey etc., are
Bonne s. Not unlike B onne’s meridians are smooth respective longitudinal distances along the parallels
curves drawn by joining the points o f division marked of 30°, 40° , 50°, etc., and LE is the true interval
along the parallels. between the parallels 5°apart to be marked on the
This projection is neither conformal nor equal central meridian.
area. As we have seen, the scale is true only along In order to complete the construction take a
the central meridian and parallels. The meridional central meridian V O. From O mark off the points
scale increases as we proceed away from the central a, b, c. d. etc., on it at a distance o f L E. Through
meridian. The curvature of the meridians increases these points describe the circles o f latitude with VT,
much rapidly beyond the first 30^^ of longitudes on V J j. VfT^ , etc., as radii. It may be noted here that
either side of the central meridian. Hence various the centres Vy Vy Vy etc., will be moving along 0
sheets of a country adjoining east and west cannot V produced. Divide each parallel as in the Bonne’s
be correctly fitted together if they are drawn on this and draw smooth curves of the meridians by joining
system with different central meridians. In fact, the the respective points of division.
projection is not suitable to a country which extends
beyond 30° on each side o f the central meridian. Trigonometrical Construction
The shape is also distorted on the polar margins so C alculate radii (r) o f the parallels on the
it is restricted within 20° of the pole. The projection projection with the formula, r= R cot 0, when 0 is
is, however, fit for a map of Europe. The area of the latitude and R is the radius o f the reduced sphere.
a quadrangle of map prepared on this projection is The length o f the parallels = 2 n R cos. 4> as in the
not equal to the area of the corresponding quadrangle Bonne’s ; y the distance between two parallels y =
on the sphere, because the parallels are not concentric 2 n R x 5/360 when the interval is 5°, thus y = 0.35";
circles. The projection is, however, suitable for the X, the distance between two meridians at 5° interval
topographic survey sheets prepared with their measured along the parallels is equal to
independent central meridians. It has been 2nR cos <}) X 5 _
extensively used by American cartographers for . Thus the table 2 may be
various topographical survey sheets. computed:
G raphical Construction fo r Europe on Draw the central meridian V O representing
1 : 62,500,000 Scale with 5° Interval : 25° E and from O mark off y on it. Through the
Europe lies between 30° 70° N and 10° points a, b, c, d, e, etc., thus obtained, describe
60° E. According to the given scale radius of circ les o f 35°, 4 0 °, 4 5 °, 50 °, 55° e tc ., w ith
the reduced sphere, R corresponding r, given in the table. Then mark off
seven points at x distances along these to show 35°
_ 250,000,000
longitudes on each side o f the central meridian.
62,500,000 ~ •
Joining these points by smooth curves, the meridians
Draw a circle from the centre O with 4" radius, may be completed {vide Fig. 270).
and to OT, OTj , OT^, OTj, OT^, to represent 30°,
40°, 50°, 60° and 70° respectively. Draw tangents C onical E qual A rea P rojection w ith one
to the circle at the points T. T^. T^. T,, and 7;, which S ta n d a rd P arallel
meet the prolonged axis O P si V, V^, V^, V^, V^. This projection is also called ‘Lambert’s Conical
Equal-Area Projection.
Thus V T, Vj Tj, T^, etc., are perpendiculars to
It is a modified form of simple conical projection
the polar axis. From the centre 0 with Ta, Th, T^c,
with one standard parallel. The modification is made
etc., as radii draw concentric arcs in the quadrant to make it an equal area projection. Like the simple
POE. The line O L drawn at 5° intersects these arcs conic projection, in Lambert’s Conical Equal-Area
 267
MAP PROJECTION

T a b le 2

X
(R cot. 0) Cos. 0 {y cos. 0)
(Lat.) Cot. 0

i 1 1.73 6.92" .87 .30"

30
C1 1.43 5.72" .82 .29"
35
1.19 4.70" .77 .27"
- 1 40
I \ 1.00 4.00" .71 .25"
45
i 0.84 3.30" .64 .22"
50
0 0.70 2.80" .57 .20"
55
’s 0.58 2.32" .50 .18"
60
0.47 1.88" .42 .15"
65
0.36 1.44" .34 .12"
70

Thus the parallels are unequally spaced from

each other.
The main problem is then to find out the lengths
of the radii with which the different parallels (other
.7 0 * N
than the standard one) are to be draw n on the
projection. The rest o f the construction is similar to
that o f the simple conic projection.
The following formula, derived mathematically,
may be used to find out the lengths o f the radii for
drawing the concentric arcs to represent the various
parallels:

cot. - ^ 0 + 2 — sin <fiO

w here is the req u ired rad iu s for d raw ing the
parallel of 0j latitude.
0 is the standard parallel and R is the radius of
10* 20* lO 'th e reduced earth according to the given scale.
Fig. 270
Select the standard parallel which will be the
middle parallel o f the latitudinal zone for which the
Projection too, the meridians are all radial straight graticule is to be drawn.
lines, placed at equal angular intervals and the Find out the radius with which the standard
parallels are all concentric arcs. The scale is correct parallel is to be drawn on the projection. It may be
along the standard parallel and incorrect along all found out mathematically, or graphically, the method
the other parallels. being similar to that in the case o f simple conic
B ut unlike the simple conic projection, in this projection with one standard parallel.
projection the meridional scale is not correct. The
exaggeration of scale along the parallels is made Construction
good by a proportionate minimisation of scale along Draw a vertical line to represent the central
the m eridians. meridian. Mark a suitable point along this line to
 268
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig. 271
Fig. 272

represent its intersection with the standard parallel.

(vii) Scale along the meridians is minimised.
The radius of the standard parallel on the projection
(viii) The ratio o f minimisation of the meridional
is already known, hence the common centre with
scale is proportoinate to the ratio o f exaggeration of
which the parallels are to be drawn can easily be scale along the parallels.
marked. With this common centre marked along
(ix) It is an equal area projection.
the central meridian and with radii calculated with
the help of the above formula draw the different
L a m b e rt’s C onical E qual A rea P ro jectio n w ith
parallels as arcs of concentric circles. The standard one sta n d a rd p arallel
parallel should be truly divided and intercepts along
it for drawing the meridians at the given interval
Case I : When the Meridians converge at the Pole
may be found out graphically or mathematically as
Let Tp be the radius o f the standard parallel on
in the case of simple conic projection with one
the map, 0^ and be the latitude and co-latitude o f
standard parallel. Then the required meridians may
the standard parallel respectively, 0^, 0^ , be other
be drawn as radial straight lines from the common
parallels whose corresponding radii on the map are
centre passing through the points o f intersection
r^, r^ ,... and let R be the radius o f the reduced earth.
already marked along the standard parallel. Thus
For a map o f India let the extent be 6° N __
the graticule is complete {vide Fig. 271 & 272). 38" yv (T a b le s).

Properties
Table 3
{ i ) The parallels are all arcs of concentric circles.
(if) The meridians are all radial straight lines Lat. 0 Case I (inch) Case II (inch)
placed at equal angular intervals.
(iif) The parallels intersect the meridians at right 6"
angles. 20.17670 34.3875
10° 19.38365 33.5375
(iv) The scale along the standard parallel is 14° 18.56645 32.6750
correct.
18° 17.72510 31.8125
(v) Parallels are unequally spaced from each 22 °
other. 16.86250 30.9386
26° 15.97915 30.0625
(vi) Scale along other parallels is exaggerated. 30° 15.07750 29.1750
The am ount o f exaggeration in scale along the 34° 14.15775 28.3375
parallels increases away from the standard parallel. 38° 13.21995 27.5000

j
 MAP PROJECTION 269

and 60® E — 100 E and interval 4°. For a map of India let the extent be
Let the standard parallel be 22° N and the scale 6° N — 38° N (Table 3)
be and 60°E — 100° E and interval 4° and standard
1 : 20,000,000 parallel 22°N ; let the scale be 1 : 20 ,000 ,000 .
The formulae used are The formula used are
Tq = /? cot 00
ro = 2 i? tan ^ and Tj = /? V cot^ 0^ + 2 - 2 cosec d /sin 0^
X X (Radius of the globe is supposed to be
and ri = 2 R sec. ”^ s i n . 250,000,000")
Intercept on the standard parallels =
(Xj is the co-latitude of the parallel 0 j)
(Radius of the globe is supposed to be 2kR c o s 22°
X 4° = 0.80914 inch.
250,000,0000. 360°
Intercept on the standard parallel = Parallels are concentric circles and meridians
2k R c o s 22°-X 4° = 0.80914 inch. are straight lines converging beyond the pole.
*Fig. 212(a) represents a map of India on the
360°
Parallels are concentric circles and meridians Conical Equal Area Projection with one standard
are straight lines converging at the pole. parallel, a projection which was devised by Lambert
in the year 1772 ; while Fig. 272 (b) is drawn on
Case I I : When the Meridians converge beyond the the same projection which contains new suggestions.
Pole In the first case the apex of the cone coincides
Let Tq be the radius of the standard parallel on
with the pole whereas in the second case the pole is
the map, 0^ be the latitude of the standard parallel,
be other parallels whose corresponding radii represented by an arc. Again in the former all the
on the map are r^, and let R be the radius meridians converge at the pole, while in the latter
of the reduced earth. they converge beyond the pole (c.f. Table 3A).

1st Case 2nd Case

1. Meridional scale is exaggerated polewards and is The meridional scale is minimised on both sides
minimised equatorwards of the standard parallel. of the standard parallel.

2. The scale along the parallel is m inim ised 2 . The scale along all the parallels excepting the
polewards and exaggerated equatorwards of the standard parallel is exaggerated.
standard parallel.
3. The scale along the m edians is inversely 3. The same.
proportional to the scale along the parallel to
preserve the equal area property.

ZEN ITH A L PR O JEC T IO N Zenithal or Azimuthal projections. The word

W hen the nets are obtained by projecting the Azimuthal carries the full connotation of the nets in
lines of latitudes and longitudes on a surface, which the sense that they show the correct bearings or
is tangent to the globe at a point, they are known as azimuths of all the points from the centre of the

♦Raisz: Erwin, General Cartography, (1948) p. 75.

jT
 270 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

m aps. This is an unique property possessed the jx)int A which lies at an angular distance of, say,
singularly by the projections of this group. Further 60® from the equator. Then P M will be radius of
they can be used for mapping any part of the world 60° N parallel on the projection because the point A
and for any purpose, one desires, because a plain is projected to A/ on the tangent plane. Similarly,
can be tangent to the globe at infinite points. It has the equator will be projected to ^ and F i? will
two broad divisions. become the radius for drawing the equator. Likewise,
1. Perspective zenithal projections. the radii for other parallels may be found. The paral­
2. Non-perspective zenithal projections. lels will all be drawn as concentric circles with their
projected radii. The meridians will be drawn as
PERSPECTIVE ZENITHAL PROJECTIONS. radial straight lines placed at true angular intervals.

Stereographic Polar Z enithal Projection Trigonometrical Construction

T his is one o f the p ersp ectiv e zenithal In Fig. 273, in the right-angled A LPM, the
projections. If you place the light at one pole and perpendicular
the screen as tangent plane at the other pole, a PM = L P \2in Z MLP
shadowed picture of the hemisphere will be obtained.
ZPOA
This system is known as the Stereographic Polar = 2 /? tan
Zenithal Projection. Like other zenithal projections,
meridians are straight lines and the parallels are because the angle at the centre is double the angle
concentric rapidly from the centre of the map ; so at the circumference when subtended by the same
the projection gives a very distorted view as contrary arc.
to the orthographic projection. The meridional .•. r, the radius of the 60° N parallel= 2R .
distances also increase towards the equator in the tan. 1/2 co-latitude = 2R tan. z/2, when z is co­
same proportion; hence correct shape of smaller areas latitude and R, radius of the reduced sphere. With
is maintained. The direction of all lines from the the above formula the radii of all the parallels may
centre is also true. Therefore the projection is both be calculated as tabled (4) and the meridians may be
orthomorphic and azimuthal. This is commonly used drawn at the given interval from p as radial straight
for the map of the w orld in hem ispheres by lines (vide Fig. 274).
cartographers.

Graphical Construction
In the diagram 7 G is the tangent plane touching
the sphere at P and light is thrown from the opposite
end L (vide Fig. 273). The ray L M passes through

li/w
L
Fig. 274
Fig. 273
 MAP PROJECTION
271

Table 4 showing radii of parallels for one Gnomonic P olar Z enithal P rojection
In this projection the source of light is supposed
hemisphere on the scale 1 : 125,000,000.
to be at the centre of the sphere and the tangent
T able 4
touches either of the poles. Like the stereographic,
it is also a perspective projection. It is impossible
m . to draw the map of one hemisphere on this system
27? Latitude co-lat Tan. 7J2 because the equator becomes infinite {Fig. 275).
The scale increases very rapidly towards the margins
of the map, and therefore the projection is suited
10 40 .84 3.36" only for small areas round the pole. There is one
20 35 .70 2.80" special merit in it due to which it is mostly used in
30 30 .5 8 ' 2.32" charts for navigation: all great circles appear as
40 25 .47 1.88" straight lines because their planes pass through the
50 20 .36 1.44" centre of the sphere, where lies the source of light
60 15 .27 1.08" for this perspective projection. That is, if you want
70 10 .18 0.72" to find the shortest distance between two points on
80 5 .09 0.36" the map you need only join them by a straight line.

Fig. 275

Graphical Construction: Now, with this formula the, projected radii of

In Fig . 275, P is the north pole at which the all the circle of latitude on the projection may be
plane T G,is tangent; V" is the source of light lying calculated as in Table 5.
at the centre of the sphere. The rays VA, VB, etc.,
pass through the latitudes of 60°, 40°, etc., and meet T a b le 5. Radii of parallels fo r southern
the tangent plane at A ', B, etc. Thus P A ', P B, etc., hemisphere extending from 20° S to 80° S on
are the projected radii of the corresponding jiarallels. 1 : 125, 000,000 scale.
Trigonometrically, the values of P A', P B, etc., r
7? 0 = Latitude Co-lat. Tan. co-lat.
may be easily calculated as follows :
2" 20 70 2.75 5.50"
In the right-angled A A’PV, = 30 60 1.73 3.46"
PV
ta n Z A Y P 40 50 1.19 2.38"
A ' P = Z PV \2m . co-latitude. 50 40 0.84 1.68"
r = 7? tan co-latitude, when r is the projected 60 30 0.58 1.16"
radius of the parallel and 7? denotes radius of the 70 20 0.36 0.12"
reduced sphere. 80 10 0.18 0.36"
272 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

f p B FA
With the help of the Table 5 the graticule for Mathematically, too, the value oi ^ ’ •
S. Australia and New Zealand may be prepared as etc., may be calculated. In the right-angl^
in Fig. 276. LM
= sine MOL = cos Z.Q LM
~6l
or, = OL sine Z MOL = 0 1 cos. Z OIM = R
sine co-latitude = R cos latitudes,
radius of the reduced sphere and Z OLM - O Q -
Latitude.
Since P B = L M
So P B = R sine, co-lai. or, R cos. latitude.
r = R sine, co-lat. or, R cos. latitude.
Fig. 276 Now, with this formula the radii of all the
parallels may be calculated as table 6 below.
O rthographic Polar Z enithal Projection
In this case light is thrown from a point at T a b le 6. Radii of all parallels for southern
infinity, on the tangent plane touching the sphere at hemisphere on 1 : 125,000,000.
the pole. The rays of light passing through the
latitude are parallel to each other (yide Fig. 277). R Latitude Co-lat. sin. co-lat r

2" 10 80 .98 1.96"

60" 20 70 .94 1.88"
30 60 .87 1.14"
40 50 .77 1.54"
50 40 .64 1.28"
60 30 .50 1.00"
70 20 .34 0.68"
80 10 .17 0.34"

i 60*e

I'OO*
Fig. 277

In Fig. I l l the rays from infinity pass through

the latitudes and the point L is projected to B, the
line L B being perpendicular to T G, the tangent
plane, at B. Thus P 5 is the radius of the parallel
L (30®). Similarly the radii of other parallels may
be found by dropping perpendiculars to the tangent
plane from the corresponding points of latitudes,
Fig. 278
through which the rays are supposed to pass.
 MAP PROJECTlflN 273

The graticule may be prepared in the same way proved that the area of every latitudinal zone on the
as in the other Polar Zenithal projections (vide Fig. map will be equal to the corresponding one on the
278). The projection is useful to astronomers who globe.
can see the position of heavenly bodies every time
on such orthographic maps showing these. Graphical Construction
Let the circle E N Q bo drawn with centre 0
NON-PERSPECTIVE ZENITHAL
and with radius equal to that of the reduced sphere
PROJECTIONS.
on a given scale. Join N 0 and produce it to S.
Polar Z enithal E qual Area Projection Draw 0 Lax a distance of 0, denoting latitude. Join
This graticule was designed by J. H. Lambert in L N, which is the required radius for the parallel 0.
1772. It has become popular in recent years. Like Similarly N L etc., are the radii of other parallels
other Zenithal Projections, in this system, too, the drawn at some given interval. N E will be the radius
meridians are straight lines, drawn at their true of the equator (Fig. 280).
angular distances radiating from the pole and the
parallels are concentric circles. The circles of latitude
become closer away from the pole. Their spacing is
so adjusted as to make it an equal area projection.
This is most commonly used for polar areas in
atlases: but on this projection' the world may be
represented in hemispheres with the pole as centre.
From the diagram (Fig. 279) it is evident that
E P, the jradius of the circle EQA, which represents
the projected equator on the map of one hemisphere,
is equ£d to ^2 times the radius of reduced sphere E
P Q. The area of one hemisphere = 2 k R} and the
area of a circle is Kr^ . Thus the area of the circle
E Q A = K {^ IR y = 2 71 /?^ which represents the
surface of one hemishpere. Similarly, it may be

S
Fig. 280

The value of L N may be calculated. Join L S.

In the right-angled A N L S ',
L N = N S', sin. Z N S L
= 2 R sin. 1/2 co-latitude, because in
the angle L S N = l l 2 Z L 0 N \bo co-latitude (Z)
and N S = 2 R.

r = 2 R sin. - .
2

With the help of the above formula, the values

of the radii in inches of the parallels at 10° interval
P* on 1 : 50,000,000, scale has been given in the
Fig. 279 Table 7.
274 ELHMF.NTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

A /tiik e 0
T able 7 with the radius of the reduced sphere, n 7? is
show the given interval, say, 10° (Fig-
2 R 7/2 Z Sin 7/2 Z the true distance at which the ^r
spaced. Thus from the centre P, the circles o
10 40 .643 6.43' may be described, making the distance.s c w
10 "
20 35 .574 5.74' parallels equal to Q R. Meridians wil ^ r
30 .500 5.05' protractor from P at the given interval as m e case
30
40 25 .423 4.23' of other Polar Zenithal projections, ce ig.
50 20 .342 3.42' and 283.
60 15 .259 2.59'
70 10 .174 1.74'
80 5 .084 0.84'

An outline map of Asia may be prcparcd on

this projection (vide Fig. 281). The equatorial case
of this’projection is generally used for hemisphericals
maps but its construction is beyond the scope of our
present study.

Fig. 282
Fig. 281
ItO*
P olar Z enithal E q u id istan t Projection
It has derived its name from the fact that the
parallels are equidistant on the graticule. Unlike
other Polar Zenithal projections, this is an arbitrary
projection, and not a perspective projection because
the parallels cannot be projected equidistant in any lOO*
case of view-point (V). In this case the parallels are
placed at their true distances; as such, their inter­
val can be easily calculated by the formula,

D= ^ ^ where D is the distance, R is the

radius of the reduced sphere and d is the given
interval in degrees.

Graphical Construction Fig. 283

Draw the circle E P Q, from the centre O and
 /

MAP PROJIICTION 275

As it is very easy to construct this projection, it

is very commonly used for the map of polar area.
The scale along the parallels increases greatly away
from the map so the projection may be fairly good
only for small areas around the pole not exceeding
30° in latitudinal extent. On a map drawn on this
system, the distance and bearing of any point from
the pole are correct.

Stereographic Normal Zenithal Projection

In this projection the tangent plane touches the
globe at any point along the equator and the source
of light is at a diametrically opposite point. Like all
other normal zenithal projections, in stereographic
zenithal projection, the central meridian and the
E
equator both are straight lines cutting each other at ^ 2R - -
right angles. The globe is represented in hemispheres
on this projection. But in a'l the stereographic
projections all angles on the sphere are reproduced
equally in the projection and all the circular arcs are
projected as circular arcs except the equator and the
central meridian. The projection is, therefore,
orthomorphic.
Fig. 284
Construction
The polar axis and the equatorial axis can be In Fig. 285, C is the centre of longitudinal
represented by two straight lines intersecting each aic N D S and C S is its radius and 5 T is tangent
other all right angles but the problem is to find out to the longitude of (j) at S. The angle T S 0 =
the radii of the circles of latitude and longitude and Z O C S = (^.
the distances of their centres along the respective
axes from the point of intersection of the two axes.
From Fig. 284 in which the circle is drawn with a
radius (2R) equal to double the radius of globe, it is
obvious that the radii of the circles representing
parallels of latitude are 2R cot. 0 and their centres
are at a distance of 2R cosec. 0 from O. C B is
tangent to the parallel and C is centre from which
the arc A B will be drawn. E
Now, in the right-angled triangle C B 0 ,
CR
= cot 0 or C B = 0 cot 0 = 2 /? cot 0
BO
Similarly,
oc = cosec 0 ; Or OC = 0 B
cosec. (})
=2 R cosec. (|).
Fig. 285
276 ELEMliNTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Now, in ihc right-angled A C 0 S, at A and B. The arc A is required parallel of 0.

OC Similarly changing 0 to 20, 30 , 40, and so on, the
= cot. 0 ; or OC = OS cot. 0 = 2 /? cot. 0 subsequent parallels, all being at intervals of 0 degree,
OS
cs can easily be drawn. The method of construction
Again, — = cosec. 0; or C S = 0 S will remain the same. In a similar way the parallels
OS
on the other side of the equator may also be
cosec. 0 = 2/? cosec. 0 .
completed as the parallels on either side o f the
Thus the centre of longitudinal circles will be at
equator are symmetrically arranged.
a distance of 2R cot 0 from the point 0 and the
Construction o f meridians
length of their radii will be 2R cosec 0 .
From S draw a line ST making the angle NST
equal to 0 degree. Then draw S C perpendicular to
Graphical Conslruction
IS meeting the equator EQ (produced if necessary)
If /? be the radius of the globe according to the
at C.
given scale, then draw a circle NESEQ with radius
With centre C and radius CS draw the arc SDN.
2R to represent one hemishpere {Fig. 285). Let
Now this arc S D is the required meridian lying
N S and E Q, intersecting each other at right angles,
at an angular distance of 0 degree from the central
represent the central meridian and the equator
meridian. Similarly, changing 0 to 20, 30,40,.... and
respectively.
so on, the subsequent meridians, all lying at intervals
Suppose the parallels and meridians are to be
of 0 degree, can be drawn. The method of
drawn at intervals of 0 degrees.
construction will remain the same. In a similar
way the meridians lying on the other side of the
Construction of Parallels
cenU'al meridian can also be completed.
Draw the radius OA making the angle EQA equal
to 0 . Then draw A C perpendicular io O A meeting E xample
the central meridian S N, extended at C. Prepare a graticule for the Indian Ocean on the
With centre C and radius C A draw an arc of a scale of 1 : 25,000,000, at an interval of 15° (cf.
circle meeting the circumference of the circle NESQ Table 8), and 2R = 4".

T a BU: 8

0 cot 0 2/? cot 0 cosec 0 2R cosec 0

15 3.732 14.928" 3.864 15.456"
30 1.732 6.928" 2.000 8 .000"
45 1.000 4.000" 1.414 5.656"
60 0.577 2.308" 1.155 4.620"
75 0.268 x .Q ir 1.035 4.140"
90 0.000 0 .000" 1.000 4.000"

Let £ (2 and N S be the two axis of the central radius 2/?=4" from 0 , and the points where it will
meridian and the equator intersecting at 0 . From g intersect N S will be representing the poles. Then
mark off the centre of parallels and meridians along with the centres thus marked and the radii equal to
N S and E Q respectively at the respective distances 2R cot 0 the parallels will be drawn, and the
taken from the table. The cenu-es of parallels 15°, meridians will be drawn with the radii equal to 2/?
30°, 45°, 60° and 75° will be/, g, h, k, I respectively cosec 0 . The value of 2/? cot 4> and 2/? cosec 0 for
and those for the meridians of 15°, 30°, 45°, 60° the required latitudes and longitudes is entered in
and 75° will be a, b, c, d, e, respectively. The the table. In this way the required graticule will be
bounding meridians will be drawn as a circle with obtained {See Fig. 286).
 MAP PROJECTION 211

3 0' 0® 90'

Fig. 286
278 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

N a tu ra l C ylindrical Projection away from the equator; this leads to great disto
This is a perspective cylindrical projection. in shape and exaggeration of area in high
W hen a cylinder is wrapped round the globe so as Therefore the projection is neither orthomorp ic nor
to touch it along the equator, and light is placed at equal area.
its centre, the true cylindrical projection is obtained.
The exaggeration o f the parallel scale as well as Construction
meridional scale would be very greaUy increasing Prepare a graticule for the world map on t e
away &om the equator. On this projection the scale scale of 1 ; 250,000,000, at 10° interval.
would be true only along the equator. The poles On the given scale = 1" and the length of the
cannot be shown because their distances from the
equator become infinite. This projection serves no 2 X 22 X 1 _ fLri"
equator = ------------- o. j .
useful purpose as some non-perspective and modified
The true distance at which the parallels
projections do. For instance, the simple cylindrical,
and meridians will be spaced is equal to
cylindrical equal area, M ercator’s and G all’s
Ptojection, etc., are generally used for various maps _ 6.3 X 10 _ Yj» This may also be found out
of the tropical regicms or the world as a whole. 360
graphically. Draw a circle from the centre 0 with
Simple C ylindrical Projection r radius ( vide F/g. 287). M ake the angle F 0 F
The Simple Cylindrical Projection is also known
= 10°. Now F F is the true distance at 10° interval
as the E q uiditant Cylindrical Projection because in
between the parallels and the meridians. Let the
this projection both the parallels and meridians are
equator be represented by F Q. From its middle
equidistant They are drawn as straight lines, cutting
point O draw the central meridian N SdX right angles
one another at right angles. As the distance between
to i t Make N S equal to half o f £ Q. Divide F Q
the parallels and meridians is the same, the whole
network represents a series o f equal squares. All and 7^ 5 into 36 and 18 equal divisions respectively.
the parallels are equal to the equator (2jiR) and all Each division will be equal to .17" or, F F. From
the meridians are half of the equater in length. The the points of division marked along them, draw lines
scale along the equator is true. The meridian scale, parallel to the central m eridian and the equator
i.e., the north-south scale is also correct everywhere respectively so as to obtain other meridians and
on the map because the parallels are drawn at their parallels. In this way the graticule may be completed
true distances. But the latitudinal scale increases as in Fig. 287.

F ig . 287
 m a p p r o j e c t io n 279

Fig. 287 (A)

C ylindrical E qual A rea Projection extension in area is m ade good by north-south

The Cylindrical Equal Area Projection, one of com pression. Therefore the area is represented
the Lambert’s, has been derived by projecting the accurately on this projection but the shape is
surface of the globe with parallel rays on a cylinder, distorted. The projection almost retains the quality
touching it at the equator {Fig. 256). The circles of of orthomorphism only near the equator where the
latitude and longitude both are projected as straight amount of distortion is the least.
lines intersecting one another at right angles. The The projection is sometimes used for world maps
area between two parallels is made equal to the to show distribution of commodities, etc. But it is
corresponding surface on the sphere at the cost of suitable for the maps of the equatorial region in which
great distortion in shape towards higher latitudes; both the shape and area are more or less, correctly
this is why it is an equal area projection. represented.
In Fig. 256, the zone Q E A 'B " of\h& cylinder
represents the projection of the zone A 5 Q E on the Graphical Construction
sphere. The area of the zone A E Q B on the, Draw a circle from the centre 0 with the radius
sphere= the area of the zone A ’ E Q B' o i the of the reduced sphere as in Fig. 287A. Produce
cylinder=27t Rh, when h is the vertical interval 0 E to Q, making £ Q equal to the true length of the
between £ Q and A B , the limiting parallels. The equator (27iR). Draw the central meridian N S equal
value of h may bemathematically calculated. Let h to P P' from the middle of £ Q, at right angles to
be represented by 0 M and 0 A be the radius of the it. Draw 0 A , 0 B , 0 B' etc., at the given interval.
reduced sphere N E S with is touched by a hollow From the point A, £ , £ ' etc., draw lines parallel to
cylinder along the equator E Q. A £ is the paiallel £ Q. The other meridians will be drawn at equal
drawn at 0° distance. intervals and parallel to the central meridian. Thus
7 G L A/ is the required graticule {vide Fig. 288).
OM
Then = — = sin. 0 because
OA R E xample
Z E O A = ZOAM. Prepare a graticule for Africa on 1 : 50,000,000
or, h = R sin. 0, when 0 represents the latitude. scale at 10° interval. Let Africa be bounded by
With the help of the above formula the intervals 40° N and 40° S lat. and 20° W and 60° £ long.
between the equator and all other parallels may be
easily calculated. As seen in Fig. 256, the equator Trigonometrical Construction
is truly projected when the cylinder is cut open along According to the given scale the radius of the
the line N S and all other parallels including the pole reduced sphere, i.e..
have the same length. The meridians will be 2R in 250,000,000 _
length and will be equally spaced. Thus east-west ^ " 50,000,000
 "T

280 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

60"
- L I 1 , 1

iaO*W ISO* 120* 90* 60* 30' 30" 60* 90* 120* ISO* I80*E

Fig. 288

Now with the formula h = R sin. 0, the intervals

between the equator and the parallels may be

/ w\
Jt
calculated as in the table 9.

T a bl e 9
s z y
0

10
sin. 0

.17
R

0.85"
h \

I y )-------------

20 .34 1.70" r

30 .50 2.50" )
40 .6 4 3.20"

The distance between two meridians

2nRy.d_ 2 x 2 2 x 5 x 1 0 _ ^
360 360x7 ’
Draw EQ and NS from the point O intersecting Fig. 289
each other at right angels. Mark off the points along of its singular use in navigation. It was first designed
NS at 0.85", 1.70", 2.50" and 3.20" distance from by Flemish, a cartographer in 1569 and later modified
0 . From these points draw the lines parallel and by Edward Wright of the Cambridge University.
equal to EQ. Starting from 0 , also mark off the Like other cylindrical projections the meridians and
point along EQ at a distance of 0.87". From these parallels intersect each other at right angles but the
points draw the lines parallel to the central meridian distances between the parallels of latitude gradually
NS. Thus the graticule may be completed {vide Fig and proportionately increase towards the poles
289). whereas in the cylindrical equal area, they decrease
For graphical construction the same procedure proportionately so as to preserve the area truly.
may be followed as in Fig. 288. Meridians are equidistant straightlines. The scale is
considerably increased towards the poles as all the
M ercato r’s Projection parallels are of the same length, but it is the same in
The Mercator’s Projection belongs to the all directions at any point of intersection of the
cylindrical group of projection. The projection is parallels and meridians because the distances between
often called the cylindrical orthomorphic. This is the parallels are so arranged. As the interval between
rather one of the most popular projections for the the parallels increase considerably without distorting
world maps in atlases. Its popularity is great because the shape, this is why the projection is orthomorphic.
 MAP PROJECTION 281

On account of proportionately equal exaggeration of The exaggeration in area is so much so that

parallel and meridian scales at one point not only G reen lan d on this
the shape of small areas in any part of the map is projection appears to be
true, but the directions also become correct g re a ter than South
everywhere. In Fig. 290 ABCD is a mesh on the A m erica, th o u g h in
globe and ABC'D" is the mesh on projection. It actuality the latter is nine
may be noted that the direction of C remains the times bigger. W hile on the
same w hen p ro je c te d to C" b ecau se CC' is parallel o f 60° the area is
proportional to C C". For this small area the shape increased four tim es, on
is magnified, not distorted. But if you take a large 75°, fifteen times and on
area then the shape also may be distorted because 80°, 33 times. The pole is
the parallel scale changes in different latitudes. infinite so that it is futile
to show higher latitudes on
D" this projection, and thus the [301
70*
p ro je c tio n is draw n
generally upto 80° only.
{Fig. 291a, b). 80*
6fi!
T he v alu e o f this 70*
projection for sailors is 60*
increased by the fact that 90*
compass direction may be
4<r
show n by straight lines.
Any straight line drawn on 30»
the projection makes equal 2p«
ao*
angles with all the parallels iOl 10*
and represents a line o f
con stan t bearing on the £ 0
globe and thus form s a
Fig. 291 a.
"Loxodrome ” or “rhumb
line”. This is due to the
fact that all the meridians and parallels intersect at
/ right angles and that both the vertical and horizontal
/ scale are balanced. In any other cylindrical projection
/ too, any straight line may make equal angles with
/ parallels and meridians, but it is not a^'rhumb line'
because the parallel and meridian scales are not
D adjusted. It is, indeed, the adjustment of longitudinal
C'
and latitudinal scales that gives the M ercator’s
/
Projection this distinction of showing constant
/ bearings. A sailor has simply to plot the bearings
/ / / on his chart so as to find the route. The bearing from
/ / / one point to another can be found out by only
/ drawing a line between them and reading off the
\ / / angle which is made by this line with the meridians.
For mathematical determination of sailing and flying
/V courses on the M ercator’s Projection Steer’s Study
A' A Fig. 290 B 8' o f Map Projection, (pp. 165-175) may be consulted.
282 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Here a comparison between the M ercator’s and calculated with the help on the following form ula
Gnomonic Projections may be drawn. In the former, and tabulated.
straight lines correspond with those o f constant Y = 2.3026./? log. tan. (45 + 0/2), w hen Y
bearing; on the latter, bearings are not constant but denotes the distance between any parallel and the
they denote shortest distance between two points equator, 0 denotes latitudes and R, the radius o f the
and it is due to this fact that Gnomonic charts are reduced sphere.
tributary to M ercator’s charts in navigation along
great circle routes. But as the amount o f distortion E xample
in creases eq u ally and rap id ly outw ard s in all Draw a graticule for the w orld m ap on 1 :
directions from the centre of the map, it is useful 250,000,000 scale at 10° interval.
only for a small area, while the M ercator’s has won 250,000,000 _ y ,
the popularity o f nearly the w hole world. On On the given scale R =
250,000,000
M ercator’s projection the direction may be marked
in the same way all over the map, a quality which
2 X 22 X 1
makes it suitable for meteorological charts also. Thus The length o f the equator = IttR =
7
the Projection is appropriate for the world map
showing drainage pattern, routes, ocean currents, = 6 .3 "
wind system and direction, etc. 6.3
The interval between the meridians =

Construction = 0.175" ;
The construction o f this projection becomes very and 2.3026 R = 2.3026"
simple with the help o f the table, but the derivation y, the distance between the parallels and the
of the formula is much difficult. If we, however, equator is given in Table 10.
find out how much a parallel is increased in length,
it would be possible to calculate the interval between T a b le 10
the parallels and the equator, as we have already
noticed that the vertical scale is increased in the log tan.
sam e p ro p o rtio n in w hich the lon g itu d in al or 0 45 + 012 (45 + 012) y
horizontal scale is increased.
CD 10 • 50 .07619 .175"
In the diagram 290, ------ = cos. (^.
AB 20 55 .15477 .356"
It is obvious that a degree o f true distance 30 60 .23856 .549"
between two meridians along latitude 0 is equal to
40 65 .33133 .763"
a degree of distance between the same along the
50 70 .43893 1.011"
equator multiplied by cos. 0 or divided by sec. 0.
In other words, the length of the lines o f latitude on 60 75 .57195 1.317"
M ercator’s increase sec. 0 times its Hue length. Thus 70 80 .75368 1.735"
the distance between the parallels and the equator 80 85 1.05805 2.436"
i.e., the vertical scale is also increased sec. 0 times
the true scale at every point along the meridional
Draw the equator, E Q = 6.3". From the middle
line away from the equator. Now, as this increase
point 0 on it, erect perpendicularly the central
will be continuous for every minute and degree away meridian N S. Mark off the Y distance from O
from the equator, the total increase in the distance along 0 N and O S. From these points draw lines
between any parallel and the equator would be the parallel to E Q. Divide E Q dX equal distances o f
sum o f an infinite series. The distance between .175". From these points o f division draw the
any parallel and the equator may, how ever, be m eridians parallel and equal to N S. Thus the
X

283
m a p p r o je c t io n

80®N

70®

60 ®

50®
40®
30®
20®
iO®
0®
10®
20 ®
30®
40®
50®

60®

70®

80“
I80®W 150 * 120® 90® 60° 30° 0° 30° 60° 90° 1 20° 150 180 E

F ig . 2 9 1 b. M e r c a to r s ’ P r o je c tio n .

construction of the graticule may be completed [See T a b l e 11

Fig. 291 b].

Y 0 Y
0
To av o id trig o n o m e tric a l c a lc u la tio n s the
graticule on this projection can be prepared with the .08743 X R 50° 1.01069 X R
5®
help of the table 11 in which 0 denotes the latitudes; .17547 X R 55° 1.15424 X R
10°
Y, the distance of the parallels from the equator, and .16A15 X R 60° 1.31695 X R
15°
R, radius o f the reduced sphere. .35628 X R 65° 1.50424 X R
20°
For the construction of charts and maps on a 25° .45095 X R 70° 1.73542 X R
large scale, m ore detailed tables showing T-distances 30° .54929 X R 75° 2.02760 X R
for every minute and degree of parallel, may b e ‘ 35° .65282 X R 80° 2.43624 X R
found in Elements of Map Projection by Deetz and 40° .76291 X R 85° 3.13130 X R
.88136 X R 90° oo
Adams. 45°
 "T

284 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Sinusoidal or Sanson-Flam steed Projection The system is, however, best suited for the
This projection has been devised by Sanson, a equatorial countries with small east-west and north-
French cartographer, and Flamsteed, the British south extent. Thus in atlases, a map o f South
Royal Astronomer; hence named after them. It is A m erica or A frica is generally drawn on this
also called Sinusoidal as the Longitudes present Sine projection.
curves. It may be regarded as a modification of the
cylindrical equidistant projection. The main defect E xample
of the latter is that the parallel scale is exaggerated Prepare graticule for South America on 1 :
in it due to the fact that all the parallels are equal to 50,000,000 scale, at an interval of 10°.
the equator in length. While in this projection this
^ ^ 250,000,000 ^
defect is eliminated making each parallel true to scale
and by dividing it correctly. The Projection may be 50,000,000
also treated as a special case on Bonne’s when the Length of Equator = 2 k R = ^
standard parallel is the equator, and hence all parallels
are equidistant straight lines and are drawn true to = 31.4".
scale like the equator. The central meridian is a The length of the central meridian =
straight line and on a graticule for world map it is 2
only half the length of the equator ; other meridians = 15.7".
are regular curves drawn by joining the points marked
The true distance at 10° interval = _ _ ^
off along the parallels at true spacing. Thus it is 360
also an equal area projection. The globe may be = .87".
represented on this system but the shape is greatly Mark off these points along the equator as well
distorted towards the four corners of the map, as along the central meridian at a distance of .87".
because the curvature of the meridians is increased From the point thus marked along the central
rapidly away from the central meridian (vide Fig meridian, draw the lines of latitude parallel to the
292). equator. Divide the parallels equally at 10° interval

Fig. 292
 285
m a p pr o jec tio n

when their true length is 2 tzR cos. 0 just as in the 30»E

9 0 “W
Bonne’s and with the help of the table 12 complete
the construction likewise.
,10'N
T a b le 12

R 0 cos. 0 y X -{Y cos 0)

5" 10 .98 .87" .85"

20 .94 .82"
>9
30 .87 .76"
99
>9 40 .77 .67"
99
50 .64 .56"
99
60 .50 .44"
99
70 .34 .30"
99
80 .17 .15"

In the table 12 T denotes the distance between

the parallels and X, the given interval between the
meridians along the respective parallels. The table
gives data to construct the graticule for the world
map. For the map of South America only a few
lines of latitude and longitude will be drawn {see
Fig. 293).
For graphical construction follow the same
procedure as in the Bonne’s, except that the parallels
will be drawn as straight lines.
Fig. 293

Mollweide’s P rojection
This projection has been named after Karl B. considerable but less than that in the Sinusoidal
Mollweide, a German cartographer who invented it Projection. It is on this ground that the former is
in 1805. This is an equal area or homolographic more suitable for the world map than the latter. The
projection and may be easily recognised by its scale is either exaggerated or reduced along the
elliptical boundary. The parallels of latitude are parallels and the meridians. The parallels of latitude
horizontal straight lines drawn at varying distances are a little smaller near the equator and those near
from the equator. The interval between the parallels the poles are larger than the corresponding parallels
decreases polewards. All the meridians, except the on the globe.
The construction of this projection is not very
central and the 90th one, from ellipses and are equally
easy. The chief problem in the construction of this
spaced along the parallels ; so it is also called
Elliptical Projection. Like the Sinusoidal, the central projection is how to obtain the correct distances
meridian is a straight line and half the length of the between the equator and the parallels along the
equator. The 90th meridian forms a circle equivalent central meridian. The first step is to construct a
to one hemisphere. This is a very popular projection circle representing the 90th meridian on the given
and is often used in atlases for the distribution maps scale, which will be equal in area to one hemisphere.
of the world, as it is an equal area projection. The The area of an ellipse is tc/4 times the product of the
distortion in shape towards the margins of map is two axes and it is to be made equal to the area of the
286 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

sphere = 4 tc Now the radius of a circle, equal T a b le 13

in area to hemisphere, may be found out by equating
the area of a circle, nr^ to 2 n the area of a 0 e Sin. 0 <2 Sin.
hemisphere. Thus nr^ = 2 n R} \ i.e., = 2 R'^ or,
r = R y}~2 = R 1.4142. Then describe the circle with 10 T52' .13687 .1935
the radius (r ) equal to ^2 R, R being the radius of 20 1 5 °5 r .27200 .3846
the reduced sphere (vide fig. 294). Produce O A to 30 23°50' .40408 .5714
E and O B to Q, making A E = 0 A and B Q = O 40 32°04' .53090 .7507
B. Complete the ellipse ENQS, which is equal in 50 40°38' .65121 .9208
area to the sphere to be projected. Now EQ is the 60 49°41' .76248 1.0781
70 59°32' .86193 1.2181
equator, NS the central meridian and the circle ANS,
80 70°59' .94544 1.3369
90th meridian. Other parallels shall be spaced along
90 90° 1.0000 1.441
N 5 in such a way that the area of each zone may
correspond to that of the globe. The calculation of
The corresponding values of 0 and 0 shown in
these distances is the most difficult task in this
the above table may be plotted on a graph paper
projection. Let O M be the vertical distance between
(see Fig. 295); and from this the value of 0
the equator and the parallel C D which intersects the
corresponding to any value of 0 may be known.
circle in L and /?. Let the < AOL in the circle be 0
representing the latitude on the globe. The value of 90
0 M = r sin 0. But the value of 0 corresponding to
0 which denotes the latitude on the sphere, will be 80
calculated first because both will not be equal.
70
According to the formula, n sin. 0 = 20 + sin. 20,
the value of 0 corresponding to every value of 0 is 60
calculated by trial and error method.
50

N
40

30

E 20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Rg. 294 Fig. 295

Table 13 showing the value of 0 for values of From table 13 it is obvious that 10° lat., on the
0 at 10° interval and the factor for calculating sphere is represented by about 8° on the circle. So
distances of the parallels from the equator : in order to represent 10° latitude o f the globe.

♦ F o r th e d e riv a tio n o f th e fo rm u la T/>e study o f M ap Projection b y J.A . S te ers. 1933 E d ., p. 150 m a y be c o n su lte d .
 287
MAP PROJECTION

It is, therefore, obvious that all meridians form

Z AOL will be made equal to 8° on the circle ANB
ellipses [see Fig. 296 (a)]. To avoid trigonometrical
and from point L the parallel of 10° may be drawn
by making D C parallel to EQ. Similarly 20°, 30°, calculations, a beginner may follow the following
40°, etc., may be drawn at angular distances of table* in which X denotes the distance between the
approximately 16°, 24°, 32°, etc. respectively. parallels and the equator, 0 be latitude, 0 = the angle
Moreover, the distances between the equator and in the central circle of the ellipse corresponding to
the parallels may be calculated mathematically with 0 and R = radius of the reduced sphere (Table 15).
the help of the following formula, as stated in the In Mollweides projection let 0 be any latitude
foregoing: and 0 the angle in the central circle of the ellipse
d = r sin. 0 = R ^ l sin. 0 = 1.414 R sin. 0, when corresponding to 0.
d denotes the distances between the parallels and
the equator. T able 15. Distances o f the parallels from the
equator
Example
Prepare g raticule for the w orld m ap on / II
1 : 250,000,000 scale at 20° interval. According to 6 0 Distance from equator
the given scale R = 1".
.-. r of the circle representing 90th meridian = 5° 3°56' .09701 X R
R^l = 1 X 1.414^^ = 1.414^ And, the length of the 10° 7°52' .19356 X R
equator = 4r = R'^'l x 4 = 1.414 x 4 = 5.656". 15° 11°49' .28961 X R
Describe a circle with 1.414" radius and complete 20° 15°4T .38466 X R
the ellipse with the equator E Q and central meridian 25° 1 9 °4 r .47866 X R
N S as in Fig. 296. Mark off the points along N S 30° 23°50' .57145 X R
at the distances (d) between the equator and the 35° 27°55' .66211 x R
respective parallels as shown in the table 13. From 40° 32°04' .75080 X R
these points draw lines parallel to the equator to 45° 36°18' .83722 X R
meet the outer ellipse. Divide each parallel including 50° 40°38' .92094 X R
the equator into 18 equal divisions with the help of 55° 45°05' 1.00144 X R
the table 14 in which x denotes the interval between 60° 49°41' 1.07830 X R
meridians 10° apart, and complete the meridians by 65° 54°28' 1.15085 X R
joining the respective points marked at 20° interval. 70 59°32' 1.21894 X R
75° 64°58' 1.28136 X R
T a b le 14 80° 70°59' 1.33704 X R
85° 78°03' 1.38354 X R
4r e 0 cos. 0 X = (4r cos. d/36)
90° 90° 0' 1.4142 X R
5.656" 10 T5T ,991 .156"
” 20 l-5°47' .962 .150" The parallels can be drawn with the help of
» 30 23°50' .915 .146" either column two or three. Say, the 0 of 40° is to
» 40 32°04' .847 .131" be drawn. Draw a line to an angle of 32°04', which
” 50 40°38' .759 .117" meets the central circle at L; from L draw a line
» 60 49°41' .647 .102" parallel to the equator, which will be the required
» 70 59°32' .507 0.077" parallel. Similarly the parallel can be drawn at a
” 80 70°50' .326 0.051" distance of R x .7508 from the centre along the
90 90° 0' .000 0" central meridian.

♦ T h e ta b le h a s b e e n rep ro d u c e d fro m Elements o f M ap Projection b y S te e rs, J.A ., p. 152.

 288 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Fig. 296 a.

Graphical Construction are drawn on the basis of doubling the equatorial

At first firom the calculated radius a circle, NESQ distance, representing latitudes. Afterward at the
(Fig. 296 b) and two axises of NE and EQ to be given interval of 20° in total 18 longitudes to be
drawn. The radius of NE = R^2 taken to draw the drawn with the help of respective curves. Thus,
longitudes both the sides representing 90° longitudes finally the graticule will be ready.
on which equatorial and polar axises to be fixed.
From the equatorial axises the axis to be extended Gall’s Projection
both the sides equally. Further, with the help of This is a stereographic cylindrical projection
table 15 the longitudinal distances on a particular quite akin to Mercator’s but it differs from the latter
latitude to be calculated and parallel to equator have in that it is not orthomorphic. In Gall’s, the distance
to be drawn. Similar to that of equator outer circles between the parallels is reduced to avoid too much
exaggeration of area towards the poles; while in
N
M ercator’s the distance between the parallels
increases proportionately so that shape may be truly
preserved. Gall’s projection is also not equal in
area, but as the distortion in higher latitudes is not
much, it is used for general world maps in preference
to other cylindrical projections.
E This projection is made on a cylinder which is
supposed to pass through the globe halfway between
the equator and the poles; that is, the cylinder cuts
through the sphere along the 45° N and 45° S
parallels, parallel to the polar axis. The parallels are
then, projected stereographically (vide Fig, 291).
The meridians, as in all cylindrical projections, are
Fig. 296 b. equidistant vertical straight lines. The 45° N and
 MAP PROJECTION 289

90“N

60“

30“

0“E'

30“

60“

L L I 90“S
I80*W IS50“ 120“ 90“ 60“ 30“ 0“ 30“ 60“ 90“ 120“ 150“ I80“e'

Fig. 297

45° S parallels are true to scale and all other parallels easily found out. Measure 0 B which is the radius
are equal to it in length. Thus from these two of the latitudinal circle of 45° and multiply it by
parallels meridian and parallel scales decrease 2 7C to get its length. It may also be calculated as
towards the equator and increase towards the poles. follows:
In the right-angled triangle OBC, 0 C = R and
E xam ple Z B O C = 45°. Thus B 0 = R cos. 45°. Therefore
To construct a graticule for the world map on the length of the circumference of the circle drawn
1 : 250,000,000 scale at 15° interval. with the radius 0 B will be equal to 2n r, i. e. ,
2 k R c o s . 45° when r denotes 0 B and R , the radius

Construction of the reduced sphere. Now, the distance between

Let N E S be. a circle with one inch radius, the parallels and the equator may also be calculated.
according to the given scale. Draw E Q and N S to The formula 2R tan Z/2 has been used for this
represent the equatorial and polar diameters purpose in the stereographic polar zenithal projection
respectively. Mark the angles 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, {vide page 270). In this case it will be a little
75° along N Q and Q S arcs. Let the cylinder pass
vertically through 45° N and 45° S, cutting E Q at different. In the right-angled tringle CBE, — =
EB
A and B . Let the rays of light pass from E through tan. Z CEB = tan 1/2 0 when 0 is the latitude.
the various latitudes. Thus N is projected to N ' and Therefore B C = E B tan. 0f2 = {E 0 + 0 B)
5 to S' and the latitudes 75°, 60°, 45°, etc., to a, b,
tan 0/2 = (/? + /? cos. 45°) tan. 0f2 = {R + 0.7071
c, etc., along TV'S'which is equal to the length of
R ) tan 0/2. Thus, {R + R cos. 45°) =1.7071,7? = 1.
a meridian. From the points a, b, c, etc., straight
With this formula the value of B e, B b, Ba, etc., may
lines parallel to E Q may be drawn to represent the
be found out as shown in the table 16 {see Fig.
parallels which will be equal in length to that of 45°
298).
parallel. The length of the parallel of 45° may be
290 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

projection is slightly less than that of the

L'5 corresponding zone on the globe; while the area on
the outer margins is increased to compensate the
loss in area at the centre. It may, therefore, not be
treated as an equal area projection though the area
J-*3 of the circle forming the bounding meridian is made
equal to one hemisphere. Its construction is simple
and does not involve too much of mathematical

F ig. 298

T able 16

0 tan 0 Y = (distance
0 2 2 between parallels
and the equator)

15 7°30' .132 .23"

30 15°0' .268 .46"
45 22°30' .414 .71"
60 30-^ 0' .577 .99"
75 37°30' .767 1.31"
90 45° 1.000 1.71"

The Globular Projection

This is one of the oldest projections and perhaps
was first designed by Father G. Fournier, S. J., in
1645. Later in 1660, it was simplified by Nicolsi,
J. B. and reintroduced by Arrowsmith, A., in 1793
as Globular projection. In the Fournier’s construction,
meridians were drawn as ellipses, passing through
the poles and equi-spaced points along the equator,
other things being the same as in the present form.
The projection has no special merits except that it
has been frequently used in atlases and for large- S
scale maps of the world in hemispheres. Strictly
Fig. 299
speaking, the area of the central part on the
 MAP PROJECTipN 291

calculations. The parallels of latitude and meridians be equal to V2/? when P is the reduced sphere. If
of longitude both are arcs of circles; but the equator the scale of the map be 1 : 125,000,000, then r =
and the central meridians are drawn at equal distances 1.414 X 2 = 2.83 inches. Draw the circle EPQ with
along the equator. One degree of longitude along
a radius of 2.83." Let EQ and f* S be the equator
the equator and one degree of latitude along the
cenU'al meridian are the same. and central meridian respectively. Divide them into
12 equal divisions to show the interval of 15°. Mark
Construction the points on the circumference from the centre 0 at
In Fig. 299 the points, A B and C are marked 15°, 30°, 45°, 60°, 75°. The meridians will be drawn
to draw the parallel of 15°. Join A C and 5 C. Let as arcs of circles passing through the three
the perpendicular bisectors of A C and B C meet the corresponding points, two marked on the
axis 0 P produced at p . Now p' will be the centre circumference and one on the central meridian. It
of the required parallel. Similarly, the centres of may be noted that the lines E Q and P S, (produced
other pardlels and meridians along S P and E Q if necessary), will form the loci for the centers with
respectively may be found. which the arcs of circles, representing meridians and
As the area of the circle is made equal to that parallels respectively are to be drawn (see Fig. 300).
of one hemisphere, the radius (r) of the circle will The centres may be graphically located as stated.

Fig. 300
292 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

International M ap Projection meridians, slightly too long. The parallels are true
This is a m odified polyconic projection. distances apart only along the two true meridians.
Follow ing the decision of International Map Each sheet is constructed independent of the
Com m ittee held in 1909, the projection was other adjacent sheets, with its own central and
introduced for the topographical maps of the whole bounding meridians and parallels. It extends over
world on a scale of 1 : 1,000,000 in preference to 4° of latitude and 6° of longitude between 60° N
polyconic for the following reasons; and S of the equator; while between 60° and 88° N
( 1) In the polyconic, sheets east and west and
of S it covers 4° of latitude and 12° of longitude.
each other do not fit together properly because the The polar maps are circular 4° in diameter. It may
marginal m eridians are curved; while in the be noted here that every sheet, for all practical
International Projection they have been made to fit purposes, preserves sufficiently both the quality of
on all sides {see Fig. 301). In the former, as we orthomorphism and equal area. Moreover, the
have seen in the foregoing, all the parallels are construction of the graticule on this projection is
equally and correctly divided into equal parts and simple. As in the ordinary polyconic, the parallels
the meridians are drawn as regular curves by joining are not concentric but their centres lie on the central
the points of division thus obtained. Whereas in the meridian produced. The central meridian and the
latter only the top and bottom parallels are divided top and bottom parallels are constructed first with
into equal parts at true distances and the meridians the help of the two computed tables. One of these
are drawn as straight lines, passing through the gives the co-ordinates of the points of intersection
corresponding points thus marked along them. As of parallels and meridians along these latitudes and
the marginal meridians become straight lines, the the other gives corrected meridian length between
adjoining sheet on all sides may be fitted together the two parallels 4° apart. It is not possible to discuss
with little distortion. But in doing so the intermediate the mathematics of the tables within the scope of
parallels become very slightly short. the book, so they are reproduced below (Tables 17
and 18).

T a b le17. Show ing corrected m eridian length

betw een para llels 4° apart in m illim eters.

Latitude C orrected length

0° ^ ° 442.00
4°— 8° 442.04
8°— 12° 442.14
P o ly c o n ic S h e e ts
12°— 16° 442.28
I n te r n a tio n a l S h e e ts
16°—20° 442.45
Fig. 301 20°—24° 442.67
24°—28° 442.91
(2) In the polyconic, the scale is correct along
28°—32° 443.19
the central meridian as it is divided truly, and along
32°— 36° 443.50
other meridians it becomes gradually enlarged
3 6 ° -^ 0 ° 443.81
towards the margins. In the International Map 444.14
4 0 °^1 4 °
Projections this defect has been minimised by making 444.47
440^30
the scale true along two meridians on each sheet, 444.81
48°— 52°
one lying 2° west and the other, 2° east of the central 445.13
52°— 56°
meridian. Thus the scale along the meridian becomes 445.44
56°—60°
slightly too small and that along the marginal
 MAP PROJECTION 293

T able 18. Show ing C o-ordinates o f the C onstruction

intersections o f p arallels and m eridians. Draw the central meridian N S, 442,91 mm., in
length as shown in Table 17. Let A B and C Z) be
Longitude fr o m the straight lines drawn at right angles to 5 at and
Latitude C o­ central meridiem S. From N towards both east and west mark the co­
ordinates ordinates along A B at the distances of 98.37,196.75
and 295.15 millimetres for three meridians on either
side of the central meridian, each being 1° apart. At
X 111.32 222.64 333.96 these points erect perpendiculars with the length of
0°
y 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.40, 1.61, 3.63 millimetres respectively as shown
X 111.05 222.10 333.16 by co-ordinates in the Table 18. The tops of these
4°
y 0.07 0.27 0.61 perpendiculars are the points of intersection of the
X 110.25 220.49 330.74 meridians and 28° N parallel. Draw the arc of the
8®
y 0.13 0.54 1.24 circle of latitude passing through these points. Its
X 108.91 217.81 326.73 centre will lie on the line S N produced. Similarly,
12 °
y 0.20 0.79 1.78 from the Table 18 make use of x and y co-ordinates
X 107.04 214.08 321.13 for drawing the 24° N latitude. Then draw the
16°
y 0.26 1.03 2.32 respective meridians as straight lines by joining the
X 104.65 209.31 313.98 corresponding points marked along 24° N and 28°
20°
y 0.31 1.25 2.81 N parallels. Divide the meridians into four equal
X 101.76 203.52 305.31 parts and draw circular arcs from the corresponding
24°
y 0.36 1.45 3.25 points marked on the meridians so as to get the
X 98.37 196.75 295.15 intermediate parallels whose centres will all lie on
28°
y 0.40 1.61 3.63 S N produced. Thus the graticule for eastern U.P.
X 94.50 189.01 283.56 may be completed (vide Fig. 302).
32°
y 0.44 1.75 3.93
X 90.17 180.36 270.59 28 '
36°
y 0.46 1.85 4.16
X 85.40 170.82 256.29
40°
y 0.48 1.92 4.31
X 80.21 160.45 240.73
44°
y 0.49 1.95 4.38
X 74.63 149.29 224.00
48°
y 0.48 1.94 4.36
206.16 25
X 68.69 137.40
52°
y 0.47 1.89 4.25
X 62.40 124.83 187.31
56°
y 0.45 1.81 4.06
0O»E 82 84' 85'
X 55.81 111.64 167.52
60° Fig. 302
y 0.42 1.69 3.80

Choice of Projections
The study of projection may lead us to think
Example that a variety of projections has been evolved not by
Construct a graticule for an area extending from chance but under the spur of some specific purpose
24° A' to 28° £ to 86° £. and difficulty which we are confronted with while
 V

294 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

iransferring the various parts of the globe over a and sub-tropical crops like rice, cotton, tobacco and
plane surface. As we have .already seen, some sugarcane, etc., is to be shown over the world map.
projections truly represent the equatorial land and. Cylindrical Equal Area Projection will be more useful
others may conform with the polar areas. Moreover, than Mollweide’s and Sinusoidal as in this projection
some are true to area and some, to shape and within 30° of the equator, distortion is much less
direction. At the same time while it is easier to and the meridians and parallels intersect each other
draw some and also simple to find out calculations at right angles so that the shape is relatively much
for others, we may also find that certain projections more correct. Moreover, it is also very easy to
are too complicated. So in the choice of map construct this projection. On the other hand,when
projections the following problems may arise: the distribution of temperate crops like wheat, is
(1) Whether it is required to project the globe required to be shown on the world map, Mollweide’s
as a whole or a part of it and what is the size and and Sinusoidal will prove better than the Cylindrical
extent of the area for which the graticule is needed? in which there is much distortion in the temperate
(2) What is the purpose of the map? region. Even of the two, Mollweide’s will be more
(3) Whether it is easier to calculate and to draw advantageous as it provides for less distortion than
the graticule? the Sinusoidal. Mercator’s is very important in that
The first problem implies the consideration of it is the only projection which correctly represents
the following: (/) The world maps, continuous or in compass bearings by straight lines from all points
two hemispheres, (ii) Regions greatly extending and as such, it is singularly chosen for
north and south of the equator, such as, Africa, South communication and navigation maps.
America, Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Another method which is becoming popular
(Hi) Regions with large extent north and south of now-a-days lies in the combination of the continuous
the Equator, e.g., China, U.S.A., Australia. world maps and those in hemispheres. These are
(iv) Regions with their greater extent near the poles. interrupted Homolographic Projections which do not
(v) Small countries, (v/) Topographical maps. come within the scope of this text.
For the construction of the world maps, the main So far as the regions stretching both north and
projections generally used in atlases are: (1) Zenithal, south of the equator are concerned, the claims of all
(2) M ollwcide’s Elliptical, (3) M ercator’s, the world Projections may be considered. For an
(4) Cylindrical Equal Area, Gall’s and (5) Sanson- extensive region like Africa which stretches equally
Flamstccd. Of these the Zenithal Projections are north and south of the equator, Sanson-Flamsteed
used for the world in two hemispheres, while others may provide the most appropriate graticule, which
are used for continuous world maps. The choice of combines good shape with truly proportioned arc,
Zenithal for the world map lies in the fact that two though Equatorial, Zenithal and Cylindrical Equal
maps arc needed for showing the hemispheres and Area- are also used for it. Also for South America
thus there will be less distortion in this than in the whose major portion extends south of equator,
map in which world is shown continuously. But Sanson-Flamsteed is the best though conical and
there arc certain purposes for which continuous world Bonne’s may be possibly used because die
maps are useful, such as for showing the wind construction of Sanson-Flamsteed is comparatively
system, ocean currents, isobars, etc. On this ground more difficult than that of the Simple Conic with
Sanson-Flamsteed Projection may also be rejected two Standard Parallels. For other areas like the
because there is much more distortion along the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, our choice may
margins of the map than in the other three rest upon Equatorial Zenithal Equidistant or Equal
projections. Besides, for the distribution maps of Area Projection of Stcreographic Normal Zenithal
the world, the choice will be restricted to a few in which the equator is a straight line passing across
because only homolographic projections will be most the country.
suitable for them. In case the distribution of tropical North A m erica and E urasia in N orthern
 MAP PROJECTION 295

Hemisphere and Australia and Oceania in Southern projection scale is exaggerated away from the centre
Hemisphere lie, more or less, entirely north and south and therefore its use is restricted to a comparatively
of the equator respectively. For these we may select less extensive region.
between Conical with two Standard parallels. For smaller countries like British Isles, Baltic
Bonne’s and Polyconic. For North America all the States, France, Spain, etc., there is little difficulty in
three may be suitable but for Europe only Conical choosing a projection. Their extent is so small that
with two Standard Parallels or Polyconic will be projection which is easier to construct may be
appropriate because east-west dimension of Europe adopted. For the Baltic region and for France Simple
is greater than north-south extension. Though in Conic with two Standard Parallels may be applied.
Bonne’s the amount of distortion increases towards Simple Conic with one Standard Parallel may be
the margins, the difficulty of greater dimensions used for maps showing transcontinental railways,
along the base docs not arise because of the curved e.g., Trans-Siberian, or Canadian-Pacific etc., which
meridians; so the projection has been generally may ideally correspond with the Standard Parallel
applied for India and Asia by atlas makers. Zenithal along which the scale is true.
Projections are suitable for those regions whose For one-in-million map and other Topographical
length and breadth are equal because the amount of Survey Maps none of these projections provide ideal
accuracy decreases equally in all directions as the conditions. A modified form of Polyconic known
graticule is drawn from a central point along a line as International Map Projection has been applied for
which passes vertically through the centre. For polar the former in which each sheet is drawn
maps Zenithal are, therefore, as ideal as Cylindrical independently with its own meridian so that the
for equatorial lands, other things being equal. combination of various adjoining sheets may be
Airways may follow more closely the greater possible. A modified form of Cylindrical Projection
circle routes. So Gnomonic FYojection, which is is used for Topographic Survey Maps. The
also known as Great Circle Projection, is ideally projections evolved for these large-scale maps lie
appropriate for maps showing airways. But in this outside the scope of the text.
 T"
\
7
296 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

T able 19

Summary of Typical Projections

Properties
Suitable Pro­
Regions jection
Merits & Demerits Parallels Meridians Special Remarks

1. (a) World in I. Cylindrical (/) Equal area. Horizontal, Vertical, equally

one sheet. Equal Area. unequally spac spaced.
ed becoming
(/V) More or less closer towards U niure to scale, More suitable for
Orihomorphic Poles. spaced truly on equatorial land
within 30’ of equator only; showing the dis­
the equator m eridian scale tribution of tropi­
decreases pole­ cal crops.
(Hi) Great east- Equal in length wards from the
west distor­ to the equator equator in in­
tion near verse proportion

I-I 2. Mercator’s
pole.
(iv) Easy to con­
struct.

(0 Orthomorpic H orizontal,
to the increase
in
scale.
east-west

Vertical, equally Specially used for

for small areas. spaced uneqally spaced. navigation charts
close near eqa- and maps. N ot
tor, equal in very suitable for
length to equa­ the general maps
il I
tor. of the world.
(ii) All bearings
11 correct.
ii ■
III‘1
(Hi) Straight Loxo- Parallel scale in­ North-south scale
2 ::i! dromes. creases from
il ui greatly decreases
eqator to pole polewards.
proportionately
1i "I to increase of
meridianal scale.

(iv) Area magni­

fied Pole­
wards.

3. Mollweid's (0 Equal area. Horizontal, clos­ Except centra],

er near poles. Specially good for
all form ellipses; distribution maps.
spaced equally.
(ii) Difficult to East-west scale
construct. N orth-south scale
is incorrect. is incorrect.
(Hi) Pleasing shape
(»v) Shape distort­
ed away from
central meri­
dian.
 Y

MAP PROJECTION
297

Properties

Suitable P ro­
Regions jections Meridians Special Remarks
Merits & Demerits Parallels

H orizontal, Central meridian Not favoured so

4. Sinusoidal (/) Equal areas. much as Moll-
Truly spaced straight but others weide’s.
straight lines. curved; equally
(ii) Ackward spaced; true along
shape. each parallel.

(ill) D istortion
ill four cor­
ners and
away from
central meri­
dians.
(iv) Difficult to
construct.
V ertical; spaced M ost suitable for
(0 Neither equal H orizontal general maps of
5. G ills Pro-
jection. area nor ortho- 45® N and S true equally; meridian
the world.
morphic. to scale; from 45® scale incorrect.
parallel spacing
between them
decreases equator-
ward and ihcreas-
es poleward.

(ii) Rectangular
in shape.
{Hi) Easy to draw.
(iv) D istortion in
higher latitudes
less than
M ercator’s.
H o rizo n ta l; Vertical ; equi Least suitable for
6. Simple Cy­ Neither ortho- distant spaced world maps.
lindrical. morphic nor equal spaced truly;
area. parallel scale ex­ truly on the equal-
aggerated pole­ tor; north-south
ward. scale true.

(i) Bearings true Concentric circles Straight lines.

1. (A) World 1. Polar Zeni­
in Hemi­ thal Equal Area. from centre.
spheres. Closer towards R adiating from
( ii ) Equal area.
equator, larger the centre, at equal
than on the globe angular distances.
N orth-south scale
decreases outwards
from centre.

(i) Orihomor- Concentric cir Straight lines N ot very suitable

2. Steregraphic
Polar Zenithal. phic. cles, closer toward radiating from the
poles, larger than centre at equal
on the globe. angular distance.

( ii ) Area increases North-south scale

away from the increases away
centre. from centre.

\
 298
e l e m e n t s o f practtical g e o g r a p h y

Properties
Regions Suitable Pro­ Merits & Demerits Parallels
jections Meridians Special Remarks
3. Polar Zeni­ (0 Area exgge-
thal Equi­ Concentric Straight lines;
rated. cles.
distant drawn from the
centre at eqai
distances.
(//) Shape dis­ True intervals.
torted but not
much.
4. Globular (/) Neither equal Equidistant arcs Arcs of circles.
area nor ortho- o f circles; scale
morphic. Scale true on
on central meri­ central meridian.
dian true
(ii) Area siigluly
less in the cen­
tre and greater
on the margins
2. Continents 1. Sinusoidal
extending Most suitable for H orizontal, true to
areas extending Measurements Especially suit­
north-south scale and corre­ correct on centra]
of the epua- nortli-south of ctly spaced able for Cape-
equator equally. meridian. Cairo Railway.
tor ; straiglit lines.
(a) Africa. 2. Cylindrieal
Equal Area.
3. M ercator’s.
(b) South 1. Sinusoidal.
America

2. Conical (/) Scale is true Arcs of concentric R adiating straight Specially suit­
along the stan­ circles, spaced
dard parallels. lin e s ; equally able for mid-
equaly and spaced one or two latitudes.
truly.
standard paralles.
M eridian scale
true everywhere.
(ii) Small distor­
tion.
3. Bonne’s (i) Equal Area. Arcs of concentric Central meridian
cirlcs equally Used especially
straight ; others for mid-latitudes.
spaced at true curved ; spaced
distances. equally ; scale is
true on each
parallel.
(ii) Distortion in
N.E. & N.W.
corners as also
in S.E. & S.W.
(e) Others 1. Zenithal ( 0 Equal area.
equal Area. Concentric circles; R adiating straight
distance between lines ; equally
two parallels de­ spaced,
creasing towards
equator.
 299
MAP PROJECTION

Properties

Regions Suitable Pro­

jections Parallels Meridians Special Remarks
Merits & Demerit

( j7) Bearings true

from the cen­
tre.
2. G lobular.
(j) Orthomor- Arcs of circles Central meridian
3. N orm al Ster- v ertleal; others
eographic. phic for small except the equator
areas locality. which is straight; are arcs of circles;
spaced unequally spaced closely
closer near the near the centre.
equator.

3. Region 1. Bonne*!.
north or
south of
equator.
2. Lam bert’s
Zenithal.
(z) Bearing true Concentric cir­ Radiating straight
(fl) Asia 3. Zenithal lin e s; equally
Equidisitant from centre. cles ; equally
spaced. spaced.
(Polar)
Suitable for con­
(6) N orth 1. Bonne’s tinents of which
America the com ers do
not matter.

(0 Small distor­ Concentric cir­ Radiating

2. Conical with
two standard tion. cles spaced equally straight lines;
at true distances. equally spaced:
parallels. scale true along
two selected para­
llels.
N ot concentric Curved; eqaully
3. Polyconic. circles; drawn at spaced; scale true
true distances along central me­
with different ridian which is a
centres and radii; straight line.
scale true every
I where.
1 1
(c) Europe 1. Polyconic. 1

2. Conic with
two standard
parallels.

id) A straiia 1. Simple conic

with two
standard
parallels.
1
2. Bonne’s.

4. Polar Regie n Zenithal Pro­ i Bearings true forrn Concentric circle j. Radiating straigh
jection. ; centre. lines equall
spaced. -----
}

7 f
J C ii
j 4'
 300
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Properties
Regions
Suitable Pro­
jections Merits & Demerits Parallels Meridians Special Remarks

Countries
•arge and Best for areas
small. which are as long
as broad.
{a) Large (/) Lambert’s
countries Zenithal
equal Area,
(0 U.S.A.
('0 U S.S.R. (//) Simple conic
with two
Stand,
parallels
{Hi) India (///) Bonne’s. Suitable for dia­
Distortion of shape mond-shaped
much at the countries.
corners
{b) Small
countries. Suitable for areas
not having great
extent from north
to south.
(/) Baltic (/) Simple conic
States. with one stan­
dard parallel
iti
It!' (//) France, (n) Simple conic Suitable for areas
Spain, British with two which arc north-
Isles, etc. standard south longer than
parallels. broader east-west.
6. Large-scale 1. Modified Both orthom or- Arcs of circle, scale
Topographical polyconic Straight lines; One-in-million-
phic and equal true only along North-South
Maps. area for practical top and bottom map.
purposes. scale true along
parallels. two meridians.

or
International
Map Projection

2. Rectangular
Polyconic War office projec­
tion.
3. Bonne’s.

\
 MAP PROJECTION
301

Solution of errors in the graticules ( . 9 7 2 6 - . 2 9 6 9 ) X 100

:2969
drawn on different Map Projections
It is often mentioned that in a graticule drawn .6 7 5 7
XlOO
on a particular projection, area is not true, but it is .2 9 6 9
seldom shown as to what extend and in what way = 2 .2 7 5 9 x 1 0 0 = 2 2 7 .5 9 % .
the area does not conform to the actual. It is
necessary to know whether the areal error is less or
It is, therefore, clear that on the Mercators’
more than the actual in terms to proportion/
Projection, there is an error of 227.59% in the area
percentage. Likewise the errors regarding scales
lying between 40° N and 70° N latitudes.
along latitudes have also to be known precisely. For
(b) First find out the length of the corresponding
the accurate calculation of such errors, the use of
latitude on the map. Let it be L. Again find out its
Plane Trigonometry and mensuration must be made.
length on the projection; L . be L^. Now L ^ - L
Some examples of such calculations may be given
is the magnitude of error in tiie scale on the latitude.
here. This (L j- L) will be expressed in the form of
percentage of L.
Example
If a graticule is prepared on M ercator’s So - L ) x 100 percentage error.
projection, (a) what will be the extent of errors in L
area between 40° N and 70° N latitudes, and as per data given in the example
L=2tzR. cos 70° = 2tc/? x .3420
(b) what error in the scale along 70° N latitudes will
Lj = 2ti/?
be noticeable? (L i-L )x IO O
percentage eixor of the scale =
Calculation
(a ) First find out the area of globe in the ^ ( 2 : r / ^ - 2 r 7 ? X .3 4 2 0 ) X 1 0 0
corresponding latitudinal zone. Let it be A, then 27i / ? x .3 4 2 0

find out the area of the latitudinal zone on the _ 2 T C i ? ( l - .3 4 2 G ) x 100

projection. Let it be A 27t/ ? x .3 4 2 0
Now Aj - A is the proportion of error in the
area. - '" 1 1 ^ < 1 0 0 = 1 .9 2 4 x 1 0 0 = 1 9 2 .4 %
Then (Aj - A) be expressed in the form of
It is obvious, therefore, that the scale along 70°
percentage.
N on Mercators’ Projection is increased by 192.4%.
_ . . • (Ai-A )xIO O
Therefore the percentage error is -----------------
A E xample
Here the negative value will show that on the If the graticule is prepared on the G all’s
projection the area decreases, while the positive value projection (a) to what extent will be the error in the
will indicate increase in the area; area of the zone lying between 30° N and 50°/V
According to the zone shown in the above latitudes, and (b) what will be the error in the scale
example along the 50° N latitude?
A = 2k R^ (sin 70° - sin 40°) = 2/?^ x .2969
A = 2 tzR^ X 2.3026 (log tan 80° - log tan 65°). Calculation
= 2k R^ X 2.3026 x .4224 (a) In the given example:
Percentage error in area A=2kR^ (sin 50° - sin 30°) = 2kR^ x .266
= U i - ^ ) x ^00 A = 2kR^ cos 45° {(1+ cos 45°)
A I , 50° , 30°
ta n tan —
__ 2 -/? -(2 .3026x . 4 2 2 4 -.2 9 6 9 )X 100 I 2 2
= 27t/?2 X .7071 X 1.7071 x .1984
2:zR ^X :2969
302 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Percentage error of the area Percentage error in the area

^ U i —^ )X 1 0 0
_ _ ( A i - A ) x 100
A
A
= X 1 .7 0 7 1 X . 1 9 8 4 - . 2 6 6 ) X 1 0 0 ^ 27rjga(.1475-.1467)xl00
27t 7?2x .266 2 n K ^X A 4 t7
^ (■2394- .2 6 6 ) x l 0 0
.266 = 100 = 0 . 5453%
_ _ .0266 X 100 So in this example the area will increase by
.266 0.5453%.
= - 10% . (b) As per example L =2kR. cos 75°
So, on Gall’s projection in the zone lying Lj =2n sin 65° R(cot 65° - .1745)
between 30° N and 50° N, the error in the area is = 2tiR (cos 65° - sin 65° x .1745)
- 10%, i.e., the area is 10% less than the actual (on = 2kR x .2645
the globe). Percentage error in the scale
{b) as per example _ (L i-X )x lO O
L=2ti/? cos 50° = 2tc/? X .6428 L
Lj = 2tc/? cos 45° = 2;:/? X .7071
Percentage error in scale _ 2 tcJ ? ( . 2 6 4 5 - . 2 5 8 8 ) x 1 0 0

_ (L i-L )x lO O 2 tc7 ? X .2 5 8 8

L
= ^ ^ ' “ =2-2025%
_ (27ri? X . 7071-2 7 T j;x .6428) x 100
2tt/? x .6428 So it is clear that along the 75°A latitude, the
percentage error will be increased by 2.2052%.
.0 6 4 3 x 100
.6428 Example
= 10.0031% If a graticule is prepared on the Lamberts’
It is obvious that the scale on Galls’ projection conical equal area projection with one standard
along 50°A^ latitude is increased by 10.0031%. parallel (50° N), then what will be the error in the
scale along the 70° N latitude?
Example
If a graticule is prepared on a simple conic Calculation
projection with one standard parallel (65°A0, then As per example L=2tzR cos 10°=2kR. x .3 4 2
{a) to what extent will be the error in the area of the
Lj = rV cot" 50° + 2 - 2 sin 70° cosec. 50°
zone lying between S5°N and 75°// latitudes, and
{b) what will be the error in the scale along 75°// x 2tu sin 50°
latitude? = 2krV cos" 50° + 2 sin" 50° - 2 sin 70°
sin 50°
Calculation
(a) as per example =27crV 1 + sin" 50° - 2sin 70° sin 50°
A=2kR^ (sin 75° - sin 55°)=2ti/?2 ^ .1457 =2tirV 1 + .5868 - 1.4396
A = 7t sin 65° [(/? cot 55° + .llA S R y -
0.1472
= 2 tc rV
(R cot 65° - .1745)"] =2kR X .3837
= 7C/?" sin 65° (2cot 65° x 2 x .1745) Percentage error in scale
= AtzR^ sin 65°. cot 55° .1745
_ ( L ,- L ) X 1 0 0
= 2tc/?" X .349 x .4226
 wr
x_

MAP PROJECTION 303

2i?(.4363-.4226)x 100
_ 27c/?(.3837-.342) x 100 2 7 t/? x .4 2 2 6
21? X . 3 4 2 .0137x100
.4226
= 1 ^ = 1 2 .1 9 3 % . 1.3700
= 3 .2 4 1 8 %
.4226
Thus, there will be an increase of 12.193% in Thus the error in scale will be by 3.2418%.
the scale along the 70° N latitude.
Example
If a graticule is prepared for the north polar
E x a m ple
region on the Polar Zenithal Equal area projection,
If a graticule is prepared on the polar Zenithal
what will be the error in the scale along 65°N
equidistant projection for the north polar region, then
latitude?
(a) what will be the extent or error in the area of the
zone lying between 65° N and 75° N latitude, and
Calculation
{b) what will be the error in the scale along 65° N
as per example L = 2tiR. cos 65°, and
latitude?
L =271 x 2/?.sin 12°30'
=4kR sin 12°30'
Calculation
Thus percentage error in scale
as per example
_ ( L i - L ) x l 00
A=2nR^ (sin 75° - Sin 65°)
L
and
A^=kR^ {(.4363)" - (.2618)"} _ ( 47 ci?.Sin 12°30'-77r.R.Cos 6 5 °)x l0 0
=71/?" (.4363 + 2618)(.4363 - .2618) 27ri? Cos 65“
=kR^ (.6981)(.1745)=tc/?" x .1218 _27Ti?(.4328—.4226)x 100
Percentage error in the area 2 7 t / ? x .4 2 2 6
_ (24,-v4)x100 _ .0 1 0 2 x 100
A .4226
= -1 2 1 8 - 2 7 rJ?-(S i n 7 5 ° - S i n 6 5 °)} X 1 0 0 _ 10.200
2 7 ri?"(S in 7 5 ° — S in 6 5 °)
"T422T'
_ 7 t/? " { . 1 2 1 8 - 2 ( . 9 6 5 9 — .9 0 6 3 )} X 1 0 0 = 2.4136%
7 r i? - x 2 ( .9 6 5 9 - .9 0 6 3 } .'. percentage error in scale = 2.4136%.
_ ( . 1 2 1 8 - . 1 1 9 2 )x 100 Example
.1 1 9 2
If a graticule is prepared for north polar region
.0026 on Polar Gnomonic Projection, (a) what will be the
X 100 extent of error in area in the zone lying between
.1192
65° N and 75° N latitude, and (b) what will be the
= =2.1812% error in the scale along 65°N latitude?
Thus the error in area will be 2.1812%
Calculation
(b) as per example L=2 R. cos 65°
(a) as per example
and L =2 x RA363
A = 2rc/?" (sin 75°-sin 65°)
So percentage error in scale
and Aj = 7t/?" cot" 65° - cot" 75°
_ (L i-L )x lO O
L =7c/?" (cot" 65° - cot" 75°)
=7c/?" (cot 65° + cot 75°)(cot 65° - cot 75°)
_ (27ci? X .4363 - 2tzR X .4226) X 100 =71/?" (.4663 + .2679) (.4663 - .2679)
2/? X . 4226 =/?" X .7342 X .1984 = /?" x .1457

I
304 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Therefore, percentage error in area and finding true scales along every parallel of latitude
_ U i-^ )xlO O drawn at an interval of 10° in graticules on Mercator
A and Gall’s projection, are explained in the following
examples:
_{7tJ?2x.i457_27ci?2(Sin 75°-Sin65°)}X 100
(Sin 75°—Sin 65°)
E xample
_ .1457 - 27tJ?2(.9659-.9063)}X 100 Construct a comparative scale for every parallel
7Ti?2x2(.9659—.9063) of latitude drawn at 10° interval in the graticule on
_ TriJ2(.1457—.1192)X100 Mercator projection.
7ri?"x.ll92 Scale— 1 : 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0
Therefore 1 cm= 1 ,0 0 0 km
.0265x 100 2.6500 On Mercator’s projection the scale is true along
.1192 .1 1 9 2
the equator, so every centimetre along the equator
= 2 2 .2 3 1 5 %
will show 1 0 0 0 km. Other parallels of latitude will
.-. percentage error in the area will be 22.2315%. also be constructed equal to the equator, when their
(b) as per example true length is equal to 2 /? cos. 0 . So on any parallel
L = 2nR. cos 65° of latitude 1000 km will be represented by a line
and = 27r^.cCot 65° more than 1 cm. If on every parallel of latitude, the
Therefore percentage error in scale true length of the line to show 1000 km is found
_ (Li—L)X100 out, the comparative scale can be constructed.
L
T a bl e 2 0
(2 tzR . C o t 6 5 ° — '2tcI? C o s . 6 5 °) X 1 0 0
2 tzR C o s 6 5 °
Parallels of Length o f the line to represent
_ 2 7 T j?(C o t 6 5 ° - C o s 6 5 °) X 1 0 0 Latitudes 1000 Jan distance (in cm)
2ixR C os 65°
(.4663—4226) X 100 0° 1X Sec 0° = 1.0000
.4226 10° 1X Sec 10° =1.0154
20° 1X Sec 20° =1.0642
.0 4 3 7 X 1 0 0 30° 1X Sec 30° =1.1547
.4226 40° 1X Sec 40° =1.3054
_ 4.3700 50° 1X Sec 50° =1.5557
= 1 0 .3 4 0 7 %
.4226 60° 1X Sec 60° =2.0000
.'. percentage error in the scale =10.3407% 70° 1X Sec 70° =2.9238
80° 1X Sec 80° =5.7588
Method of Constructing Comparative 90° 1X Sec 90° =oo

Scales for Graticules dravm on Map

Projections Method o f Constructing Comparative Scales
On some suitable map projections, the scale is Draw horizontal parallel lines at equal distance
not correct on every latitude. It is correct on any for parallels of latitudes from 0° to 80°. Divide
one latitude only. Under such a condition if true them equally by a perpendicular line in the centre.
distance is to be known along a particular latitude, Mark the point along every parallel line to the left
it will be essential to find out the true scale along and right of the central line according to the distance
that latitude. shown in the table 20 and join these points
The methods for constructing comparative scales respectively (vide Fig. 303). Construct a
 MAP PROJECTION 305

70^

50*
40* '40*

o~ CM
o O Oo o
(O ^ lO JO
kilom etre*

Fig. 303

comparative scale fOT every parallel of latitude drawn 45°, 1000 km will be represented by a line shorter
at the interval of 10° in the graticule prepared on than 1 cm. If we find true length representing 1000
Gall’s projection to find out the true distance. Scale km distance along every parallel of latitude, a
is 1 : 100,000,000. comparative scale can be constructed.

T a b le 21 Method fo r Constructing Comparative Scales

Draw horizontal parallel of lines at equal
P arallels o f Length o f the line to represent
distances from parallels of latitudes from 0° to 80°,
Latitudes 1000 km distance (in cm)
divide them from the centre by perpendicular line.
0° cos 4 5 “ sec 0 “ = .7071 X 1.0000 = .7071
Maik the points along every parallel on both the
10“ COS 4 5 “ sec 10“ = .7071 X 1.0154 = .7180 sides of the central line on corresponding distance
20“ C O S 4 5 “ sec 2 0 “=. 7071 X 1.10642= .7525 as shown in the table 21 and join the points
30“ C O S 4 5 “ sec 3 0 “=,.7071 X 1.1547 = .8166 respectively (vide Fig. 304).
40“ COS 4 5 “ sec 4 0 “=,.7071 X 1.3054 = .9 230
50“ COS 4 5 “ sec 5 0 “ = .7071 X 1.5557 = 1.100
Methods for finding Azimuth,
60“ COS 4 5 “ sec 6 0 “ = .7071 X 2 .0 0 0 0 = 1.415
70“ c o a 4 5 “ sec 7 0 “ = .7071 X 2 .9 2 3 8 = 2.067 Retro-azimuth and Distance
80“ co s 4 5 “ sec 8 0 “ = .7071 X 5 .7 5 8 8 = 4.071 It is expected from advanced students that they
90“ C O S 4 5 “ sec 9 0 “= .7071 X oo = OO will find out from one place to another the azimuth,
retro-azimuth and the distance if the latitudes and
On the Gall’s projection the scale is true along longitudes of different places on the earth-surface
the 45° latitude so every centimetre on the 45° are known.
parallel of latitude will represent 1000 km. Other Any two places on this spherical earth make a
parallels are also constructed equal to the parallel of triangle with any polar point. Two sides of this
45° latitude, when their true length will be 27t R. triangle will be the co-latitudes of the respective
cos 0 . Therefore on the parallels above 45° latitude, places, and the third side will be the line joining
1000 km will be represented by a line longer than those places, which will show the distance in between
1 cm; while along the parallels of latitudes below them. If the polar point is assumed as the apex of
306 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

80*
to*

30* ^30'
20* 20*

K ilom etrM
Fig. 304

the triangle, the angle at the apex will be equivalent

to the difference in the longitudes of the two places A
and the two angles at the base will respectively
represent the azimuth and the retro-azimuth of the
two places. It may be remembered that the triangle
will be formed on the surface of the earth. So, this
will be a spherical triangle instead of plane triangle.
The three sides of the triang’e will be presented in
their angular distances. Thus to solve this triangle
the formulae of spherical trigonometry will be used
instead those of plane trigonometry. For this purpose
a student of geography may not be made fully
familiar with the details of the formulae of spherical B'
trigonometry. If the students remember only three
Fig. 305
formulae as mentioned below, they will be table to
find out azimuth, retro-azimuth, and distance on the side c (the line A5)=the co-latitude of the latitude
earth-surface by applying the formulae and log- o ffi.
tables.
In figure 305, B and C are the two places in the
Important Formulae of Spherical Triangle
northern hemisphere and A on the north pole. In the
Formula 1—(The cotangent formula)
spherical triangle ABC,
cos. c. cos. A= sin c. cot b -
Z A =the difference of longitudes of B and C
Sin A. cot. B.
Z 5 = the azimuth from to C and the retro-azimuth
from C and B. or cot B - \
Z C =the azimuth from C to5 and the retro-azimuth
Sin c. Cot b— Cos. Cos A
from 5 to C. Sin A
(0
Side a (the line BC) = the distance between B
and C. Formula 2—(The Cosine formula)
Side b (the line AC)=the co-latitude of the latitude cos a=cos b. cos c + sin b. sin c. cos A
of C. . . . («•)
 MAP PROJECTION 307
Formula 3—(The Sine Formula) From figure 306 it is obvious that
(a) ZAPB = (65® - 20°) = 45°
Sin A Sin B Sin C
Side PA = 90 ° - 15° = 75°
Sin a~ Sin b~ Sin c
(Hi) and Side PB = 90° - 35° = 55°
Of the above three formulae, the suitable one According to Formula 1,
according to need be selected. Cot A - Sin 75°.Cot 55°—Cos 75°.Cos45°
If in a spherical triangle, the two sides and the Sin 45°
included angles are known, then use Formula No. 1 _ .6763—.1830
to find out the values of other angles. But, if the .7071
two sides of the included angle are known, and it is
.4933
required to find out the value of the side facing the = .6976
.7071
angle, make use of Formula No. 2 . Formula 3 is
more suitable and its use is also relatively simpler. Z A = c o t-' .6976 = 55°6'
If m a spherical triangle, any angle and the side Thus the azimuth from A to 5 is N 55°6' E
facing it are known, then the side facing any other (55°6 East of North). The the same value will be
known angle or the angle facing any known side the retro-azimuth from B to A. (b) Now it is required
can be found out by applying Formula 3. to find retro-azimuth of A to 5 , i.e., the value of
Z B (vide Fig. 306).
Example According to Formula— 1,
Find out (a) azimuth, (b) retro-azimuth, and
(c) distance between the two places, A (15°N 20°E) Cot B= ^ Sin 55°. Cot 75°—Cot 55°.Cos 45°
Sin 45°
and B(35^N, 65®£).
_ .2196—.4057
.7071
Calculation
.1861
In A PAfi (Fig, 306), P shows the north pole, = —.2632
.7071
and A, B are the two places whose latitudes and
longitudes are given in the above example. .-. ZB = co t-' (- .2632)
= (180° - 76°150
= 104°45'
Thus the retro-azimuth from A to B is 5 (180°
- 104°45') W, i.e., S 75°15' W (75°15' West of
South). The azimuth from B to A will be the same.
When the azimuth from A to B was known
through formula 1, it was not necessary to apply
formula 1 second time to find out the retro-azimuth.
This could be known by using formula 3 too.
Sin B _ Sin A
Sin (PA) Sid(PB)

Sin B — Sin A.Sin(PA)

s in T s ■
_Sin 55°6\Sin 75°
Sin 55° = .9670
A
.’. Z B = sin - ' (.9670) = 75° 15'
Fig. 306
Thus the azimuth from B to A will be S 75° 15'
W(75°15' West of south).
 \

ELEMENTS O ? PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

308

(c) Calculation of distance between A and by

formula— 2 .
According to formula— 2
cos {AB) = cos PA. cos PB + sin PA sin PB.
cos P
= cos 75^ cos 55*^ + sin 75°. sin 55° cos 45°
= .1485 + .5595 = .7080
AB = c o s .7080 = 45°56'
Thus angular distance from A to B
=44°56' = .7843 radian
according to the formula of mensuration

0 = -p (<0; expressed in radians) A

.*. / = 0 .r

Thus the distance from A to B =.7843 x 3957 miles

(because the radius of the earth is 3957 miles)
= 3103 miles,
This distance can also be calculated by
Formula—3 (Sine formula), only after finding out
the azimuth of A ^ r B.
According to formula—3
Sin A B Sin PB
Fig. 307
Sm P Sin A
Sin P.Sin PB Calculation
Sin A B = Sin A In figure 307 in the spherical hiangle PAB
Sin 45 Sin 55° where
Sin 55°6' Z APB = (65° - 20°) = 45°
PA = (90° - 15°) = 75°
_ .5793 and PB = (90° + 40°) = 130°
.8202
according to formula 1,
= .7063
AB = sin-' .7063 = 44°56' = .7843 radian Sin. 75°.Cot 130’—Cos 75°.Cos 45°
C o tA -- Sin 45°
Thus the angular distance from A to B = .7843
radian; now using mensuration formula, i.e., Sin 7 5 ° .(-ta n ^ ^ )_ ^ C o s 75°. Cos 45°
/ = 0r Sin 45"
AB = .7843 X .3957 miles = 3103 miles. - .8 1 0 4 —.1830
--------- ;W71
E xample
Find out the azimuth, retro-azimuth, and the
distance from place A (15°N, 20°£) to B (40°S,
A = c o r ' - 1.2685 = (180°- 38°220=141°38'
Thus azimuth from A to B =S 38°22' E
In the earlier examples, the two places he in the (38°22' East of south). It means azimuth from A to
northern hemisphere, but in this example A is in B or retro-azimuth from B to A will be S 38°22' E
northern hemisphere and B is in the southern. (38°22' East of South).
 MAP PROJECTION 309

According to formula—3, Again according to formula—3,

Sin B _ Sin Sin A B Sin PA
Sin PA Sin PE S in P Sin B
Sin PA.Sin P
Sin A B =
Sin B
_ Sin l41°38'.Sin 75" Sin 75".Sin 45"
Sin 130" Sin 51"30'
Sin 38"22'.Sin 75*
Sin 50" - -6 8 2 9 ,
.7826
[•.•Sin(180— a )= S in &] angular value of A5 = sin " ^ .8726
.5994 = 60®46' = 1.0606 radian
.7660 Now according to mensuration formula, 1 = Or
fi = s in - i .7825 = 51°30'. AB = 1.0606 X 3957 miles
Thus the azimuth from B \ q A, and retro-azimuth = 4197 miles
from A to B will be TV 51°30' 1V(51°30' West of Thus the distance from A to 5 = 4197 miles.
North).
 Chapter 11

SURVEYING

Surveying is the art of making observations and (C) Cure and adjustment o f instruments. A
measurements in order to determine the relative surveyor should be thoroughly acquainted with the
position of points on the earth’s surface. Obviously instruments, their care and adjustment
it includes linear and angular measurements and the
determination of the relative levels or heights of Field Notes
objects. These are written records of field work taken
In plane surveying the curvature of the earth is when the survey is done in the field. Field notes
not taken into consideration and all measurements must be taken with great care. The office work
are taken or reduced to a horizontal or vertical plane entirely depends on a legible field note. Field notes
surface. In geodetic surveying the curvature of the essentially consist of the following aspects:
earth is taken into account which amounts to about
1 foot in 34.5 miles. For ordinary surveys extending 1. Sketches
upto say 100 sq. miles, plane surveys do not involve Showing an outline of the area to be surveyed.
much error. Generally sketches are necessary when measurements
The accuracy of the survey depends on the cannot be described easily. It always helps in the
purpose for which the survey is being undertaken. interpretation of notes.
Depending on the accuracy aimed at surveying may {a) A sketch is never made to scale. The sketch
be grouped under two heads: should always be large and clear, even it may be
1. Triangulation, or an accurate and elaborate necessary to make separate exaggerated sketches of
work. small portion to get a clear understanding.
2. Traversing, or a rapid and less careful work. ijb) Straight edges should as far as possible be
Surveying may also be characterised as topo­ shown by a straight line; for this a small scale or a
graphical surveying, cadastral surveying, geological small triangle may be used.
surveying, military surveying, etc. according to the id) No time should be spent in attempting to
purpose of the survey. draw the angles of a sketch accurately.
Surveying involves:
(A) Field work. 2. Numerical Notes
(B) Office works. The recording o f m easurem ents both of
( Q Care and adjustment of instruments. distances and angles.
(a) The figures should be plain and large.
(A) Field work. Essentially field work consists
(b) No attempt should be made to overwrite. It
of (/) measuring distances and angles, (ii) recording
is best to delete the incorrect value with a line and
field notes.
write the correct figure near it.
(B) Office work. The indoor work consists
chiefly of (0 Computing, (//) drawing, and (m) finish­ 3. Explanatory Notes
ing up the map. This helps to explain the numerical notes and
 /

S u r v ey in g 311

sketches. The complete field book should be such («■) When the country is more or less open and
that any surveyor who was not in the field could horizontal measurement can be taken without much
draw up the map correctly from the field notes. difficulty;
(Hi) When accurate measurement is required
General hints irrespective of the time spent;
Field Notes (zv) For rapid survey of large areas.
(a) A note book with a stiff cover should be
used, Appliances
(b) The pencil used should be hard enough not Only a few simple appliances are necessary in
to blur. chain surveying.
(c) A surveyor should know what data he would
require in the office for drawing the map and should Chains
in no case leave any data to memory. The chain is made of strong iron or steel wire
with a brass handle at each end. A complete chain
Chain Surveying has 100 links and each link consists of a long piece
and a separate ring at each end.
Importance of Chaining There are two kinds of chains :
The term ‘chaining’ means the measuring of (z) Engineers chain, 100 feet long.
distances by the chain or the tape. The work is (zz) Gunter’s chain, 66 feet long.
generally looked upon by students as very tedious The Gunter’s chain is convenient for land
requiring no skill at all, but experienced surveyors survey, viz ., 80 chains equal 1 mile and 10 square
would agree that great patience is needed to avoid chains equal 1 acre, i.e.. 10 x 66^= 43,560 sq. ft. =
mistakes in chaining and it is not very easy to 1 acre.
measure a length when great accuracy is required, At intervals of 10 links there is a brass tag
e.g., for the laying of a base line in geodetic attached to the chain. A tag with one tooth indicates
surveying. Linear measurements cannot be totally either 10 or 90 links, one with two teeth indicates
avoided in any surveying and thus students should 20 or 80, the one with three teeth indicates 30 or 70
leam the art carefully. links, that with four teeth 40 or 60 links and the
Chaining is generally resorted to: central tag which has a circular shape indicates 50
(z) When detailed surveys of small areas are links {See fig. 308). The length of a link in the
required, e.g.. in property survey showing the limits Engineer’s chain is 1 foot and that in a Gunter’s
of different landowners; chain 0.66 ft. or 7.92 inches.

1- 0 *

CHAIN

20 30 40 50
or ©f Of or
90 80 70 60

Fig. 308
312 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Tapes to a 1000 ft. steel tape are available.

There are three kinds of tapes— (1) cloth tapes,
(2) brass wire tapes (linen, woven with fine brass Offset staff
wire), and (3) steel tapes. Of these cloth tapes are Wooden rods round or square and with a pointed
only used for rough work and steel tapes are the iron shoe. The length is generally 10 f t and every
best. The tapes are generally 50 or 100 ft. in length, foot coloured alternately with different colours. See
but tapes varying in length from a 3 ft. pocket tape fig. 309.

Fig. 309

Ranging rods
'7
These are usually straight rods made of bamboo
and are also coloured to aid visibility. Sometimes
coloured flags are attached at the top to distinguish
the rods clearly.

Arrow or Pins
These are 15" to 18" long iron and steel wires
pointed at one end and bent into a loop at other.
These are used to mark chain lengths on the ground. to end
of line

Optical Square
This is used for setting out right angles for
measuring short offsets from the chain line to any
object close by. There are two small mirrors A and Fig. 310
B, fitted vertically on a brass plate. The mirrors are
inclined to each other at 45®. The whole thing is A Magnetic Compass
fitted in a brass frame in such a way that there are Usually used for determining the direction of
openings on the top of the mirrors. The method of the north point.
procedure will be clear from the plan of the
instrument shown in fig. 310. Standing near the Procedure
chain line the surveyor views the ranging rod at the Before starting for liie day’s work the surveyor
end of the chain through the opening above the should ascertain the correct length of the chain
mirror A and the image of the object D in the mirror comparing it with some standard steel tape or a
B is seen reflected back in the mirror A. Thus the standard length previously marked on a level surface.
observer views directly the ranging rod above the If, even after straightening up the links, the chain is
mirror A and the reflection of the object D in the found to be too long or too short the length can be
mirror A. With a slight backward or forward adjusted by careful hammering of the rings.
movement along the chain line, a point will be The underlying principle in a chain survey is to
reached when the portion of the ranging rod seen divide the area into suitable triangles whose sides
through the opening above the mirror A coincides can be measured. Supposing the area A5CD shown
with the reflection of the object in the mirror A. in Fig. 311 is to be chain surveyed, the area can be
This point on the chain line is at right angles to the plotted if the length of the sides and the length of
one diagonal is measured. That is, the area is divided
object.
 313
S u r v e y in g

C lin e

.1 -

c
C o tto g e ^

A C h e c k Une \

Fig. 311

into two triangles and the length of the sides of the A 1^

triangle being known they can be easily plotted. If
due to some obstacle the diagonals cannot be measur­
ed the measurement of a tie-line a—b or c—d or any
Other is necessary. To plot the area with the help of Fig. 312
a tie-line, while chaining, the length Ac, Ad and c—
(3) The sides of the triangles should pass close
d are also noted. The length of the sides of the tri­
angle A—c— d being known, it can be plotted and to the boundary line and other features of the area
then the sides A ^ and A—c are produced to B and so that the offsets may not be large.
C respectively according to their chained length. (4) It is convenient to have one long chain line
With centres B and C and radii equal to the length near the centre of the area and this line can be used
of ED and CD arcs are drawn intersecting at D and as base line in drawing.
(5) The chain lines, as far as possible, should
thus the whole area can be plotted. To ascertain the
accuracy of the drawing check-lines, say, BO, CO, not cross ditches, ponds, hedges or other obstacles.
DO, or any other whichever is convenient is The scale of the plan, that is, the degree of ac­
measured while chaining and then the chained length curacy required should be kept in view. If the scale
is large offsets to smaller details are to be taken and
is verified on the drawing.
Before proceeding to measure the lengths, the the survey will show a greater degree of accuracy
surveyor determines the direction of the magnetic than if the scale is small. The starting of tlie chaining
should be so planned that it could be carried on con­
north by a magnetic compass and prepares a hand-
tinuously without wasting time in walking between
sketch of the area to be surveyed. This shows
prominent objects like big trees, building, etc., and stations. The data should be entered in a field-book
as shown in Fig. 313. Chaining starts from station
also the position of station points and the framework
A. The surveyor marks the direction AB with ranging
' of triangles joining these stations. See Fig. 312.
The stations are marked on the field with rods. The assistant holds one end of the chain at A
wooden pegs. For the selection of the stations some and the surveyor drags the other end with him. He
also carries ranging rod and ten pins. Near the end
, discretion is necessary:
(1) The station points should be easily accessible. of the chain line the surveyor holds the ranging rod
(2) The number of stations should be the least vertically and according to directions from his
possible, i.e., the triangles should be as far as possible assistant aligns the ranging rod. He then pulls the
chain taut so that none of the rings are knotted and
equilateral and of large size.
 T"
\ rrMllllC I y
314
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

(1) Mistakes
This is a personal error and is due to physical
imperfection, mental confusion, or carelessness and
25d
inexperience, e.g., mistake in reading the chain or
tape length.
28'

(2) Constant errors

Due to some definite cause and it can be
200 eliminated. For example if the chain length is one
inch too short there will be a constant error of this
length in each chain length and this can be easily
eliminated. Thus a constant error is cumulative and
under a given condition has the same sign, plus or
minus.
60'
(3) Accidental errors
47
These errors may be plus or minus, e.g., the
arrow is not inserted exactly at the end of the chain
length. This might happen when due to hard ground
a mark is left in place of the pin.
Common errors in chain surveying are the
following:
Line from ' (1) Incorrect length of the chain +
(2) Wrong alignment of the chain +
(3) Chain not horizontal +
Fig. 313 (4) Chain not stretched tight +
(5) Error due to sag +
then inserts an arrow in the ground marking the end
(6) Chain pins wrongly set ±
of the chain length. Offsets are now taken either
(7) Variation in temperature ±
with a measuring tape or with the help of an offset-
(9) Mistakes in counting chain lengths
staff or optical square. Then the surveyor proceeds
or reading the chain correctly ±
with the forward end of the chain for the alignment
of a second chain length. The procedure is same as
Obstacles to chaining
that in the first case. The pin is picked up by the
assistant who also counts the pins and thus helps in
Sloping ground
checking the number of chain lengths.
There are two ways of getting horizontal distance
E rrors on a slope: (j) To take measurement along the slope
and correct this by calculation. (z7) To measure short
Errors in surveying might occur due to:
horizontal distances by “stepping” without allowing
(1) Natural causes—temperature variation, the chain to touch the grounds.
obstacles, etc.
(0 By Calculation. The difference in length
(2) Instrumental imperfections—constructional “C” between the length on a slope and the horizontal
defects, etc.
(3) Personal mistakes in observation. projection is expressed approximately by C =
where ^f=the elevation of the slope and sequel to the
Errors, again, may be classified into:
length of the slope.
 * s^
S u r v e y in g 315

The horizontal projection can also be calculated

if the angle x which the slope makes with the
horizontal is known, as horizontal projection is equal
to s cos. X .
(ii) By stepping. To chain down-hill which is
more convenient, one end of the chain is held on the
ground at A and a short length of the tape (shorter
the length, steeper the slojje) is stretched by another
person and held up to make it horizontal and the
point on the ground under this end is found by means
of a plumb-bob. Then the process is repeated in a
series of steps keeping a correct alignment as shown
in Fig. 314. Fig. 316

(it) When only one point is accessible.

Rod ,R od 1st method. A S is the distance to be measured.
Take any point C in alignment with A B and other
points D, E, F as shown in Fig. 317 so that C D =
E D, D B = F D. Then fix a point G in alignment
with A D and at the same time, in the line E F
produced; F G = A B.
'S lo p e

Fig. 314

Obstacles like building, ponds, rivers, etc.

(/) When both the points are accessible, To
measure the length AS.
1st method. Erect perpendiculars as shown in
Fig. 315. When A 'B '= AB. \D /
—FV —

SO" 90

90' 90'
Fig. 317

2nd method. In case the chain line is to be

Fig. 315 continued across a stream, fix up two points S and
2nd method. Take any point 0 and make A 0 C by ranging rods on the two banks of the stream.
= A O ' and B O = 0 B ' \ when A B = A ' B. See (See fig. 318). These points should be in alignment
Fig. 316. with the chain line.
316 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

(\) The Plane-Table

It is a light flat drawing board supported on a
tripod and this board can be rotated and fixed in any
desired horizontal position. {See fig. 319). The

Vx'^

Fig. 318

Measure a length B A and at A and B erect

perpendiculars B D and A E respectively. On these
perpendiculars locate by trial two points F and G so
that points C, F and G are in one line.
The triangles AGC and BFC are similar. So that
o^ B F y. A B

Plane-Table Surveying
For plane-table survey the following equipments
are generally necessary:
(1) The Plane-table with a tripod stand.
(2) An alidade or sighting-rule.
(3) A chain or tape for measureraenL
(4) A spirit level.
(5) A Hough-compass, also known as a box
compass.
(6) A few ranging rods and wooden pegs.
(7) A pair of field glasses for identifying distant
objects.
(8) A plumb-bob.
(9) Drawing essentials—paper, pencil, rubber,
drawing pins, a pen-knife, pencil sharpener, plotting
scale. n g .3 i9
 S u r v e y in g
317

table-top is commonly made up of two pieces of needle come to rest with both ends pointing at zero,
well-seasoned pinewood and the size varies from, the axis of the needle is parallel to the sides of the
say, 15" X 10" to 30" x 24". The board is supported box and thus lines drawn along the edges would
below by battens with slot holes providing space for show the magnetic direction.
expansion and construction. In the centre below the
board there is a brass plate with a bossed head which (6) Ranging rods and pegs
fits into a hole in the centre of the head of the tripod Wooden pegs are necessary for marking the
stand and can be kept tight by a wing-nut. The head stations and ranging rods are used to facilitate taking
of the tripod stand is essentially a three-winged thick sights. For example, where one has to mark field
piece of wood with three legs attached to the wings. boundaries, the edges could be marked by ranging
rods.
(2) Alidade
It is a strong flat ruler with perfectly straight (7) Field glasses
and parallel edges. At each end there are flap sights They are of use in getting a clear view of distant
which can be folded down when not in use. One of object to facilitate in the selection of sights.
the flaps has a slit in the centre and the other has a
vertical thread. Sights are taken along the thread- ( 8) Flumb-bob
line. The line joining the thread-line and the centre This is used to centre the plane-table over the
of the slit is either perfectly midway between the station.
edges or directly over either of the two edges. The
edges of the alidade may be graduated as in a scale. (9) Drawing equipment
Telescopic alidades are also used for surveying large In accurate plane-table work the paper must be
areas. Here vertical angles can be read and sight selected with care. It should be a drawing paper
vanes are removed from the scale. with a good surface and be least affected with
changes in the humidity of the atmosphere. In very
damp weather, celluloid sheets may be used. Tinted
(3) Chain or tape
This is used for measuring distances and special papers are less staining to the eyes. The paper should
care should be taken in measurement when only one be larger on all four sides than the board. The
base line is used. Tape is helpful in frequent offset drawing pencils should not be soft and at least one
should have a long thin chisel point for drawing
measurem ents which would give too oblique
intersection and the tape is also of use in taking sight lines.
In addition to the above equipments, a water­
check measurements.
proof cover also may be required.

(4) Spirit level Procedure for a complete survey

This is essential for levelling the table-top. Before proceeding to set up the table of survey
Sometimes the spirit level is laid into the body of it is always desirable to check that all parts of the
the alidade. table are in good working order. The drawing paper
should be mounted carefully so as to give a smooth
(5) Trough compass surface. As stated before, the paper should be larger
It is essentially an oblong box with parallel sides than the board so that the paper can be folded over
and glass lid cover, carrying a magnetic needle and pinned or pasted below the board. To get a
pivoted in the centre. The ends of the needle move good result it is advisable to dip the paper in clean
freely over graduated arcs. The magnetic needle water and lay it flat on the board with its drawing
can be fixed tight by a screw attached to the pivot surface upwards. The edges could be folded over
or it can be loosened to move freely when taking and pasted below, and the board allowed to dry in
observation. When the freely moving ends of the a cool place.
 318
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

the line c ~ d and the table turned towards D until

the hair line intersects the ranging rod at D. The
table is clamped and now, the table is said to be
oriented. One of the longer edges of the trough
compass is now placed against the point C and the
compass turned round until the needle assumes a
normal position. A line is drawn along the edge
touching c and the inclination of this line with c—
d gives the magnetic bearing. The table is now said
to be lying in azimuth. Rays now can be drawn to
other points to be fixed on the board and these rays
°h/
are labelled properly to avoid confusion. The board
is removed to D and levelled up. The same edge of
the alidade is placed along c d and after unclamping
Fig. 320 the board is rotated slowly until the ranging rod at
The area to be surveyed is shown in Fig. 320. c is intersected by the hair-line. The board is now
The points to be fixed on the drawing are A, B, C, clamped and it is again oriented. Rays are drawn to
and D, the four comers of the field and two other the points A, 8 , E and F, intersecting the
points E and F. All these stations can be marked by corresponding rays, drawn from C at a, b, c and
ranging rods. Here C Z) can be selected as the base /, and thus, all the points are fixed to scale. If a
line and the point C as the starting station. Before point which is not visible from C and D is to be
fixing the table over the station, get it approximately fixed, the table could be moved to some other station
level by eye judgment at some other point and then and the point fixed from there. Even otherwise, it
move it bodily over the station. Now place the IS best to intersect every point, from at least three
.stations.
spirit level parallel to one edge of the table and
skillfully manipulate the legs to get the air-bubble
Sugge.stions
of the level in mid-run. Next, place the spirit level
parallel to another edge at right angles to the former (1) The table .should have a tight fit and should
and again adjust the level. not shake during work.
When the area to be surveyed is large, and the ( 2) Orientation over a station should be done by

scale is small the entire board will not be larger than back sights and the compa.ss can be used only as a
check.
a point in the drawing so that the starting station
point can be taken anywhere on the board; but when (3) No pressure should be placed on the board
the area to be surveyed is small the station point while working and contact with the legs should be
should be exactly located and marked on the table. carefully avoided. The general tendency is to set
For this is a long fork can be used and with the help the table too high. The board should be just below
of a plumb-bob the station point can be fixed exactly the elbow so that all parts could be reached easily.
on the board. Ordinarily the station point could be (4) The alidade should have a perfectly .straight
marked by eye judgment. After marking the point edge and lines should be drawn close to the edge. If
C on the board to represent the station C, the side any part of the alidade is raised off the surface, the
pencil should not run under it.
C D is chained carefully and the length c d marked,
according to suitable scale. The length and direction (5) The rays drawn should be as fine as possible.
of the line c d should be chosen with discretion so It is convenient to have a piece of sandpaper
attached to the board by a thread. The rays need not
that the whole area should come .squarely on the
be drawn full length. Carefully draw short line
board. Now, one edge of the alidade is placed along
where the point is to be plotted. While intersecting
 S u r v e y in g 319

the second line need not be drawn at all—the point up at a point P in the field from where three object
is only marked. For orientation long lines are A, B, C, are visible. If the plotted points a, b, c,
necessary and for this, short lines can be drawn, at corresponding to the objects in the field are shown
each end of the alidade. on the map, it is required to plot the point, p,
(6) The rays drawn should be properly labelled corresponding to the jxDsition of the plane-table.
so that there is no confusion while intersecting from
a second station. 1. Mechanical Method
(7) As a matter of precaution every station With the help of drawing-pins fasten a piece of
should be intersected from three or four stations. tracing paper on the broad. Mark a jx)int p on the
Before leaving a station a check-sight should be taken tracing paper to represent the position of the table.
to see if the table has been disturbed. Short distances Put one edge of the alidade against point p and take
could be measured in the field by chain or tape and sights successively to the three objects A, B ,C and
the corresponding lengths should be verified on the draw long rays. Unpin the tracing paper and shift it
drawing. until the rays pass through the corresponding objects,
(8) The scale should be selected according to a, b and c on the map. Now repin the tracing paper
the amount of details to be shown but it is always and prick p, the point of intersection of the three
convenient to choose some multiple of 10. rays, and the position of the table will be at the
(9) When it is necessary to continue the survey point where the pin-prick touches the map. Next
on another sheet, a few stations from the first sheet place the edge of the alidade along p and orient the
should be transferred to the second by pricking or table by sighting at A. Draw rays j o i n i n g B and
any other suitable methods. c C respectively and the three rays would meet at p.
It there is a slight inaccuracy, the lines form a small
Sources of E rrors triangle which can be eliminated by slight movement
(1) Errors due to the station point marked on of the board or the position can be found by the
the board being not exactly above the px)int on the triangle of error method explained later.
ground.
(2) Errors due to loose fitting and wrong 2. Graphic Method
levelling. There are several graphic solutions to the three-
(3) Errors due to imperfect sighting. point problem, but here only Llano’s graphic method
(4) Errors due to lines not being drawn perfectly will be described.
straight. The three objects A, B, and C and their plotted
(5) Errors in measurement of the base line and positions are shown in Fig. 321. Draw a per­
in laying off the exact length. pendicular line dividing a b into two parts. Place
(6) Errors due to changes of weather. the alidade along this line and to rotate the table
(7) Errors due to wrong labelling of the rays. until B is sighted and then clamp the table. Place the
edge of the alidade at the point a and to date the
The Three-Point Problem alidade until A is sighted and then draw the ray A
Sometimes it is necessary to determine the to intersect the previous line at d.
position of a plane table in the field with the help of Similarly bisect the line be by a perpendicular
three objects the positions of which are already and after placing the alidade along this line
marked on the map. This interpolation is done by undamped and rotate the table until B is sighted,
the method of resection commonly used for plane- now clamp the table and draw the sight line c C to
table survey. There are three ways by which the intersect at e. See Fig. 322.
problem can be solved: ( 1) Mechanical method, With cenu-es d and c and radii a d and e c
(2) Graphic method, and (3) Trial method. respectively draw arcs of circles to intersect at/, the
The basic problem is that the plane table is set required position of the plane-table on the map.

X
 -7 -

320 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

the triangle of error. In case triangle of error is

B' formed there are two alternatives. Firstly, if the
position of the table is within the triangle formed,
\ by imaginary lines joining the objects in the field,
\ then the position p will be within by the triangle of
error so that the perpendicular distance of such a
r— ---------------1—
\ 1 position from any ray is proportional to the distance
\ 1 of the object from which that ray was drawn {see
1 •b Fig. 323). Secondly, when the table is outside the

« \ 1
\ '
M •c
d

o ^

Hg. 321

ye

Fig. 323

b. / imaginary triangle the position p of the table on the

map will be outside the triangle of error either to the
left or to the right of all the rays. Fig. 324 shows
that p and p ' are the only two such positions, where
p is to the left of all the rays and p ' to the right of
all the rays. In any other sector this condition is not

Fig. 322

3. Trial Method
This method is also known as the triangle of
error method.
Orient the table as far as possible by the help of
the compass. Choose three visible objects in the field
and find their corresponding positions on the map.
These three objects should not be on the
circumference of a circle. Now clamp the table and
draw lines a, b and c by sighting at A, 5 and C
respectively. If the table is by chance oriented
properly, rays will meet at the required point P, but
most commonly they will form a small triangle called Fig. 324
 S u r v e y in g 321

fulfilled. To determine whether the point should be Compass Surveying

on the left side or on the right side of the rays, In compass surveying the magnetic bearing of a
unclamp the table and rotate slightly to the left and line is found with the help of a compass and the
after clamping draw new rays sighting at the objects length of the line is measured with a chain or tape.
and if the new triangle of error is larger than the Thus the direction and length being known the line
first triangle of error, the position should be p ', tliat can be easily plotted.
is on the right of the rays, but if the new triangle of By the term magnetic bearing we mean the
error is smaller than the first the jxisition is p, that angle which a line Joining the observer with the
is on the left of the rays. After determining whether object makes with the magnetic north-south line at
it is p or p ' fix the position by drawing perpendiculars the place, measured from the latter in a clockwise
to the rays proportional to the distances of the rays direction. It should be distinguished from true
from the objects. This rule that the perpendicular bearing which means the angular inclination of a
distance of such a position from any ray is propor­ line from the geographical north-south line, i.e., the
tional to the distance of the object from which that line Joining the North Pole with the South Pole.
ray was drawn would also indicate whether the Thus we have a true north-south line and a magnetic
position should be p or p'.
north-south line. The angle between these two lines
is known as the magnetic declination. But since the
Advantages of Plane-table Surveying position of the magnetic north-south line at any place
(1) There is no necessity of a field-book and shows diurnal, monthly and annual changes, the
thus mistakes in recording are completely avoided. declination is also variable and this variation in
(2) The entire plotting is done in the field and declination is called magnetic variation. It is obvious
thus there is less likelihood of over-looking any that if the declination is known, the direction of true
details which ought to be shown. north at a place can be ascertained with the help of
(3) In the method described it is necessary only a magnetic compass.
to measure one base line and thus mistakes in
measurement of lines or angles are the least The Prismatic Compass
(4) There is ample scope for checking the survey Fig 325 shows a prismatic compass. It differs
with the progress of the work. from an ordinary magnetic compass in having a small
(5) By the method of resection the position of prism at one end and a sighting vane at the other.
a point with respect to there known points can be The line Joining the slit in the prism and the thin
easily determined. Thus the surveyor can take up a
new position without reference to the last station.
(6) The method is quick, non-expensive and
reasonably accurate.

Disadvantages
(1) In wet weather the work is difficult if not
impossible.
(2) The plane-table is not very handy and one
has to carry a large number of accessories.
(3) If the big area is to be surveyed on a large
scale, frequent change of paper is necessary.
(4) If the wood is not very well seasoned the
table is liable to warp.
(5) Not very suitable for calculating areas.
Fig. 325
 \

e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l g e o g r a p h y
322
row also
convenience the graduations of the outer
wire in the sighUng vane passes through "he “ ntre
are printed the right way up. obiects.
of the compass. The small bar magnet is d ^ e tn c ^ ly
To facilitate taking sights to loured
fitted to a graduated circular rim and is the prism is fitted with a movable pair ^
S i e l L on a pointed pivot. There ts a lever attached glasses. For sighting objects w h ich are too
m tte sighting vane so that whenever the instrument
the plane of the compass or are too high '^P’
U ^ t n use and the sighUng vane folds flat on the
plane mirror is fitted to the frame ^
id thrm agnet with the rim is raised off the pivot
vane. The mirror can be a d ju s ^ to V
the reflection of the object can be s ^ n
The compass can be used ball-and-
generally it is provided with a stand with a ball and
socket joint.

\
graduations differ by , ’ , , oqo q* the north

IS because f figure on the outer

taken through the pnsm. reflected
row below the prism is magnified and j e t i ^ t ^
T re e

T re e
E i . , 0 t 60- 61 » • ■ » i ~ “ *

T e m p le
T re e

T re e T re e

Fig. 327
Procedure .
(1) The area to be surveyed should first he
roughly sketched as shown in Fig. 327. The stations
should be so selected that the lengths could be easily
chained and bearings taken without any difficulty.
(2) The compass is set up at station ‘A’ an
levelled to a horizontal position. This could be tested
by raising the sight vane when the needle will begin
to swing freely on the pivot. If the base of the
O frl? . compass is no. ““( i f : ; : ; me
freely. After lev generally f-,“ J*®*'
possible the pf^^^ in posiuon for, ^
to one side is t'® ^ in g sight.
 S u r v e y in g 323

(3) The needle comes to rest after a few minutes

in the magnetic meridian with the axis running north- 6 N D LINE
south. 474'
(4) A ranging rod is fixed at B and the compass
slowly turned so that when a sight is taken through
the prism slit the hair-line in the centre of the sight-
vane intersects the ranging rod. At the same time
the graduations on the rim will be visible and the
reading with which the hair-line coincides is the
forward bearing of the line AS.
(5) The compass is turned and bearing of
prominent objects along the sides are taken so that
their position could be fixed by intersection of
bearings taken from two stations.
(6) With the help of ranging rods AB is aligned
and the length measured by a chain. Offsets are
taken to determine the position of the hedge as in
chain surveying. The position of the hedge could
also be fixed by taking bearings to ranging rods
arranged along the hedge but since the hedge is near
the chain line it is more convenient and accurate.
(7) The bearing of AD is determined; the needle
is lifted off the pivot and set up at 300' chain mark L IN E FROM T O (B
from where bearings are taken to points whose
bearings w ^ already taken from station A and also Fig. 328
to some more objects.
(8) The compass again is set up at B and back keep the pivot in good condition.
bearing of A B taken. Also bearings of prominent (c) The needle should always be put off the
objects are determined as fiom the previous station. pivot before carrying to another station.
(9) The procedure from B to C is the same as (d) Attractions about the person may be detected
from A to B. by moving round the prism when the position of the
The method of recording in the field-book is needle would also change slightly.
just the same as in case of chain surveying and the (e) Two readings for the same line may be taken
entries for the chain line AB have been shown in for accurate work. After taking the first reading the
Fig. 328. It will be seen that forward bearings are box is turned round, thus disturbing the needle and
entered at the bottom and back-bearings at the top then again the object is sighted and second reading
of the chain columns. taken.
(/) To check local attractions, always both
Suggestk>ns for accurate work forward and backward bearings should be taken and
(a) All sources of attraction, such as pocket- these values must differ by 180®.
knives, chain pins, spectacle-cases, should be kept (g) If there is obstruction in taking bearing along
away from the compass while taking observation. a line the bearing of a parallel line could be taken.
(b) Before releasing the needle, turn the main (h) When closing the compass box the needle
plate so that the needle is approximately in the should be first allowed to rest in the, magnetic
magnetic meridian and then raise the sight vane meridian and then lifted off the pivot This preserves
slowly. This will eliminate undue vibrations and the magnetic strength for a longer period.
324 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Plotting
The underlying principle is to lay off the angle
of bearing of each line from a line assumed as a
north-south meridian. The starting point should be
chosen with discretion so that the complete drawing
will come on the centre of paper. A north-south
meridian line is drawn through the point fixed and
then the protractor is placed along this line with the
zero of the protrator over the point fixed and the
bearings marked off in a clockwise direction from
the graduated edge. See point A in Fig. 329. It is
very convenient to mark off bearing if the protractor
is a complete circle but if is only a semicircular one,
and the bearing is less than 180° place the protractor
on the right of the meridian line and if the bearing
Fig. 330
is more than 180° place it on the left of the meridian
line.

Fig. 331

to any other convenient scale. At the end E draw a

B perpendicular equal to the length EA or according to
the scale chosen and then join the top of this
perpendicular with A. At the points B, C and D
erect perpendiculars to meet the hypotenuse at b, c
and d. Now, on the plan at the points B, C and D
draw parallels to the line A-E. At B measure off a
distance equal to b B on this parallel. Similarly
A measure off distances C-c, d-D at C and D
respectively. Join A lo b. b io c, c lo d and d to A
Fig. 329 to get the adjusted plan (See Fig. 330).

Detection and Elimination of Local A ttraction

Closing E rro r
Due to errors in observation and in plotting Detection
angles the plan may not close exactly. If the closing If the compass is in good order and there is no
error is small it may be graphically adjusted as mistake in observation the backward and forward
follows: bearings of a line should differ by 180°. If the
Let A B C D E shown in Fig. 330, be a plan of difference is not 180° there is probably local
an area surveyed and let A £ be the closing error. attraction at one or at both the stations. In such a
Along a straight line measure off distances AB, case set up the compass on another point on the line
BC. CD and DE. See Fig. 331. If the lengths are and find out with which of the two previous readings
too large they could be reduced to half, one-third or the third reading gives a right difference.

____
 SURVEYING 325

T able 1

Compass at Line Bearing Difference Corrected being

A AB 333° 3 0 '
B BA 153° 3 0 ' 180°
B BC 39° 0 0 '
C CB 219° 0 0 ' 180°
C CD 118° 3 0 '
D DC 294° 3 0 ' 176° 298° 3 0 '
D DA 201° 3 0 ' 205° 3 0 '
A AD 25° 3 0 ' 176°
D A —A D = 2 0 5 ° 3 0 ' - 2 5 ° 3 0 '= 18 0 °.

Elimination bearing of the previous line. If the back bearing is

The table 1 illustrates the method of elimination greater than the forward bearing add 360° to the
of local attraction in a closed traverse. latter before subtracting. By the above rule we can
From the above table (1) it is evident that at the work out the included angles of the traverse tabulated
stations A, B and C there is no local attraction. The before.
bearing of C D is 118^30' and that of D C is 294°30',
the difference being only 176°. This shows that due
to attraction the magnetic needle at D has been
deflected by 4°. The bearing C D is correct since
there is no local attraction at C as is evident from N N
the difference between the bearing of 5 C and C B,
the latter being observed from the station C. Thus
the bearing D C should be corrected to 298°30'.
The bearing D A similarly should be changed
from 201 °3 0 ' to 205°30' and the latter value
gives a correct difference of 180° with the bearing
of A D .
If there is no line with a good agreement the
traverse may be plotted with the help of the included
angles. In Fig. 332, c is the forward bearing of the
line B C. Now, if due to some local attraction at B
the needle is deflected to the direction B N ' then
both the bearings will be affected by the same amount
but the included angle A B C will be the same as
before.
To calculate the included angle the general rule
is as follows:
From the forward bearing subtract the back Fig. 332
326 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

B C forward = 3 9 °-0 ' D A forwards = 2 0 1 °-3 0 '

+360° - 0 ' + 360° - 0'
399° -3 0 ' 561° -3 0 '
A B backward 153°-30' , C D backward 294° -3 0 '
LABC = 245° -3 0 ' LCD A =-267° - 0'
CD forward 118° -30' A B forward = 333° -30'
+360° - 0 ' D A backward 25° -30'
478° -30' ^ DAB -=308° - 0'
B C backward 219° -0 '
L BCD = 259° -30' L ABC = 245.5
L BCD -2 5 9 .5
LCD A = 267.0
L DAB = 308.0
1080.0

If there are n angles the result should be 2/i x accumulation of error.

90 + 360®, and in this case when there are 4 angles Hence it is advisable to recalculate the bearings
the result should be 1080.0 and this agrees exactly from included angles.
with the calculated value. But supposing if the From Fig. 333 it is clear that to get the bearing
calculated result was too great by 0®30' then it could of B C (Jb) add the included angle A B C {d)\.o the
be adjusted by subtracting 0®15' from each of the bearing oi A B (c). If the result is more than 180®,
two angles adjacent to the shortest side. subtract 180® and if less than 180®, add 180®. The
The traverse can now be plotted from these result will be the bearing of B C. But if this result
included angles but the method is not very accurate is greater than 360®, subtract 360®.
because the direction of each line is obtained from We can now work out the bearing from the
the previous line and thus there is an accumulation included angles. Since the bearing of A B checks
of errors. But in case of plotting with bearings each exactly we shall start with it.
direction is plotted independently and there is no

AB =333 -30 Bearing o f C D = 118 -3 0

labc = 245 -30 Z.C D A = 267 - 0
579 - 0 385 -3 0
-1 8 0 - 0 -1 8 0 - 0
399 - 0 Bearing o f D A =205 -30
-3 6 0 - 0 LDAB = 308 - 0
Bearing o f B C = 3 9 -0 5 1 3 -3 0
lbcd = 259 -3 0 -1 8 0 - 0
2 9 8 -3 0 Bearing o f A B = 333 -3 0
-1 8 0 -0
Bearing of C D = 1 18-30
 S u r v e y in g
327

Disadvantages
(i) The compass does not give very accurate
reading. Even fw the same line different beanngs
can be obtained with different compasses.
(ii) The presence of magnetic substances under­
ground or on the surface nearby—^line magnetic ores,
iron pipes, steel structures, etc., interferes with
compass surveying.
ng.333
Theodolite
In case there is no line like AB whose original It is an instrument used for measuring horizontal
results check we should start with the values showing and vertical angles more precisely and accurately
the best agreement. than any other instrument The instrument is fitted
with a telescope in order to facilitate the sighting of
Sources of E rror distant objects. It is frequently used in different types
of survey works such as traverse, triangulations,
1. Errors due to local attraction prolonging survey lines, computation of elevations
This can be adjusted by the method of and depressions of distant and near objects.
elimination stated above or bearings of parallel lines Theodolities are generally of two types;
or other points on the same line where there no local (0 Transit Theodolite and (ii) Non-transit
attraction can be taken. Theodolite. A transit instrument is one which helps
in sighting a star passing through the zenithal or
2. Errors on observation over the head of the observer. In a transit theodolie
Errors in sighting the object and reading the the telescope revolves completely in a vertical plane.
bearing are common sources of error and can be Thus, with a periscopic arrangement it can well be
av o id^ with a little patience and care. used for sighting the over-head objects.
Non-transit theodolites are those in which the
3. Instrumental errors telescope cannot perform a complete revolution about
The compass itself is an important source of its horizontal axis. It is again of two types: (a) Plain
error and some amount of error is always there even or Y-Theodolite, and (b) Everest Theodolite. These
with the best compass. types were formerly in frequent use but have been
completely replaced by the transit ones.
Advantages of compass surveying The preciseness of a theodolite depends on the
(i) Since the compass is light and portable, nature of scale graduations. Vernier arrangements
angular measurements can be taken more than, say, further give them a name as Vernier Theodolite.
with a theodolite. There are theodolites known as Micrometer or
Microptic theodolites where greater presciseness is
(u) If the bearing along one direction is incorrect,
maintained by the optical arrangements for reading
it does not affect other lines of survey.
the angles.
(Hi) A straight line of sight can be continued
beyond an obstacle by selecting a point on the other Parts of a Transit Theodolite
side of the obstacle so that the difference between A Transit Theodolite consists of the following
back sight from this station and foresight from the parts (Fig. 334):
previous stations comes to 180®.
(iv) Suitable for surveying a congested area A. Trivet Stage. The lower-most triangular
where chain survey is difficult. plate which supports the levelling screws and is
 328
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

collimation, i.e., the axis of the instrument is

vertically above the selected station.
E. The Spindles. There are two conical spindles
one placed inside the other such that the vertical
axis of the two coincide and are in alignment with
the vertical axis of the instrument, when perfectly
levelled. The inner spindle is attached to the upper
or vernier plate whereas the outer to the lower
horizontal plate or scale plate.

F. The Lower Plate. This is the horizontal

plate attached to the outer spindle and carries the
main scale of the instrument. The graduations are
from 0 to 360° in clock-wise direction. The main
scale graduations differ from make to make. The
graduation may be in degree or its fractions ( 1/2
1/3, 1/4 and 1/6).

G j . Body Clamp. It is a clamp which controls

the rotation of the lower plate. The instrument can
be rotated and fixed in any desired direction with
the help of this clamp. It is provided with a slow
motion screw or tangent screw called body tangent
Tj which helps in minor rotational adjustments of
the lower plate.

. Vernier Clamp. This clamp is used for

clamping the upper plate or vernier plate. It is also
provided with a tangent screw, known as vernier
tangent used for minor adjustments.
Fig. 334 Gy Telescope Clamp. Clamp to control the
rotation of the telescope or in the vertical plane. It
hinged to the tripod is known as Trivet Stage or is also provided with a slow motion screw, called
Plate. telescope tangent screw Ty used for minor
adjustments. All the tangent screws function only
B. Tribrach Plate. The triangular plate above
when the respective clamps are fixed.
the three levelling screws is known as tribrach plate.
It also supports the instrument. H. Upper Plate or Vernier Plate. The plate
attached to the inner spindle and carrying the vernier
C. Levelling Screws. In between the two
scale is known as vernier plate. There are two vernier
above mentioned plates there lie three or four screws
arrangements at 180° apart known as A and B
which are used for making the instrument horizontal.
verniers.
The three screw instruments are preferred and
frequently used. Ij and ly Bubble Tubes. There are two bubbles
tubes used for setting the instrument. One is attached
D. Centring Plate. This plate is attached to to the horizontal circle and the other to vertical circle
the Trivet stage and helps in minor centring It is with the help of the foot screws or levelling
operations such as the telescopic axis or the line of screw that the horizontal plates are levelled.
 S u r v e y in g 329

J. Stands. The two A shaped frames which 5. Focussing Screw .‘R ’—The screw used for
carry the trunion axis of the instrument are known effecting relative movements within the tubes is
as stands or standards. known as focussing screw.
and S^ are the reading lenses for horizontal
K. Vertical Circle or Plate. The graduated
circular plate attached to the trunion axis and placed and vertical scales, ‘f /’ is the place for fixing the
vertically is known as the vertical circle. It is also compass.
provided with two vernier arrangements, C and D. The instrument is supported on a tripod stand
The vertical circle, unlike the horizontal one, is when in use. A hook is attached to the outer spindle
graduated in four quadrants (0—90° each). The two for supporting the plumb bob, used for centring the
verniers are attached to the index arms of the index instrument
bar L. On this very side of the circle the azimuthal Some of the related terms are given as follows:
or altitudinal bubble (Z^) is attached.
1. Line o f Collimation and Line o f Sight
M. Tube compass. A closed tube carrying a It is the imaginary line obtained by joining the
magnetic pointer helps in directing the telescope centre of the cross hair of the diaphragm and the
towards the magnetic north. optical centre of the object glass. When the
N. The Telescope. The last but the most instrument is directed and the object is intersected
important part of the instrument, which in itself is a by the L. C. the line of sight of the observer coincides
complex assemblage of various parts occupies its with the line of collimation of the instrument.
position at the top of the theodolite. The telescope
revolves around the horizontal axis, called the trunion 2. The Trunion Axis
axis. The telescope consists of the following parts; The horizontal axis supporting the telescope is
called a Trunion Axis or Horizontal Axis.
1. Body. It consists of the tubes, one of which
slides within the other. The tube which moves is 3. Face Right and Face Left
known as focussing tube. It carries either the object While taking observations, if the vertical circle
glass or the eye piece and diaphragm of the is on the right of the observer, it is known as face
instrument Thus a relative motion between object right method and the reading is known as ‘F. R.'
glass on one side and eye piece and diaphragm on observation. On the other hand, if it is on the left,
the other, is caused. the method is known as face left and reading as
2. The Object Glass. ‘0 ’— It is a compound ‘F. L.’ observation.
lens consisting of double and convex and concavo-
convex lenses attached to the object end of the body. 4. Repetition and Reiteration
These are the two methods adopted for high
3. The Eye Piece. ‘Z*’— A combination of lenses, degree of precision in observation.
i.e., eye lens and field lens attached to the other end (a) Repetition. The practice is to add a particular
of the body is known as an eye piece. It is adjustable angle several times mechanically and then divide by
according to the observer’s eyesight. Its aim is to the number, by which it is added. The face right
m agnify the im age and the crossw ire of the and left methods are used equal number of times.
diaphragm. Suppose ZAOB is to be measured (Fig. 335). The
4. The Diaphragm. The brass ring held in place instrument is set at 0 and levelling and centring is
by four c^ ta n -h ead e d screws and carrying the cross done. After fixing the zero of vernier A at 360° of
hair is known as the diaphragm. Its movement is lower plate, the telescope is directed towards A by
always with the eye piece. The cross wires are releasing the lower clamp and object A is bisected
either, (/) lines on glass, or (ii) spider webs, or correctly with the help of tangent screw. By releasing
(«0 fme platinum wires, or (/v) platinum-irridium the upper clamp, the telescope is now directed
points. towards B in a clockwise direction and the object is
 T"

330 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

are visible from each station. The base lines are

also fixed and measured with the help of chain or
tape.

2. Setting up the instrument

(a) This is an important operation. It consists
of a-centring the instrument roughly with the help
of the legs of the tripod stand and finally with the
Fig. 335 help of the centring plate.
(b) Levelling the instrument with the help of
correctly bisected. The upper plate is now clamped tripod and finally the levelling screws. For levelling,
and the reading is noted on both the verniers. The
the lower bubble is firstly brought parallel to two of
mean of the two will give the value of ZAOB. By
the foot screws and by giving the screw inward or
releasing the lower clamp the instrument is again
outward motion simultaneously, the bubble is brought
brought to sight the object A through a clockwise in the centre. Then the instrument is rotated by 90®
movement. Again the lower plate is clamped and
such that it is perpendicular to line joining the centres
upper released. With a clockwise rotation the object
of the two foot screws previously considered. Now
B is again bisected and the reading noted. The value
only the remaining screw is moved to bring the
will be exactly doubled if readings are correct. This
bubble in the centre. This process is repeated till
is normally repeated six times, thrice with face right
the bubble remains in the centre of the tube in all
and thrice with face lefL The mean of all the readings
the positions, the theodolite occupies.
will give the required result Thus all the readings
(c) Zero Setting. In the strict sense of the term
can be noted with a high degree of precision.
the zero setting means the setting at zero, i.e., the
(b) Reiteration. It is the second method zero of of the vernier scale should coincide with the
making precise observations. The successive angles zero and 180® reading of the main scale. But there
with respect to their previous objects are measured is another implication of the term also, i.e., and
and also the angle between the last and the first reading with reference to which one starts noting
object. After the close up the reading at vernier A observations can be called as the zero setting.
should be the same as in the initial stage. If it is not
the same the difference is proportionately adjusted 3. Measurement o f angles
over all the angles. This method is a bit easier and After the first two operations are complete, the
hence preferred to the former one. main task before the observer remains is of measuring
the horizontal and vertical angles, i.e., fixing the
Procedure angular positions of objects with reference to the
Field survey by a theodolite consists mainly of given object.
three groups of observations:
1. Field sketching and selection of stations. (a) Measuring the horizontal angle. For measur­
2. Setting up the instrument. ing horizontal angle between any two objects, the
3. Measurement of angles. left hand object is first sighted after the two main
above mentioned operations. The object is aligned,
1. Field sketching and selection of stations with the line of collimation of the instrument and
A rough field sketch of the area to be surveyed parallax is well removed. Parallax means the relative
is prepared. This helps the students in final displacement between object and the image. It is
preparation of maps. According to the nature of the removed by focussing the 1—eye-piece and 2—the
field, the stations at which to set up the theodolite, telescope. When the parallax is removed the perfect
are selected, such that maximum number of objects image of the object is seen at the cross hair of the
 S u r v e y in g 331

diaphragm. Now the lower plate is clamped aiid can be plotted either with the help of the angles or
vernier plate released. The telescope is directed to with the help of computed lengths of the sides of
the second object and then it is correctly sighted triangles. The angles measured by a theodolite show
with the help of the vernier tangent. The readings at the preciseness upto the order of 20" or 10" which,
two vemiers are noted and the mean gives the requir­ practically cannot be plotted by even the most precise
ed angle. The observation can be made more precised protractor. Therefore it is advisable to plot the
with the help of repetition or reiteration methods. triangles by computing the lengths of the sides. The
This is how the direct angles can be measured. In same can be accomplished with the help of the
railway and other highway surveys instead of the formula:
direct, deflection angles are measured. A deflection f s\n A _ sin B sin C
angle is one, which a survey line makes with the b r~ I
prolongation of the preceding line. It is equal to the which states that sides of a triangle are proportional
difference of the included angle and 180°. They are to the sins of opposite angles. In the above formula
known as right (R) or left (L) depending whether capital letters refer to the angles and small letters to
measured clockwise or anti-clockwise. their opposite sides. Thus starting from the triangle,
(b) Measuring the vertical angle. The angle which stands on the measured base, the computations
between the inclined line of sight and the horizontal can be completed and the triangles plotted.
line is known as a vertical angle. It is positive or The traverse survey consists of the observations
measured in the from of angles and distances. The
negative as the line of sight is above or below the
plotting can be accomplished by either of the methods
trunion axis, the horizontal level. To compute the
of (0 interior angle, (it) included angle, (iii) deflection
vertical angle, the instrument is set at the station
angle, (iv) co-ordinate method, (v) with the help of
from where the observation is to be taken. After the
bearing or azimuth. The methods of plotting a
primary operations, the telescope is brought traverse survey by included angle, interior angle and
horizontal, i.e., the vertical vemiers should read 0 with the help of bearing is similar to that applied in
and 0. The index bar is attached to the telescope prismatic compass plotting. The deflection angle
and so adjusted that the telescope becomes horizontal method is more useful in open traverse surveys as
if vemiers read 0 and 0. The telescope clamp is the required station can be plotted simply by plotting
then released and also the body clamp. The telescope the angle which it makes with the prolongation of
is first made to sight the object, then it is rotated the preceding line.
such that the high or low object is perfectly
coinciding with the central horizontal hair. Now the Co-ordinate method of traverse computation
vemiers are read and observations recorded. If the bearings and lengths of sides in a traverse
are known, projection of the lines can be parallel to
(c) Measurement of Azimuth and Magnetic
meridian i.e., on y axis and perpendicular to it, i.e.,
bearing. If after the setting of the instrument, the on X axis can be calculated {Fig. 336). The
magnetic north is directed by the telescope with the projections are called as latitude and departure of a
help of the tube compass and then the observations line respectively. The latitude is positive or negative
are recorded in clockwise direction by releasing the as lies north and south of the origin and is termed
upper clamp, the readings if computed with reference as northing and southing. Whereas the departure is
to zero, will give the magnetic bearing of the objects. positive or negative as lies east or west and is styled
as easting and westing.
Plotting For line AO
The observations of theodolite can be plotted in Bearing = 6°
different ways in the cases of Triangulations and Length =1
Traverses. In a triangulation, the angles are Latitude = 1 cos 0
computed and a base is measured. Thus observation Departure = 1 sin 0
332 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

H. E. = Horizontal Equivalent (known).

VI = H = Vertical interval or height to
be calculated.

VI = HE tan 0. The height of the

instrument added to it will give
I ( + ,+) the final result.

2. Base not approachable

w
(/) When the base is not approachable, two
stations collinear with the object are selected at a
m n measured distance and the angular elevations or
depressions are noted. The calculations are made as
follows:
Let a and P be the angles at A and B respectively
and d the distance between them (Fig. 338). Now
Fig. 336 from right angled A ACD
Consecutive and independent co-ordinates
The latitude and departiu-e of any point given
with respect to preceding one is known as
consecutive co-ordinate, whereas with respect to
common origin is called independent co-ordinate or
total latitude and total departure.
A
Computation o f height
Different formula and methods are adopted for Fig. 338
the purpose, depending on the nature of the object
as its base may be approachable or non-approachable.
The cases are as follows: DC DC
ta n o =
1. The base of the object is approachable and AC AB-\-BC
can be measured from the point of observation, then From right angle A BCD
the angle of elevation or depression is noted with t a n p = - |^
the help of the instrument after the primary operations
are complete. eliminating BC from ( 1) with the help of (ii)
Let 0 = observed angle (Fig. 337). DC
tan a =
AC
DC
AB^
ta n p
DC tan p
A B ta n P ^ -D C
It is required to obtain the value of D C. Hence
by necessary changes in sides the above formula is
A H .E 6 reduced as:
tan a tan P + DC tan a - DC tan p
Fig. 337 or, tan a tan p = DC (tan p - tan a)
 S u r v e y in g 333

, A B tan a tan p ^ d tan a tan p Total latitude of B= 290.8 - 229.3 - 516.6

OF; = - 455.1'
’ tan p — tan a tan p -- tan a
Total departure B = 327.5 + 623.2 + 267.8
here the values of AB, Z a and Z p are known = + 1218.5'
hence DC can be calculated.
Total latitude of D = 290.8 - 229.3 = 61.5
Height of object = DC + height of the
Total departure D = 327.5 + 623.2 = 950.7
instrumenL
Total latitude of C = 290.8 = 290.8
(zi) In spite of above method of collinear points,
Total departure of C = 327.5 = 327.5
the station may be selected transverse to the object
(zzz) Since the latitude of AB is minus and
and the bearings of the object from these stations
departure is positive, B lies in SE quadrant.
will fix its positions. Afterwards the angle of
elevation from either of the stations will be enough ia) Length AB = V (latitude)^ + (departure)^
to enable the computation of height. The instrument’s = V (455.1)2 + (1218.5)^ = 1300.7'
height is finally added to the calculated result.
or, {b) reduced bearing AB = tan~
E x am ple
455.1
or, 0 = 69® 31' i.e. S 69® 31' E.
Two stations A and B are fixed on either side of AB
a wood. The following traverse is run from A io B Now cosec 0 = ----- or, AB = 1218.5
along the sides of the wood. ID
cosec 69® 31' = 1300.7'.
Side Length in f t Bearing
950.7
AC 438 48^^ 24' (zv) Reduced bearing of AD = tan~ ^ L.
CD 664 110*^ 12' 61.5
DB 582 152® 36' = N 86® 1 8 'E
Determine the length oi A B. From the station Hence length of AD = 950.7 cosec 86® 18' =
D, a line DE is carried into the wood on a bearing 952.6'
of 168® 6' in order to fix an intermediate point E on Now in the A ADE
AB. Find the length of DE. Also calculate the Z DAE = Bearing of AB' - bearing of AD
= 110® 29' - 86® 18' = 24® 11'
consecutive co-ordinates of A and independent co­
Z ADE = Bearing of DA - bearing of DE
ordinates of the points with respect to A and plot the
= (86® 18' + 180®) - 168® 6' = 98®12'
figure on a 1 : 1800 (1" = 150').
Z DEA = Bearing of ED - Bearing of BA
= (180® + 168® 6') - (110® 29' + 180®)
Calculations
= 57® 37'
(z) Consecutive-co-ordinates.
We know side AD = 952.6' and all the angles.
BC latitude in ft. = A C cos 48® 24'
= + 290.8' Hence with the help of sin formula, we get
departure „ „ = A C sin 48® 24'
Sin P E A. Sin DAE
= + 327.5'
Side A D Side De
CD latitude in tt. = A D cos (180® - 110® 12')
= -2 2 9 .3 ' -.p Side AD sin D A £
Hence s.de D E = -------------------------
departure „ „ = A D sin (180® - 110® 12')
= + 632.2'
952.6'X Sin 24° 11°
DB latitude in ft. = D B cos (180® - 152® 36') Sin 57° 11'
= -5 1 6 .6 '
departure „ „ = D B sin (180® - 152® 36') = 462.6'.
= + 267.8'
(zz”) Independent co-ordinates o iB .D and C with With the help of the co-ordinate the students
respect to A. should plot the traverse.
 334 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Traverse Surveying measuring the short tie line ab and the distances oB
The basis of traverse surveying is to establish a and Bb. In plotting, first, the line A B is drawn to
series of connected straight lines whose length and length and then with centre a and radius aZ? an arc
included angles are measured. The length is is drawn. Similarly with centre B and radius Bb
determined with a chain, steel tape, cyclometer, another arc is drawn to intersect the former arc at b.
pedometer or by pacing; and angles are measured The side Bb produced to give the direction of the
with theodolite, prismatic compass, or plane-table. line B C. This method can be employed either for
Traversing is much less accurate than triangula­ closed or open traverse.
tion and is only used in:
(1) Exploratory or reconnaissance surveys where 2. By a Prismatic Compass
the instrument should be light and easily portable The procedure for surveying a plot of land with
and rapid work essential. the help of a prismatic compass has already been
(2) Traversing is also resorted to in flat and discussed and that is the principle of a closed traverse.
densely wooded countries and in towns where there The procedure in case of an open traverse with a
is difficulty in sighting trigonometrical stations. prismatic compass is in no way different firom that
Generally details between two trigonometrically fixed of a closed traverse excepting perhaps that in an
stations are filled in by traversing. open traverse chain measurements are restricted only
Traverses may be: to the main lines and other details on the two sides
of the traverse line are fixed by bearing and that the
(a) A Closed Traverse survey does not make a circuit.
In which the lines make a complete circuit. In a road traverse the bearing is taken up to the
point the road is straight and the length measured by
(b) An Open Traverse chain or by pacing. Bearings are also taken to
Where the lines of a traverse do not close to prominent objects on both sides of the road. The
from a circuit. This is the type generally resorted to ends of the lines are either fixed by ranging rods or ^
in surveying a river valley or in preparing route- some prominent objects, such as a tree. After coming
maps. to the second station the back bearing is taken and
then the forward bearing to the third station is
Methods of Traversing observed and the length chained. The process is
repeated for all the other lines of traverse. This will
1. By Chain or Tape be clear form Fig. 340. which represents the field
We have already discussed the method of chain book of such a road traverse and Fig. 341, represents
surveying by establishing long triangles. This the area plotted from the end-book.
triangulation method although more accurate takes
longer time than the traverse method where the 3. By a Plane-table
direction of the line is established by short tie lines, If the road shown in Fig. 341, is to be traversed
as shown in Fig. 339. The direction of the line by a plane-table, set up the table at A, choose a
5 C in relation to A B can be established by corresponding ‘a' on the table and direct the alidade
to B and draw a ray. Measure the distance A B and
according to scale, mark out the length ab
a representing the distance AB. Draw rays to prominent
objects on both sides of the road. Next, move the
table to B and set it up there. Place the edge of the
alidade along ab and turn the table until the hair­
line of the sight vane intersects A. This is called
Fig. 339 taking a back sight and corresponds to taking a back-
X

S u r v e y in g 335

both sides of the road and these will be fixed by

6' intersection with rays drawn from the station C.
© Remove the table to station C and proceed on.
145'
39' 4. By a Theodolite
®
20O '
With the help of a theodolite the included angles
between successive lines can be measured, thus,
establishing the direction of the traverse, and lengths
70' can be measured or calculated.
50'
346'
Adjustm ent of E rro r in open Traverse
© , ^ ‘ 8°Ri»«rTanK “"
220 To check the accuracy of the traverse several
«<»o methods can be employed:
160' (1) Bearings are taken from different points of
50' the traverse to some prominent objects, such as a
^ mountain peak, tower, etc., and when these bearings
^ _18*Riv<rba«iK. VS
230' ~7b^ -fc>MiW are plotted they should intersect at one-point. See
Fig. 342.
>©
352'
A Wt . P e o H _ _ _ _

Fig. 340

Fig. 342

I sfOO' (2) If the traverse is between two known points,

the error could be distributed. Supposing a traverse
Fig. 341 was undertaken between two known points A and
B. ' The traverse started at A but due to error it
bearing in compass survey. The table is now
terminated at B' instead of B. See Fig. 343. To
oriented. Put the edge of the alidade at b and sight
distribute the error join B' to B and through each of
the station C. Measure the distance BC and mark
the station point (1), (2), (3), (4) and (5) draw
out a corresponding length be. Draw rays to objects
parallels with BB' and as there are five legs to the
already sighted from A and thus fix the points by
traverse divide BB' into five parts. Mark on the line
intersection. Draw rays also to other objects on
at station point (5) four parts of BB' and on the
 e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l g e o g r a p h y
336

Fig. 343

successive station points mark off similar pt *s but

the number of parts successively decreasing to zero
at A. Join the top of these parallel lines and the
traverse is adjusted.
(3) If it is a closed traverse adjustment can be
made as described in compass surveying. Angular
Fig. 344
adjustment can also be resorted to. Since in a c lo s^
figure the sum of the interior angles plus four nght level. The instrument is provided with a tripod stand
angles is equal \p twice as many right angles as for mounting. The levelUng staves which are used
there are sides, so if the sum of the intenor angles with the level have telescopic fitting and are from
4 right + angles as derived from the observed 10' to 51' long. These are graduated in feet and
bearings is more or less than the value of the angles fraction of a feet are also marked.
as deduced from the plotted figures, the difference For levelling, say, a stretch of road the
whether plus or minus can be proportionately instrument is set up on the tripod stand at a point L;
distributed among the interior angles. see Fig. 345, and with the help of the levelling-
screws, the instrument is levelled up so that when
Contouring the telescope is rotated the bubble in the spirit level
Contours are lines joining adjacent places at the always remains in the centre. A levelUng staff is
same height above sea level. For the determination held at the end of the road at y. The telescope is
of heights, a prerequisite to the drawing of contours directed on the levelling staff and the height where
on topographical maps, the following instruments
are generally employed;
1. The Spirit Ixvel.
2. The Theodolite.
3. The Clinometer.
4. The Aneroid Barometer.
5. The Hypsometer.

The Spirit Level

The essential parts of a spirit level are shown in
Fig. 344. The telescope T can move freely on a
horizontal plane. The spirit level is fixed on the top
of the telescope and is parallel with the line of sight
x-y. To level the instrument the levelling screws are
manipulated and the bubble in the spirit level is
brought to a mid-run, so that the line of sight x-y
rotates in a horizontal plane and objects intersected Fig. 345
by the cross-wires of the telescope are on the same
 S u r v e y in g 337

the cross-wires intersect the staff is noted. The staff In order to avoid the error due to curvature of
is moved to another point down the road to x and the earth which amounts to labour 1" in 220 yards,
another reading is taken. The difference between the distance Ly should be approximately equal to the
these two readings gives the difference of level distance Lx. See Fig. 346.
between these two points on the road. Next, the
instrument is removed to another point L on the
road and similar readings taken. In this way the
relative height of points on the road can be
determined and a section of the road can be drawn.
If the height above sea level of the point A/, or any
other point on the road, is known it is obvious that Fig. 346
the height above sea level of all the points can be The method of entry in the field-book will be
found out by simple addition or subtraction. clear from the Table 2.

T able 2

Station Back Intermediate Fore Rise Fall Reduced Distance Remark

sight sight sight level

8.26 100.00 0
7.34 0.92 100.92 50
6.20 1.14 102.06 100
4.30 1.90 103.96 150
7.43 3.13 100.83 200
8.01 0.58 100.25 250
7.52 0.49 100.74 300
9.16 1.64 99.10 350
7.62 1.54 100.64 400
^10 7.82 0.20 100.44 450
8.23 6.63 1.20 101.64 500 Turning point
8.91 0.68 100.96 550
10.33 1.32 99.54 600
11.00 0.77 98.87 650
9.90 1.10 99.97 700
10.43 0.53 99.44 750
8.20 2.23 101.67 800
5.79 2.41 104.08 850

Total
16.49 12.42 12.93 8.85

X
 e l e m e n t s o f p r a c t ic a l g e o g r a p h y
338
but the underlying principle in all the tyP“ 7 ^

.^rw i..ehelp.apluntb-w eightorw .tha

horizontal plane. Abney level which is a popular is

shown in Fig. 347. Here the horizon
^ m r t ^ r X r e m types of clinometers in use obtained by a spirt level, which is attac

--------y

n g .3 4 7

edge of the slit there is a scale of degrees and along

telescope-r. The angle in degrees which the line of the other the tangent of degrees. The zero of each
sight—« makes with the horizontal line is read off scale is in level with Ihe sight-hole.
on a vertical scale. The bubble of the spirit level cm, To lake an observation the instrument is levelled
be seen reflected on the telescope cross-wire. T h^
so that the bubble of the
is achieved by a smaU mirror set ins.de the telescope and the object is sighted through the sight-hole. Tte
which reflects the posiuon of the bubble through a point on the scale where the Une of sight mtcrsecte
slit cut in the telescope. To make an obsem tion. is noted. If the distance between the obseivcr and
ihe telescope is directed to the object and when the the object is known the rise or fall can be calcu la^
object appears on the cross-wire ihe kTOb ‘, ^ ' " 8 from the reading on the tangent scale. Suppose ^ e
the spirit level is slowly turned until the bubble is reading on the tangent scale is 0.4. Since
seen reflected on the cross-wire. The reading on the graduation along the tangent scales shows the v^ue
arc gives the rise or fall as the case may be a ^ of the ratios of the perpendicular it is obvious that
knowing Ihe distance between the observer and the the rise o f the point from the level of the clinometer
object the level of the object can be calculatM^ at O is 0.4 o f the horizontal distance. If the height
The Indian CUnomeler shown in Fig. 348 o f the clinometer above sea level is known the height
much used for contouring. Essenually o f the observed point is obtained by adding the rise
level attached to a brass plate at each ei^d o ifvpl from
in level from O.
tt,ere is a flap which could Z
4 The Aneroid Barometer
vertically. The level of the “ j ^,5 folding
■ This is used for getting the absoim^ KpjrvKa r.f
adjusted by a screw at one end. One
places. It depends on the fact that ih,
leaves has a small sight-hole at Along one
leaf has a veriical slit in the middle. Along
 S u r v e y in g 339

Practical Contouring

1. With a Spirit Level

(a) The spirit level, say a Dumpy level is set up
by a surveyor and with the help of a levelling staff
marks out a point in the field which is three feet
above the point where he is standing. Then he directs
the assistant with the levelling staff to move laterally
and other points at the same level are found. These
when joined will form contour line. The observer
then moves to one of the points on this contour line
and then find other points ahead which are three
feet higher than his second position. In this way
points on the field could be marked which will form
contour lines at an interval of three feet
(b) The spirit level is set up in the file to be
contoured and a large number of levels are taken at
different points on the ground. These points with
their level marked are then plotted on a map and
contour lines are drawn by interpolation.

2. With Clinometer
The slope of land in degrees can be found with
the help of a clinometer. As already explained, if
Fig. 348 the slope is 1° a Vertical Interval (V.l.) of 1 foot
the atmosphere varies with the height above sea. So corresponds to a Horizontal Interval (H.l.) of 57.3
the aneroid barometer shows different readings at feet, or about 20 yards, so that we get the relation;
different heights. Roughly for each thousand feet of
where D--=degree o f slop e.
ascent the pressure falls by one inch. But the pressure D
of the atmosphere also depends on the character of
If a land with uniform slope of 5® is to be
the weather and specially the temperature of the
contoured at vertical intervals of 10 feet then the
atmosphere. Thus it cannot be employed for the
precise determination of heights. It is useful in 2 0 x 10
H.l. will be = = 40 yards. That is the
exploratory surveys in the ascent of mountain peaks
etc., where rough determination of absolute height contour lines are to be drawn 40 yards apart. In
is required. other words the land rises 10 feet vertically in a
horizontal distance of 40 yards. To minimise
5. The Hypsometer calculation a scale can be prepared for a given V.l.
The boiling point of water varies with the to show H.l. corresponding to different degrees of
pressure of the atmosphere and thus it affords an slope.
approximate method of determining absolute height Supposing a hillock is to be contoured at 10'
of a place. Roughly boiling point decreases by one interval with a clinometer. First, one contour line is
degree Fahrenheit for about 500 feet of ascent. A established round the eminence a little below the
table is provided along with the hypsometer which
summit at a distance less than 10 feet. To level a
gives the height corresponding to the boiling point
line round the hill marking the position of the first
temperature.
340 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

contour a piece of cloth is tied round a ranging rod COTresponds to a H.I. o f 33 yards, therefore, for a
at a height equal to the height of the eye of the 33 X 8
observer with the clinometer. The ranging rod is drop of 8 feet it will be = --------- = 26.4 yards.
10
moved about and with the clinometer at zero a Thus the first contour line of the new slope will be
number of positions are fixed by noting the cloth a distance of 26.4 yards from the point of change in
mark on the rod. These points when joined on the the slope. Beyond this the other contour lines will
plan give the position of the first contour line. At occur at intervals of 33 yards along this ray.
a few selected points the degree of slope of ground Similarly the positions of other contour lines are
is measured. These points should be preferably at fixed along all the remaining rays. The contour points
are then joined, keeping in view the nature of the
the head of spurs or valleys and rays are drawn
ground. To check the shape of the contour lines at
along the centre of the valley or the ridge line of a least one contour line is completely levelled as in
spur. Where the direction of the central line of the case the initial contour line. If the heights of any
spur or valley changes a new ray is drawn from that point above sea level can be found out from a
pioint onwards. Along these rays the degree of slope published map the contours could be figured
is measured so far it is constant accordingly, otherwise the lowest contour should be
Since the vertical interval is 10 feet the marked as zero and all others would show relative
horizontal distance between successive contours on heights.
a slope of 5° will be 40 yards. As shown in Fig.
349 the ray no. (1) has a slope of 5® and along this Sextant
ray contours are marked at intervals of 40 yards Irrespective of the utility and advantages of
according to scale. Similarly along the ray no. (2) prismatic compass and theodolite in measuring the
the slope is 3® and contour points are marked at angular spacings of the objects, the special merit of
horizontal intervals of 66 yards. the instrument ‘sextant’ cannot be ignored. It is
firstly because the instrument does not require any
stand or support for setting it at a point but (^server’s
hands themselves serve this purpose. Secondly it
has no limitations of definite planes but can be used
either in vertical or horizontal or oblique planes.
The instrument is well adopted for observations at
sea and for reconnaissance and hydrographic surveys.
There are three main types of sextants:
1. Nautical sextant sometimes menticmed as
marine sextant
2. Box sextant.
3. Bubble sextant.
Fig. 349 Bubble sextant is specially designed for air
surveys whereas the former two are meant for ground
Now, along the ray no. (3) the slope is 4® upto
and hydrographic surveys. Nautical sextant is widely
a distance of 110 yards and then it changes to 6®.
used for measuring the angles and is worth
So starting from the initial contour the positions of mentioning here.
the first two contours are marked at intervals of 50
yards and the second contour point coming on the Nautical Sextant
100 yards mark, thus for another 10 yards distance A nautical sectant consists of:
along the ray the slope is 4® and it changes after that
to 6® of slope. For a distance of 50 yards the fall (1) A graduated arc
is 10 feet, so that for a distance of 10 yards the fall ABC (Fig. 350) of radius about 6" with centre
will be 2 feet and the remaining 8 feet drop has a at 0 . The arc is generally 60® in length and supported
slope of 6®. With 6® of slope a drop of 10 feet by two arms which are hinged at O.

es-
 S u r v e y in g
341

increase the visibility of the instrument either of the

two means are provided.
(7) Light arrangement to make the readings
visible even in dark is attached in some makes.
Graduation of scale along the arc differs from
make to make. Owing to the double reflection, by
whatever amount the index arm is moved over the
arc, the object’s image is displayed by just the double.
Hence some manufacture provided the angular
distance moved along the arc but some graduate by
giving the calculated angle, i.e., the arc of 60° is
graduated to read 120°.
From the sketch given above. Let AJ5C represent
the section of the arc with OA and DC as supporting
arms hinged at 0 . Let sun be the object to be seen
through the telescope T. Before the opcrauon is
started the index mirror M was in alignment with
Fig. 350 DC. Now let the index arm be moved down the arc
to reach a position B. The actual angular movement
(2) Index arm amounts to angle COB = P (say); vide Fig. 351.
OB (Fig. 350), which is pivoted at O, and carries
the finger grip ‘c’ and vernier scale on the other
end. This arm slides over the arc.

(3) Index mirror

M (Fig. 350). A reflecting surface attached to
the index arm and is perpendicular to the arc. It is
through this mirror that the image of one of the
objects is reflected through the silvered part of the
horizon glass such that the image is visible to the
observer.

(4) Horizon Glass

H (Fig. 350). It is placed in the line of sight of
telescope or eye-piece. It is also at right angles to
the plane of the arc and parallel to the index mirror
when the index arm is set of read zero. Lower half
of the horizon glass, i.e, half nearer to the plane of
arc is silvered so that the image of the object’s image Fig. 351
through the index mirror is made visible to the
observer. Hence the position of the normal at index mirror
(5) Two sets of coloured glass Gj and G^ (vide will also be rotated by the sameamount say F which
Fig. 350) are fixed nearer to the index mirror and is given in sketch by HFL = P.
horizon glass so as to reduce the excess brightness According to the law of reflection.
when sun is being observed. Z a = Z a' (0
(6) Telescope or eye-piece T. In order to and Z P = Z P' (iO
 "7^

342
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

From A HOF
out the other methods are employed.
^P = Z a + ZF {iii)
and from A HOT Triangulation
^ 2 p = ^ 2 o c + z!X (/v) The process depends on the axiom that if the
where Z X is the amount by which image is rotated. included angles and the length of one side of a
From {Hi) P - a = F triangle are known, the length of the remaining sides
substituting this value of P - a in (iv) can be calculated. The process involves the
2{B - L ) = X measurement of one side of a triangle called the
or, 2P = X base and from the ends of this base line angles are
Hence proved. measured to distant points forming triangles. The
sides of these triangles from the base lines form a
Procedure further series of triangles and the process is continued
To start with, the instrument is first checked until the whole country is covered up with a network
and then pointed towards one of the objects. At this of triangles.
stage the reading of vernier should be zero. Now Before commencing the triangulation o f an
one object is in the plane of the line of collimation unsurveyed country a general plan is prepared show­
of the instrument. The finger grip is rotated along ing the position of the apices of triangles called
the graduated arc so that the object seen through the trigonometrical stations. These points are usually
unpolished section of the horizon glass and the image chosen on the top of hills or any other commanding
of the object seen through the silvered part, are in spot On level ground beacons are erected on trig
one hne. The angle of elevation or depression is points which are luminous when far apart. Next a
noted.
base line of at least a mile length is chosen on as
The details of the operations depend on the level a ground as available and the length measured
nature of the objects and purpose. Details regarding with invar tapes or wires. The measuring tape or
the formula and calculation may be consulted from wire is suspended from trestles. Corrections are
the section on theodolite. applied for alignment slope of the land, temperature,
height above sea level etc., and finally a base is
Basis of Large-Scale Maps measured correct to within one tenth of an inch.
The large-scale official maps of different The base is now extended by triangulation, see Fig.
countries are known as Topographical maps. The 352, for the extension of the base line and subsequent
term topography derived from the Green topas, a triangulation an instrument known as theodolite is
place and grapgho, to draw or depict, means the
drawing or representation of the natural and cultural
features of a place. In topographical surveying large
areas are involved and at the outset a number of
primary points are fixed up to give a primary
framework for the whole area. For filling up details
the primary framework is split up into secondaries
and thus the work proceeds from the whole to the A
part. The primary points for the framework can be
fixed up by (1) triangulation, (2) traversing,
(3) astronomical observations, or by a combination
of these. Generally triangulation is the first choice
but if due to unfavorable nature of the country, e.g.,
forested areas, etc., Hiangulation cannot be carried
Fig. 352
 X

, S u r v e y in g
343

used. At the end (1) of the base the theodole is This is achieved by a previous determination of the
centred and angle to (3) and (4) measured. Then the mean sea level and fixing up the height of one point
theodolite is centred at the end (2) angles to the in the triangulation. Then the height of other
same points are measured. Then from these points trigonometrical stations can be fixed by the theodolite
(3) and (4) angles are measured to (A) and (B) and concurrently with triangulation.
thus the base is extended. Now, from these points The latitude, longitude and the direction o f true
of the base angles to various points fixed by beacons north are fixed by asU'onomical observation and the
are measured and the country covered by a netwOTk result o f the survey plotted according to a projection.
of triangles. To check the accuracy of the work For filling up the natural and cultural features
another base is carefully measured and the length in detail the total area is divided up into sections,
compared with the length computed by triangulation. each containing a number of trigonometrical stations.
For inserting contours it is necessary to With the help of these fixed points plane-tables can
determine the heights of the trigonometrical stations. easily fill up the details of the area.

1 ^ J
 Chapter 12

PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND AIR PHOTO

INTERPRETATION

Photogrammetry has provided the latest technique Germany, etc. In India, the preparation of maps
for surveying and cartography. Air photo means through aerial photographs was started after
sensing the images of earth surface through cameras independence. The air survey work is conducted by
fitted in an Airplane. Such photographic images air survey company and the Indian Air Force. And,
record the original landscape as observed at a the cartographic work through such surveys and the
particular point of time, and these images help in revision of existing maps and topographical sheets
preparing the map of the area surveyed through Air is done by the Survey of India. The Government of
plane. Though Air Photo survey and the preparation India has established Indian Photo-Interpretation
of map with their help was first initiated by Aime Institute at Dehradun under the patronage of the
Laussedat, a French military engineer in 1840, yet Survey of India with the cooperation of the
in the real sense such a technique was used by government of Netherland. This institute during last
Canadian Surveyer General Capt. Devile in 1880. fifteen years or so, has been providing technical
Devile used the Bridge Lee phototheodolite in training for students of geosciences, soil, botany etc.
surveying inaccessible areas of the Rockeis and Through aerial survey nearly whole of the country
prepared their map with the help of such aerial has now been completed on different scales. But
photographs. Such systematic efforts continued these aerial photographs are classified and
before the First World War. The countries involved confidential, and are not available for general use.
in the First W orld War realized the strategic Aerial surveys appear to be signifacant, mainly
signifiance of the areal surveys since the beginning for two purposes: (/) for land survey and mapping
of the War. Earlier Lucida has started the preparation of inaccessible areas, and (//) it is economical as
of maps with the help of Air photographs taken from well as less time-consuming. It is quite obvious that
balloons in 1858. But the real progress in this direc­ the area whose cartographic representation will in­
tion could be made in 1920, when the aeroplanes volve ordinarily through land survey, several months
were invented, the first credit for which goes to Pro­ and innumerble trained personnels, can be easily
fessors B. Melvil and M.J. Grifith of Cambridge handled through air photo mapping within the
University. Graudually in course of time improve­ shortest possible time. Though in the aerial survey,
ments were introduced in aeroplanes, camera and the initial expenditure involved appears to be
other associated tools and materials. By 1933, the excessive, yet the actual expenditure involved is
use of Air photographs began to be made at much less than that incurred in traditional topographic
commercial level. In U.S.A. aerial survey was started survey system.
in 1920, and by 1938 nearly 1.6 mill sq. miles of
area were covered by such surveys and maps Tools and Equipm ents used in Aerial Survey
completed. Several air survey companies were (/) Aeroplane, (//) the Air camera fitted in the
established in the U.S.A., Canada, U.K., Switzerland, plane with vertical axis, {Hi) altimeter, (/v) filter

. y ,jg e
 PHOTOGRAM M ETRY AND AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION 345

(yellow, which eliminates the effects of fog and ultra of the axis of the camera ranges from the vertical to
violet radiation). angular position. The areas covered by obligue air
The aeroplane is selected according to scale photos assume the shape of a trapazium. The
selected for mapping. In India, often Dacota plane convergent air photos are also oblique, but an area
is used for lower altitude-surveying, while for high is simultaneously photographed by two cameras (vide
altitude-surveying, other aeroplanes are used. Mostly Fig. 353). In trimetrogon air photos, three cameras
automatic camera is used and its shutter speed is are used simulaneously amongst which the central
fixed according to the speed of the aeroplane. The camera is vertical, and the other two are adjusted to
cameras to be used in such surveys are of different oblique position.
sizes and focal lenses, through which air photos
9" X 9" to 6" X 6" sizes are obtained. In India, RC5, FLIGHT
RC8, and Eagle IX cameras are used. Eagle IX LINE
gives the aerial photographs of only 9" x 9" size; in
this camera the errors pertaining to chromatic
observation and optical errors are more pronounced.
The lenses used in the camera, are of the following
types according to the angles of coverage and the
focal length:
Narrow Angle < 60°- more focal length
Normal Angle 60° - 75° ^
Wide Angle 75° - 100° I CONVERGENT PHOTOGRAPHY
Super wide angle > 100° - low focal length.
For air survey, the dry weather is good because Fig. 353
in the rainy season the clouds accelerate reflection, In addition, on the basis of the films used in the
due to which clear images are not obtained. The cameras, the air photographs are classified as Black
noon with scorhing sun, and the misry morning are and While, Infra-red, and Coloured.
also not favourable for air photography; therefore,
some periods between morning and noon, and noon Some defined term s associated with Aerial Photo­
and evening are best for the purpose. graphs and Aerial Photographic Surveys
1. Central Projection. Photo images are drawn
Types of Air Photographs
through aeroplanes on central projection, because
According to the position of the axis of the
the rays of the different objects pass through the
camera, the air photos may be grouped as follows: optical centre (also known as perspective cenU’e) of
(z) vertical, (zz) horizontal, (zzz') oblique, the lenses.
(zv) convegent, and (v) trimetrogon.
In the first case, the axis of the camera is 2. Fiducial Marks. In the interior of the camera,
vertically adjusted to take the photographs; in spite some marks (+ or—or 1) are made on the four
of all possible precautions, it is difficult to get a comers or in the centre of the foresites, which are
completely vertical aero photograph. This is why transferred on the air photos; these marks are known
upto 2° inclination of the axis, all photographs are as fiducial marks. The point of intersection made
by joining the opposite marks is located in the centre,
grouped in this category. The areas covered through
which is known as the principal point (pp) of the
vertical air photos are often square in shape at the
photograph. The corresponding point of the land is
uniform plane. The horizontal air photos are also
known as principal land point (vide Fig. 354).
called as Terrestrial air photos. In the production of
such air photos, the axis of the camera is horizontally 3. Tilt. The inclination of the axis of the camera
adjusted. In the oblique air photos, the adjustment between vertical and angular position is known as
346 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

average distance between both the conjugate principal

points of the principal points of an aerial photograph,
is known as Photo-base.
1. Iso-centre. If the photograph is not vertical
then the mid point of the line joining its plumb and
the axial point of the camera is known as Iso-centre
(/). In fact, all calculations made in reference to this
point, are correct. But its determination is difficult
and on the approximatley vertical photographs, its
distance is negligible so the principal point is used
for calculation {vide Fig. 354).
8. Crab. During aerial survey, when there is
A lack of adjustment between positon of the camera
Fig. 354
and the route line of the flight, the air base of the
margins of the air photos or the flight line may not
tilt. This tilt may correspond to the direction of the be parallel, and such a situation is known as crab
flight or may be perpendicular to the direction. In {vide Fig. 355).
the first, this tilt is known as 0 or X-inclination, and
in the second case it is known as or y-inclination or
D R IF T
Tip.
4. Overlap. The image of every part of the
4 — <----------------♦ C O U R S E
earth is continuously extended into more than two
adjoining air photographs. Such extended parts are
known as overlaps. These are of two types:
(0 overlaps in the direction of flights are 60% or
more, {it) lateral overlaps, which are generally from
CRABBING
20% to 30%. These overlaps are of special signi­
COURSE
ficance in air photo interpretation as well as in the
construction of maps based on such air photos. Three
dimensional models are associated with such
overlapping parts; Lateral overlaps are helpful in Fig. 355
joining two adjoining strips or in their systematic
arrangements, because lateral control points are 9. Flying Altitude. The altitude of the aeroplane
identified in such overlapping parts. from the datum during aerial surveys is called flying
5. Air-base. The distance between two adjoining altitude, and the height above the photographic plane
exposure stations marked along the route of the flight, is known as flying height.
is known as air base. All exposure stations are 10. Radial Displacement. All objects, whether
located vertically over the principal points or respec­ situated vertically or horizontally on the earth surface
tive interconnected air photographs. are projected horizontally on the air photograph, and
6. Conjugate Principal Point. The image of the in proportion to the height of the objects radially
principal point of every aerial photograph is extended located to the centre. This is known as radial
into the back and front strips of air photos; such a displacement.
Radial displacement = h!H where
point is known as conjugate principal point. The
 PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION 347

/? = the distance from the principal point of the Determination of Scales of A ir Photos
air photo to the projected vertical point of the object, Generally the scales of aerial photographs are
determined with the help of the focal length of the
h = height of the object, xy = OP = f camera used and the height (H) of the aeroplane
H = height of the aeroplane from th e above the datum of the area photographed.
photographic plane. If the scale number is 5,
r = the projected distance of the base point of / f
the object from the centre, Px'. w h e r e /is the focal length
o li
In Fig. 356 is the object on the photographic
e,g,^ i f / = 6 " and 77=15,000 ft,
plane, the i^ojected vertical and base points of which
are / and x \ 0 is the perspective point, P is the 6 1
principal point or the centre which is the projected 15,000x 12” 30,000
point p of the earth surface (vide Fig. 356). The height of the aeroplane is measured by the
attached altimeter, and it is recorded on the air
photographs. This scale is not fully correct, if the
photographed area is not level; so the mean elevation
- -0^ of the photographed area is subtracted from the
elevation of the aeroplane from the datum, and thus
H is obtained and the scale is determined.
The second method of finding the scale involves
comparision of the distance of two points on the air
photo with the corresponding points on the earth
surface; for instance if the distance between two
points, on the air photo is d, and the actual distance
between them on the earth surface is D, then US =
p d X
^ (both the values must be in the same unit).
Fig. 356
Likewise, if the topographic sheets of the air
In As Op'y' and O Py\ on the basis of similarities photo area are available the scale of the air
photograph can be found out. First, such points will
P y' OP R f be selected on the map which are clearly marked on
PY op ~d H-h the air photo, then the distances between two points
on both will be measured and their mean calculated.
Now the actual distance can be found out by
multiplying the scale number of the map with the
Similarly, in OPx' and Opx marked averge distance on the map. For instance,
P x' ^ if the average distance on the map is dm", and its
or 4 = J - scale number (Sni) is 50,000, then the actual distance
px op d H H
= S m x dm". Likewise if the average distance of the
Therefore, radial displacement r '= (R —r) air photo is dp, and the scale number is Sp, then the
_ df df _ d f( H - H + h ) actual distance will h o ,d p x Sp. Both will be equal
H -h H H (H ^ h ) to each other.
Therefore, Sm x d m ^ S p x d p
df = R Rh
but „ Sm X dm
(H -h ) -H
— 3T ~
348 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

distance on the map X scale number of the map or large sizes by adjusting the length of the legs and
~ DiSTANce on the air photo the overlapping distance of the lenses. The distance
between the two lenses, which is known as the eye
.\R F = ~ base, may be adjusted between 58 and 72 mm,
Sp
because, the eye base of all men is not unifrom.
G eneral equipm ent used in air photo When below this instrument on the table, two three-
interpretation dimensional air photos are placed and the distance
In the air photo interpretation and construction between the two is so adjusted that both the images
of maps with their help, well improved and automatic of the same point are visible at one point, then an
instruments, radial line plotters—A-1, A-8, etc. are imaginary three dimensicMial model of the visible
being used, but all these equipments are not within landscape is found. This enables us to visualize real
the reach of invididuals or general laboratories. The picture of the same part of the land on a small scale.
technique of using these instruments is also relatively It is impossible for one eyed man to use this
difficult. Steroscopes and sketch masters are simple instrument
and less expensive instruments; and with their help Only a limited area can be visualized by this
interpretation of aerial photographs and mapping can instrument so to increase its power of visibility the
be done. length of legs is increased and mirrors inclined at
45° are attached with them; below the lenses placed
Stereoscope at the same plane parallel to the mirrors, changes for
This is an instrument which comprises two reflection are provided so that the viewer can view
lenses placed at the same plane. These two lenses the photographs through double reflection. One of
are generally attached to two rectangular metallic the four legs is adjustable by a screw. Often the
frames considering the mean distance between the distance of the lenses from the plane of the table
two eyes of a man to be approximately 65 mm. increases to 300 mm, so the occular capacity of the
This is placed on the table with the help of its two instrument is reduced to 0.8. By using the adjustable
metallic legs. At this position the lenses are approxi­ binocular above the lenses, the occular capacity is
mately 100 mm above the plane of the table, so the increased four times or even more. This instrument
aerial photographs placed below it are magnified is known as Mirror Stereoscope with Binox:ular {yide
two and half times. This instrument is known as Fig. 358). Its improved form is called Scanic Mirror
pocket Stereoscope {vide Fig. 357). Instruments of Stereoscope. Two binoculars are attached with it,
this magnifying power can be manufactured on small which facilitate two persons to view the same aerial
photographs simultaneously.

Sketch Master
In mapping or in delineation of lanoiscapic
feature on available topographical maps, the use of
sketch master {Fig. 359) is made. It contains a
metallic stand (TV) with graduated vertical scale fixed
to any geometrically shaped metallic piece (F). To
the stand, is attached a metal piece (A/) by an
adjustable screw. In this metal piece an arm {Jk) is
horizontally fixed, which is also graduated with scale,
and which can move forward or backward. On the
other side of the metal piece, a metal plate, (P) is
attached, on which photographs are fixed with the
Fig. 357 help of magnetic, metallic weights. This plate is

X \
 PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION 349

"I-
t '
f lu o r e s c e n t to rn p u n it lam p onU .
IP r lg m -n a n d spot
, fo n w unii.
>c"t~ hcr.-j sfj<rt\

> f/ g-jiaoKC
\.- P o r Q lle l
f%l ' I - I ’nk'coe
parallax o^rovjrirg ■.f.'c rcin e ? ? '" '

Itfi '/ ; w \ . . . '^

pcraltut-'Qi/iucrri.e conir oi Kno
^ 'i'* *■' ^ »>s> ■?•
•* V ^ ^ ^

Fig. 358

adjustable. At the end of the horizontal arm, another the images marked on the photographs of the first
horizontal bar is pependicularly attached, in which place with the help o f screw, and the distances on
double prism (D) is fixed; this helps the viewer in the circular screw and the bar are read. Again the
seeing the images of the air photo as well as the floating marks are fixed on the images o f the other
map or sketch placed below the prims. Therefore, place and the distances are read. Find the difference
it is possible to construct the map with the help of of both. This difference (A p) is known as parallax
adjustment o f control points. difference. Again the photo-base (P) of the right
hand placed photograph is read with the help of
°arallax bar or Stereomicrometer plane scale or persective scale, and height can be
It is a micro scale made of metal, which is known by the following parallax equation:
constructed on a bar with graduated scale. At its
end a graduated screw is fixed, w hose circular Ah
P+ ^P
otation is related to the graduated scale on the bar
n fixed ratio. One transparent glass plate is fixed where A /i = difference in height, H = flying height,
It each end, at the bottom o f which figures like + or P = photobase, and Ap = parallex difference.
9, etc. are marked; these are known as floating marks
vide Fig. 360). This instrument is always used A erial o r R adial T rian g u latio n an d P re p a ra tio n
»vith the help o f M irror Stereocope. If the difference o f M in o r C o n tro l Plot o r G rid
of heights between two points is to be determined, T his m ethod is based on the p rin cip le of
then fu-st attem pt be made to fuse the double three- intersection of rays by plane tabling. By this method
dimensional im age into one by properly setting the o f sketching, which is also known as Arunde method,
instrument, so that the three-dimensional object may a grid is prepared to a scale for all the air photos of
continue to be visible. one strip. First on all. the air photos, principal, and
Now floating mark of the scale is fixed on both principal conjugate points are marked (!) by the

\
350 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Frame for A.P. fusion method. Thus pairs of three points are known
on all air photos, then on both sides of these six
Double points nearly perpendicular and the same plane which
Prism
are known as secondary control points, and the
known surface points (also known as Ground control
Th points), are marked (0 ) by fusion method. From
Tv the principal points on the air photos, radial lines
will be drawn towards all points (vide Fig. 361).
Then on tracing paper or condatrace or carvillon, all
the points and lines marked on nearly centrally
located air photo are transferred. Then the air photo
is removed and the adjoining air photo is placed
below the codatrace, so that the principal point of
Double Prism this air photo comes exactly below its conjugate point
and this principal point and the lines formed by this
principal point and the principal points o f the earlier
used air photo are seen to be overlapping on the
Eye Photo
codatrace as well as the air photo. Under such a
co n d itio n the p o in ts o f in te rse c tio n b etw een
corresponding radial lines drawn on the first air photo
and this air photo, will be known. Now the third air
photo will be placed below the codatrace, so that the
secondary control point known through the point of
intersection overlaps on the corresponding radial lines
and the principal point on the conjugate principal
♦ point, and the line joining the conjugate and principal
Mop
points on the corresponding line. The position of
the principal point will be marked on it and by
tran sferrin g all the rad ial lin es, th e p o in t o f
intersection will be drawn. Likewise, on all the air
photos, the work will be completed and the minor
control plot will be ready. To make the scale on
this control plot correct or for its transfer on a desired
scale, a line AB will be drawn equivalent to the
distance between two terminal points on the plot
prepared to that scale (vide Figs. 362-363). One
M op end of the line will be placed at point A and then to
Fig. 359 overlap it towards B , so that it may correspond with
Qiabe Platt 61088 Plate
Thicli dot
Thin dot

Clomp Drum

Fig. 360
X
V /

raOrOGRAMMETRY AND AIR PHOTO INTEIIPRETATION 351

PP PP

Rc 5o or Rc8 Eagle IX Camera

Camera
Fig. 361

B. If the position of B is at the distance of B \

then a half circle will be drawn with a radius o f B B \
and from point A tangent AB " will be drawn on iL
Then on all principal points, this line will be taken
to find out the correct position on that line with the
help o f radii of the circles through which the tangent
lines pass.

Fig. 362
A erial M osaic
The systematic arrangment of air photos by strips
indicating coincidence of images o f well marked
— N eaetU e Plane
objects is known as aerial mosaic. It is of three
types— (I) uncontrolled, in which no care is taken
of the true azimuth of one photograph to another,
Perspective Centre (2) Semi-controlled , in which the air photos are
systematically arragned by controlling the azimuth-
line and (3) controlled mosaic, in which azimuth-
line controlled or rectified air photographs are used.
Annotated controlled mosaic may be used in the
form of a map.

Interpretation of Aerial Photographs

The Interpretation of aerial photographs involves
P ositive Plane
observation of the marked landscapic features, their
identification and delineation with the help of various
\' Bundle
P ersp ective Rays conventional symbols or colours. As the aerial
photographs record the photograi^ied areas/regions
or all the features thereof, all the sciences con­
Gr ound
Photogrophed cerned with the natural and cultural features o f the
earth-surface, are often making use o f air photos;
notable among these are: the Earth Sciences, Civil
Engineering, Soil Science, etc. The observCT can
easily visualize three dimensional view o f an area
from its air photos by using a mirror stereoscope.
 352 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

In the interpretation of aerial photgraphs, in addition minimum of 60%.

to the equipments used the observer scientist, and (v) the positive copies of the air photos should
the air photo, both are important. The observer be prepared in the laboratory very carefully.
should not be one eye. He should be familiar with (vO for photo printing, double matt photo paper
the subject and also his understanding of the allied is the best. Though, when air photos printed on this
subjects must be adequate, because the conventional paper, are viewed under the stereoscope, the grains
signs/symbols are not marked on the air photos. The are visible, yet the effect of weather changes as
characteristics o f the air photos depend on the recorded in this paper are much less than in the
following: glassy paper.
(0 weather conditions during the period when (vii) from the point of view o f utility, the scale
the air photos are taken-often cloudless, clear sky. of air photo should be fixed. For general study, the
(I’O the camera to be used should be as far as scale o f air photos m ay'be small and for this more
possible distortion free. care need not be taken, but for any specific purpose,
(Hi) filter should be used to counteract the effects such as, remote sensing concerning the study of
of ultraviolet rays during air photography. towns, forests, etc., more care must be taken. Some
(/v) the overlap in the stereospairs should be a scales according to utility are noted (Table 1):

T able 1

Purpose R.F. o f air photo

1. G eneral geographical survey 1 1

25,000 60,000
2. G eom orphoiogical studies 1 1
15,000 20,000
3. (a) G eneral geological studies 1 1
25,000 60,000
(h) Specific G eological studies 1 1
5,000 15,000
4. Soil Science, and foresty 1 1
30,000 60,000
5. For specific purpose in Forestry 1 1
5,000 15,000
6. Settlem ent studies
(fl) U rban 1 1
5,000 10,000
(b) R ural 1 1
25,000 60,000

The effect of all the above mentioned factors is white tone. Tone or at mirco level Grey tone
felt on the tone of the air photo, and the interpreter indicates the reflectance capacity of the air photo
delineates the different aspects through Black-and- objects. Generally, water bodies are marked black
 I '

w ^ym\
? sS&'fejf ^ ^ i »*' . \ n, JwM

r k ? = ff

Fig. 364

■S9S-
 I
li
,■ |i I

'i

L .

•' r ^ j f X

'i; }l

» j w
. ** - -* -v ♦ ' '» V c ^

"^V V v^ 1
• '- i / * k - a r ' '*

* < ^ T . V * \ 1

I r

l> .

Fig. 365

/
 PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION 353

and waterless bodies are of white tone on the air scale overlapping parts and the shape o f the air
photos. Volcanic rocks, in which quartz content is photo, will be helpful in finding the number of the
less also look black on the air photo. The tones of air photo, as explained in the following examples:
some of the objects are noted in Table 2.
E xam ples

T able 2 For an area of 100 miles long and 40 miles

broad,
Object Grey Tone (a) find out thenum berof air photos for 9" x 9"
size on R.F.
1. Sandstone light brown to white, 1 , 1 „
2. Marble
of ■ and
from white to deep brown, 25.000 60,000
ranging according to their
ib) if the size of the air photos is 6" x 6", find
colour.
out their number? In both the situations, the forward
3. Basalt deep brown to black,
overlap is 60% and lateral overlap is 30%.
4. Water bodies deep brown to black,
5. Moist soil deep brown to black, {a) (0 size 9" x 9"; R.F.
6. Dry soil light brown to deep brown, 1
7. Quartz mixed dry- light brown to deep brown. 25.000
sandy soil On the basis o f 60% forward overlap, the
8. Green leaved deep brown to black. effective length of an air photo,
vegetation
9x40
— 3.6"
100
Likewise, the tones of other objects on the air
photo are also recorded. It is difficult to determine according to the give R.F., the actual length
the boundaries betw een the areas o f gradually --3 .6 x 2 5 ,0 0 0 " or 3 .6 x 2 5 ,0 00
’ — miles
diminishing tones. Under such conditions, the ability 63,360
of the air photo-interpreter and the ground check, Therefore the number of air photos covering
are of special significance. 100 miles long stip
In the air photo interpretation work, different
coloured pencils and water colour, which may be _70 4
3 .6 x 2 5
easily wahsed off, are needed. Notable amongst other
equipments needed are: pricker, Chinese crucible O f 70.4 air photos, the stereospairs for both the
plate, quill pen, weights and adjustable table lamps. margins, will not be made, so on both the sides, two
An aerial photograph (not on the original scale) additional air photos will be needed. At the same
is reproduced iyide Fig. 364), proU’aying a Japanese time 0.4 is less than half, and it will be included in
landscape, and in Fig. 365 the parts of two adjoining the additional air photos, it may be left out. Thus
air photo stirps are represented. On the basis of according to length the number of air photos will be
70 + 2 + 2 = 74.
these overlays, with the help of pocket stereoscope
the general landuse pattern is interpreted and mapfxxl Similarly, for flight strips with 30% overlap,
iyide Fig. 366). It could not be possible to mark the the effective width
direction in the absence of field observation. For 9x70
- 6 .3 "
symbols see Table 3. 100
according to R.F., the actual width
To find the n u m b er of air photos
According to the areal extent, the scale of the _ 6 .3 x 2 5 ,0 0 0
Miles
photo may be known; with the help of this known 63,360
 \

354 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

3 Cultivoted tond Railwoy

jB u ilt-u p Gireti
I Slope with
-Roud;Viain,bronch ^ R iv e r l * Y egototion

Fig. 366

Therefore, to cover 40 miles, the number of Therefore, the total number of air photos for 18
strips containing 74 air photos will be = 18 x 74 =
strips will be,
1332.
40x63360 4x704
16.009
6 .3 x 2 5 ,0 0 0 7 X 25 («•) Similarly, if the R.F. » the effective
To safeguard against the gaps due to inclination,
length of an air photo
an additional strip at both the margins of the area is
provided. So the number of strips will be = 16 + 1+ _ 3 .6 -
10 0
1 = 18.
 PHOTOGRAMMCTRY AND AIR PHOTO INTERPRETATION 355

Actual length = 3.6 x 60,000" 2 .4 X 2 5 ,0 0 0

miles
Actual length = 63,360
3 .6 x 6 0 , 0 0 0
- — 63.360 - for 100 miles length, the num ber o f air photos
the num ber of air photos of 100 miles length _ I X 1056
0 .4 x 2 5 ^ ^
__ 1 0 0 x 6 3 ,3 6 0 _ 176
-= 2 9 .3 3 W ith the additional air photos for the total strips
3 .6 x 6 0 , 0 0 0 6
o f 106 -E 2 + 2 =110,
Thus the total num ber of air photos will be
= 29 -E 2 -p 2 = 33. the effect length = 6x70 2"
Similarly for number o f strips, effective length 100
9x70 4 .2 /2 5 ,0 0 0
-= 6 .3 " Actual width = — miles
100
Therefore, for 40 miles distance, the number of
Actual width = 6.3 x 60,000
strips
6.3 X 6 0 ,0 0 0 , / _ 4 x 1056 _ 4.224
miles -2 4 .1
63,360 4 .7 x 2 5 0
for a 40 miles distance, the number of strips Total number alongwith additional strips
= 24 -E 1 -E 1 = 26.
— — 6. 7, w hole n u m b er = 7 . Therefore, total number of air photos
= 26 X 110 = 2860.
thus the total num ber of strips = 7 -e 1 - i- 1 = 9 .
Similarly calculations can be made for R.F. of
Therefore, total number o f air photos
1/60,000.
= 9 X 33 = 297.
(b) if size of the air photo is 6" x 6", the effective

length = y "^^^ 2 4"

100

T ab ij- 3. List o f Conventional Symbols: Dip and Strike

Gencral Gully Erosion

Conjectrual Bad Lands

4 -
H ori/onlal Perennial River

Fault Line Dry River

„ Conjectural C3 C3 C3 Ox-bow
^
Strike Fault W ater fall

Small Fault Scarp Pot-hole

IX Conjectural Fault Scarp Erosional River terrao

Major Fault Scarp Dcpo.silional ,,

356 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

II I I I J- Hoarst T .T U f e Levee
■I I I TT

Graben Ox-bow Lake

O
Anticlinal Axes : Equal Perm anent Lake

t Unequal Tem porary „

Structural Plateau Beach : Rocky

M Crator : Sandy

Lava Tunnel v \\v \ Coastal D une with Vegetation

Ash Cone \ \ \ \ \ w ithout Vegetation

Cinder cone Coral R eef

<

Surface o f Planation Shingles

Q uesta C liff const: Newly Formed

Hogback „ „ : 77
V / “' ^d

Residul hill W ave-cut Platform

I I I < r.-
Monad nock M aiinc Terrace

Break of slope M angroves

Scree slope/Fan
M oraine : recessional
Land slide: Small
Lateral moraine : Stable
„ : Large
: Unstable

-f-M - : Transitional
Parabolic Dune TTT
: Media!
Longitudinal Dune

I I I » Railway Line
Bare ban
Canal with sluices and culverts
Horizontal Sand Dune
Tunnel
SJW i Yardang
X

PHOTOGRAMMETRY AND AIR PHOTO XNTERPRETATION 357

Sandy Scmb Depression with outlet

Nodular I? ? 9 without outlet

1 Broad Leaves €D
Rocky S p rin g : Permanent
Coniferous \
o C O Sink Hole Mixed : Temporary
I’vW^I
Uvula Palm Artesian spring
It T t I T
Polje Reservoir with Mineral spring
Embankment
Karst Spring Cistern \3 0 * Hot spring

Swallow Hole Coastal Bandh ) Saturated zone

Underground River ^ Groyne '■ ■■ ■ * C a n a l: irrigational

Natural canyon with bridge ‘ : Drain

Cirque Drilled Well

Mill
I
-w - Arete Well with water
& Pump ^

Home Dry
Water Logged : ^
Permanent
Hanging Valley Ordinary well with
„ : Temporary water
Drumlin Pipe Line Dry

Esker ^ ^ Telephone Line V Artesian well

Kame Deposit Power Line

■ g '
M oraine: Ground O(o)oo Settlements

Stable Monuments

Unstable O t Tumulus

\ rr^i bnrrf' Arable terraces ^ Quarry

Bandh Mines

Barrage
Used-up Mines
9
rn ^ T Grass 1( Dam
 Chapter 13

M IN ER A LS AND R O C K S

(iv) Botryoidal— spheroidal aggregate, e.g.,

Minerals
chalcedony.
A mineral may be defined as a natural inorganic
(v) Colum nar— occurring in colum ns e.g.,
substance with a definite chemical composition and
beryl.
atomic structure. (vi) N o d u la r— o ccu rrin g in ro u n d e d or
The term definite chemical composition requires irregular nodules— flint, kanker.
a little more elaboration because there are certain (viY) Dendritic— occurring in tree-like or moss
mineral species in which the composition of the end like forms, e.g.. manganese ore when
members is fixed and the intermediate minerals vary deposited in narrow crevices take on a
from one another in the porprotion of the one or the mossy pattern.
other element. But such variations follow a definite {viii) Fibrous— in fine strands, e.g.. asbestos.
order. {ix) Foliaceous— in thin separable leaves,
Minerals can be identified by their {a) chemical e.g., mica.
properties, {b) by their physical properties. Here we (x) M am m illated — o ccu rrin g in larg e
shall discuss only the more im portant physical spheroidal aggregates, e.g., malachite.
properties of minerals. The physical properties of {xi) Reniform— kindly-shaped, e.g.. some
minerals can be grouped under the following heads; variety o f haematite.
{xii) W iry or file-form— in twisted wirelike
1. Claracters depending upon Cohesion and or rope-like forms, e.g.. native copper.
Elasticity, viz., form , hardness, fracture, {b) Hardness
cleavage, etc. The hardness o f mineral may be determined with
the help o f a standard set o f minerals known as
{a) Form
Som etim es in m inerals definite geom etrical M ohs’ Scale of Hardness which is given in Table 1.
forms called crystals can be recognised and these T able 1
help much in their identification. For example,
galena occurs in perfect cubes. Hardness Standard Mineral
T here are other forms w hich are not quite
associated with crystal character but nonetheless they 1 Talc
2 Gypsum
are a help in the identification of the mineral. Some
3 Calcite
of the more common forms are the following:
4 R our-spar
(i) Acicular— in fine needle like crystals, 5 Apatite
e.g., tourmaline. 6 Orthoclase
{ii) A m ygdaloidal— alm ond-shaped, e.g., 7 Quartz
the zeolites which are formed in the 8 Topaz
steam cavities of lavas. 9 Corundum
{Hi) Bladed— occurring in thin blades, e.g., 10 Diamond
stibnite, kyanite.

___
 MINERALS AND ROCKS 359

If the gem minerals are excluded, the scale need 2. Character depending upon Light, viz., colour,
included only 7 numbers. Substitues may be used streak, lustre, special optical characters, etc.
when the scale minerals are not available— (1) easily {a) Colour
scratched by nail (2) not so easily scractched, W hen a body absorbs all the seven colours that
(3) can be scratched by a piece (a coper coin) and compose white light it appears black, and when it
very easily scratched by a knife, (4) scratched readily reflects all the colours it appears white. W hen a
by knife, (5) can be scratched by knife with difficulty, body reflects the green vibrations of white light and
(6) scratched by window-glass, (7) window-glass is absorbs the other vibrations it appears green. Thus
scratched by the mineral. the colour o f a body depends on the selective
If the mineral under observation does not scratch reflection and absorption of the different vibrations
no. 5 but scratches no. 4 then the hardness o f the
o f white light.
mineral is more than 4 and less than 5. Care should Although minerals have distinct colours they
be taken to blow out the powder produced in the act arc not always a constant character. For instances,
of scratching before examining the scratch with a the mineral quartz, which is generally white also
magnifying glass. Sometimes softer minerals when occurs in pink, yellow, brown, black, etc. Similarly,
rubbed on harder minerals produce powdery mark the mineral garnet is found in various shades of pink,
which might be mistaken as a scratch. brown, yellow, etc. Other minerals like staurolitc,
(c) Fracture topaz, tourmaline, etc., also show much variation in
Freshly broken surfaces o f m inerals present colour. Minerals with metallic lustre do not vary
characteristic fracture surfaces. The follow ing much in colour and this helps in diagnosis.
important types should be noted. (b) Streak
(i) C onchoidal (v itreo u s)— The fracture The colour of the powder of a mineral sometimes
surfaces are curved with a concave or differs from the mineral in mass, e.g., pyrite. This
convex form, e.g., quartz. ean be obseved from the streak of the mineral, e.g.,
(ii) Even— ^The fracture surfaces are nearly by rubbing the mineral on a hard plain surfaee to
flat, e.g., in chert. produce a colour line. Different specimens of the
(iii) U neven— ^The fracture surface is formed same mineral might show variation in colour, yet
of minute elevations and depressions, the streak is fairly constant.
e.g., most minerals. (c) Lustre
(d) Cleavage The amount and type of reflection from the
Certain minerals split easily along certain planes surfaee of a mineral determines its brightness. We
called cleavage-planes. These planes arc parallel to can distinguish the following types of lustre:
certain faces o f the mineral crystal, or to faces of a (0 Metallic— The lustre of ordinary metals,
form in which the mineral may crystallise. Fracture e.g.. Galena.
is distinguished from cleavage in that fracture is (/■/■) V itreous— The brightness o f broken
irregular and has no relation with internal structure. glass, e.g.. Quartz.
Certain minerals cleave in more than one direction (Hi) Resinous— The lustre resembling that of
but generally in such cases it is easier to cleave it in resin, e.g.. Opal, Sphalerite.
one direction than the other. Cleavage is described (iv) Pearly— The lustre of pearl. This is
by stating the crystallographic direction of cleavage commonly seen in minerals which
planes and also whether the mineral has a perfect, present more or less platy surfaces, e.g.,
good or poor cleavage indicated by the thinness of talc.
the cleaved layers that can be separated. (v) Silky— The Lustre like that of silk.
360 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Generally shown by fibrous minerals like products, inclusions and should be fresh. Various
some varieties o f asbestos: methods are used in the determination of specific
(vi) Adamantine— The lusture of diamond. gravity in mineralogy. Here only two most common
methods are described below:
3. Specific gravity o f the mineral {a) Walker’s Steel Yard
The ratio of the weight of a body to that of an This is used in determining the specific gravity
equal volume of water is called the specific gravity of large specimens. The instrument consists o f a
of the body. It is an important aid in the identification large beam pivoted near one end. The longer arm
of minerals and specimens used for determining is graduated and is counter-balanced by a weight
specific gravity shoud be free from alteration suspended from the shorter arm. See Fig. 367. To

^ •1i [ri m I I 11 j m 111 rii |i 111j n rr | n 11111 ii j n r i | 1111111r i j n 11111f

• 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14

Fig. 367

fmd the specific gravity o f a mineral it is suspended Reading (b)— the position o f the bottom o f the
and moved along the graduated arm till the beam is spring with the mineral fragment on the top pan.
perfectly horizontal, the position being checked by Reading (c)— the position of the bottom o f the
a mark along the upright near the end of the beam. spring with the mineral placed in the lower pan
The reading is noted as (a). A second reading immersed in water.
{b) taken after immersing the mineral in water, and
Specific g ra v ity =
balancing it so that the beam is horizontal.
\ja _ V
Specific g ra v ity =
\\a-\lh h- 4. Other minor characters, viz., taste, odour, feel,
magnetism, fusibility.
(b) Jolly’s Spring Balance
This instrument is used for determining specific (a) Taste
gravity of very small specimens. The instrument Some of the minerals which are soluble in water
consists of a vertically suspended spring to which give distinctive taste but the character is not very
two scale-pans are attached, one below the other. useful in identification o f minerals because there are
The movement of the pans can be read against a only a few minerals which are soluble is water, e.g.,
mirrored graduated scale. See Fig. 368. It should we get saline taste in case o f common salt, alkaline
be remembered that the lower scale-pan remains in case of soda or potash.
alw ays im m ersed in water. For determ ing the
(b) Odour
specific gravity of a mineral fragment the following
Only a few minerals give characteristic odour,
observations are necessary.
e.g., the odour o f garlic from arsenic compounds,
Reading (a)— the position of the botom of the
sulphurous odour from pyrite.
spring.
X X

MINERALS AND ROCKS 361

C lassification
For the sake of convenience the minerals may
be grouped into (A) Rock forming minerals, and
(B) Ore forming minerals.

A. Rock Forming Minerals

(1) Silica minerals— quartz, chalcedony, opal.
(2) Silicate minerals— The chief rock forming
silicates may be arranged according to the more or
less natural families.
(/) F eld sp a r— o rth o c lase , m icro clin e,
Plagioclase.
(it) Feldspathoid— nepheline, leucite,
sodalite.
(Hi) Pyroxene— enslatite, hypersthene, augite,
diopside.
(zv) Amphibole— hornblende, termolite,
actinolite.
(v) Mica— muscovite, biotite.
(vz) Chlorite.
(vzz) Olivine.
(viii) Epidote.
(ix) Wollastonite
(jc) Andalusite, sillimanite, kyanite.
(xz) Staurolite.
(xii) Topaz.
(xiif) Tourmaline.
l4 (xiv) GameL
(xv) Zeolite— natrolite, analcite, stillbite.
(xvz) Talc, serpentine.
(xvii) Zircon.
(xviif) Beryl.
Fig. 368 (3) Other minerals—
(z) Calcite, dolomite, magnesite.
(c) Feel (zz) Barite, gypsum.
Minerals differ in the sensation they give by (Hi) Ruorite, apatite.
touch, e.g. minerals are smooth, greasy or rough. (zv) Corundum, etc.
{d) Magnetism
Generally iron bearing minerals are magnetic, B. Ore form ing Minerals
but not necessarily all iron bearing minerals are 1. Native Elements
magnetic. Some non-magnetic minerals like monazite Graphite, native sulphur, native copper.
are also slightly magnetic. The electrom agnetic
2. Oxides
minerals depend on the varying magnetism of
Cuprite— CuO, Magnetite— Fej O^, Haematite—
different minerals.
F e , 0 3 , L im onite— 2 Fe 2 0 3 , 3H ^0, C hrom ite-
(e) Fusibility FeOCr203 , Psilomelane— Mn 203 H 2 0 -i- BaO, K^O,
M inerals vary widely in their fusibility. The Pyrolusite— MnO^, C assiterite— SnO^, Z incite—
minerals can be grouped according to a scale of in­ ZnO, K aolinite - A i p 32 Si 0 2 , 2 H p , Borax—
creasing fusibility and thus aid in their identincation. N a p , 2 B P 3 lO n p .
362 ELEMEKTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

3. Carbonates 5. Others
Malachite—CuC 0 3 Cui,0 H)2 (1) Niccolite—^NiAS
SidCTite—FeCOj (2) W o lfiam ite^eM n )W O ^
Cenisite— PbCOj
Descriptions of M inerals
Smithsonite—ZuCO, In the given table 2 the minerals have bcOT
Rhodochrosite—MnCOj arranged into groups according to hardness, and in
4 . Sulphides
each group they have been put in order of their
Chalcopyrite—Cu^S FCjS3, Orpiment—AS2S3 specific gravity. Distinctive physical characters have
also been stated in each case.
Pyrite—FeSj Arsenopyrite—^FeAsS
In the description of the minerals the following
Galena—^PbS Stibnite—Sb2S3 abbreviations have been commonly used:
Sphalerite—^ZnS Molybdenite—MoS ^ Colour C. Fracture F.
Cinnabar—^HgS Bismuthinite— 3 ^ 8 3 Lustre L. Hardness H.
Realgar—AsS Cobaltite—Co AsS. Cleavage Q . Specific Gravity sp, gr.

T able 2

Soft Mineral Hardness (1—2)

Mineral Composition Sp. gravity Distinctive characters

Native Sulpur S. 2.07 C—Yellowish green

L—Resinous
Odour-Sulphurous
H— 1.5-2.5
Graphite C. 2.15 Columnar or scale form, steel gray colour
with black streak. Metallic lulstre and soft
and coldfeel; H.— 1.5-2.
Gypsum CaSO^H^Oj^ 2.3 Elongated crystals or fibrous or granular
massive; L.— silky or early. Cl—distinct
C—Gray or white. H— 1.5-2.
Chlorite 5(MgJFe)O.Aip; 2.65—2.94 Tabular crystals, or scaly and granular aggre­
3Si04H20 gates; C—shades of green with colourless
streak, greasy to touch. H— 1.5-2.5.
Talc 3 M g 0 .4 S i0 2 , H^O 2.7—2.8 Tabular or granular massive forms; C—Silky
white, rarely shades of green, white streak.
L—pearly; Cl—perfect, greasy to touch.
H— 1.
Orpiment AS2S3 3.4 — 3.5 C—^Lemon-yellow with yellow streak. L—
Generally resinous. Smell of garlic.
H— 1.5—2.
Realgar AsS 3.56 C—^Red or orange and same streak.
Resinous. Smell of garlic. H— 1.5-2.
Stibnite Sb,S3 4.5— 4.6 Elongated crystals, bladed and also granular
aggregate; C—lead gray and same streak;
Metallic, Cl-pcrfect. H—2.
 tiam

MINERALS AND ROCKS 363

4 .7 — 4.8 Foliaceous, scaly or massive; C— ^lead gray,

Molybdenite MoSg
greenish gray streak. L— Metallic. Cl—
perfect. H— 1-1.5.
6.4— 6.5 Massive or thin crystals; C— Lead gray; L—
Bismuthinite Bi^S
metallic; H— 2.

Medium Soft Minerals (Hardness 2-3)

Mineral Composition Sp.gravity Distinctive characters

Borax NaO, 2B^0, lOH^O 1.7 Elongated crystals or lumpy masses; C—

generally white, sometimes with colour
shades; streak— white; L— ^vitreous or earthy.
H— 2—2.5.
Kaolinite Al203 Si0 2 2 H ^ 0 2.6 Soft, earthy masses; C— ^white, yellowish or
gray; streak— white; L— dull, greasy feel,
earthy smell; H— 2— 2.5.
Calcite CaCO, 2.71 Large crystals common; C— generally white,
sometimes with shades of pink or other
colours; streak white; L— vitreous to earthy;
Cl— ^perfect; H— 3. Effervesces with cold
dilute acids.
Biotite (Al. F e \ — (MG, Fe) 2.71— 3.1 Platy forms common; C from brown-green
(H, K ), (S i0^3 to black in thick plates and blood-red or
brownish green in thin laminate; Cl—perfect,
Isoii
splendent. H— 2.5— 3.
Muscovite K 2 0 .3 Al2036 Si0 2 2 H 3O 2.76— 3 In large plates or scattered flakes ; C— com­
monly white or with shades of pink, green,
stua brown and black. Cl— perfect, pearly lustre.
H— 2— 2.5.
iiag:: Massive, reniform, sometimes fibrous ; C—
Pyrolusite MnO, 4.1
gray; Streak-bluish black. H—2.— ^2.5.
With hydrochloric acid it gfves off fumes
C -S I
of chlorine.
le® Commonly cubic crystals, also masive and
Galena PbS 7.4— 7.6
10 granula; C— gray; streak— lead gray; Cl—
perfect. L —metallic, H— 2.5— 3.
Cinnabar HgS 8.09 In tabular crystals also massive; C—red or
t. brown; streak— scarelet; Cl—perfect; H—
2— 2.5
m Arboresecent in thread like forms, also
.2 Native Copper Cu 8.8
massive and cubic crystals ; C—copper
colouted; L— metallic; Fracture hackley. H—
2.5— 3.
364 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Medium H ard Minerals (Hardness 3-5)

M ineral Composition Sp. gravity Distinctive characters

Stilbite (Ca, Na^) O .A iP j 1.1— 2.2 Thin tabular bundles or radiating forms;
Si0 2 ,6 H ^ 0 C— white or shades o f red, yellow or brown;
streak— colourless. Cl— perfect; L— vitreous
or pearly. H— 3.5— 4.
Serpentine 3MgO,2SiO. 2 H 0 2.5— 2.6 Massive, fibrous or granular; C— shades of
green sometimes shades o f brown or red
banded with white veins; L— waxy; Feel-
slightly soapy; F— conchoidal; H— 3— 4.
Dolomite CaC 0 3 .MgC 0 3 2.8— 2.9 Massive, granular or in crystal with curved
faces. C— ^white, sometimes with light shades;
L— vitreous; F—conchoidal; H— 3.3— 4.
Effervesces only with warm acids.
Wollastonite CaOSiO^ 2.8— 2.9 Tabular crystals; also massive in colum nar
forms; C— white, gray, sometimes with light
shades o f yellow and brown; Cl— ^perfect.
H - 4 . 5 — 5.
Magnestite MgC 03 2.8— 3.2 Granular or compact masses, sometimes
fibrous; C— white or gray, sometimes with
shades o f yellow and brown. L— vitreous or
earthy; Cl-perfect; F— conchoidal or flat;
H— 3.5—4.5.
Flourite CaF, 3.3— 3.5 Cubic crystals common, also massive and
granular; C— white, yellow, blue, green,
purple; Streak— white; L— vitreous; Cl—
perfect. H— 4.
Apatite 3Ca3POg. CaF 3.17— 3.23 Elongated crystals or massive. C— shades of
or green, sometimes bluish, brownish or reddish.
3Ca3PPg CaCl Streak— while; F— conichoidal or uneven.
H— 5.
Rhodochrosite MnCO, 3.45— 3.6 Usually massive, botryoidal. C— shades of
rose red, yellowish-gray, and brownish.
Streak— white. L— vitreous to pearly; H—
3 .5 - 4 .5 .
Kyanite A i p 3SiO 3.6—3.7 In thin blanded forms; C— shades o f blue,
also gray-green; streak— ^white; Cl— well
developed; L— somewhat pearly. H— 4— 1.
Azurite 2 CuC 0 3 Cu( 0 H) 3.7— 3.8 Massive or earthy; C— azure blue; Streak—
light blue; L— vitreous to adamantine; F —
conchoidal. H— 3.5— 4.
Siderite FeCO, 3.7— 3.9 Rounded crystals, also massive and granular;
C— shades of brown; Streak— ^white; L—
viu-eous or pearly ; Cl— perfect F—uneven.
 m in e r a l s a n d r o c k s 365

H— 3.5— 4.5; Magnetic on heating. Dist­

inguished from other iron ores by lower
sp. gr. and lighter colour.
f Malachite CuCOj, Cu(OH)j 3.9— 4 Stalactitic, massive, mammillated with a
fibrous internal structure; C— green often;
banded, streak— light-green; L— silky on
fibrous surfaces; H— 3.5— 4.
Sphalerite ZnS 3.9— 4.2 Crystals, massive, also in fibrous forms; C—
brown or black, sometimes white or yellow;
streak— reddish brown or white; L—resinous
to admantmine, C—perfect; H— 3.5— 4.
Chalcopyrite Cu^S, FejSj 4.1— 4.3 Massive also elongated crystals; C— brass-
yellow; streak—^greenish-black; L— metallic:
H— 3.5— 4: Distinguished from pyrite by
lower hardness and deeper colour.
Barite BaSO, 4.5 Tabular crystals, also columnar, fibrous, or
granular; C— ^white, sometimes with shades
o f blue, yellow, red and brown; streak—
white; L— vitreous, resinous or pearly; Cl—
perfect; F—uneven; H— 3— 3.5.
Zincite ZnO 5.4— 5.7 Massive, granular, foliaceous: C— deep red
when fresh; streak— orange-yellow; L—
submetallic to adamantine; H— 4— 4.5.
Cuprite Cu^O 5.8— 6.15 Massive or earthy, also in cubic crystals; C—
shades of red; streak— brownish red; L— sub-
adamanitine; H— 3.5— 4.
CCTussite PbCO, 6.55 Primatic crystals common also massive and
granular; C— white or grayish, sometimes
shades of blue or green; streak— colourless;
L— adamantine; F— conchoidal; H— 3— 3.5.

Hard Minerals (Hardness 5-7)

Sodalite 3(Na^0.A1^02,3SiO), 2.2 Massive or rounded crystals; C— bluish gray,

2NaCl yellowish; streak—colourless; L— vitreous;
Cl— one set distinct; H— 5.5— 6.
Opal Si02.nH^O 2.2 Stalactitic, reniform, massive; C—^red,
yellow, brown; streak— colourless; L— sub-
vitreous; F—conchoidal; H— 5.5— 5.6.
Natrolite Na^O, A ip3,34SiO ^ 1 2 — 125 In acicular crystals, also massive and
m p granular; C—commonly white, sometimes
withshades of yellow or red; streak— white;
L— vitreous or somewhat pearly; H— 5— 5.5.
Analcite Na^O.AlOj, 4SiO^ 2.25 Rounded crystals also massive; C— white,
2 H 2O gray or shades of green and pink; streak—
white; L— vitreous; H— 5— 5.5.
366 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Chalcedony S i O , nHO 2.2— 2.65 Amygdaloidal or nodular; C— Various

shades; Agate-banded; streak—colourless;
L— waxy; H— 6.5— 7.
Leucite K^O. AIO 3. 4 Si0 2 In rounded crystals; C— ^white or gray;
streak-colourless; L— vitreous; H— 5.5— 6.
Nepheline N a p . A i p , 2 S102 2.5— 2.6 In hexagonal crystals, also massive; C—
and colourless, sometimes with tints o f blue,
niqO. AI.P 3 . 4SiOj green, brown; streak— colourless; L—
vitreous or greassy; H— 5.5— 6.
Microline K 2O .A L P 3 6 Si0 2 2.56 Crystals, massive or granular; C— green,
pinkish, grayish-while; streak-colourless; L—
vitreous. Cl— perfect; H— 6— 6.5.
Orthoclase K 2OAIO 3, 6 Si0 2 2.57 Massive or in crystals; C— whitel, flesh-
coloured, gray streak— colourless; L—
vitreous, sometimes pearly on cleavage faces;
Cl— perfect; H— 6.
Plagioclase N a 2 0 .Al2 0 2.60— 2.74 Elongated crystals. Massive or lameller;
Feldspars 6810^ C— white or with shades o f blue, red or
and green etc.; L— vitreous; Cl— one set well
Ca0 .Al203 .2 Si02 developed: H— 6— 6.5.
Quartz SiO^. 2.65 Hexagonal crystals; C— colourless when
pure; streak— colourless; L— vitreous, in
somw varieties resinous; H— 7.
Tremolite Ca 0 .3 Mg 0 .4 Si0 2 ^ 2.9— 3 Elongated crystals, bladed or columnar: C—
white to dark gray: L— vitreous; Cl— well
developed; H— 5— 5.5.
Actinolite C a0.31M g, Fe) 0 .4 Si0 2 3— 3.2 Blade-like, fibrous elongated crystals; C—
light to deep green: streak—colourless; L—
vitreous; H— 5.5— 6.
Enstatite (Mg, F e)0. 28102. 3.1— 3.3 Generally lameller sometimes fibrous; C—
greenish; brown, yellowish, gray; 8treak—
colourless; L— vitreous pearly; Cl— well
developed: H— 5.5.
Diopside CaO. MgO. 28102 3.2— 3.28 In granular masses; C— colour white or
shades of green; streak— colourless; L—
vitreous; Cl— well developed; H— 5— 6.
Augite CaMg(8 i03)2 3.2— 3.5 Elongated crystals lamellar or fibrous, also
(Mg, Fe) (Al, Fe >2 massive; C—deep greenish black to black;
810, streak— colourless; L— vitreous to resinous;
Cl— good; H— 5—6.
Olivine (Mg, Fe >2 810^ 3.2— 4.5 In stout crystals in grains, also massive; C—
shades of green, brown or yellow; streak—
colourless; L— ^vitreous; H— 6 —7.
8 illimanite A 12038102 3.22 In long acicular crystals or fibrous; C— gray,
or shades o f brown and green; streak—
colourless; L— vitreous; Cl— ^perfect;
H— 6— 7.
 367
MINERALS AND ROCKS

3 25— 3.5 Elongated crystals or in granular masses; C—

Epidote Ca^(A 1 0 A)(Al,Fe )2
shades of green, sometimes red; streak—
(SiO ,)3
colourless; L— vitreous; H— 6 — 7.
3 3 4 .7 In stout prismatic crystals, also massive and
Hornblende Complex silicates of
granular; C— ^Deep greenish black to black;
Ca,Mg.AlJ^eJMa
streak— colopurless; L— ^vitreous; Cl— well
developed: H —5— 6 .
3 4 __ 3.5 Massive or in foliaceous forms; C— greenish
Hypersthene (Fe, M g)0. SiOj
brown to almost black; streak— colourless;
L— sub-metallic schillerisation; Cl— well
developed H— 5— 6 .
3,4 __ 3 .6 Tabular crystals, also massive; C— flesh red,
Rhodonite MnSiOj
brownish red, greenish or yellowish; streak—
while; L— vitreous: H— 5.5— 6.65.
3 5 __ 3 j In thin bladed forms; C— shades of blue, also
Kyanite A iP jS iO j
gray-green; streak— white somewhat pearly;
Cl— well developed; H— 4— 7.
3 .6 - ^ Earthy masses, stalactitics, mammilated, also
Limonite 2 Fe 2 03 . 3HO
fibrous; C-brown, brownish yellow or yellow,
also blackish or mammilated surfaces;
su-eak— yellowish brown (i.e., rusty); L—
sub-metallic to earthy or silky in fibrous
forms; H— 5— 5.5; Distinguished from
certain forms of haemattite, by streak and
lower specific gravity.
3 7 4 7 Massive, reniform, stalactitic and botryoidal;
Psilomelane Hydrated oxide of
C— black to steel-gray; streak— brownish
manganes, impure.
black; L— sub-metallic; H— 5— 6 .
4 4 5 Generally massive, botryodial, stalactitic,
Smithsonite ZnC 0 3 -
reniform or earthy; C— white or gray,
sometimes brownish greenish; streak— while;
L— vitreous; H— 5.5 Effervesces with warm
acid.
4.5__^.8 Generally massive with fine granular crystals;
Chromite FeO Cr O 3
C— brownish black to dull black; streak
brown; L— sub-metallic: H— 5.5.
4 g 5 I Cubic crystals, also nodular or disseminated
Pyrite FeS,
grains; C— Bronze-yellow; or brass-yellow;
Streak-greenish or brownish black; L—
metallic; H— 6 —6.5; Distinguished from gold
by hardness, brittleness and colour.
4 9 __ 5 3 Tabular crystals, reniform fibrous, foliated
Haematite
or in disseminated small flakes; C gray to
black, red in earthy forms; streak— violect
red; L-metallic, earthy forms, dull; H— 5.5—
6.5; It is m a ^ e tic and sometimes it can itself
lift iron filings.
368 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Magnetite F e 30 , 5.19 Octahedral crystals common, also massive

and granular; C— Iron black; streak— black;
I^ su b -m e ta llic ; H— 5.5— 6.5.
Arsenopyrite FeAsS 5.9— 6.2 Prismatic forms common, also massive; C—
tin white; streak— dark grayish-black; L—
metallic; H— 5.5— 6 .
Cobaltite CoAsS 6 — 6.3 Usually massive, sometimes in cubic crystals;
C—reddish, silver white, streak— grayish-
black; H— 5.5.
Cassiterite SnO, 6 .8 — 7.1 Crystals, or massive, also fibrous and
granular; C— ^black or brown, sometimes
yellow; Streak-white or pale gray to
brownish; H— 6 — 7.
Wolframite (Fe, Mn) W 04 7.1— 7.9 Tabular crystals, also massive; C— ^reddish
brown, grayish-black; streak— chocolate-
brown; L— submetallic; Cl— perfect;
H— 5— 5.5.
Niccolite NiAs. 7.3— 7.6 Massive; C— light copper red, sometimes
with a greenish-tamish; streak— brownish
black; L— metallic; H— 5— 5 . 5 .

Very Hard Minierals (Hardness Above 7)

Beryl 3BeO. AIO 3. 6 81 0 3 . 2.7 Columnar crystals; C— shades o f green, rarely

blue, yellow or white; streak— white; L—
vitreous to sub-resinous; H— 7.5— 8 .
Tourmaline RgAl3(B.OH )2 Si^Oj, 2.98— 3.2 Elongated crystals, also in radiating accicular
R=H, Na, KLi, Fe or forms; C— black or bluish black; streak—
Mg. colourless; L— vitreous; H— 7 — 7 .5 .
Andalusite Al203 Si0 3 3.1— 3.3 Commonly stout crystals, also granular or
massive; C— shades of red, pearl-gray;
streak— colourless; H— 7 .5 .
Topaz Ai3F S iO /+O H ) 3.5— 5.6 Elongated crystals with dull rough surfaces;
C— shades of yellow common, also gray,
whiteblue, pink; streak— colourless; L—
vitreous; Cl— well developed; H— 8 .
Staurolite H^O. 2FeO. 5 Ai0 3 4SiOj 3.7 Elongted crystals; C— shades o f brown;
streak— colourless or grayish; L— somewhat
resinous; L— conchoidal; H— 7 — 7 . 5 .
Corundum AlO, 3 .9 - ^ . 1 Elongated crystals; C— reddish, gray or
greenish; streak— colourless; L— vitreous;
F— conchoidal to uneven; H— 9.
Garnet 3FeO A ip3 3.9—4.2 In rounded crystals and grain; C— shades of
red and brown; streak— whitish; L— vitreous;
F— sub-conchoidal; H— 6.5— 7.5.
 X

m in era ls a ^p rocks 369

(Alamandina) 3S102.
Zircon ZrSiO, 4.7 Stout crystals or round grains; C— reddish
brown, colourless, gray or shades o f yellow
and iMPwn; streak— colourless; L—
adamantine; F— conchoidal; H— 7.5.

In the given table-3 the minerals have been grouped according to their density. In each case the
figures in bracket indicate hardness.

T able 3

L ight M inerals (Sp. gr. 1 or 2)

Mineral Sp. gr.

Borax 1.7 (2-2.5)
Graphite 2-2.3 (1-2)
Sulphur 2.07 (1.5-2.5)

M edium L ight M inerals (Sp. gr. 2 to 2.5)

Mineral Sq. gr. Mineral Sp. gr.

Stilbite 2 . 1-2 .2 (2 ) Leucit6 2.5(5.5-6)

Sodalite 2.2(5.5-6) Chalcedony 2.2-2.65(6.5-7)
Opal 2.2(5.5-6.5) Nepheline 2.5-26(5.5-6)
Natrolite 2.2-2.25(5-5.5) Serpentine 2.5-2.6(3-4)
Analcite 2.25(5-5.5) Microcline 2.56(6-6.5)
Gypsum 2.3(1.5-2) Orthoclase 2.57(6)

M edium Heavy M inerals (Sp. gr. 2.5 to 3.5)

Mineral Sp. gr Mineral Sp. gr.

Microcline 2.65(6-6.5) Apatite 3.17-3.2 (5)

Orthoclase 2.57 (6 ) Diopside 3.2-3.28 (5-6)
Kaolinite 2.6 (2.25) Augite 3.2-3.5 (5-6)
Plagioclase 2.60-2.74 (6-6.5) Sillimantie 3.23 (6-7)
Quartz 2.65 (7) Epidote 3.25-3.5 (6.7)
Chalcedony 2.2-2.65 (6.5-7) Hypersthene 3.4-3.5. (5-6)
Chlorite 2.65-2.94 (1.5-2.5) Muscovite 2.76-3 (2-2.5)
Beryl 2.7 (7.5-8) Dolomite 2.8-2.9 (3.5-4)
Talc 2.7-2.S ( 1) Wollastonite 2.8-2.9 (4.5-5)
Biotite 2.7-3.1 (2.5-3) Magnesite 2.S-3.2 (3.54.5)
Calcite 2.71 (3) Tremolite 2.9-3 (5-5.5)
Tourmaline 2.98-3.2 (7-7.5) Orpiment 3.4-3.5 (1.5-2)
Actinolite 3-3.2 (5-5.6) Rhodonite 3.4-3.6 (5.5-6.5)
 370 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

j Huorite 3-3.25 (4) Rhodochrosite 3.45-3.6 (3.54.5)

Andalusite 3.1-3.3 (7.5) Olivine 3 .24.3 (6.7)
Eustatite 3.1-3.3 (5.5) Hornblende 3.34.7 (5-6)

: H eavy M inerals (Sp. gr. 3.5 to 6 )

1■ Olivine 3.2-4.3 (6-7) Smithsonite 4 4 .5 (5.5)

H' Hornblende 3.3-4.7 (5-6) Chalcohpyrite 4 .1 4 .3 (3 .5 4 )
il Topaz 3.5-3.6 ( 8 ) Barite 4.5 (3-3.5)
1 Realgar 3.56 (1.5-2) Stibnite 4 .5 4 .6 (2)
1 Kyanite 3.5-3.7 (4-7) Chromite 4 .5 4 .8 (5.5)
1 Strontianite 3.6-3.7 (3.5-4) Zircon 4.7 (7.5)
. Limonite 3.6-4 (5-5.5) Molybdnite 4 .7 4 .8 (1-1.5)
Staurolite 3.7 (7-7.5) Pyrolusite 4.8 (2-2.5)
Azurite 3.7-3.8 (3.54) Pyrite 4.8-5.1 (6-6.5)
! 1 Siderite 3.7-3.9 (3.54.5) Haematite 4.9-5.3 (5.5- 6.5)
j1 1 Psilomelane 3.74.7 (5-6) Magnetite 5.18 (5.5-6.5)
1 < Malachite 3 .9 4 (3.54) Zincite S.4-5.7 (4 4 .5 )
! ; Corundum 3.94.1 (9) Cuprite 5.8-6.15 (3 .5 4 )
1i 'i Sphalerite 3.9 4 .2 (3.54) Arsenopyrite 5.9-6.2 (5.5-6)
If Garnet 3.9 4 .2 (6.5-7.5)

Very Heavy M inerals (Sp. gr. above 6 )

Cuprite 5.8-6.15 (3.5-4)-

Wolframite 7.1-7.9 (5-5.5) Argentite 7.19-7.36 (2-2.5)
Arsenopyrite 5.9-6.2 (5.5-6) Niccolite 7.3-7.6 (5-5.5)
Cobalite 6-6.3 (5.5) Galena 7.4-7.6 (2.5)
Bismuthinite 6.4-6.5 (2) Cinnabar 8.09 (2-2.5)
Cerussile 6.55 (3-3.5) Native Copper 8.8 (2.5-3)
Cassiterite 6.8-7.1 (6-7)

The min(?rals can also be arranged according to II. Non-metallic colours

their common colours, the arrangement followed
A. White:
here is a modification of Warner’s scheme.
(0 Reddish, yellowish or grayish white—
calcite, quartz.
/. Metallic Colours Greenish white-talc.
(/) Copper red—native copper.
00
m M ilk-w hite— slig h tly B luish— som e
(«■) Brass yellow—chalcopyrite.
chalcedony.
(Hi) Silver white—arsenopyrite.
(/v) Tin white—cobalite. B. Gray:
(0 Green gray— talc.
(v) Lead gray— galena. Molybdenite.
 MINERALS AND ROCXS 371

C. Black (m) Scarlet red—red with a tinge of yellow—

(0 Velvet black—black tourmaline. cinnabar.
ill) Greenish black—augite. O'v) Blood—^red—garnet.
{iu) Bluish black—black cobalt. (V) Rose— ^red—^rose quartz.
D. Blue (vO Brownish red— limonite.
(0 Blackish blue—azurite. H. Brown
(«■) Azure b lu e - ^ clear shade of bright blue- (0 Reddish brown—garnet, zircon.
azurite. (ii) Wood-brown— some asbestos.
m Violet blue—blue mixed with red--fluorite
O'v) Prussian blue—pure blue—Kyanite. Rocks
(V) Smalt blue-some gypsum.
Rocks are the units of the earth’s crust and are
(vO Indigo blue—blue with black and green—
composed of minerals. A rock may be formed of
tourmaline.
only one mineral or it may be composed of several
E. Green minerals. In popular conception the term rock is
ii) Verdigris green—green, inclining to blue- associated with something hard and heavy but in
some feldspar. scientiHc usage a soft clay is as much a rock as the
(«■) Celandine green— green, white blue and hard granite.
gray— talc and beryl. Genetically the rocks may be classified into three
(iii) M ountain green— green, with much major groups, viz., (i) Igneous, (ii) Sedimentary, and
blue—beryl. (iii) Metamorphic.
(/v) Grass green—green, with more yellow-
green diallage.
(i) Igneous Rocks
(v) Pistachio—green— light green with some
These have solidified from a molten state and
brown epidote.
thus also known as primary rocks. Almost 95 %
(vi) Asparagus green—yellowish green-apatite.
of the earth’s crust is composed of igneous rocks
( vm ) Blackish green—serpentine.
(viii) Oil-green—olive oil colour— beryl. which are the most important group rocks which are
the most important group amongst the rocks, the
f. Yellow igneous rocks have been c^ssified in various ways
(0 Sulphur yellow— suphur. according to the purpose j h view. One can have a
00 Straw yellow—pale yellow— topaz. mineralogical classification based on the mineral
(iii) Wax-yellow—brownish gray yellow— composition of the rock which can be determined
sphalerite, opal. with the help of a microscope. Then a chemical
(vO Honey—yellow, with shades of brown and classification can be prepared based on chemical
red—calcite.
analysis of the various igneous rocks. Similarly a
(v) Lemon yellow— sulphur, orpimenL
megascopic classification depends on characters
(vO O chre— yellow — brow nish y e l l o w -
which can be determined from the obsevation of a
yellow ochre.
hand specimen. For this^urpose one does not require
iiie- (vu) Wine-yellow—topaz and flourite.
(viii) Cream yellow—^kaolinite. any elaborate equipment excepting perhaps a pocket
(ix) Orange yellow—orpimeni. pen knife and, say, a few drops of hydrochloric acid.
Thus.a megascopic classification is best suited to a
me G. Red
field worker for the indentification of rocks in hand
(0 Aurora red—red with much yellow—some specimen. Geographers are occasionally required to
realgar.
identify rocks in hand specim en. The given
(ii) Hyacinth red—red with shades of brown
megascopic classification o f Ignerous Rocks is
and yellow—garnet.
modified from Frisson (Table 4).
 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
372

T a bl e 4

A. G rained, constituent grains recognizable. Mostly Instrnsive

(0 ) Feldspathicrocks, usually ( « Ferrcmagnesian rock, generaUy

light in colour dark to black in colour
with quartz without quartz with subordtnate Feldspar, without Feldspar_______

Syenite Diorite Peridotite

Non-porphyrtitic Granite Pyrozenite
(a) Aplite (a) Syenite Gabbro-
(Jb) Nepweline syenite Dolerite Homblendite
(c) Anorthosite
Granite Syenite Diorite
Porphyry
Prophyry Porphyry Porphyry

B. Dense, constituents nearly o r wholly unrecognizeable. Instrnsive and E xtrusive

(b) Dark coloured to black, usually

(a) Light colour, usually
ferromagnesian
Feldspathic-
Felsite Basalt
Non-porphyritic
Felsiteporphyry Basalt-porphyry
Porphyritic
C. Rocks composed wholly or in p a rt of glass. Extrusive

Non-porphyritic obsidian, pitchstone, perlites, pumice, etc.

Porphyritic vitrophyre (obsidian and pitchstone porphyry)

Fragm ental Igneous m aterial, Extrusive

Tuffs, Breccias (volcanic ashes, etc.) _______ ______

coarse. Mineralogically they are composed chiefly

A brief description of some of the more' impor­
tant rock types would help in their indentification inof quartz, feldspars, and accessories like biotite
muscovite, hornblende, other ferromagnesian
hand specimen.
minerals and iron oxides. These rocks are named
according to the most prominent accessories as
Ig n e o u s,
biotite-granite, homblende-grantic, etc. In hand
specimen the quartz, feldspar and the chief acces­
G ranite
These are most commonly massive rocks with­ sories can be distinguished with the help of a pocket
out showing any tendency of foliation or banding. lens. In colour the granites are commonly of shade
When metamorphosed they are banded or foliated of gray but pink or red varieUes also occur frequenUy.
The colour of the rock depends on the proportion o f
and are more properly called granite-gneiss. The
the feldspars to the ferromagnesian minerals and also
granites are a completely crystalline rock without
the colour of the feldspar itself. The specific gravity
any glassy matter and the texture varies from fine to
 A. C onglom erate B. Schist (M icaceous)

C. G ranite D. Trecite Porphyritic

E. Schist F Gneiss
F ig . 369

z:
 V

r - i- 'V

#v- : ■^ •’

/+
V • lO

; ’!^i > ' • ’'

. 'A
V - -

■•-I -■::

.t- .

*:i-

r - A '^ r - ■

->\ iD!"*- • __
'/*' . -:••

.Vm

'V -

li# - -*■
>:-r

.'^- .'r

T.

i t y ^ '' -

-AV-' ^ f'i> -r
M
 373
m in e r a l s a n d r o c k s

darker colour and a heavier specific gravity varying

of the rock varies from 2.63 to 2.75 according to the
proportion of the light and heavy minerals. In case from 2.85 to 3.0.
of a graphic granite a beautiful inter growth is seen
G ab b ro
between quartz and feldspars.
These are massive even granular rocks typically
made up of some of the plagioclases and pyroxenes.
Pegm atite
Some of these show original banded structure which
These occur as dykes or veins in the plutonic
might get pronounced by metamorphism. The colour
rock masses or as marginal segments to such plutonic
varies from dark gray, greenish to black but an-
inUiisions into the adjoining country rocks. In
composition they resemble the plutonic mass but orthosites are sometimes white or light coloured.
are characterized by the presence of large crystals Their specific gravity is a little higher than diorites,
of, say, quartz, feldspars, mica, etc. They also contain varying from 2.9 to 3.2.
minerals which require volatile matter in their forma­
tion, e.g., tourm aline, fluorite, topaz, etc, and Peridotite
compounds of rare minerals like lepidolite, beryl, These rocks are without feldspar and are made
up entirely of ferromagnesian minerals. They are
etc.
crystalline, massive and sometimes show a mottled
appearance (due to poikillitic texture). They are
Syenite
It is completely crystalline rock and resembles generally dark coloured varying from some shades
granite in appearance but it contains very little or no of green (dunite) to complete black. They are heavier
quartz. In colour it varies from nearly white to light than gabbros and the specific gravity varies from 3
or deep gray, but pink sysnites are also not uncom­ to 3.3.
mon. The rock is massive and evenly granular.
Banding or foliation may be caused due to meta­ Dolerite
It is dark, heavry, finely crystalline dyke rock.
morphism. M ineralogically the typical rock is
Typically it is composed of labradorite, augite and
composed of alkali feldspars, hornblende, with acces­
sories of plagioclase, apatite, magnetite and a litUe iron oxides, sp. gr. 2.64 to 3.12.
or no quartz. In mica-syenite the hornblende is
replaced by biotite and in augite-syenite, augite is Basalts
The basalts are very common volcanic rocks
the chief ferreomagnesian mineral. In nepheline-
and the term covers many varieties. These are basic
syenite nepheline is present along with feldspars.
lavas in which plagioclase feldspars and the ferro­
The specific gravity of the rock varies from 2.6 to
magnesian minerals occur in almost equal propor­
2.8 depending on the kind and proportion o f minerals.
tions. There may be a litle quartz and alkali feldspar
also. The ferromagnesian mineral is either augite or
Diorite olivine and iron oxide. Sometimes hypersthene, horn­
It is com pletely crystalline even to coarse
blende or biotite also occur. In colour the basalts
granuled rock. It is generally massive but may be
vary from gray black to black and rather dull in ap­
foliated due to metamporphism. The constituent
pearance. Cellular and amygdaloidal structures are
minerals are chieOy plagioclase, with little or no
common and less frequenUy the rock is porphyritic
quartz and hornblende along with other ferromag-
showing large crystals of plagioclase in a fine ground
nesian minerals as accessories. Sometimes one of
mass. The specific gravity is high varying from 2.9
these accessories like augite or btoute might occur
in large quanuties. The colour of the rock varies to 3.1.
from fhades of dark green to almost black. Sttice
the oioDortion of ferromagnesian minerals ts higher Ryholite
^ i n ^ o f granite or syenite the rock has a It is the volcanic equivalent of granite. The
 X

374 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

texture is generally prophyritic, i.e., large crystals increase in the proportion of sand degrade into fine
of quartz and orthoclase embedded in a partly grained sandstone and with increase of calcareous
crystalline or glassy ground mass. Obsidian is the matter they pass into limestone. Most shales are
pure glassy variety with a bright vitreous lustre. It soft and disintegrate into small fragments. These
is jet black to red colour and has conchoidal fracture. occur in various shades of colour—gray, buff, yellow
Many pitchstones have a rhyolitic composition and red, brown, purple, green or black.
show homogeneous glassy mass with a dull or
resinous lustre. The colour varies from black to red Limestone
Ixown or green. The specific gravity varies from It is a widely disfributed rock and is chiefly
2.30 to 2.70. composed of calcite with varying proportions of silica
or clay as impurities. In grain size it varies from a
Pumice finely granular rock to a rock composed of coarse
It is an extremely porous and cellular glassy fragments of shells and corals. The rock shows a
rock. The colour is generally white or gray but wide range of colours. It is white when pure and
darker varieties also occur. impure varieties vary from gray to black. The rock
can be easily scratched with a knife and it effervesces
Sedim entary in cold dilute hydrochloric acid. The specific gravity
These locks have been formed by the denudation of the rock varies from 2.5 to 2.8.
of pre-existing rocks and the deposition and con­
solidation of the denuded material in water or Breccia
air. The sedimentary rocks are characterised by A rOck composed of cemented stone fragments.
stratification. The fragments are angular and typically do not show
any stratification. These fragments may be of any
Sandstone
kind of rock. The colour of the rock varies widely
It is a rock made up chiefly of sand grains held
depending on the constituents.
; together by some cementing material like silica, iron
oxide or lime. Some sandstones contain liule
Conglomerate
cementing substance and their tenacity is due to the
This rock is entirely of an aqueous origin. It
pressure during the time of consoli^tion. Apart
consists of rounded water-worn pebbles cemented
from sand the minor constituents are feldspar, mica,
together. The size of the pebbles varies widely.
garnet, magnetite, etc. The size of the grains varies
The pebbles may be entirely of one rock but more
very widely. In the fine grained types the sand
commonly they are fragments from different rocks.
particles are generally anugular but in the coarser
The colour and texture presents a heterogeneous
varieties the sand particles are well rounded. Bedded
appearance (Fig. 369).
or cross-bedded structures are well marked. The
colour varies widely from gray, white buff, brown
M etamorphic
to red depending primarily on the colour of the
These rocks were originally sedimentary or
cementing material. igneous and their present state is due to a change
brought about by intense heat and/or pressure.
Shares
These are finely stratified rocks and are com­ Q uartzite
pacted muds, clays or silts. Sometimes the shales These are chiefly formed by the melamorphism
are so finely stratified that each laminate is no thicker of sandstone. It is fine to coarse grained rock and
than a sheet of paper. Apart from clay which is is hard and compact. The colour varies widely-
chiefly kaolin the shales contain varying proportions white, gray, yellowish, greenish or reddish. Broken
of sand and also calcareous matter and with the surfaces show vitreous lustre and conchoidal fracture.

' 'f --T-;

 MINERALS AND ROCKS 375

Slates lines may be continuous or short and lenticular. The

It is a fine grained hard and dense rock derived colour varies fiom white through shades of gray,
chiefly from the metamorphism of shales. The rock red, brown, green to nearly black. The rocks are
is cleavable into very thin laminae. The cleavage named either according to chief ferromagnesian
surface may be lustrous or dull, smooth or complicat­ mineral as homblende-gneiss, biotite-gneiss, augite-
ed but sometimes also knotty due to graines of pyrite gneiss, etc., or after the parent rock as granite-gneiss,
or magnetite. The colour is generally gray to black syenite-gneiss, etc.
but red, purple of green slates also occur. The
specific gravity is about 2.75. Schists
These are characterised by marked foliation
M arble along which they split readily. The rocks are
It is a metamorphic form of limestone. The completely crystalline and individual minerals are
rock is massive and has generally an even-grained large enough to be visible, but sometimes the grain
texture. The endless varieties of coloured marble size is very fine (fig. 369). The colour varies widely
are due to the presence of impurities in the original according to the ferromagnesian minerals: mica-
rock. Black marcles are produced from bituminous schists-may be gray to brown, chlorite-schists—
limestone. The red, brown and yellow varieties are shades of green, homblende-schists—from green to
due to disseminated iron compounds. black, talc-schists— light white to pale green or gray.
\
Gneiss Phyllite
It is compact, completely crystalline, coarsely th e s e also show a slaty cleavage but are
foliated rock. The darker bands are composed of characterised by the presence of mica and the latter
ferromagnesian minerals and the light bands are gives the rock a silvery appearance. Sometimes the
commonly a mixture of quartz and feldspar. These cleavage face is knotted by crystals of garnet, quartz,
bands may be regular or curved and contorted. The pyrite, etc.
 Chapter 14

FIELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS

G eography enjoys a high position among Field diamond, gold or silver lying buried there. Similarly,
Sciences. For the proper understanding of the subject, with a geographical outlook, one may visualise the
observation of geographical facts in the field is direct or indirect relationship between man and his
absolutely essential. Maps as we have already stated environment. Now, the problem is how to develop
in the foregoing, are the tools of a geographer. They a geographical outlook. For this purpose indoor study
guide us to unseen lands. The study of region through of geography becomes essential. The basic principles
them is only theoretical. The first hand information of geography may be followed by indoor study of
is obtained only by visiting the spot. The knowledge the subject. It is with systematic know ledge of
of the surface features of the earth gained by maps various geographical elements that a geographic
may be truly visualised by sight-seeing and perfected sense can be inculcated. When the student has picked
by detailed comparison with actual facts in the field. up the basic principles, he can proceed in the field
W e study in books the control and influence of for observation, enquiry and collection o f facts; their
natural forces Over human developments. By closely analysis and systematisation may again be done
analysing the topographic forms of a certain area indoors. In this way a complete regional analysis
personally, we may find a clue of human responses may be possible and the main geographical factors
to the physical environment. It is for this reason that which are operating there may be throughly
the study of geography in the field becomes very apprehended.
much important. But even in the whole of his life
..in
|!ll« time, the resources o f a student may not permit him Training the Student in Field Geography
i|h |t to have the personal observation of the whole world. The nature of training in field geography will
One can be thoroughly acquainted with a few be different for various classes of students. It entirely
localities only. So a student of geography must get depends on the type of knowledge that the student
some training in the study of local geography of one has gathered in the class. In the undergraduate studies
or two regions in such a way that he may after­ too much em phasis on the physical geography
wards apply the principle in the study of other regions becomes burdensome. In these classes, various types
and also in the understanding of the geography of o f human activities are analysed and wherever
■! other parts, which he may not be able to observe possible, their correlationship with physical element
personally. is established. For this reason these students require
II I I In geography, therefore, the field-work is very little training in the observation of physical elements
important. It involves the minute observation of in the field. But a personal content with human
landscape—both natural and cultural— in the field. activities is essential. Students may be taken outdoors
The art of observation is not simple. U requires a in different regions so that they may be able to
scientifically trained eye. Every passer-by may laugh observe personally the various forms of cultural
at the geologist, collecting pieces of stone or rocks elem ents as indices o f human activities. Thus
which are daily trodden by the footsteps of ordinary sightseeing becomes an important aspect of field
folk. But his trained eye may discover the traces of geography which can be possible only by arranging
 HELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS 377

simple excursions to adjoining or distant lands. Some by plane-table.

towns, mining and industrial areas, hilly regions, It may, however not be possible to arrive at
etc., may be shown to them, where the mode of some definite conclusions by one or two visits to
human life may be studied. the area, but one can follow the method of study
In the case o f degree students the nature of work used in Field Geography, which he may profitably
will be somewhat different. They may undertake the apply in after studies o f the same area or any other
study of one or two small geographical regions, region.
because they can understand fairly well the nature
of both cultural and natural landscape and also Instruction for the study of a typical
establish correlationship between them. Different area
types of activities are carried on by man not by
The professor-in-charge of supervising the field
chance, but they have some relationship, direct or
work may select a suitable region for study in the
indirect, with the physical elements. The analysis of
field and issue definite instructions regarding the
physical elements, such as rocks, soil; drainage and
nature of work to be carried on there, before actually
the slope o f the land, vegetation, and cultural
proceeding for it. The map of the area should be
elements like crops, settlements— rural and urban,
prepared on a fairly large scale with the help of
means of communication, human activities— mining
topographical maps. Let us take an example of a
and industrial, etc., may be made and the latter may
typical area (vide Fig. 370 and 371)
be explained by the former. They may study the
land forms also in the field. For this an elementary
G irdih and Adjoining Region
knowledge of geology is necessary. The nature of
In this region both the Gondwana and Pre-
landforms depends upon the structure, process and
Gondwana topography can be studied and their
stage. The clear conception of the structure of an
present form may be visualised. A comparative study
area may not be possible without the study of
of two different regions with regard to the evolution
elementary geology. The work of relief-building
of landforms and their interrelationship with human
agents may be closely observed in the field and
development and designs made on the surface of the
thereby the history of the evolution of landforms of
area, may be carefully noted. For systematic study,
the area under study can be traced.
the following instructions may be followed.
Block diagrams* should be drawn to illustrate
the nature of typical landforms. Fieldsketch may be 1. Pre-Gondwana Topography
prepared to depict the character of topography of Study the crystalline terrain within the coal
suitable areas. Photographs of typical features which basin, one at K arharbaree and the other at the
cannot be shown clearly on block diagrams or confluence of the Sooknid Nadi and Kumarsote Nadi.
sketches, may be taken; for instance, meanders, Take levels at appropriate points to indicate the
badland topography, house types etc. All these should nature of Pre-Gondwana relief. Does it indicate any
be dated. Practical work with surveying instruments warping of the Pre-Gondwana relief on account of
according to the syllabuses may also be done in the subsequent earth movements which caused folding
region, such as (/) contouring o f a h illo ck , in the Barkar strata? Make traverses through the
(ii) levelling of the land along rivers to get cross schists and gneissed area lying outside the coal basin,
and longitudinal profits or some other suitable parts, note down the surface features including the direction
(m ) traverse of a road by prism atic com pass, of slope and compare them with those within the
O’v) triangulation of an open country with level coal basin. Do you find any difference between them?
surface by theodolite and the details being filled there Study carefully the nature of weathering of the

* S e e C h a p te r 4 a n d a ls o tw o b lo c k d iag ra m s d raw n to illu stra te th e la n d s c a p e o f A lm o ra a n d N a in i T a l a n d th e ir a d jo in in g a r^ a s in

c h a p te r 5 . ~
378 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY >

GIRICXH

KOLfil

BHADSJr

/y y A n SETTLEMENTS
RfllUMAY: brood
m o to r go u g o
R O A P; m oto U o d

STREAM

CONTOUR

F ig . 3 7 0 .1 . S u k n id N a d i, 2. K a m a ljo re N a d i, 3. K h u n d o li H ill, 4. C h e p o H ill, 5. U sri Fall.

crystalline rocks at the following places and draw can be termed a basin. Study the nature of the natural
clear sketches in your note book, noting the date boundary which was not affected by any faulting.
below: (0 Khundoli hill of granitoid gneiss on the Note the difference between the nature o f faulted
north and the Quartz ridges on the south-east of and unfaulted boundary if any.
Giridih; (iz) Granite on the south-west of Giridih;
(m) decomposed micaceous gneiss at Mangrodih; 3. Takhir Terrain
(zv) different types of gneiss and schist to the south Study the terrain near Mohilichuwan on the east
of the coal basin; and (v) the intrusive dioritic hills— which is formed of boulder conglomerate and needle
(a) Chepo hills on the sough, and {h) at Mangrodih shales. Also examine the bed of the Suknid Nadi on
on the east, the west. Measure the dip to show that the Talchir
rocks are older than the Barakars.
2. Gondwana Basin
Make a traverse round the coal basin along the 4 . Barakar Terrain
junction of the Gondwanas with the crystalline rocks Study the nature of hills like Kamaljore and
and find out whether there is any topographic Bhadoa, etc., formed of sandstones o f B a r^ a r age.
expression of the boundary fault. Measure the dip of Draw field-sketches to illustrate the topographic
the sedimentary rocks and the nature of the slopes. form. How do you explain the origin o f these hills?
Say whether both geographically and geologically it Measure the dip in a syncline near Kope and in an
 FIELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS 379

F ^ Mefprrvorflhiq*
T,olc.hir*
Bafflkflri
DyJi«
Ouartz reef
7^

Fig. 371

anticline in between Jogitand and Koldiha. Try to it that some of the streams flow south cutting through
find other evidences of tectonic disturbances with the dykes? How do you explain that not one of the
the help of a clinometer. streams issuing from the coal basin falls into the
Usri Nadi although that river is so near? Do you
5. Fracturing of the Gondwana Basin in a later find that the drainage has adjusted to the structure?
age: an intrusion of a number of dykes Are the rivers rejuvenated? Study the landforms near
Determine the strikes of the main basaltic the Usri falls, take the level of the river there. Study
dykes— Khobidil, Baniadih and Kamaljore, etc., and the origin of the Usri falls. Say whether it is due to
the strikes of the main peridotite dykes—Jogitand, differential erosion or due to negative change in the
Lunki and Bungalow, and indicate their influences base level of erosion. For this, measure the gradient
on drainage if any. Do you find any effect of contact of the river near Giridih and near the falls. Does the
metamorphism of sandstone near the dyke? difference between them give any explanation for
it? Mark out the longitudinal profile in the Usri river.
6. Drainage System Does it show composite nature? Does the fall mark
Study the drainage system and find out if there the present knick-point of erosion? Try to follow
are any breaks in the thalwegs of the rivers. How is carefully the cycle of erosion.
380 ELEMENTS OF TA C TIC A L GEOGRAPHY

7. Vegetation those in the field and mark such changes as have

Mark the distribution o f vegetation over the occurred after the last survey of the area; (iv) Camera
basin. Do you now find any trace of jungle there? for taking photographs of typical features which
Are the ridges of the area mantled with any vegeta­ c a n n o t be easily and leg ib ly sk etch ed out;
tion? Compare the vegetation of the Gondwana (v) Binoculars to take distant view of the landscape;
terrain with that of the metamorphic terrain; explain (v/) Hammer to cut rock specimens; (vi7) Soil-sampler
the difference if any. to take the sample of soils; iyiii) Specimen bags
to co llect specim en o f rocks, soil etc.,
8. Settlements and Communication ( a ) Miscellaneous.
Note the character o f the settlements— both rural
and urban, there. Are the villages situated over the B. Requirements for camping
foot of the hills and along the river valleys? Note (/) Light tents to be fixed in the field; (fi) one
down the chief activity of the people living in the or two watchmen to look after the camp when the
area. Do they work in the coal mines and mica party is out for observation and work; iiii) light
factories only? Examine the site of the town of bedding and clothing according to the season and
Giridih and try to explain the growth of the town place; (/v) light ready-made food; (v) water bottles;
there. Do you find any vitality in the region to (vO first-aid box; {yii) others.
promote the growth of the town vigorously? Study
the sanitation and the nature of the means of C. Finances
communication and transport in the town. Mark the Care must be taken in selecting the area for
possible direction of the further extension of the study, which should be easily accessible with the
town. Can you suggest any planning for the extension least amount of expenditure so that the students in
of the town? What is the arrangement of water supply general may afford to pay for it. Sometimes it may
there? Is there any arrangement for parks and play­ also be desirable that the college or university
grounds for the children? Examine the house types. authorities should pay at least communication and
W hat building and road materials are available there? transport charges. To promote the interest in field
Compare the life of the town with that of the rural work the government should also make the services
areas. of railways available free of charge to parties going
on geographical and geological excursions. As
Arrangement and Equipment excursions and field observations form a very
The same facilities are often not available important aspect of study in these subjects, nominal
outdoors as are found indoors regarding camping fees may be charged as is done for laboratories.
equipment. So, as far as possible, a perfect arrange­
ment for camping, etc., in the field should be made A rran g em en t for C am ping in some specific areas
before the party starts for the field work. The strength
of the party should not be too large; say, a maximum 1. Mirzapur and the Adjoining Region
o f 20 stu d en ts per su p erv iso r w ould form a The area is depicted on the sheet No. 63 K /12.
manageable party. The entire arrangement may be This sheet is generally studied by undergraduate
classified in the following categories. students who should be taken into the field and the
salien t features d epicted on the m ap m ay be
A. Equipment for work compared there. There are two rest-houses in the
(0 A note book with necessary drawing area just on the plateau: one at Tanda falls and the
materials; {ii) surveying instruments according to the other at Vindyam falls. For the use of these rest-
nature of work and the instructions issued by the houses the Secretary, District Board, M irzapur,
supervisor; («/) Topographical survey maps of the should be requested beforehand. For their use
area to compare the features depicted on them with nominal rent of Rs. 10 per day is charged by the
 nnfrilm ^

H ELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS 381

Board. For cooking utensils and other requirements hospitable too. Secondly, there is a Dak Bungalow
necessary arrangements are made by the watchmen o f Ramgarh state which is in charge o f the Tehsildar
o f these houses. There is a regular bus service from residing at Kodarma. It is a fairly big bungalow
M irzapur to Robertsganj. It is on this route that the which can easily accom modate 15 or 20 persons. If
Vindhyam fall lies. The rocky and gorgelike bed of you write to the Principal, St. Columbus College,
the Madho Nadi and the forest covered landscape of Hazaribagh, he may make necessary arrangement
the adjoining region may be carefully examined here. for lodging here. The state truck can also be available
There is tanga service to the Tanda fall, the charge for touring purposes. Besides these, there is also a
per tanga usually being about rupees ten. For local Dharamshala which is very spacious. Though
detailed features to be examined in this area see Kodarma is a small town it is fairly clean and there
Chapter 5. general requirements are easily and cheaply met with.
A number of hotels are now run by the refugee
2 . Kodarma-Parasnath-Jharia Region population. At Jharia too, there is a big Agarwal
The Degree students may be taken to this area Dharmshala in which one can generally stay for there
in order to study the metamorphic and sedimentary days only. T he m an ag er, u n d er som e sp ecial
terrain in general {see Fig. 372 a). Near Kodarma, circum stances, may allow to stay more. In this
mica m ines and crystalline topography m ay be D h aram sh ala m ore than 50 p e rso n s can be
inspected. At Jharia coal mines and mining settle­ accommodated. From Dhanbad which lies on the
ments form important feature o f topography; while grand chord line of the E.R., there is also bus service
at Parasnath one can study hill-features developed to Jharia, which may cost about Rs. 5 per head.
over the metamorphic area. At Kodarma two persons From Jharia there is a bus service to Gomoh, Sindri,
may be requested to make adequate arrangement for Parasnath, etc. Parasnath lies about 5 Km from the
camping. Firstly, if Messrs Chatu Ram Horil Ram, G.T. Road. One can go in a bus from Jharia to
mica m erchants, who own a guest house and a Parasnath, or Dhanbad to Parasnath or from the
Dharamshala, are intimated beforehand, they usually Parasnath Railway station to the Parasnath hill. The
permit the use of these buildings. They are very Parasnath can be climbed from two sides: (/) from

SA SA RA M

£HR/

ff.AJAiJL

'f ■ '■ • V ■/ • .'V • •

D ent
DIRDIMvr'

HA2ARBA

R3AD

Fig. 372 fl

X
 7 "

382 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

the Nimiaghat side, and (ii) from the Madhuban side. appears to be the monarch o f them all, w ith a
At Nimiaghat there is a Dak Bungalow of P.W.D. maximum elevation o f 1366 mt above sea level.
and also a Dharamshala. Some shops have grown
up there along the G.T. Road to meet the 3. Jabalpur (Jubbulpur) and the Adjoining Region
requirements of tourists. At Madhuban residential Here too a variety of landscape can be
and other facilities are provided by the Jains. There studied; such as {i) Granitic Topography, and
is a well fumished rest-house at the top o f the hill, (ii) Metamorphic Topography (vide Fig. 372 b). The
where only a cup of tea, even that sometimes without former is found near Madan Mahal, about five Km
sugar, may be available. So one has to carry ready­ away from Jabalpur. There is the Madan Mahal peak
made food if he wishes to stay there for a night or at the top of which there is an old fort o f the same
so. At the top there is a big temple of the god name. From the top o f the hills a complete view of
Parasnath. From the top one can have a complete the landscape below can be had. The latter is found
picture of the metamorphic terrain below which is conspicuous near Bheraghat where the precipitous
dotted with residual hills, all o f which present more gorgelike bed of the Narbada river and the Dhuan-
or less, the same appearance and the Parasnath dhar Falls are very interesting features. Thirdly, the

K \\\l SEtTLEM ENTS

t X i rO » E S T
I' t AREA ABOveiSOO
H rtL S

STREAM
■> CONTOUR
RAU.WAY. 8R0A 0 GAUGE
= ROAO m e t a l l e d

GARriA

CAt*'iONMLKT

I
Fig. 372 b. Showing Jabalpur and Adjoining Region. Forests are stippled by short broken lines. Area over 1300' (396 mt)
above sea level is dotted. HiUs are pitched back. Settlements are shaded by horizontal lines.
\

T O r .A tC l/T T A

T O A L i- A W A & A O

V' A 1--S
‘4 v i ■^ y
W ')'

fc^)WI^TS6AMJ f' ^ '"«*

cH

ftU
*
- V .-
^ •'' ' ^^H.,,aB’-n,v .. _,A

•KON

• TO

'OSIWGRAU^*

SAQa R
T #
^ ■•WUIRPUH

?■?■■;.;•' -iM
J:::.:...

F ig. 373
 V.

<(S
V’

/. .“' ; ' \^rfy

B ^ ■■,'■.,,>4.y*'- ■•■■.,■*
,■

,tt. -
f
/ a ' -i!!

r
i/
fc
IS

flT * *

iil .1

Vftt '5? '' w ^ -"riV « ' w. ,js‘

w tM t9^h
i w ^ 'w! tk ^ K n 4 ^ 1 tk
» /
* ;f ■intji’-iifSfie.-H. 'iit.n^

i<
k
JK?
»■*

\* ■''.V.
s. Wfir
. . I -
., *'
t
I
' v fS

■■' .'^ v 'f' .

l> *■» /
'•S * -_ W

Fig. 374
 FIELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS 383

site of the town of Jabalpur need also be examined. of the Rihand dam the road and railway bridge on
For the inspection of the special features together the Son and establishment of the Churk Cement
with the collection of other general information, as factory its hitherto unknown resources are being
will be indicated in the sequel, the arrangment for explored and utilized.
camping at two places is essential: (i) in the town of W hile moving along the Varanasi-Ahraura-
Jabalpur, and (ii) at Bheraghat. In the town of Pipari highway one may get a bird’s eye view of the
Jubbulpur there is the Raja Gokuldas Dharmshala landscapes of adjoining areas. The influence of land-
near the railway station. For its use the manager can forms on the transport arteries may be clearly
be intimated beforehand. There is also a rest-house observed. The control of lithological characteristics
of P.W.D., Jubbulpur. Here the minimum charge as on vegetation both north and south of the Son gorge
rent per day is Rs. 30 for a party of about 20 is quite visible.
members. Bheraghat lies at a distance of 18 Km As is obvious from Fig. 373 it is possible to
from Jubbulpore. Tangas are usually available for study three sample areas in the vicinity of the state
that place. The normal charge is Rs. 20 per tanga. highway and thus to comprehend the picture of the
At B heraghat there are two rest houses, one region as a whole: A. Ahraura and its adjoining areas;
belonging to the District Board and the other to the B. Robertsganj Chopan area; and C. Renukut-Pipari
State government At present the minimum charge area. In addition, some such areas may also be
per day for these house is Rs. 5.00. Besides, there studied which are still awaiting the utilization of
are some “Pandas”, the professional hosts to tourists, resources for development; these include Muirpur,
who provide fw the boarding and lodging of a small Dudhi and Kon area. The students may be curious
party. As it has grown to be a tourists’ centre, the to examine the changing landscape near the Banbasi
retail shops for necessaries and locally made stone Ashram.
toys and articles are found there. There is a boat The landforms, human settlements, vegetal
service here to enable the tourists to see the cover, etc. do show contrasting features in the north
precipitous gorge of the Narmada through the marble and south of Son gorge as shown in Fig. 374 and
rocks. At Bheraghat bullock carts are generally 375.
available which are cheap.
Setting of Map in the Field
4. Giridih and the Adjoining Region The comparison of features depicted on the map
Both geographically and geologically this is a with the corresponding features on surface of the
very interesting area which can be adopted for giving earth forms an important study for the s tu d e n t^ f
intensive training to post-graduate students in the geography. Topographic forms depicted on the map
field geography. The features to be noted in detail can be best studied in this way. But it cannot be
have already been discussed in the foregoing pages. possible unless the student knows how to set the
It may take 10 to 15 days in studying this small map in the field. The setting of the map in the field
region closely. For camping arrangements, Messrs means the adjustment of the north point of the map
Chandm al R ajgarhia and Sons, fam ous mica to north in the field. This can be done by the
merchants, may be requested. Giridih is a cheap following methods:
place and it has a good season particularly in January.
(i) By comparison of some salient features of the
5. Mirzapur Region map with corresponding features in the field
It is a typical example of a developing country. A str^ght feature of the map, say, a road or a
This area has been a neglected and undeveloped area railway may be made to coincide with the actual
during the first half of the 20th century, which was road or railway on the ground. Then the north of
completely isolated and without any agricultural and the map will roughly correspond with north in the
industrial development But with the construction countryside. When such straight lengths are not
384 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

ritSI FAttf
y SON VALLEY
VeOfYOM

Fig. 375

easily identified on the ground, select two prominent good. If the map, on the other hand, is on a small
points, such as, a bridge and a church spire or temple scale the distance between two points on the map
top or well. Join these two features on the map with cannot be precisely compared with those on the
a ruler or pencil. Rotate the map, holding the ruler ground.
or pencil in the same position as fixed before, till it
(ruler or pencil) becomes horizontal to the imaginary (//■) By compass
line joining the corresponding feature on the ground. A m agnetic com pass alw ays points to the
Now the north point of the map roughly corresponds Magnetic North which slightly varies from the True
with north in the field. Thus the map will be more North {Chapter 11 ). On the topographical map
or less correctly set and its other features may be Magnetic North or True North or mean Grid North
compared with reasonable accuracy. It may be noted may be marked. Grid is “a graphic representation
here that such a method of setting the map is possible of the plane-rectangular co-ordinate system used for
only in the case of fairly large-scale maps, e.g., one- defining the position of trigonometrical points on
inch maps or half-inch map showing a plain country the Projection.” This would be continuous for the
where village, road, railway, etc., can be easily whole country. This could be drawn on maps of
identified. In a mountainous country with diversified any scale in various ways as parallel lines
relief features, or, in an open, uninhabited and respectively to the two axes of projection, at some
extensive grassland where some prominent features definite intervals; say, 10 km., 10,000 yards, 5,000
cannot be recognised, such a method does not hold yards, 1,000 yards, etc. The side o f squares formed

/
 HELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS 385

by them are divided into tenths. The squares may different meridians, that is, there is no north-south
be defined by the use of letters. The method of limit. Thus the Grid North may differ from the
using these letters for reference is often shown in Tm e North. But it will not vary from time to time
as Magnetic North does.
the margin of the map. On the one-inch maps of
The angular distance of any point on the map in
India 10,000 yards squares are divided into 100 respect to Tme North and Magnetic North is called
squares, each of one thousand yards. The sides of the bearing and magnetic bearing of that point
10,000 yards squares are thickened and all the grid respectively. These bearings are generally measured
lines are numbered. Hence any reference may give in a clockwise direction. The magnetic bearing of
the number of yards east and north of the south­ a point varies from time to time and also different
west com er o f 10,000 yards squares. For precision, places have different magnetic bearings. But the true
each side o f a 1,000 yards square is subdivided by bearing is constant Grid North is related to true
eye or any scale into ten parts. Thus reference can North. On gridded maps of India Grid North is stated
be given in six figures down to 100 yards. For in relation to Tme North which is constant. For
instance, the grid reference, of A Rajghat in the sheet instance, on the Mirzapur sheet No. 63 A712, third
Edition, mean Grid North is 3° 14' west of Tme
63 Kt \2 is B 851102; here B is the letter for reference
North. The variation in the tme bearing and the ma-
to the big square, 85, to grid number 1 to 100 yaids
netic is called magnetic variation or magnetic
distance to the east of 85th grid, 10, grid number to declination, or, the deviation of the compass. On
the north and 2,200 yards north of 10th grid {yide the map they are shown as in Fig. 377. The Magnetic
Fig. 376). N j N
V*

■ ~ r "

10 IcHAT
910000
Y ordt B
—
—

— 1“ " —

—
]1
[
i s s -s
r■■ ^
Fig. 377

North may be west or east of the True North, as

shown by N'S'. The magnetic declination is also
mentioned in degrees on the map. So if the magnetic
— declination of a place is known, the magnetic North-
8 South line can be drawn drawing the line at the
tn .r 1n tC f ti ( O angular distance equal to the magnetic variation. If
h the magnetic North-South line is marked on the map
and deviation of the compass is known, true North-
Fig. 376 South line also can be drawn in the similar way.
The central line of the grid is also the cenU'al The true bearing of the point on the map can be
meridian and the angle of convergence between measured with the help of a protractor with reference
meridians and grid lines increases with distance from to the North-South line shown on it in the following
it. A simple application of a grid to a small-scale way.
projection is of no practical value since because the In Fig. 378, let there be two points B and T,
divergence soon becomes excessive. In a counHy representing a bridge and a tower. It is required to
with a great longitudinal extent, the grid is based on find the to true bearing of T from B and of B from
 \

386 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GbOGRAPHY

N compass-needle is the same number of degrees east

or west of true North-South line as the magnetic
variation points o u t

(Hi) By the sun and watch

The sun weaves a circle on the horizon for every
24 hours day. It points due south at noon on the
equinoxes only. In summer and winter it deviates
from due south or north at noon in Northern or
Southern Hemisphere. When the sun at noon is due
south in Northern Hemisphere, it means it is changing
its position on the horizon by 15° per hour. Find
Fig. 378 the correct time of the day when you are in the field.
T points on the map. Firstly, from B draw a line NS, Say, it is 2 p.m. Then along the North-South line
parallel to the actual North-South line shown on the NS of the map (Fig. 381) make clockwise the angle
map. Put the protractor ai B along NS and measure NOC equal to 210°, assuming a change of 15° per
the angle NBT which is equal to 100°. Then 100° hour in the position of the sun after midnight. At C
is the true bearing of the tower T as observed from hold the pencil CP vertically. Rotate the map
B. Again, from T draw a line NS parallel to the gradually so that the shadow of the pencil CP
N orth-South line show n on the map; with the coincides with the line CO. Now the map is set.
protractor measure the angle BTS which is 100°. When the sun is observable, in North
Add 180° shown by the straight line NS. Thus the Hemisphere true South and in Southern Hemisphere
reflex angle NBT = ( 100° + 180°) = 280° will be the true North can be found out by a watch also. If you
true bearing of the bridge from the tower. The are in the Northern Hemisphere, hold the watch with
bearing of T from B may also be called forward its face upwards on palm of your hand horizontally.
bearing of T and bearing of B from T may also be Rotate the watch till its hour hand points to the sun.
called back bearing of T as the point B will lie on Then the line that bisects the angle made by the
the back of the observer now standing at T. To find hour hand with the line joining the twelve O ’clock
out the back bearing, if the bearing is more than and six O ’clock via the dial centre, will point to the
180°, subtract 180 and if it is less, add 180° to it as south (See Fig. 379). In the figure, NS bisecting the
done in the above example. angle AOB, is the North-South line. When you are
The map can be correctly set in the field in in the Southern Hemisphere, the imaginary line
reference to the magnetic North-South line or true joining the 12 O ’clock with the centre of the dial
North-South line with the help of magnetic compass. will be made to point at the sun as shown in Fig.
Place the compass on the map in such a way that its 380. Then the line bisecting the angle formed by
axes (0°— 180° line) coincides with the magnetic the hour hand widi the line pointing at the sun, will
North-South line of the map. Then slowly rotate the indicate the true North point. Thus in the figures,
map, holding the compass firmly there, to make the NS is the North-South line. The above method may
compass needle coincide with the magnetic North- be followed only at the equinoxes or near the equator
South line in the field. If the magnetic North-South where day and night are equal, i.e., of 12 hours
line is not shown on the map and the magnetic duration.
declination is known, then the magnetic North-South
line can be drawn and then to set the map, the Collection of data in the field
procedure discussed above may be followed. The Regarding the nature of study to be made in a
compass may also be laid along the true North-South particular area like the Giridih and Adjoining Region,
line and the map be gradually rotated till the necessary insuuctions have already been given in
X

HELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS 387

SUN

Fig. 379 Fig. 380 Fig. 381

the foregoing. Besides, certain points in connection (ix) Deserted rural settlements or new settlements
with the collection o f data in general may be which have developed after the computation of the
explained here. There are two kinds of elements in map; (x) Badly eroded areas; (xi) Dry beds of streams
the topography: (i) the fixed elements, (//) the and changed course of streams; (xii) others.
dynamic or movable elements. On the cultural side
primary fixed elements are buildings, fields and T aking the Soil Sample
fences, means of communition, canals, pit-heads, There is an instrument known as the soil sampler
mines, etc., and the main movable elements are crops, by which the sample o f soil can be taken at different
livestock, wagons, vehicles, machines and man. On soil horizons (See Fig. 382). Usually the soil sample
the natural side, the chief fixed elements are structure, should be taken from three or four places of a certain
slope and soil, etc., and main movable are drainage, plot and also from different plots of the region
climate, vegetation and animals. While noting down according to the various types of soil observed in
the movable elements, in particular, dates must be the field. Various crops get their nutrients from
entered. Fixed elements may be marked on the large- different levels o f the soil and as such, we find
scale maps of typical localities within the region; in shallow rooted plants and deep rooted plants. So it
case there is no separately prepared large-scale map, will be misleading to scratch only the surface soil,
carefully locate the special features on the say, up to depth of 2" to V only. The samples for
topographical map of the area by legible conventional different soils should be collected into different
signs. The following facts may be noted in general: specimen bags or glass tubes which should be
(0 Farmlands with the standing crops; («) Pastures— numbered and named after the areas from where the
rich or poor; (iii) W oodlands with the name of sample has been taken. If possible, a sketch should
different trees; (/v) Mining areas with the name of be drawn in the notebook to mark the depth of
minerals; (v) Industrial areas distinctly showing different horizons of soil till the parent rock is
different industries; (vz) Soil types for which soil reached. That is, the thickness of top-soil, sub-soil,
sample is collected; (vii) Depth of water table at hard pans, and parent rocks, etc., should be distinctly
different places; (vh 7) Extended site of the towns; shown by a diagrammatic section (See Fig. 183).
388 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

for irrigation.

Collecting the d a ta R egarding Social G eography

Besides statistical information com puted by
official and semi-official sources, some geographical
facts of param ount importance about the people
living in isolated comers can be obtained only by
personal observation and interview with the local
people. Here it may be noted that it is not unlikely
that even a trained geographer may be tempted to
read theory into facts to be collected in the field.
The preconveived ideas regarding the relationship
between man and environment may lead him
unconsciously to a selection of facts favourable to
view already held. Thus he may underestimate the
worth of some other fact which might also have
played their role in shaping the life o f the people of
the area under study. Therefore, the observation of
society and its invironment should be made in great
detail and then pertinent facts explaining their
relationship will become obvious by a little thought.
But it is not always easy to get necessary information
from the people. The people of such areas are
reluctant to give detailed information regarding them.
For this purpose the people of the area must be taken
into confidence; only then you can extract some
Fig. 382 information from them. You should get interested
in their life and your interest must have a genuinely
M easure the Depth of W ate r T able or Subsoil human touch. You should give them every
W ater opportunity of saying many things. It is very likely
The general water supply of a region depends that they will utter many unscientific things, but you
on rainfall and the depth of the water table. The should patiently and sympathetically listen to them
depth of sub-soil w ater can be determ ined by as it is not unlikely that some of them will open up
measuring the level of water in the wells of the new lines of thought which may lead to new fields
region by tape. Sometimes by boring pipes also the of enquiry. In relating the tales of their life and
depth of water table can be measured; this method experiences about nature, the people will have
is costly and can be practised by mechanics, not by provided you with am ple m aterials which may
students. The level of water in well rises or sinks indicate not only the causes of their particular mode
according to the rainy or dry season. So the data of life but also the changes that have taken place in
should be dated. If it be possible, the depth of water appearance o f the country-side due to m odern
in wells should be measured in different seasons developments and contact with other people with
and the measurem ent recorded on the map. If different equipments. But your enquiry should not
adequate data are available, isopleths showing the be confined to one individual or one locality. You
depth of water table in the region can be drawn. must meet many people wisely selected from various
D etailed hydrographical surveys are helpful in sample villages within the area. Care must be taken
planning the setting up of tube-wells in the region in the selection of sample areas where detailed
 FIELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS
389

enquiry should be made. Sometimes it may become geomorphology of the area, then the headings will
essential to stay with them for long and develop vary. Geomorphological study will be made under:
close ass(x:iation by frequent visits. Thus some of (0 Geology; (ii) Structure; (Hi) Types o f landform;
the interesting aspects o f their life may be revealed (zv) Evolution of landforms in relation to structure,
to you. Then you can proceed to correlate these process and stages; (v) C lassification into
facts w ith the natural environm ent from a triie Geomorphological units; (vz) Influence of landforms
perspective. on human activities. In case your investigation is in
the field o f Human geography the account will be
How to write the regional account? under: (i) Envirom ental setting; (ii) Distribution of
A fter collecting the data according to the Population; (zzz) H um an H abitations; (zv) Food;
instructions discussed in the foregoing a systematic (v) Clothing; (vz") Economic activities; (vzz) Social
geographical account of the region examined may custom s; (vz’zz) Stage o f C ultural D evelopm ent;
be w ritten indoors. Field specim ens o f rocks, (ix) Cultural Associations.
minerals, and soil etc., may be tested and verified in
the laboratory and the maps and sketches, etc., drawn Problem s and Patterns of Field-Research
in the field may be carefully faired. In wriuing the Before undertaking a field research programme,
account help may be taken from other books and it is essential to be fam iliar with what others have
papers compiled by previous authors. For drawing discussed about the area selected for intensive
clim atic m ap o f the area clim atic statistics, if observation. Such a familiarity with the existing
available, may be used. For constructing such maps, knowledge o f the area concerned is quite helpful in
methods indicated in Chapter 7 may be followed. visualizing the objective and correct perspective of
Settlem ent and comm unication maps may be drawn the research problems pertaining to physical and/or
by simply tracing those features from the topographi­ socio-cultural, economic and historical aspects, as
cal sheets to illustrate typical characteristics. Separate Jospeh E. Schwartzberg ( 1967) has rightly observed
town maps may be prepared to show the present site the following procedures for regional analysis:
o f the tow n and also its probable extension or (i) To define precisely specific problems,
encroachment on the rural areas as noted in the field. (ii) Scanning of spatial variations.
Similarly on the communication map, the probable (zzz) Evaluation o f review of the collected data/
new routes may also be marked. Likewise, the information available in published/unpublished form.
drainage map of the area may be prepared in which (zv) To search correlation among the variables
the changes in the course of the streams, noted in selected for study.
the field, may be indicated. For the construction of (v) Selection o f distinctive areas within the
soil and land utilization map, detailed regional survey region.
is required. (vi) formulation of adequate and well prepared
T hus a report should be w ritten under the programme for area study.
following heads in general: (0 Location of the area. (vzz) S e lectio n o f su ita b le m eth o d s and
(i7) Physical features with special reference to approaches for specific areal observations.
landform s. (m ) D rainage, (iv) C lim ate, (v) (viii) Areal observations in general.
V egetation. (vi) Soil. (v/'O Population and (ix) The analysis of data and informations
S ettlem ents, (vm ) L and use-agriculture, dairy collected through field study.
farming, (ix) Industries, (x) Means of transport and (x) Presentation of the derived results and
com m unication and trade, (x/) Suggestions for conclusions with critical analysis and interpreta­
planned developm ent. These headings may be tio n s o f the v a rio u s facts co m p u ted through
modified according to the nature of investigation. field observations and all other relevant and reliable
For instance, if you are investigating and studying sources.
3*?0 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

For a successful research in geography, the 5. Analysing and processing the collected data,
following essential series of steps to be followed which involves the selection of appropriate
before the woiking programmes: cartographic and statistical methods o f analysis.
Further, this final step includes stating the con­
1. Formulation of the Research problem, or the
clusions and determining if the proposed hypotheses
asking of a previously unanswered question in exact
are confirmed or rejected.
terms. This also includes the previous determination
It is quite obvious from an examination of Fig.
of the areal extent (micro or macro-area) of the matrix
383 that the approaches to field studies involve
within which the research work will be conducted.
certain systematic steps. By following such steps as
2. Definition of hypotheses, or formulation of a shown in the modal, one may be able to present
theory, assumption, or a set of assumptions which quite clearly scientific analysis of the area selected
are yet unproven but which are accepted tentatively for field study.
as a basis for investigation. This model has been constructed after Haring
and Lounsbury ( 1975). One may note carefully the
3. Determination of the type of data to be
various processes and steps as guidelines. To start
collected pertinent to the research problem. The
with it is necessary to formulate a comprehensive
specific nature of the research problem and the size
statement of the problems pertaining to the area
areal extent of the matrix will determine the type of
selected for study; while in conclusion the researcher
data that must be obtained, the way the data will be
is required to present the probable solutions and
classified, how the data will be collected, and whether
suggestions to eradicate the problems stated in the
or not the matrix will be surveyed in its entirety or
beginning. The various intermediate steps provided
sampling procedures will be employed.
in the model are more or less self explanatory.
4. Collection of data, which involves the analysis For writing dissertation at Master Level, there
of published materials, the use of field techniques, is a need of time-budget programme, which will
or perhaps the em ploym ent o f data-collecting optimally take about 17 weeks (i.e., 4 months); the
instruments. general frame of time-budget is given in Table 1:

T a b le 1. Time-budget for Master level Dissertation

Phase Task Time (week)

I : Planning Actual Research 12 (Total)

A. Survey of pertinent literature (significant professional papers) 1
B. Acquisition of Pertinent Source Materials (base maps,
statistical reports, surveys, etc.) 1
C. Collection of Data 6
(library & field research)
D. Analysis and Processing of Data —
(completion, evaluation, selection of data)

II : P reparing the W ritten R eport 5

A. Preparation of Report Outline 1/2

(outline of chapter and major headings)
B. Preparation of First Draft 1.5
(compilation and fust writing of complete report)
 h e l d s t u d ie s & R ESEA R CH STEPS
391

C. Revision o f First Draft

(rearranging, editing, modifying, reporting)
D. Assem bly and Preparation o f Final S upportive Materials
(drafting maps, illustrations, tables; assembly o f bibliography)
E. Preparation of the Final Draft

(After Haring & Lounsbury, 1975)

a rea selected
S t a t e m e n t of P r o b le m

F O R M U L A TIO N O F H Y P O T H E S E S

data C O LLE C TIO N

M o pping , inte rv ie w in g, q u e s t i o n n a i r e

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
IDENTIFICATION O r DATA
b a s e d on le v e l .s c o l e . m a t r i x
R s l e v o n t vs. irrelevent

SP A T IA L FRAMEWORK

data P R O C ESS IN G

l A n a ly s i s jRegional ta x o n o m y

q u a n t i t a t iv e ,STA TISTICAL
CARTOGRAPHIC PRESENTATION
PR ESEN TA T IO N
M odell in g end G rophics

FINDIN GS AND PR ES EN TA TION

S olutions ond S u g g e s tio n s
“ m o d if ie d a f t e r H a rin g a L ou n sbu ry, 1975.

Fig. 383

Before proceeding for field work, it is pertinent selected for such selected aspects.
In the Indian contexts, the most important among
to first m ap the statistical information concerning
several sources for data is the Indian C ensus
the spatial organization and patterns of the variables
Division— ^The Registrar General Office, New Delhi,
selected. The various maps so constructed may be
which has been publishing census data by decades
superim posed so that the patterns of areal variation
starting for 1881. Upto 1931, data pertaining to
may be crystallized and full comprehension of the
correlation among the variables may be obtained. caste and commiunities by Thana, Paragana and by
O n the basis o f such correlations, explanatory sub-divisions for various Districts have been col­
hypothesis may be postulated, which may be tested lected. Thereafter certain data have been classified
through field observations. Again specific areas are such as castes, etc., and there publication has been
392 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

discontinued. Since 1951, District Census Hand­ that all essential absolute and relative characteristics
books are being published which provide detailed may be clearly delineated. Some such objective
information even at village level regarding landuse, questions should also be raised which may facilitate
available amenities, services, functional structure, the analysis of developmental process or forms of
literacy, religious structure, etc. Even at urban level, variability (which, what, where, why and how).
various classes of data are available. Finally all types o f analytical frames, maps,
To develop a hypothesis, it is essential to make illustrations, statistical observations, help in arriving
a critical review of spatial distribution and cor­ at specific results and conclusions. It is then essential
relations of the variables selected. For instance, if to present an integrated and well coordinated picture
spatial-patteming of literacy and urban population o f the region studied in simple, lucid and scientific
are mapped side by side, a hypothesis may be language. To achieve this objective, the following
postulated that wherever urban population is greater, indications may be kept in view:
the percentage o f literacy is also higher. This (z) Full elaboration and significance o f the
hypothesis can be illustrated by drawing parallel problem.
histograms by ploting percentage of literacy on the (zO The sources of collected data— their draw­
abscissa and the percentage of urban population on backs and evaluation.
the ordinate. In this way their correlation can be (Hi) Arrangement and interpretations of suitable
clearly shown. Or, the relationship between two tables, charts and illustrations.
variables can be shown by drawing regression lines (iv) The bases and importance of area-selection.
(the method o f drawing regression lines is explained (v) Evaluation and significance of the techniques,
in the chapter 8). But, it may be possible to note the methods and approaches adopted.
spatial variations o f the above hypothesis at different (vi) Scientific analysis of computed data and
levels, which will have to be examined at micro conclusions derived therefrom.
regional levels. (vzz) The correlations among different variables
In selecting areas for the analysis of specific and their spatial patterns, distinctiveness and the
problems, the following facts may be examined: functional process and their presentation through
(z) Selection of representative samples pertaining mathematico-statistical technique.
to maximum, minimum and average spatial distinc­ (viii) Comparative analysis of the conclusion
tion form each type area of the region selected. derived in respect of other areas.
(z7) For sampling such an area may be selected (ix) Relevance of the study and an indication of
which is well diversified so that intensive analysis the development trends in the region.
could be made. Such a balanced study o f a region will certainly
(Hi) From each o f the distinctive areas at least present an integrated form of the problems in their
one representative sample need be selected. totality, and as such it may be possible to formulate
(iv) Even from such area where the preconceived regional-developmental plan in a right direction,
hypothesis cannot be tested significantly, representa­ which may be realistic as well as feasible.
tive samples are to be selected. The foregoing observations may help a
(v) Such areas need not be selected as samples researcher in organizing any research project.
which represent an extreme condition and at no level
indicate representative character. Village Report : An Outline
(vz) In addition to the above indication regarding An outline of the village report for an Indian
selection of samples, time, financial assistance, the village is suggested in the purview of the guideline
knowledge of local languages and dialects, etc. are projx)sed by the U.N.O. : C.H.B.P. ( 1977) :
also worth considering in the sample-selection.
Keeping all the above facts in view, an inventory 1. The Village : Geographical Personality
of questions (questionnaires) should be prepared, so Location and extent. Soils. Climate.
X

HELD STUDIES & RESEARCH STEPS 393

N omenclature. Origin and growth of settlement. 7. Economic Situation

Geneological history. Oral history. Regional identity. Income and source o f income. Earners and
dependents. Occupational structure. Expenditure
2. Housing & Settlement structure (caste level changes). Reliance on food.
Definition of house. Existing pattern. House Cattle situation (distribution, use and value). Use
types (age, cost, building materials, size, number of and diffusion of New Technology, HYV seeds and
rooms). Use of dwelling. Spatial pattern of settle­ other items.
m ent House plan and community association.

3. Public Utilities 8. Socio-religious Scene

Roads. Transportation (bus station, railway). Socio-religious groups and spatial pattern.
Post office & telegraph. Sewage & garbage disposal. Varieties of shrines and sacred sites. Sacred VS.
Drainage. Energy. Electricity. Secular interaction. Varieties of sacred space and
time. Rituals and organization (social, religious,
4. Community Facilities economic, cooperative). R eligion-Environm ent
Education. Health. Shopping and marketing. ethics and development.
Recreation. Com m unity centre. Community
organization. 9. Development Plan
Identification of problems (local and regional).
5. Land and Agriculture Future population growth and their needs : housing,
G eneral Land Use. Plot size. Land rights. community facilities and amenities, education,
Tenancy. Land revenue. Land encroachment. Crop­ recreation, food, landuse and intensity, etc. Recom­
ping pattern (Rabi, Kharif, Zaid). Irrigation facilities. mendations.
Use of fertilizers. Production.
Following the above outline two model reports
6. Social Situation are published by the National Geographical Society
Population : growth, age structure, life expect­ of India (Varanasi), which may be consulted for
ancy. Caste-class structure. Socio-spatial structure. preparing a village report :
Household organization. Socio-economic structure 1. R.L. Singh and Rana P.B. Singh : R ural
(population pressure and income structure, Man-land Development in an Indian E nvironm ent (Study
ratio). C ultural basis o f social organization. of C ham aon G ram Sabha). UNO : CHBP. NGSI
Community cohoesion. Local politics and tension. Pub. 29. 1977. 40pp.
Image of settlement. Health problems. Interaction 2 . Rana P.B. Singh and R.B. Singh : Changing
with other villages (social, economic, marriage, F rontiers of Indian Village Ecology : Case of a
cooperative). B ihari Village. NGSI Pub. 27. 1981. 88pp.

Z
 X

APPENDICES
A p p en d ix 1A

USE OF LOGARITHMS AND ANTILOGARITHMS

Logarithms (popularly called as log ) is the power of number 10 representing the chosen number, e.g.,
1000 = 10^ ' : log 1000 = 3
100 = 102 : log 100 = 2
■10 = 10' f log 10 = 1
Thus, the log value o f a number is one less than the actual number o f figures. On this basis log value of
a number be taken from the Logarithms Table (see Appendix 5).
Antilogarithms (i.e. Antilog ) is the representive of an additional number of the figure of which log
value is taken e.g. log value of 1(X) is 2 and Antilog value of 2 is 3-figured number, i.e. 1(X) (for
Antilogarithms see Appendix 6).
Log and Antilog values are used in various arithmetical calculations, as discussed below.
Example 1 : Find out the log value of 3482 and 238 ?
For 3482, log value is 3 and the full figure according to table (Appendix 5) is thus 3.54183; and
similarly for 238 log value is 2 and the full figure according to table is thus 2 .37658.
Example 2 : Find out the Antilog of 1.59584 ?
Following the rule first find out the Antilog value of only the decimal figure, thus Antilog o f the above
figure from the table (Appendix 6) is 0 .39431. As per rule 1 to be added in the absolute number, thus
1 + 1 = 2 which indicates the placement of decimal after the figure from left to right:
Antilog of 1.59584 = 39.431.
This procedure is applied in various arithmetical calculations* given below in reference to two numbers,
and:
(\)a^b
= Antilog (log a + log b)\
(2 ) a + b
= Antilog (log a - log b)\
(3)0"
= Antilog (log a X n ); n is the power value;
(4)
= Antilog (log aln ); n is the root value, say
2 , 3, 4 , ...... , n .

* F o r d e u U s se e. F. C asU e: Five Figure Logarithm ic and O ther Tables. M a cm U la n . L o n d o n . 1 909. U t e s t re p rin t a v a ila b le .

L
X

APPENDIX 395

Appendix IB

USEFUL MEASUREMENT UNITS & CONVERSIONS

Unit of LengthILinear Fahrenheit, F°lCentigrade, C°

1 mm = 0.0394 inch 1 inch = 2.540 cm xF° = 0.556 ( X - 32) C°

1 cm = 0.3937 „ 1 Feet = 30.48 cm y C° = 1.800 (y + 32) F°
I m = 39.369 „ 1 Feet = 0.3048 m
1 m = 3.2808 Feet 1 Yard = 91.44 cm
1 m = 1.0936 Yard 1 Yard = 0.9144 m
1 km = 3280.8 Feet 1 mile = 1609.3 m
1 km = 1093.6 Yard 1 mile = 1.609 km
1 km = 0.6214 mile 1 Nt. mile = 1.8532 km Conversion (either C° or F®)
C® F®
Unit of Area
- 18 0 32
I sq. cm : 0.155 sq. inch 1 sq. inch : 6.4516 sq. cm - 14 6 43
I sq. cm : 0.001076 sq. feet 1 sq. feet : 929.03 sq. cm - 11 12 54
I sq. m : 1550.003 sq. inch 1 sq. feet : 0.0929 sq. m -4 24 75
1 sq. m : 10.763 sq. feet 1 sq. yard =8361.274 sq. m 0 32 90
1 sq. m : 1.19599 sq. yard 1 sq. yard : 0.8361 sq. m 2 36 97
1 ha : 107639.1 sq. feet 1 acre : 0.40469 ha 9 48 118
1 ha : 11959.9 sq. yard 1 acre : 1.60 Std. Bigha 16 60 140
1 ha : 2.471 acre 1 sq. mile : 258.9988 ha 22 72 162
1 ha : 0.003861 sq. mile 1 sq. mile ; 2.5899 sq. km 29 84 183
1 sq. km : 0.3861 sq. mile 1 sq. mile : 640 acres 36 96 205
1 sq. km : 100 ha 38 100 212

METRIC CONVERSION TABLES

Linear

Inches cm Yards metres Miles km

0.3937 1 2.5399 1.0936 1 0.9144 0.6214 1 1.6093

0.7874 2 5.0799 2.1872 2 1.8288 1.2427 2 3.2187
1.1811 3 7.6199 3.2808 3 2.7432 1.8641 3 4.8280
1.5748 4 10.1599 4.3744 4 3.6576 2.4855 4 6.4337
1.9685 5 12.6999 5.4681 5 4.5719 3.1068 5 8.0467
2.3622 6 15.2399 6.5617 6 5.4864 3.7282 6 9.6560
2.7559 7 17.7799 7.6553 7 6.4008 4.3496 7 11.2654
3.1496 8 20.3199 8.7489 8 7.3152 4.9709 8 12.8747
3.5433 9 22.8599 9.8425 9 8.2296 5.5923 9 14.4841
396 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

Area

Sq. Yds. Sq. m Acres ha Sq. miles Sq. km

1.1959 1 0.8361 2.4710 1 0.4047 0.3861 1 2.5900

2.3920 2 1.6723 4.9421 2 0.8094 0.7722 2 5.1800
3.5879 3 2.5084 7.4131 3 1.2141 1.1583 3 7.7770
4.7839 4 3.3445 9.8842 4 1.6187 1.5444 4 10.3600
5.9799 5 4.1806 12.3552 5 2.0234 1.9305 5 12.9500
7.1759 6 5.0168 14.8262 6 2.4281 2.3166 6 15.5400
8.3719 7 5.8529 17.2972 7 2.8328 2.7027 7 18.1300
9.5679 6.6890 19.7683 3.2375 3.0888 20.7200
10.7639 7.5252 22.2394 3.6422 3.4749 23.3100

Volume Volume Weights

Cu. Feet Cu. m Cu. Yards Cu. m Pounds Kg

35.3144 1 0.0283 1.3079 1 0.7645 2.2046 1 0.4536

70.6289 2 0.5664 2.6159 2 1.5291 4.4092 2 0.9072
105.9433 3 0.0849 3.9238 3 2.2937 6.6139 3 1.3608
141.2578 4 0.1133 5.2318 4 3.0582 8.8185 4 1.8143
176.5722 5 0.1416 6.5397 5 3.8228 11.0231 5 2.2679
211.8867 6 0.1699 7.8476 6 4.5874 13.2277 6 2.7215
247.2011 7 0.1982 9.1555 7 5.3519 15.4323 7 3.1751
282.5156 8 0.2265 10.4635 8 6.1165 17.6369 8 3.6287
317.8300 9 0.2549 11.7714 9 6.8810 19.8416 9 4.0829
 A PPEN D IX 397

A p p e ndi x 2

Distribation of
Probability

df .99 .98 .95 .90 .80 .70 .50 .30 .20 .10 .05 .02 .01 .001

1 .0*157 .0*628 . 00393 .0158 .0642 .148 .455 1.074 1.642 2.706 3.841 5.412 6 635 10 827
2 .0201 .0404 .103 .211 .446 .713 1.386 2.408 3.219 4.605 5.991 7.824 9.210 13.815
3 .115 .185 .352 .584 1.005 1.424 3.666 3 665 4 642 6.251 7.815 9.837 11.341 16.268
4 .297 .429 .711 1 064 1 649 2.195 3. i 57 4.878 5.989 1 J 19 9.488 11.698 13.277 18.465
5 .554 .752 1.145 1.610 2.343 3.000 4.351 6.064 7.289 9 234 11.070 13.388 15.0S6 20.517

6 .872 1.134 1.635 2 204 3 070 3.828 5.348 7.231 8.528 10.645 12 592 15.033 16.812 22.457
7 1.239 1.564 2.167 2 833 3.822 4.671 6 346 8 3 S3 9,803 12.017 14 067 16 622 18 475 24.322
8 1.646 2.032 2.733 3.490 4.594 2.527 7.344 9.524 11.030 13 362 15.507 18. 16.3 20 .COO 26.125
9 2.088 2.232 3 325 4.163 5.380 6 393 8.343 10.656 12.242 14.684 16.919 16.679 21.666 27.877
10 2.558 3:059 3.940 4.865 6.179 7.267 9.342 11.781 13.442 15.987 18.307 21.161 23.209 29.588

11 3.053 3.609 4 575 5.578 6.989 8.148 10.341 12 899 14.361 17.275 19 675 22.618 24.725 31.264
12 3.571 4.178 5.126 6.304 7 807 9.034 11.340 14.011 15.812 18.549 21.026 24.054 26.217 32 909
13 4.107 4.765 5.892 7.042 8.634 9.926 12.340 15.119 16.985 19 812 22.362 25.472 27.688 34.528
14 4.660 5.365 6.571 7.790 9 467 10 821 13 339 16 222 18 151 21.064 23.685 26.873 29.141 36.123
15 5.229 5.985 7.261 8.547 10.307 11.721 14.339 17.322 19.311 22.307 24.996 28.259 30.578 37.697

16 5.812 6.614 7.962 9.312 11.152 12.624 15 338 18 418 20.465 23.542 26 296 29 633 32.0(0 39.252
17 6.408 7.255 8.672 10.083 12.002 13.531 16.338 19.511 21.615 24.769 27.5S7 30.995 33 409 40.790
18 7.015 7.906 9.390 10.865 12 857 14.440 17.338 20.601 22.760 25.989 28.869 32.346 34.805 42.312
19 7.633 8.567 10.117 11.651 13.716 15.352 18.338 21.689 23.900 27.204 33.144 33 687 36.191 43.820
20 8.260 9.237 10.851 12.443 14.578 16 266 19.337 22.765 25.038 28.412 31.410 35.020 37.566 45 315

21 8.897 9.915 11.591 13.240 15 445 17.182 20 337 23.858 26.171 29.615 32.671 36.343 38.932 46.797
22 9.542 10.600 12.338 14 041 16.314 IS.'.Ol 21.337 24 939 27.301 30.813 33.924 37.659 40.289 48.268
23 10.196 11.293 13 091 14 848 17.187 19.021 22.337 26.018 28.429 32.007 35.172 38.968 41 638 49.728
24 10.856 11.992 13.848 15.659 18.062 19 943 23.337 27.096 29.553 33.196 36.415 40.270 42.930 51.179
25 11.524 12.697 14.611 16.473 18.940 20.867 24.337 28.172 30.675 34.382 37.652 41.566 44 314 52.620

26 12.198 13.409 15 379 17.292 19.820 20.792 25,336 29.246 31.795 35.563 38.885 42.856 45.642 54.052
27 12 879 14.125 16.151 18.(14 20.703 22.719 26 336 30.319 32.912 36.741 40.113 44.140 46.963 55.476
23 13.565 14 847 16.928 13.939 21.588 23.647 27.336 31.391 34.027 37.916 41.337 45.419 48.278 56.893
29 14.256 15.574 17.708 19.768 22.475 24.577 28.336 32.461 35.139 39.087 42.557 46.693 49.588 58.302
30 14.953 16.305 18.493 20.599 23.064 25.508 29.336 33.530 36 250 40.256 43,773 47.662 50.892 59.703

F o r larger v a lu es o f d /, th e ex p ressio n V i * ® — ma y be created as n n orm al d ev ia te w ith m ean

aero an d u n it v a ria n ce rem em bering th a t th e p ro b a b ility for X* corresp on d s w ith th a t o f a sin g le ta il o f the
n o rm a l cu rv e.
 A p p e n d ix 3
OJ
00
VALUES OF Z DISTOBUTION, 20% POINTS

1 2 3 4 5 6
« / '» 2 8 12 24 OO

1 1.124 1.242 1.285 1.307 1.320 1.328 1.340 1.351 1.362 1.373
5 ,389 .407 .406 .403 .400 .398 .395 .390 .385 .379
10 .316 .320 .310 .301 .294 .289 .280 .270 .257 .241
15 .293 .292 .279 .268 .259 .252 .241 .228 .211 .187 o
■fl
20 .282 .279 .264 .252 .242 .234 .222 .207 .187 .158
25 .275 .270 .255 .242 .231 .222 .210 .193 .171 .139
30 o
.270 .265 .248 .235 .224 .215 m
.202 .184 .161 .125
40 .265 .258 .241 .227 .215 .206 .191 .173 .148 .106
60 .259 .251 .233 .218 .206 .196 .181 .161 .134 .085
120 .253 .244 .226 .210 .197 .187 .171 .150 .119 .058
oo .248 .238 .218 .202 .188 .177 .160 .138 .104 00

(Based on R.A. Fisher and F. Yates. 1957').

 Appendix 4

VALUES OF T DISTRIBUTION

Probability \
n .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 .05 .02 .01

I .158 .325 .510 .727 1.00 1.37 1.96 3.08 6.31 12.71 31.82 636.62

5 .132 261 .408 .559 .727 .920 1.15 1.48 2.01 2.57 3.36 4.03

10 .129 .260 .397 .542 .700 .879 1.09 1.37 1.81 2.23 2.76 3.17

15 .128 .258 .393 .536 .691 .866 1.07 1.34 1.75 2.13 2.60 2.95

20 .127 251 .391 .533 -.687 .860 1.06 1.32 1.72 2.08 2.53 2.84

25 .127 .256 .390 .531 .684 .856 1.06 1.32 1.71 2.06 2.48 2.79

30 .127 .256 .389 .530 .683 .854 1.05 1.31 1.70 2.04 2.46 2.75

40 .126 .255 .388 .529 .681 .851 1.05 1.30 1.68 2.02 2.42 2.70
60 .126 .254 .387 .527 .679 .848 1.04 1.29 1.67 2.00 2.39 2.66
120 .126 .254 .386 .526 .677 .845 1.04 1.29 1.66 1.98 2.36 2.62
oo .126 .253 .385 .524 .674 .842 1.03 1.28 1.64 1.96 2.32 2.57

UJ
(Based on R,A. Fisher and F. Yates, 1957). VO
VO
400 'ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

APPHTOi X 5
LOGARITHMS.

Mean Difterences.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 ooooo 00432 00860 01284 01703 42 85 127 170 212 254 297 339 381
02119 02531 02938 03342 03743 40 81 121 162 202 242 283 323 364
11 04139 04532 04922 05308 05690 37 77 116 '5 4 '9 3 232 270 309 348
06070 06446 06819 07188 07555 37 74 I I I 148 185 222 259 296 333
12 07918 08279 08636 08991 09342 36 7 ' 106 '4 2 '7 7 213 248 284 319
09691 10037 10380 10721 " 0 5 9 34 68 102 136 170 204 238 272 307
13 11394 I I 727 12057 12385 12710 33 66 98 ' 3 ' '6 4 ^97 229 262 295
^3033 '3354 13672 '3988 '4301 32 63 95 126 158 190 221 253 284
14 14613 14922 15229 15534 15836 30 61 9 ' 122 152 183 213 244 274
16137 16435 16732 17026 ' 7 3 '9 29 59 88 118 '4 7 177 206 236 265
16 17609 17898 18184 18469 18752 28 57 85 "4 142 17' 199 228 256
19033 19312 19590 19866 20140 28 55 83 uo 138 165 '93 221 248
16 20412 20683 20951 21219 21484 27 53 80 107 '3 4 160 187 214 240
21748 22011 22272 2 ? 53 ' 22789 26 52 78 104 130 156 182 208 233
17 23045 23300 23553 23805 24055 26 SO 76 101 126 ' 5 ' 176 201 227
24304 24551 24797 25042 25285 25 49 73 98 122 '4 7 '71 196 220
18 25527 25768 26007 26245 26482 24 48 7 ' 95 " 9 '4 3 167 190 214
26717 26951 27184 27416 27646 23 46 69 93 116 139 162 i8$ 208
19 27875 28103 28330 28556 28780 23 45 68 90 " 3 135 158 i,8o 203
29003 29226 29447 29667 29885 22 44 66 88 n o 132 154 176 198

20 30103 30320 3053S 30750 31175

30963 31387 31806
3'597 32015 21 43 64 85 106 127 148 170 190
21 32222 32428 32634 32838 33244
33041 33445 33646
33846 34044 20 41 61 81 101 121 141 162 182
22 34242 34439 34635 34830 35218
35025 35411 35603
35793 35984 20 39 58 77 97 116 '35 '54 *74
28 36173 36361 36549 36736 37107
36922 37291 37658
37475 37840 '9 37 56 74 93 I I I 130 148 167
24 38021 38202 38382 38561 38917
38739 39094 39270
39445 39620 18 35 53 71 89 106 124 142 *59
26 39794 39967 40140 40312 40483 40654 40824 40993 41162 4 '3 3 0 17 34 S' 68 85 102 " 9 136 *53
26 41497 41664 41830 41996 42160 42325 42488 42651 42813 42975 16 33 49 66 82 98 " 5 ' 3 ' 148
27 43136 43297 43457 43616 43775 43933 44091 44248 44404 44560 16 32 47 63 79 95 I I I 12b '4 2
28 44716 44871 45025 45'79 45332 45484 45637 45788 45939 46090 '5 30 46 61 76 91 107 122 *37
29 46240 4 6389 46538 46687 46835 46982 47129 47276 47422 47567 '5 29 44 59 74 88 103 118 *32
30 47712 47857 48001 48144 48287 48430 48572 48714 48855 48996 '4 29 43 57 72 86 100 114 129
31 49136 49276 494 >5 49554 49969 50106
49693 49831 50243 50379 '4 28 4' 55 69 83 97 n o *24
82 50515 50650 50786 50920 5'054 51188 51322 51455 5*587 51720 '3 27 40 54 67 80 94 107 121
88 51851 51983 52114 52244 52375 52504 52634 52763 52892 53020 '3 26 39 52 65 78 91 104 **7
84 53148 53275 53403 53529 53656 53782 53908 54033 54158 54283 '3 38 SO 63 76 88 101 113
36 54407 5453* 54654 54777 54900 55023 55145 55267 55388 55509 12 *4 37 49 61 73 98 no
86 55630 S575I 55871 55991 56110 56229 56348 56467 56585 56703 t2 *4 36 48 60 7* 53 95 107
87 56820 56937 57054 57171 57287 57403 57519 57634 57749 57864 12 *3 35 46 58 70 81 93 104
88 57978 58092 58206 58320 58433 58546 58659 58771 58883 58995 11 23 34 45 57 68 79 90 108
89 59106 59218 59329 59439 59550 59660 59770 59879 59988 60097 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99
40 60206 60314 60423 60531 60638 60746 60853 60959 61066 61172 I I 21 32 43 54 64 75 86 97
41 61278 61384 61490 61595 61700 61805 61909 62014 62118 62221 10 21 3' 42 53 63 74 84 95
42 62325 62428 62531 62634 62737 62839 62941 63043 63144 63246 10 20 3' 41 51 61 71 82 92
48 63347 63448 63548 63649 63749 63849 63949 64048 64147 64246 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
64640 64738 64836 64933 65031 65128 65225 10 20 68 88
44 64345 64444 64542 29 39 49 59 78

46 65321 65418 65514 65610 65706 65801 65896 65992 66087 66181 10 19 29 38 48 57 67 76 86
46 66276 66370 66464 66558 66652 66745 66839 66932 67025 67"7 9 19 28 37 47 56 65 74 «4
47 67210 67302 67394 67486 67578 67669 67761 67852 67943 68034 9 18 27 30 46 55 64 73 82
48 68124 68215 68305 68395 68485 68574 68664 68753 68842 68931 9 18 27 36 45 53 63 72 81
49 69020 69108 69197 69285 69373 69461 69548 69636 69723 69810 9 18 26 35 44 S3 02 70 79
 APPENDIX
401

l o g a r it h m s .

Mean Dififerences.
8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
69S97169984 70070 70157 70243 70329
70757 70842 71012 71096 70586 70672 *7 26 34 43 52 60 69 77
71600 7 1684, 71850 7 J933 71433 7 *5*7 *7 25 34 42 50 59 67 76
72428 72509 7 2 I 8 I !72263 72346
72754 *7 25 33 42 50 58 66 75
72916 73078 73*59 8 16 24
73239 73320 73400 73560 32 4* 49 57 65 73
73799 73878 73957 8 16 24 32 40 48
56 64 72
74273 74351 74429 74663 7474* 8 16 23
75051 75128 75205 3 * 39 47 55 63 70
75815 75891 I 75967 75435 755** 8 *5 23 3 * 39 4 6 54 62 69
76567 76641 '76716 76193 76268 8 15 23 3 0 3 8 45 53 60 68
76938 77012 *5 22 3 0 37 44 52 59 67
77305 77379 77452 77670 77743 7 *5 22
2 9 37 44 5* 58 66
17803 78104 78176
78390 78462 7 *4 22 29 36 43 50 58 65)
I 76746 7 8 8 : ; 7S8S8
79239;V03O9 79099 79*69 7 14 21 28 36 43
I 79449 70518 79588 50 57 64
79934 j ? o , . )3 79796 79865 7 *4 21 28 35 4 *
j S o 1 4 0 S o 2 0 9 80277 48 55 62]
8061818o( >86 : 8 0 8 2 1 S 0 8 8 9 80956
80550 7 *4 20 27 34 4 * 48 54 61
81158 81224 7 13 20
8i2qiS813C 8 2 7 34 40 47 54 60
82558181624 81823 81889] 7 *3 20
81954 32C20 S2217 82282 2 6 33 4 0 46 53 59
82607582672 82478 S2543 7 *3 20
82930 26 33 39 46 52 59
? 325i ' S 33 I 5 83*23 83*87 6 *3 *9 26 32 38
83569 45 5 * 58
83885 S3948 83759 83822 6 *3 *9 25 32 38 44 50 57
84198 84386 844481 6 12 19
84510IS4572 84634 84696 84757 84819 25 3 * 37 43 50 56
85126 85187 85248 85309 83370 85431 85003 85065 6 12 19
25 3 * 37 43 50 56
85612 856731 6 12 18
85733 85794 ^5854 85914 85974 86034 24 3 * 37 43 49 55
86332 86392 86451 86510 86570 86629 86213 862731 6 12 18
24 30 36 42 48 54
86923 86982 87040 87099 87157 87216 86806 86864 6 12 18 24 30 35
87390 874481 6 12 17 23 29 35 4 * 47 53
87506 87564 87622 87679 87737 87795 4* 46 52
88081 88138 S8195 88252 87967 88024 6 12 17 23 29 35
SS252 88309 88366 4 * 46 52 I
88649 88705 88762 88818 88874 88930 88536 88593 6 I I 17
23 29 34 40 46 51
89209 89265 89321 89376 89432 894S7 89098 89*541 6 II *7 22 28 34 39 45 50I
89763 89818 89873 89927 89982 90037 89653 89708 I I 17 22 28 33 39 44 50I
90200 90255 I I 17 22 28 33 39 44 5o[
90309 90363 90417 90472 90526 90580
90848 90902 90956 91009 91062 91116 90741 90795 5 ** *6 22 27 32 38 43 49
91381 91434 91487 9*540 9*275 9*328] 5 I* *6 21 27 32 37 42 48
9*593 9*645 9*803 9*855 5 *1 *6 2* 27 32
91908 91960 92012 92064 92117 92169 37 42 48
92428 92480 92531 92583 92634 92686 92324 92376 5 *0 16 21 26 31 36 42 47
92840 92891 5 *0 15 20 26 31 36 41 46
92942 92993 93044 93095 93*46
93*97 93247 93349 933991 5 *0 *5 20 26 31 36 4* 4 6 |
93450 93500 93551 93601 93651 93702
93752 93852 93902 5 *0 15 20 25 30 35 40 4 5 ]
93952 94002 94052 94101 9 4 *5 * 94201 94250)
94048 94498 94547 94596 94349 943991 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
94645 94694 94743 9484* 94890 *0 15 20 25 29 34 39 44
*94939 95036 95085 95*34 95*82 95328 95376
9523* 0 15 19 24 29 34 39 44
95424505472 95569 95617 957*3 95761 95809 95856 5 *0 14 19 24 29
96047 9 6 0 9 5 96190 96237 !962S4 96332 5 9 *4 19 24 28 34 38 43
95904505952
96379196426 96520 96)567 33 38 42
9 6 8 4 8 96895
96661 96708 96755 96802 9 *4 19 24 28 33 38 42
96988 97035 97128 97174 97220 97267
973*3 97359 9 *4 18 23 28 32 38 42
97451 97497 97589 97635 97681 97727 9 *4 18 23 28 32 37 42]
97772 978 18 97909 97955
98227 98272 98046 98091 98137 98182 9 *4 18 23 27 32 36 4*
98363 9 8 4 0 8 98498 98543 98588 986321
9 8 6 7 7 98722 98811 98856 98989
9 *4 *8 23 32 36 41
0 9 ! 2 3 •'9167 { 98945 99034 99078] 9 * 10 22 27 31 36 40I
99255 99300 99388 99432 99476 99520]
9956)4 q o 6 r 7 I O O f iQ i, 90739 9 13 18 22 26 3 * 35 4oj
99826 99870 999*3 990571 9 *3 17 22 26 3 * 35 39
 A P P Q T O IX 6
402
ANTILOGARITHMS.

Mean DifltRnces.

123 4 5 6 7 8 9

10023 10069 10093 10116 10162 10209 12 14 16 19 21

10304 10328 10399 10447 10 12 14 17 H 21
10233 10691 10 12 15 17 20 22
10544 10568 10641
10789 10814 108^ 10914 10940 10 13 15 18 20 23
10740 18 20 23
10990 11015 11041 11066 11092 I I 143 11194 10 13 15
11402 11429 11455 18 21 24
11220 11298 11350 19 21 24
11561 11722
11912 11995 19 22 25
11030 12274 20 22 25
12023 12050 12106 12134 12162 12190
20 23 26
12388 12474 12560
12853 12 15 18 21 24 26
12677 12794 21 24 27
13092 13152 12 15 18
12912 12942 12972 21 25 28
13243 13274 13397 13459
22 25 28
13583 13709 13740 13772 22 26 29
13900 14028 14093 13 16 19
14421 13 16 20 23 26 30
14223 13 17 20 24 27 30
14757
15101 24 28 31
14»94 25 28 32
15453
15812 14 18 22 25 *9 3*
16106 16181 26 30 33
16558 26 30 34
16218 27 3* 35
16866 1694
16 20 24 28 32 36
17JOO 17140 1 7 1 7 9 17219 1733 28 32 36
17742 16 20 24
17539 17579
17 21 25 29 33 37
17 21 25 30 34 38
18880 17 22 26 30 35 39
19320 19409 18 22 26 31 35 40
10099 18 23 27 32 36 41
li 19724 19770
20277 20370 19 23 28 32 37 42
*9953 1^999 20045 20137 19 24 29 33 38 43
20512 20606 20749 20797 20845
2 0 4 1 7 20464 21232 21330 19 24 29 34 39 44
20893 20941 20989 21086
21727 21777 21827 20 25 3035 40 45
21380 21429 1478 21577 22336 20 25 3136 41 46
21878 21928 21979 22080 22233
22856 21 26 3137 <2 47
22387 22439 22491 23388 21 27 3237 43 48
22909 22961 23014 22 27 3338 44 49
23714 23933
2 3 4 4 2 23496 22 28 3439 45 :50
23988 240.14 24322 24434 24491
25061 23 *9 3440 46 51
24547 24604 24717 24774
25410 25527 25645 *3 41 47
25119 25177 25293 25351 26242 24 42 48
25882 25942 26002 26122
25764 25763 26730 26853 24 31 37 43 49
26303 26363 26485 26546 26607
25 31 38 44 50
26915 26977 27040 27102 27164 27227 27353 2 7479
27861 27925 27990 28119 13 19 2 6 32 39 45 51
27542 27606 27733 27797
28510 28642 28774 13 ao 26 33 39 46 5*
28184 28379 28445 29444 27 34 4 0 47 54
28840 29040 29107 29174 29309
30130 34 41 48 55
29717 29785 29854 29992 28 35 42 49 56
29512 30690 30832
30200 30339 30409 30479 30549 31550 14 32 29 36 43 50 58
31117 31189 31261 31333 3140s
30903
 APPENDIX 403

ANTILOGARITHMS*

Mean Differences.
0 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9
1 9 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
50 31623 31696 31769 31842 31916 31989 32063 32137 32211 32285 7 15 22 29 52 66
-51 37 44 59
32359 32434 32509 32584 32659 32735 32809 32885 32961 33037 8 15 23 30 38 45 53 60 68
‘52 33113 33189 33266 33343 33420 33497 33574 33651 33729 33806 8 15 23 31 39 46 54 62 69
*68 33884 33963 34041 34119 34198 34277 34356 34435 34514 34594 8 16 24 32 40 47 55 63 71
■54 34674 34754 34834 34914 34995 35075 35156 35237 35318 35400 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 65 73
■56 35481 35563 35645 35727 35810 35892 35975 36058 36141 36224 8 16 25 33 41 SO 58 66 74
■66 36308 36392 36475 36559 36644 36728 36813 36898 36983 37068 8 17 25 34 42 51 59 68 76
•67 37154 37239 37325 37411 37497 37584 37670 37757 37844 37931 9 17 26 35 43 52 61 69 78
•68 38019 38107 38194 38282 38371 38459 38548 38637 38726 38815 9 18 27 35 44 53 62 71 80
•69 38905 38994 39084 39174 39264 39355 39446 39537 39628 39719 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 82
60 39811 39902 39994 40087 40179 40272 40365 40458 40551 40644 9 19 28 37 46 56 65 74 83
•61 40738 40832 40926 41020 41115 41210 41305 41400 41495 41591 9 19 28 38 47 57 66 76 85
•62 41687 41783 41879 41976 42073 42170 42267 42364 42462 42560 10 19 29 39 49 58 68 78 87
‘68 42658 42756 42855 42954 43053 43152 43251 43351 43451 43551 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 89
•64 43652 43752 43853 43954 4405s 44157 44259 44361 44463 44566 10 20 30 41 5* 61 71 81 91
•65 44668 44771 44875 44978 45082 45ias 45290 45394 45499 45604 10 21 31 .42 52 62 73 83 94
•66 45709 45814 45920 46026 46132 46238 46345 46452 46559 46666 11 21 32 43 53 64 75 85 96
•87 46774 46881 46989 47098 47206 47315 47424 47534 47643 47753 11 22 33 44 54 65 76 87 98
•68 47863 47973 48084 48195 48306 48417 48529 48641 488^ 11 22 33 45 56 67 78 89 100
•69 48978 49091 49204 49317 49431 49545 49659 49774 4988S 50003 11 23 34 46 57 68 80 91 103
•70 50119 50234 50350 50466 50582 50699 50816 50933 51050 51168 12 23 35 47 58 70 8a 93 105
•71 51286 51404 51523 51642 51761 51880 52000 52119 52240 52360 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 196 108
•7* 52481 52602 52723 52845 52966 53088 53211 53333 53456 53580 12 24 37 49 61 73 85 98 110
•78 53703 53827 53951 54075 54200 543»5 54450 54576 54702 54828 13 25 38 50 63 75 88 100 113
•74 54954 55081 55208 55336 55463 55590 557*9 55847 55976 56105 13 j 6 38 51 64 77 90 102 115
•75 56234 56364 56494 56624 56754 56885 57016 57148 57280 57412 13 26 39 52 66 79 92 105 118
•76 57544 57677 57810 57943 58^6 58210 58345 58479 58614 58749 13 27 40 54 67 80 94 107 121
•77 58884 59020 59156 59293 59429 59566 59704 59841 59979 60117 14 27 41 55 69 82 96 110 123
•78 60236 60395 60534 60674 60814 60954 61094 61235 61376 61518 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126
•79 61659 61802 61944 620S7 62230 62373 62517 62661 62806 62951 14 29 43 58 72 86 101 1*5 130
•80 63096 63241 63387 63533 63680 63826 63973 64121 64269 64417 15 29 44 59 74 88 103 118 132
•81 64565 64714 64863 65013 65163 65313 65464 65615 65766 65917 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 13s
•82 66069 66222 66374 66557 66681 66834 66988 67143 67298 67453 15 31 46 62 77 92 108 123 139
•83 67608 67764 67920 68077 68234 68391 68549 68707 68865 69024 16 32 47 63 79 95 110 126 142
•84 69183 69343 69503 69663 69823 69984 70146 70307 70469 70632 16 32 48 64 81 97 113 129 145
35 70795 70938 71121 71285 71450 71614 71779 71945 72111 72277 17 33 SO 66 83 99 116 132 149
•86 72611 72778 72946 73114 73282 73451 73621 73790 73961 17 34 51 68 85 lOI 118 13s 152
72444 121 135 150
•87 74131 74302 74473 746:5 74817 74989 75162 75336 75509 75683 17 35. 52 69 57 104
•88 75858 76033 76208 76384 76560 76736 76913 77090 77268 77446 18 35 53 71 89 107 125 142 159
89 77625 77804 78163 78524 78705 78886 79068 79250 18 36 54 72 91 109 127 145 103
77983 78343
90 79616 80168 80538 80724 80910 81096 19 37 56 74 93 111 130 148 167
79433 79799 79983 80353 132 151 170
•91 81283 81470 81658 81846 82035 82224 82414 82604 82794 82985 19 38 57 76 9 ; 113
•92 83176 83368 83560 84140 84528 84723 84918 19 39 58 78 t 116 130 155 17s
83753 83946 84333 139
V
158
** A
178
V SB
•98 85114 85310 85507 85704 85901 86099 86298 86497 8^96 86896 20 40 60 79 1 119
•94 87096 87498 87700 87902 88105 88308 88512 88716 8S920 20 41 61 81 ■£ ! 122 142 1Va 103
87297
95 89536 89950 90365 90573 90782 90991 21 42 62 83 IC 125 146 166 187
89125 89331 89743 90157 l o t 127
•9691201 91411 91622 91833 92045 92257 92470 92683 92897 93111 21 42 64 85 149 170 191
•97 93756 93972 94406 94624 94842 95060 95280 22 43 65 87 109 130 152 174
93325 93541 94189
•98 95719 95940 96161 96383 96605 96828 97051 97275 97499 22 44 67 59 III 133 I?”
95499 23 46 68 91 114 137 160 182 205
•99 97724 97949 98175 98401 98628 98855 99083 99312 99541 99770
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406 APPENDIX 8

SQUARE ROOTS. F rom i to io .

Mean Differences.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Q
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 o I-OOOO 1 -0 0 5 0 1*0100 1*0149 1*0198 I *0247 I *0296 1 -0 3 4 4 1*0392 1*0440 5 10 15 2 0 24 29 34 39 44

11 1*0488 1*0536 1 -0 5 8 3 1*0630 1*0677 1*0724 1 *0770 1*0817 1 '0 8 6 3 1 -0 9 0 9 5 9 14 19 23 2 8 33 37 42
1 -2 1*1000 1*1045 1*1091 1 -1 1 3 6 1*1180 1*1225 1*1269 1 -1 3 1 4 1*1358 4 9 13 18 22 27 31 36 40
1 -0 9 5 4
1 -8 1*1402 1*1446 1*1489 1 -1 5 3 3 1 -1 5 7 6 1*1619 1*1662 1-1 7 0 5 1*1747 1*1790 4 9 13 17 22 26 30 34 39
1*4 1*1832 1*1874 1*1916 1 -1 9 5 8 1*2000 1*2042 1*2083 1*2124 1*2166 1*2207 4 8 13 17 21 * 5 29 33 37

1 5 1*2247 1*2288 1*2329 1*2369 1*2410 1*2450 1*2490 1 -2 5 3 0 1*2570 1*2610 4 8 12 16 2 0 24 2 8 32 3 6

1 -6 1*2649 1*2689 1*2728 1*2767 1*2806 1*2845 1*2884 1*2923 1*2961 1*3000 4 8 12 16 19 23 27 31 35
1 -7 1*3038 1*3077 1 -3 1 1 5 1 -3 1 5 3 1-3191 1*3229 1*3266 1 -3 3 0 4 1 -3 3 4 2 1 -3 3 7 9 4 8 11 15 19 23 27 30 34
1-8 1*3416 1 -3 4 5 4 I -3491 1*3528 1-3 5 6 5 1*3601 1 -3 6 3 8 1 -3 6 7 5 1*3711 1 -3 7 4 8 4 7 11 15 18 22 26 29 33
1-9 1 -3 7 8 4 1*3820 1 -3 8 5 6 1*3892 1*3928 1 -3 9 6 4 1*4000 1*4036 1*4071 1*4107 4 7 11 14 18 22 25 29 32

2 0 1-4 1 4 2 1*4177 1*4213 1*4248 1*4283 1*4318 1 -4 3 5 3 1-4 3 8 7 1*4422 1 -4 4 5 7 4 7 11 14 18 21 24 28 31

21 1*4491 1*4526 1*4560 1-4 5 9 5 1*4629 1*4663 1-4 6 9 7 1-4731 1-4 7 6 5 1 -4 7 9 9 3 7 10 14 17 2 0 24 27 31
22 1*4832 1*4866 1*4900 1-4 9 3 3 1*4966 1*5000 1 -5 0 3 3 1-5 0 6 7 1 5 1 0 0 1 -5 1 3 3 3 7 10 13 17 2 0 24 27 30
1*5264 1*5297 1 -5 3 3 0 1 -5 3 6 2 1-5395 1*5427 1 -5 4 6 0 3 7 10 13 16 2 0 23 26 29
2 3 1*5166 1 -5 1 9 9 1 -5 2 3 2
1 -5 5 8 8 1*5620 1 -5 6 5 2 1 -5 6 8 4 1*5716 1 -5 7 4 8 1*5780 3 6 10 13 16 19 22 26 29
2 -4 1*5492 * -5 5 2 4 1 -5 5 5 6
1*6000 1*6031 1*6062 1 -6 0 9 3 6 16 19 22 25 28
2 -6 1-58111 1 -5 8 4 3 1 -5 8 7 5 1*5906 1-5 9 3 7 1 -5 9 6 9 3 9 13
1*6155 I*6 i 8 6 1*6217 1*6248 1*6279 1*6310 1*6340 1-6371 1*6401 3 6 9 12 15 18 22 25 28
2 6 1*6125
1*6613 1*6643 1 -6 6 7 3 1*6703 6 12 18 21 24 27
2*7 1-6 4 3 2 1*6462 1*6492 1 -6 5 2 3 1-6 5 5 3 1-6 5 8 3 3 9 15
1*6852 1-6 8 8 2 1 -6912 1*6941 1-6971 1*7000 6 12 18 21 24 27
2 -8 1 -6 7 3 3 1*6763 1-6 7 9 3 1*6823 3 9 15
1*7059 1*7088 1-7117 1*7146 1 -7 1 7 6 1*7205 1 -7 2 3 4 1*7263 1*7292 3 6 9 12 15 18 20 23 20
2 -9 1*7029
1 -7 3 7 8 1-7 4 0 7 1 -7 4 3 6
1-7 4 6 4 1 -7 4 9 3 1*7521 1 -7 5 5 0 1 -7 5 7 8 3 6 9 II 14 17 20 23 26
3 0 1*7321 1 -7 3 4 9
1*7635 1*7664 1-7 6 9 2 1*7720 1-7 7 4 8 1 -7 7 7 6 1*7804 1 -7 8 3 3 1*7861 3 6 9 II 14 17 20 23 25
81 1*7607
3-2 1*7889 1*7916 1 -7 9 4 4 1*7972 1*8000 1 -8 0 2 8 1-8055 1*8083 1*8111 1*8138 3 6 8 II 14 17 19 22 25

8 -8 1*8 x6 6 1-8 1 9 3 1*8221 1*8248 1*8276 1 -8 3 0 3 1 8 3 3 0 1 -8 3 5 8 1 -8 3 8 5 1*8412 3 5 8 11 14 16 19 2 2 25

34 1 -8 4 6 6 1 -8 4 9 3 1 -8 5 2 0 1*8547 1-8 5 7 4 1*8601 I -8 6 2 8 1-8 6 5 5 1*8 ^ 2 3 5 8 11 13 16 19 2 2 24

1-8 4 3 9
1-8815 1-8841 1*8868 1 *8894 1*8921 1*8947 3 8 II 16 19 21 24
3 5 1*8708 1-8 7 3 5 1-8 7 6 2 1 -8 7 8 8 5 13
1 -9 0 0 0 1*9026 1-9 0 5 3 1*9079 1-9105 1-9131 1-9157 1*9183 1*9209 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 24
3 0 1-8974 A
1-9261 1*9287 1 -9 3 13 1-9391 1 -9 4 1 6 i- 9 4 » 2 1*9468 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 23
8-7 I 92 3 5 1 -9 3 3 9 1-9365
1 -9 5 9 6 1-9621 1*9647 1*9672 1*9698 1*9723 3 8 10 18 21 23
S -8 1*9494 i- 9 5 > 9 1-9545 1 -9 5 7 0 5 13 15 _0
1 -9 8 4 9 1 -9875 1-9 9 0 0 1*9975 3 8 10 18 20 23
8-9 1-9748 1-9 7 7 4 1 -9 7 9 9 1-9 8 2 4 1-9 9 2 5 1 -9 9 5 0 5 13 15

2 -0 0 2 5 2 -0 0 5 0 2 -0 0 7 5 2 -0 1 0 0 2 -0 1 2 5 2 -0 1 4 9 2 -0 1 7 4 2*0199 2*0224 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
4 0 2 -0 0 0 0
2*0273 2 -0 2 9 8 2 -0 3 2 2 2*0347 2 -0 3 7 2 2 -0 3 9 6 2-0421 2 -0 4 4 5 2*0469 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22.
1 4-1 2-0 2 4 8
2 -0 6 1 6 2 -0 6 4 0 2 -0 6 6 4 2 -0 ^ 8 2*0712 2 10 12 17 19 22
14 2 2 -0 4 9 4 2*0518 2 -0 5 4 3 2 -0 5 6 7 2*0591 5 7 15
2*0761 2 -0 7 8 5 2 -0 8 0 9 2 -0 8 3 3 2 -0 8 5 7 2 -0881 2 -0 9 0 5 2 -0 9 2 8 2*0952 2 5 7 10 12 14 17 19 22
14 3 20736
2*1000 2 -1 0 2 4 2 -1 0 4 S 2-1071 2-1 0 9 5 2*1119 2 -1 1 4 2 2 -1 1 6 6 2*1190 2 5 7 9 12 14 17 19 21
1 4 -4 2 -0 9 7 6
2 -1 2 6 0 2 -1 2 8 4 2*1307 2-1331 2*1378 2-1 4 0 1 2*1424 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
4 5 2 -1 2 1 3 2 -1 2 3 7 2 -1 3 5 4
2 -1 4 9 4 2 -1 5 1 7 2-1541 2 -1 5 6 4 2*'1587 2 -1 6 1 0 2 -1 6 3 3 2*1656 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 19 21
4 -6 2 - i 4 .j8 , 2-1471
2 -1 7 2 6 2 -1 7 4 9 2*1772 2 -1 7 9 4 2*1817 2 -1 8 4 0 2 -1 8 6 3 2*1886 2 5 7 9 12 14 16 18 21
4-7 2 -1 6 7 9 2 -1 7 0 3
2 -2 0 0 0 2*2023 2 -2 0 4 5 2 -2 0 6 8 2-2091 ^* 2 1 1 3 2 7 9 11 14 16 18 20
4 -8 2 -1 9 0 9 2 -1 9 3 2 2 -1 9 5 4 2 -1 9 7 7 5
2 -2 1 3 6 2*2159 2*2181 2*2204 2*2226 2 -2 2 4 9 2*2271 2 -2 2 9 3 2*2316 2 -2 3 3 8 2 5 7 9 11 14 16 18 20
4-9
2*2361 2*2383 2*2405 2*2428 2 -2 4 5 0 2*2472 2*2494 2*2517 2*2539 2*2561 2 4 7 9 II 13 16 18 20
5*0
5-1 2*2583 2*2605 2*2627 2*2650 2 -2 6 7 2 2 -2 6 9 4 2*2716 2*2738 2 -2 7 6 0 2*2782 2 4 7 9 11 13 15 18 20
5-2 2*2804 2*2825 2 -2 8 4 7 2 *28 <^ 2*2891 2*2913 2 -2 9 3 5 2*2956 2*2978 2*3000 2 4 7 9 II 13 15 17 20
6 11 15 17 19
6-8 2-3 0 2 2 2 -3 0 4 3 2-3 0 6 5 2*3087 2 -3 1 0 8 2*3130 2 -3 1 5 2 2 -3 1 7 3 2 -3 1 9 5 2*3216 2 4 9 13
2 -3 3 8 8 2 -3 4 0 9 2-3 4 3 1 2 6 9 11 13
5-4 2 -3 2 3 8 j 2 -3 2 5 9 2-3281 2 -3 3 0 2 2 3 3 2 4 2 -3 3 4 5 2 -3 3 6 7 4 15 17 19

z ____
 APPENDIX 407

SQUARE ROOTS. F rom i to io .

Mean Differences.
0 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2*3516 2-3558 2-3580 2-3601 2-3622 2*3643 2 46 8 11 13 15 17 19

5 -6 2*3452 2*3473 2*3495
8 IX
5 -6 2-3664 2-3685 2-3707 2*3728 2 * 3 7 4 9 2-3770 2*3791 3812 2*3833 2*3854 2 46 13 15 17 19
2-402112-4042 2-4062 2 46 8 10 12 15 17 19
5 -7 2*3875 2-3896 2-3917 2 * 3 9 3 7 2*3958 2-3979 2-4000 2 46 8 10 12 14 16 19
5 -8 2*4083 2-4104 2-4125 2*4145 2'4 i 66 2-4187 2-4207 2-422812-4249 2-4269
2 46 8 10 12 14 16 18
5*9 2-4290 2-4310 2*4331 2*4352 2*4372 2 * 4 3 9 3 2*4413 2*4434 2*4454 2*4474

2-4637 2-4658 2-4678 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

6 0 2*4515 2*4536 2-4556 2-4576 2-4597 2-4617
2*4495
2-4819 2-4839 2-4860 2-4880 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
6*1 2-4698 2-4718 2 * 4 7 3 9 2 * 4 7 5 9 2:4779 2 * 4 7 9 9
2-4940 2-4960 2-4980 2-5000 2-5020 2-5040 2-5060 2-5080 6 10 12 14 16 18
6-2 2-4900 2-4920
2 5278 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
6-8 2-5100 2-5120 2-5140 2*5159 5179 2-5199 2-5219 2*5239 2*5259
2*5436 2-5456 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
6 -4 2-5298 2-5318 2*5338 2 * 5 3 5 7 2 * 5 3 7 7 2-5397 2-5417 2*5475

5632 2-5652 2-5671 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

6 -5 2*5515 2 * 5 5 3 4 2 * 5 5 5 4 2 * 5 5 7 3 2 * 5 5 9 3 2-5612
2*5495
2-5826 2*5846 2-5865 6 8 10 12 14 16 17
6*6 2-5690 2-5710 2-5729 2 * 5 7 4 9 2-5768 2*5788 2-5807
2-6019 2-6038 2-6058 6 8 10 12 14 15 17
6*7 2-5884 2-5904 2*5923 2*5942 2-5962 2-5981 2-6000
6-8 2-6077 2-6096 2-6115 2-6134 2-6153 2-6173 2-6192 2-627 f 2-6230 2-6249 6 8 10 I I 13 15 17
6*9 2-6268 2-6287 2-6306 2-6325 2-6344 2-6363 2-6382 2-64ryi 2-6420 26439 6 8 10 I I 13 15 17

7 -0 2-6458 2-6476 2-6495 2-6514 2*6533 2-6552 2-6571 2-6589 2-6608 2-6627 4 6 9 13 15 17
7*1 2-6646 2-6665 2-6683 2-6702 2-6721 2-6739 2-6758 2-6777 2-6796 2-6814 4 6 9 13 15 17
7*2 2-6833 2-6851 2-6870 2-6889 2-6 ^ 7 2-6926 2-6944 2-6963 2-6981 2-7000 4 6 9 13 15 17
7*3 2-7019 2-7037 2*7055 2-7074 2-7092 2-7111 2-7129 2-7148 2-7166 2-7185 4 6 9 13 15 17
7 -4 27203 2-7221 2-7240 2-7258 2-7276 2-7295 2*7313 2 -73 3 1 2-7350 2-7368 4 5 9 13 15 16
2 7386 2*7441 2 7495 2-7514 2*7532 2*7550 4 9 11 13 15 1^
7 5 2-7404 2*7423 2*7459 2*7477
70 3-7568 2-7586 2-7604 2-7622 2-7641 2-7659 2-7677 2-7695 2*7713 2-7731 4 9 11 13 14 16
2-7767 2-7785 2-7803 2-7821 2-7839 2-7857 2*7875 2-7893 2-7911 4 9 11 13 14 16
7 -7 2-7749
2-7028 2-7946 2-7964 2-7982 2-SoOO 2-8018 2-8036 2-8054 2-8071 2-8089 4 9 11 13 14 16
7 -8 12 ’4 X6
2-8107 2-8125 2-8142 2-8160 2-8178 2-8196 2-8213 2-8231 2-8249 2-8267 4 9 II
7 -9
2-8320 2-8390 2-8408 2-8425 2-8443 4 9 12 14 16
8 0 2 -S.!84 2-8302 2-8337 2*8355 2*8373 12 14 16
2-8.}6o 2-8478 2-8496 28513 2-8531 2-8548 2-8566 2-8583 2-8601 2-8618 4 9
8-1 12 14 16
2-8t(3() 2-8653 2-8671 2-8688 2-8705 2-8723 2-8740 2-8758 2-8775 2-8792 3 9
82 12 14 16
2-8Mio 2-8827^ 2-8844 2-8862 2-8879 2-8896 2-8914 2-8931 2-8948 2-8965 3 9
8 -3
2-8983 2-9000' 2-9017 2*9034 2-9052 2-9069 2-9 ^ 6 2-9103 2-9120 2-9138 3 9 12 14 15
8 4
2-9206 2-9223 2-9240 2-9257 2-9275 2-9292 2-9309 3 9 10 12 14 *5
8 5 2 -9 ' 5 5 2-9172 2-9189 9 10 12 14 15
2-9'; 26 2 - 9 3 4 3 2-9360 2 - 9 3 7 7 2 * 9 3 9 4 2-9411 2-9428 2-9445 2-9462 2-9479 3
86 9 10 12 14 15
2-9563 2-9580 2-9597 2-9614 2-9631 2-9648 3
87 2 -9 4 9 <» 2 -9 5 ' 3 2-9530 2-9547 8 10 12 13 15
2-9732 2 * 9 7 4 9 2-9766 2-9783 2-9799 2-9816 3
88 2-9965 2-9682 2-9698 2-9715 8 10 12 13 15
2-9900 2-9917 2 * 9 9 3 3 2-9950 2-9967 2-9983
2-9833 2-9850 2-9866 2-9883
3
8 -9
3-0067 3*0083 3-0100 3-0116 30150 8 10 12 13 15
9 0 3-0000 3-0017 3*0033 3*0050 3*0133 3 5
8 10 12 13 15
3-0166 3-0183 3-0199 3-0216 3-0232 30249 3-0265 3-0282 3-0299 3*0315 3 5
9 -1 8 10 I I 13 15
30397 3-0414 3-0430 3 0447 3 0463 3-0480 3 5
9 2 30332 3034S 30364 3*0381 3-0627 3*0643 8 10 I I 13 15
9 -3 3-0496 3-0512 3 0529 3*0545 3-0561 3-0578 30594 3-0610 3 S
3-0725 3-0741 30757 3-0773 30790 3-0806 3 5 8 10 I I 13 15
9 -4 3-0659 3-0676 3-0692 3-0708
3-0871 3-0887 3-0903 30919 30935 3-0952 3-0968 8 10 I I 13 15
9 5 3-0822 30838 3*0854
3-1016 3-1032 3-1048 3*1064 3-1081 3-1097 3*1113 3*1129 8 10 I I 13 14
9 -6 3-0984 3-1000
3-1161 3-1209 3-1225 3*1241 3-1257 3*1273 3-1280 8 10 11 13 * 4
9 -7 31145 3*1177 31193 8 10 I I 1 3 1 4
3-1321 3*1337 3*1353 3-1369 3**385 3*i4or 3*1417 3*1432 3144c
9 -8 3*1305 3*1607, 8 9 I I 13 14
9 -9 3-1464 3-1480 3-1496 3*1512 3-1528 3*1544 31559 3*1575 3*1591
408
ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

SQ U A R E ROOTS. F rom 10 TO 1 0 0 .

Meau Differences.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
31623 3*1780 3*1937 3-2094 3-2249 3*2404 3-2558 3-2711
3' 3>66 3*3317 3*3466 3*3615 3-2863 3-3015 15 31 46 62 77 92 108 123 139
3*3764 3*3912 3-4059 3-4205
3*4641 3*4785 3*4928 [3*5071 3-4351 3-4496 15 30 44 59 74 89 104 118 133
3*6056 3-5214 35355 3-5496 3-5637 3-5777 3-5917
3*6194 3*6332 3*6469 3 -6 6 0 6 3*6742 3-6878 14 28 43 57 71 85 99 114 128
3-7014 3-7148 3-7283 14 27 41
37417 3*7550 3*7683 3*7815 3*7947 3-8 0 7 9 3-S210 54 6 8 82 95 109 1221
3-8341 3-8471 3-8601 13 26 39 52 6 6 7 9 92
3 * 8 7 3 0 3 *8859 3*8987 105 118
3*9115 3-9243 3-9370 3-9497 3-9623 3 -9 7 4 9
4 ‘0 0 0 0 4 -0 1 2 5 4*0249 3-9875 13 25 38 51 6 4 76 8 9 102 114
4*0373 4-0497 4 -0 6 2 0 . 4 - 0 7 4 3 4 -0 8 6 6 4 -0 9 8 8
4 -1 2 3 1 1 4 -I 3 5 2 4*1473 4 - I I I O 12 25 37 49 62 74 8 6 98 I I I
4*1593
4 *2 4 2 6 14 2 5 4 4 4-2661 4*2778 4*1713 4*1833 4-1952 4-2071 4 -2 1 9 0 4 -2 3 0 8 12 24 36 48 6 0 72
4*2895 4*3012 4-3128 84 9 6 108
4*358914*3704 4*3818 4*3932 4 -3 2 4 3 4 -3 3 5 9 4*3474 12 23 35 46 58 70 81 93 104
4-4 0 4 5 4 -4 1 5 9 4-4272 4*4385 4-4497 4 -4 6 0 9 11 23 34 45 57 68
4*47211 4 * 4833 4*4944 4*5056 4 -5 1 6 6 79 9 0 102
4 -5 8 2 6 1 4 - 5 9 3 5 4-5277 4;5387 4*5497 4-5607 4-5 7 1 7 II 22 33
4*6043 4 -6 1 5 2 4 -6 2 6 0 4-6368 4 -6 4 7 6 4-6 5 8 3 4 -6 6 9 0 44 5 6 67 78 8 9 100
4 -6 9 0 4 1 4 -7 0 1 1
4*7117 4 -7 2 2 3 4 -7 3 2 9 4-6797 II 22 32 43 54 65 76 8 6 97
4 *7 9 5 8 1 4*8062 4 -7 4 3 4 4 -7 5 3 9 4-7645 4-7 7 4 9 4 -7 8 5 4 II 21 32
4 ‘8 i 66 4*8270 4 -8 3 7 4 42 53 63 74 ^4 95
4-8477 4 -8 5 8 0 4-8683 4-8785 4-8888 10 21 31
4 -8 9 9 0 14*9092 4*9193 4*9295 4*9396 41 52 62 72 82 931
4-9497 4 -9 5 9 8 4 -9 6 9 9 4 9 8 0 0 4-9000 10 20 30 4 0 51 61 71 81 91
5 -0 0 0 0 1 5 -0 1 0 0 5 -0 2 0 0 5*0299 5-0398
5-0498 5-0596 5-0695 5-0794 5-0892 1 0 20 3 0 4 0 5 0
5 -0 9 9 0 I 5 -1 0 SS 5* i i 8 6 5*1284 5-1381 59 6 9 79 89
5-1478 5-1575 5-1672 5-1769 5-1865 10 19 29 39 49
5 -1 9 6 2 1 5 -2 0 5 8 5*2154 5 -2 2 4 9 58 68 78 87
5-2345 5 -2 4 4 0 5-2536 5-2631 5-2726 5-2S20
5*29 rs 15* 3 0 0 9 5*3104 5*3198 10 19 29 38 4 8 57 67 76 86
N 5*3292 5-3385 5-3479 5-3572 5-3666 5-3759
5*385215*3944 5*4037 5*4129 5-4222 19 28 38 47 56 66 75 85
5-4314 5-4406 5-4498 5-4589 5-4681 18 28 37 4 6
5 *47721 5*4863 5*4955 5*5045 5-5*36 55 64 74 83
5-5227 5-5317 5-5408 5-549S 5-5588 18 27
5*5 6 7 8 1 5*5767 5*5857 5*5946 5-6036 5-6125 5-6214 5-6303 3 6 4 6 55 64 73 82
5 -6 5 6 9 ! 5-6657 5*6745 5*6833 5-6921 5-6391 5-6480 18 27 3 6 45 53 62 71 80
5-7009 5-7096 S-7184
5 * 7 4 4 6 1 5 7533 5*7619 I 5*7.706 5*7793 5-7371 5-7359 1-8
35 26 44 53 62 70 79
5 -8 3 1 0 1 5 * 8 3 9 5 5-8481 5*8566 5-8652 5-7879 5 -7966 5-8052 5-8138 5-8224 17 26
5-8737 5-8822 5-8907 5-8993
34 43 52 60 69 771
5-9076 17
34 26 43 51 60
5 - g i 6 i 1^ 9 2 4 5 5*9330 5*9414 5*9498 68 77
5-958 5-9666 5-9749 8 17 25 34
6 -0 0 0 0 1 6 - 0 0 8 3 6 -0 1 6 6 6 -0 2 4 9 6 -0 3 3 2 5-9833 5*9917 42 50 59 67 76
6-0415 6-0498 6 0 5 S 1 6-0663 6-0745
6 -0 8 2 8 1 6 -0 9 1 0 6 -0 9 9 2 6 -1 0 7 4 8 17 25 33 42 50 58 66 75
6 -1 1 5 6 6-1237 6-1 3 1 9 6-1 4 0 0 6-1482
6 -1 6 4 4 | 6 -i 7 2 5 6 x 8 0 6 6-1 5 6 3 8 16 25 33 41 49 57 66 74
6 -1 8 8 7 6-1 9 6 8 6 -2 0 4 8 6-2 1 2 9 6 2 2 0 9 6 2 2 9 0
6 -2 4 5 0 1 6 - 2 5 3 0 6 -2 6 1 0 6 -2 3 7 0 8 16 24 32 41 49 57 65 73
6 -2 6 9 0 6 -2 7 6 9 6 -2 8 4 9 6 -2 9 2 9 6-3008 6-30S7 6-3 1 6 6 8 16 24 32 4 0 48 56
6 - 3 2 4 6 1 6 -3 3 2 5 6*3403 64 72
6 -3 4 8 2 6-3561 6 -3 6 4 0 6-3 7 1 8
6 -4 0 3 1 1 6 - 4 1 0 9 6-4 1 8 7 6-3797 6-3875 6-3953 8 16 24 32 4 0 47
6*4265 6 -4 3 4 3 6 -4 4 2 0 6-4498 6-4 5 7 6 6-4653 55 63 711
6 -4 8 0 7 1 6 - 4 8 8 5 6-4962 6 -4 7 3 0 8 16 23 31 39 47 62 70
6 -5 0 3 8 1 6 -5- 1 15 6-5192 6 -5 2 6 9 55
6*557416-5651 6-5727 6-5345 6-5422 6-5498 8 15 23 3 * 39 46 62 69
6 -5 8 0 3 6 -5 8 7 9
6-5955 6 -6 0 3 0 6 - 6 1 0 6 6-6182
^4
6 -6 3 3 2 1 6 -6 4 0 8 6 6483 6-6257 8 15 23 30 38 46 61 68
6 -6 5 5 8 6-6633 6-6 7 0 8 6 6 7 8 3 6-6858 6 6 9 3 3 53
6-7007 8 15 23 30 38
6-7082 6-7157 6-7231 6 -7 3 0 5
45 53 60 68
6 -7 3 8 0 6 -7 4 5 4 6-7 5 2 8 6-7602 6 -76?6
6-7823 6-789 7 6-7971 6 -8 0 4 4 6 -7 7 5 0 7 15 22 30 37 44 59 67
6 -8 ii8 6-8191 6 -8 2 6 4 6-8337 6-8411 6 -8 4 8 4
6*8557 6 -8 6 2 9 6 -8 7 0 2 6 -8 7 7 5 7 15 22 29 37 44 51 58 66
6-8 8 4 8 6 S 9 2 0 6 -8 9 9 3 6 9 0 6 5 6 -9 1 3 8
6-9282 6 -9 2 1 0 7 15 22 29 37 44 51
6*9354 6 -9 4 2 6 6 -9 4 9 8 6 -9 5 7 0 6-9642 6-9714 6-9785 6 - 9 8 5 7 58 66
7-CO00 7*0071 7-0143 7 -0 2 1 4 6 -9 9 2 9 7 14 22 29 36 43 5 0
7-0285 7 0 3 5 6 7-0427 7-0498 7 - 0 5 6 9 58 65
7 -0 6 4 0 7 14 21 28 36 43 50
7*0711 70781 7 -0S 52 57 64
7 -0 9 2 2 7 -0993 7-1063
7-1 1 3 4 j7 - i2 0 4 7-1274 7-1344
7-1414 7*1484 7 14 21 2835 42 49
7-*554 7-1 6 2 4 7-1694 7 1764 7 1 8 3 3 I 7 - 1 9 0 3 7*1972 7-2042 56 63
7 -2 1 11 7 -2 1 8 0 7 -2 2 5 0 7 14 21 2835 42
7*2319 7-2388 7-2457 7 -2 5 2 6 5 7 -2 5 9 5 7-2664 49 56 63
7*2801 7-2 8 7 0 7*2732 7 14 21 2835 41 48
7*2938 7 -3 0 0 7 7-3075 7 -3 M 4 7-3 2 I 2 | 7 -328o 55 62
7*3485 7*3553 7-3621 7-3689 7 3 3 4 8 7-3417 7 14 20 2734
7*3756 7-3824 7-389217-3959 7-4027 41 48 54 61
7-4095 7 14' ^7 34 41 48 54 61
i
I
APPENDIX 409

SQUARE ROOTS. F rom i d to ioo .

Mean Difiexences.
2 3 4
1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9
66 7-4162 7-4229 7-4297 7-4364 7*4431 7-4498 7-4565 7-4632 7-4699 7*4766 7 13 20 27 34 40 47 54 60
7-4833 7-4900 7-4967 7-5033 7-5100 7-5166 7-5233 7*5299 7-5366 7*5432
•7 7-5498 7-5565 7-5631 7 13 20 27 34 40 47 54 60
7-5697 7-5763 7-5829 7-5895 7-5961 7-6026 7-6092 7 13 20 26 33 40 46 53 59
U 7-6158 7-6223 7-6289 7-6354 7-6420 7-6485 7-6551 7 -6 6 i 6 7-6681 7-6746
68 7-6877
7 '6 8 i i 7-6942 7-7006 7 13 20 26 33 39 46 5* 59
7-7071 7-7136 7-7201 7*7266 7-7330 7-7395 7 13 20 26 33 39 46 5* 59
SO 7-7460 7-7524 7-7589 7-7653 7-7717 7-7782 7-7846 7*7910
61 7*£ i o 2 7-8x66 7-8230 7-8294 7*7974 7-8038 6 13 19 26 32 38 45 51 58
7-8358 7-8422 7-8486 7-8549 7-8613 7-8677 6 13 19 26 32 38 45 51 58
66 7-8740 7-8804 7-8867 7-8930 7-8994
63 7-9057 7-9120 7-9183 7-9246 7-9310. 6 13 19 25 32 38 44 50 57
7-9373 7-9436 7-9498 7-9561 7-9624 7-9687 7-9812
64 8-coco 8-0062 8-0125 S01S7 80250 8-0312 7-9750 8-0436 7-9875 7-9937 6 13 19 25 3* 38 44 50 57
8-0374 8-0498 8-0561 6 12 19 25 31 37 43 50 56
66 8-0623 8-0685 8-0747 8 0808 80870 8-0932 8-0994 8-1056 8-1117
66 8-1240 8-1302 8-1363 8-1425 8-1486 8-1548 8-1609 8-1670 8-1731 8-1179 6 12 19 25 31 37 43 SO 56
67 8-1854 8-1915 8-1976 8-2037 8-2098 8-2158 8-2219 8-2280 8-2341 8-1792 6 12 18 24 31 37 43 49 55
68 8-2462 8-2523 8-2583 8-2644 8-2704 8-2765 8-2825 82885 8-2946 8-2401 6 12 18 24 31 37 43 49 55
69 S-5066 8-3126 8-3187 8-3247 8-3307 8-3367 8-3427 8-3606 6 12 18 24 30 36 4- 48 54
8*3487 8-3546 8-3606 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48-54
70 8-3666 8-3726 8-3785 8-3845 8-3905 8-3964 8-4024 8-4083
71 8-4261 8-4321 8-4380 8-4439 8-4499 8-4558 8-4617 8-4676 8-4143 8-4202 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
73 8-4853 8-4912 8-4971 8-5029 8-5088 8-5147 8-5206 8-5264 8-4735 8-4794 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 47 53
78 8-5440 8-5499 8-5557 8-5615 8-5674 8-5323 8-5381 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 5.3
8-5790 8-5849 8-5907 85965 6 12 17 23 29 35 41 46 52
74 8-6023 8-6o8i 8-6139 8-6197 8-6255 8-6371 8-6429 8-6487 8-6545 6 12 17 23 29 35 41 46 52
76 8 ^ 3 S-6660 8-6718 8-6776 8-6833 8-6891 8-6948 8-7006 8-7063 8-7121
76 8-7178 8-7235 8-7293 8-7350 8-7407 8-7464 8-7521 6 12 17 23 29 35 41 46 52
8-7636 8-7693 6 11 17 23 29 34 40 46 51
77 8-7750 8*78^ 8-78^ 8-7920 8-7977 8-8034 8*8091 87579 3-8148 8-8204 8-8261 6 11 17 23 29 34 40 46 51
78 8*8313 88374 8-8431 8-8487 8-8544 88600 8-8657 8*8713 8-8769 8-8826
79 8-8382 j8-8938 8 - 8 ^ 8-9051 8-9107 8-9163 8-9219 8-9275 6 11 17 22 28 34 39 45 50
8-933* 8-9387 6 II r7 22 28 34 39 45 50
60 8-9443 8-9499 8*9554 8-9610 8-9666 s-9722 8-9778
61 8-9833 89889 8-9944 6 II 17 22 28 34 39 45 50
9-0000 5 0056 9-<MII 9*0167 9-0222 9*0277
9*0333 90388 6 II 17 22 28 33 39 44 50
9 0554 9-0609 9-0664 9*0719 9-0774 9-CS30 9-0885 9-0940 9-0443 90499
9-0995 9-1049 6 II 17 22 28 33 39 44 50
9-1104 9-1159 9-1214 9-1269 9-1324 9-1378 9-1488 9-1542 9-1597 6 II 17 22 28 33 39 44 50
84 9-1652 9-1706 9-1761 9-1815 9-1S69 9*1924 9-*4339-1978 9-2033 9-2087 9-2141 5 II 16 22 27 32 38 43 49
86 9-2195 9-2250 9*2304 9*2358 9*2412 9*2466 9*2520 9-2574 9-2628 9-2682
89 9-2736 9-2790 9-2844 9-sS^ 9.3952 9*3005 9-3059 11 16 22 27 32 38 43 49
87 9-3113 9-3167 9-3220 11 16 22 27 32 38 43 49
9-3274 9-3327 9*3381 9*3434 9*3488 9*3541 9*3595 9-3648 9-3702 9*3755 II 16 21 27 32 37 4« 48
88 9-3808 9-3S62 9*3915 9*3968 9-4021 9-4074 9-4128 9-4181 9-4287 II 16 21 27 32 37 42 48
l8 9-4340 9*4393 9*4446 9*4499 9*455* 9-4604 9-4657 9*4710 9*4234 9-4763 9-4816 II 16 21 27 32 37 42 48
90 9-4868 9-4921 9-4974 9-5026 9*5079 9-5J31 9-5*84 9*5237 9-5289
01 9-5341 II 16 21 27 32 37 42 48
9-5394 9-5446 9-5499 9-5551' 9*5603 9-5656 9-5708 9-5760 9*5812 9-5864 II 16 21 26 31 36 42 47
08 9-5917 9-5969 9-6021 9-6073 9-6125 9*6177 9*6229 9-6281
08 9*6333 9*6385 11 16 21 26 31 36 42 47
9-6437 9-6488 9-6540 9-6592 9-6644 9-6695 9-6747 9*6799 9-6850 9*6902 10 16 21 26 31 36 42 47
04 9-6954 9-7005 9.7057 9-7108 9-71^ 9-72II 9*7263 9-7314 9*7365 97417 10 15 20 26 31 36 41 46
96 9-7468 9-7519 9-7570 9-7622 9.7673 9-7724 9-7775 9-7826 10 15 20 26 31 36 41 46
9-7980, 9-8031 9-8082 9-8133 9-8184 98234 9-8285 9-8336 9-7877 9*7929
9-8387 9-8438 10 15 20 26 31 36 41 46
9-8489 9-8539 9-8590 9-8641 9*8691 98742 9*8793 9-8843 9-8894 9.8944 10 15 20 26 31 36 41 46
9-8995 9-9045 9-90^ 9-9146 9.9197 9-9247 9-9298 9-9348 9-9398 9-9448 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
9 .9 4 9 9
9*9549 9-9599 9-9649 9*9700 9-9750 9-9800 9-9850 9-9900 9-9950 10 15 20 25 30 ^3^40^
 X

410 APPENDIX 9

CUBE ROOTS. F rom i to i d .

Mean Difiereaces.
n
u 11 9 00 A 0E D 71 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 i-oooo 1*0033 1*0066 1*0099 1*0132 1*0164 1*0196 1*0228 1*0260 1*0291 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26-29
1-1 I 0323 1 - 0 3 5 4 1-0385 1*0416 I *0446 1*0477 1*0507 1-0537 1-0567 1*0597 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27
1-2 1*0627 1*0656 1*0685 1*0714 1-0743 1*0772 1*0^01 1*0829 1*0858 1*0886 3 6 9 I I 14 17 20 23 26
1-8 I0 9 I 4 I 0942 1*0970 1 * 0 9 9 7 1*1025 1*1052 1*1079 1*1106 1-1133 1*1160 3 5 B I I 14 16 19 22 25
1 -4 1*1187 1*1213 1*1240 1*1266 1*1292 1-1319 1-1344 1-1370 1-1396 1*1422 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 23
1 6 1*1447 1-1473 1*1498 1-1523 1*1548 1-1573 1*1598 1*1623 1*1647 1*1672 2 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22
1-6' 1*1696 1*1720 1-1745 1*1769 I-I793 1*1817 1*1840 1*1864 1*1888 1*1911 2 5 7 10 12 14 17 19 22
1 -7 1 I-I 9 3 5 1*1958 1*1981 1*2005 1*2028 1*2051 1*2074 1*2096 1*2119 1*2142 2 5 7 9 I I 14 16 18 21
1-8 1*2164 1*2187 1*2209 1*2232 1*2254 1*2276 1*2298 1*2320 1*2342 1-2364 2 4 7 9 I I 13 16 18 20
1 -9 1*2386 1*2407 1*2429 1*2450 1*2472 1-2493 1*2515 1-2536 1-2557 1-2578 2 4 6 9 I I 13 15 17 19
2 0 1*2599 1*2620 1*2641 1*2662 1*2683 1*2703 1*2724 1*2745 1*2765 1*2785 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 17 19
21 1*2806 1*2826 1*2846 1*2866 1*2887 1*2907 1*2927 1*2947 1*2966 1*2986 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
2-2 1*3006 1*3026 1-3045 1*3.065 1-3084 1*3104 1*3123 1*3142 1*3162 1*3181 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 17
2-8 :*32oo 1*3219 1-3233 1-3257 1*3276 1-3295 1-3314 1-3333 1-3351 1-3370 2 4 6 8 9 11 13 IS 17
2 -4 i' 33^ '9 1-3407 1-3426 1 -3 4 4 4 1-3463 1*3481 1-3499 1*3518 1-3536 1-3554 2 4 5 7 9 II 13 15 17
2 6 1-3572 1*3608 1*3626 1-3644 1*3662
1*3590 1*3680 1*3698 1-3715 1-3733 2 4 5 7 9 II 13 14 16
28 1-3786 1*3803 1*3821 1-3838
1*3768 1-3856 1-3873 1*3890 1*3908 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 16
1-3751
2 -7 1-3925 1 - 3 9 5 9 1*3976 1 - 3 9 9 3 1*4010
1-3942 1*4027 1*4044 1*4061 1*4078 2 3 5 7 9 10 12 14 15
2-81 1-4095 1*4128 1-4145 1*4161 1*4178
1*4111 1-4195 1*4211 1*4228 1-4244 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 13 15
2*9 1*4260 1-4293 1-4309 1*4326 1-4342
1-4277 1-4358 1 -4 3 7 4 1-4390 1*4406 2 3 5 6 8 10 11 13 15
3 0 1*4422 1 - 4 4 3 9 1-4454 1*4470 1*4486 1*4502 1*4518 1 - 4 5 3 4 1-4550 1-4565 2 3 5 6 8 10 I I 13 14
31 1*4581 1 - 4 5 9 7 1*4612 1*4628 1-4643 1-4659 1*4674 1*4690 1-4705 1*4721 2 3 5 6 8 9 II 12 14
3 -2 1-4736 1-4751 1*4767 1*4782 1 -4 7 9 7 1*4812 1*4828 1-4843 1*4858 1-4873 2 3 5 6 8 9 II 12 14
3*8 1*4888 1-4903 1*4918 1 - 4 9 3 3 1*4948 1-4963 1-4978 1 - 4 9 9 3 1*5007 1*5022 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
3 -4 1-5037 1-5052 1*5066 1*5081 1*5096 1*5110 1*5125 1-5139 i’-5 i 5 4 1*5168 3 4 6 7 9 10 12 13
3 -5 1*5183 1-5157 1*5212 1*5226 1*5241 1-5255 1*5269 1-5283 1*5298 1-5312 3 4 6 7 9 10 I I 13
3 -8 1*5326 1-5340 1-5355 1-5369 1-5383 1 - 5 3 9 7 1-5411 1-5425 1-5439 1 - 5 4 5 3 3 4 6 7 8 10 I I 13
3 -7 1*5467.'j“ ;48 i 1 - 5 4 9 5 1-5508 1-5522 1-5536 1-5550 1-5564 1-5577 1-5591 3 4 6 7 8 10 I I 12
3 -8 1*5605 X* s6 i 9 1*5632 1*5646 1-5659 1-5673 1*5687 1-5700 1-5714 1-5727 3 4 7 8 10 I I 12
1*5821 1-5834 1*5848 1-5861 8 9 11 12
3 -9 1-5741 1 - 5 7 5 4 1*5767 1-5781 1-5794 1*5808 3 4 7

1*5966 1*5979 1-5992 8 9 I I 12

4 0 1-5874 1*5887 1*5900 1-5914 1*5927 1*5940 1-5953 3 4 7
41 1*6005 1*6018 1*6031 1*6044 1*6057 1*6070 1*6083 1*6096 1*6109 1*6121 3 4 6 8 9 10 12
4 2 1-6134 1*6147 1*6160 1-6173 1*6x85 1*6198 1*6211 1*6223 1*6236 1*6249 3 4 6 8 9 10 I I
48 1*6261 1*6274 1*6287 1*6299 1*6312 1*6324 1-6337 1-6349 1*6362 1-6374 3 4 6 8 9 10 I I
4 4 11-6386 1*6359 1*6411 ■1*6424 1*6436 1*6448 1*6461 1-6473 1*6485 1*6497 2 4 6 7 9 10 I I

4 6 1*6510 1*6522 1-6546 1*6558 1*6571 1-6583 1-6595 1*6607 1*6619 2 4 6 7 8 10 I I

1-6534
4 6 1*663: 1*6655 1*6667 1*6679 1*6691 1-6703 1*6715 1*6727 1*6739 2 4 6 7 8 10 11
10643 8 9 11
4 7 1*6751 1*6763 1*6774 1*6786 1*6798 1*6810 1*6822 1-6833 1*6845 1*6857 2 4 6 7
4 3 1*6869 11 * 6 8 5 0 1*6892 1*6904 1*6915 1*6927 1*6939 1*6950 1*6962 1*6973 2 6 7 8 9 10
1*6985 1*6997 1*70^ 1*7020 1*7031 1*7054 1*7065 1*7077 1*7088 2 3 6 7 8 9 10
4 9 1-7043
1*7190 1*7202 2 6 8 10
5 0 1*7100 I *7 I I I 1*7123 1-7134 1*7145 1-7157 1*7168 1-7179 3 7 9
2 6 8 10
SI 1-7213 1*7224 1-7235 1*7247 1-7258 1*7269 1*7280 1*7291 1-7303 1-7314
2
3
6
7
8
9
10
1*7402 1-7413 1-7424 7 9
1-7325 1-7336 1 - 7 3 4 7 1-7358 1 - 7 3 ^ 1*7380 1 -7 3 9 1
5 2 3
1*7490 1-7501 1-7512 1*7522 1 - 7 5 3 3 2 7 8 9 10
1 -7 4 3 5 i - 74 ‘i 6 1 - 7 4 5 7 1*7468 1-7479
S 3 3 5
1*7630 1*7641 2 8 10
1-7544 1 - 7 5 5 5 I ; j 66 1 - 7 5 7 7 I 7587 1-7598 1*7609 1*7620 3 5 7 9
5 4
 411
APPENDIX

C U B E R O O T S. F rom i to io .

Mean Differences.
4 5 6 7 8 9
0 1 2 3
456 7 8 9
12 3

1-7716 1-7726 *•7748 * 2 3 45 6 7 8 10

5-5 17652 1-7662 1-7673 1-7684 1-7694 1-7705 *•7737
1-7800 1-7811 1-7821 1-7832 1-7842 *•7853 1 2 3 4A 5 6A i 0 9
5 -6 17758 1-7769 1-7 779 1-7790 7 0Q 9/V
«■
17863 1-7874 1-7884 1-7894 1-7905 1-7926 1-7936 *7946 *•7957 * 2 3 4A 5f 6A
5-7 17 9 1 5 7 0 9
17967 17977 1-7988 1-7998 1-8008 i - 8o i 8 1-8029 1-8039 1-8049 1-8059 * 2 3 45 6
5-8 pm Q
1-8070 1-8080 1-8090 1-8100 1-8110 1-8121 1-8131 1-8141 1-8151 1-8161 * 2 3 4 5 ^ 7 0 9
5*9
18171 1-8181 1-8191 1-8201 1-8211 1-8222 1-8232 1-8242 1-8252 1-8262 I 2 3 456 7pm 8Q 9r\
6 0
1-8272 1-8282 1-8292 1-8302 1-8311 1-8321 1-8341 *•8351 1-8361 I 2 3 456 7pm 8Q 9
61 1-833 * 7 a 9
1-8381 1-8391 1-8400 1-8410 1-8420^ 1-8430 1-8440 1-8450 *•8459 * 2 3 456
6-2 1-8371 pm Q
1-8489 1-8498 1-8508 1-8518 1-8528 *•8537 *-8547 *•8557 * 2 3 456 7 0 9
68 1-8469 1-8479 pm Q
1-8586 1-8605 1-8615 1-8624 1*8634 1-8643 18653 I 2 3 4A 5W
>6A 7 0 9
6-4 1-8566 1-8576 1-8595
6 5 1-8663 1-8672 1-8682 1-8691 1-8701 1-8710 1-8720 1-8729 *•8739 1-8748 * 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1-8796 1-8805 1-8814 1-8824 *•8833 1-8843 1 2 3 4 56 70 0
66 1-8767 1-8777 1-8786
1-8758
1-8889 1-8899 1-8908 1-8917 1-8927 1-8936 I 2 3 4 56 7 0Q 052
67 1-8852 I -8861 1-8871 1-8880
1-8964 1-8982 1-8992 1-9001 1-9010 1-9019 1-9029 I 2 3 4A 5•• 6A 70 0
68 1-8945 1-8973
5(*0(\
1-8955 y*7 c52 52
0
6-9 1-9038 1-9047 1-9056 1-9065 1-9074 1-9084 1-9093 1-9102 1-9111 1-9120 * 2 3 4A
1-9202 1-9211 * 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 8
7 0 1-9129 1-9138 1-9148 1-9157 1-9166 I 9175 1-9184 *•9*93 A
0 7^ 52
0
71 1-9220 1-9229 1-9238 1-9247 1-9256 1-9265 1-9274 1-9283 1-9292 1-930 * * 2 3 4 5 5
*-938 * *•9390 I 2 3 4 A
0 •j/ 52
0
1-9337 1-9345 1-9 354 *•9363 1-9372
7-2 1-9310 1-9328 4 5
1-9319 A
0 ^y 052
1-9469 * -9 4 7 8 I 2 3 4
7-3 1-9399 I -9408 1-9416 1-9425 1-9434 1-9443 *•9452 1-9461 4 5
uA / 52
0
1-9566 * 2 3 3
7-4 1-9487 1-9496 1-9504 19513 1-9522 I -9531 *•9539 1-9548 '• 9 5 5 7 4 5

1-9600 1-9609 1-9618 1-9626 *•9635 1-9644 1-9652 I 2 3 3 4 5 67 8

7 5 1-9574 1-9583 1-9592 _ Ct A 1/ 502
76 1-9661 1-9670 1-9678 I -9687 1-9695 1-9704 *•97*3 I -9721 *-9730 *•9738 * 2 3 3 45
A 52
7-7 1-9747 1-9755 1-9764 1-9772 1-9781 1-9789 1-9798 1-9806 1-9815 *•9823 I 2 3 3 4 5 07
fv •/‘f
^
1-9899 1-9908 * 2 3 3 v> 09
7-8 1-9832 1-9840 1-9849 1-9857 I -9866 1-9874 1-9883 I -9891 4 5
/i> *79 Q
7 9 I -9 9 16 1-9925 1-9933 1-9941 1-9950 1-9958 1-9967 *-9975 *•9983 *-9992 * 2 3 3 4 5 ^

8 0 2-0000 2-0008 2-0017 2-0025 2-0033 2-0042 2-0050 2-0058 2-0066 20075 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 7
2-0157 1 22 A *1 ^/
3 4 5 -^7
8 1 2-0083 2 0091 2-0100 2-0108 2-0116 2-0124 2-0132 2-0141 2-0149
2-0182 2-0190 2-0198 2-0206 2-0214 2-0223 20231 2-0239 1 22 3 4 5 n j /
82 2-0165 2-0173
2-0263 2-0271 2-0279 2-0288 2-0296 2-0304 2-0312 2-0320 1 22 3 4 5 07 7
8-3 2-0247 2-0255 A A *77
2-0328 2-0336 2-0352 2-0360 2-0368 20376 2-0384 2-0392 2-0400 I 2 2 3 4 5 00
8-4 2-0344
2-0408 2-0416 2-0424 2-0432 2-0440 2-0448 2-0456 2-0464 2-0472 2-0480 1 2 2 3 4 5 6 6 7
8 5 (\ 6 *7
2-0504 2-0512 2-0520 2-0528 20536 2-0543 2-0551 2-0559 1 22 3 4 5
8-6 2 -048 S 2-0496 0
2-0591 2-0599 2-0606 2-0614 2-0622 2-0630 2 -c?638 1 22 3 4 5
8-7 2-0567 2-0575 2-0580 r A *7
2-0669 2-0677 2-0685 2-0692 2-0700 2-0708 2 0716 1 22 345
8-8 2-0646 20653 2-0661 r» /x *7
2-0762 2-0770 2-0778 2-0785 2-0793 I 2 2 345 5 ^ 7
8-9 2-0724 2-0731 2-0739 2-0747 2-0755
2-0824 2-0832 2-0839 2-0847 2-0855 2-0862 2-0870 122 3 5 5 6 7
4
9 0 2-0801 2-0809 2-0 S 16 ^ A *7
2-0901 2-0 ^ 8 2-0916 2-0923 2-0931 2-0939 2-0946 122 3 5 4
91 2-0878 2-0885 2-0893
3 ^ 6 *7
122 ^ V A
9-2 2-0954 2-(>961 2-0969 2-0977 2-0984 2-0992 2-0999 2 -io o jr 2-1014 2-1022 3 4
2-1045 2-1052 2-1060 2-1067 2 -1 0 7 5 2-1082 2-1090 2-1097 122 3 5 5 ^ 7
4
98 2-1029 2-1037
9-4 2-1105 2-1112 2 - I I 20 2-1127 2 1134 2-1142 2 -1 1 4 9 2-1157 2-1164 2-1172 112 3 4 4 5r* A
^ 7
*7

2-1179 2-1187 2-1194 2-1201 2-1209 2-1216 2-1224 2-1231 2-1238 2-1246 6 1 1 2 3 4 4 5 6 7
9 5
9-6 2-1253 2-1261 2-1268 2-1275 21283 2-1290 2-1297 2-1305 2- 13:2 21319 I I 2 3 4 4 3
- ^
7
f..
2-1356 2- 137 * 2-1378 2-*3S5 2-1392 I I 2 3 44 5 ^ 7
9-7 2-1327 2-1 334 2-1341 2-1349 2-1363
50 A
A
2 - 140c 2-1407 2-1414 2-1422 2-1429 2-1436 2 -* 4 4 3 2-14S* 2-*458 2-1465 1 1 2 3 4 4 D
9-8 5 6A 6 A
9 -9 2-1472 2-1480 2-1487 2-1494 2-1501 2-1508 2-1516 2-*523 2-1530 2*537 I I 2 |3 4 4
412 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

CUBE ROOTS. F rom id to ig o .

Mean Diflereacei.
■0 *1 *2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 2-1544 2*1616 2*1687 2-1757 2*1828 2*1898 2-1967 2*2036 2*2104 2*2172 14 21 a8 35 42 49 56 62
11 2*2240 2*2307 2*2374 2*2440 2*2506 2*2571 2*2637 2*2702 2*2766 2*2831 13 20 26 33 39 46 52 59
12 2*2894 2*2953 2*3021 2*3084 2*3146 2*3208 2*3270 2-3331 2-3391 2-3453 12 18 24 30 37 43 49 55
18 2 -3 5 > 3 2-3573 2-3633 2*3693 2*3752 2*3811 2*3870 2*3028 2*3986 2*4044 12 18 23 29 35 41 47 53
14 2*4101 2*4159 2*4216 2*4272 2-4329 2-4385 2*44.41 2-4497 2*4552 2^4607 II 17 22 28 34 39 45 51
15 2*4662 2*4717 2*4771 2*4825 2*4879 2-4933 2-4987 2-5040 2-5093 2*5146 11 16 21 27 33 38 43 48
16 2*5198 2 5251 2-5303 2-5355 2-5407 2-5458 2-55JO 2*5561 2*5612 2*5662 10 15 21 26 31 36 41 46
17 2 -5 7 » 3 2*5763 2*5813 2*5863 25913 2*5962 2*6012 2*6061 2*6110 2*6159 10 15 20 25 30 35 39 44
18 2*6207 2*6256 26304 2*6352 2 6400 2*6448 2*5495 2-6543 2*6590 2*6637 10 14 19 24 29 33 38 43
19 2*6684 2*6731 2*6777 2*6824 2*6870 2*6916 2*6962 2*7008 2-7053 2*7099 9 14 18 23 28 32 37 41
20 2*7144 2*7189 2*7234 2*7279 2-7324 2-7369 2-7413 2-7457 2*7501 2-7545 4 9 13 18 22 27 31 36 40
£1 2-75S9 2-7633 2-7677 2*7720 2-7763 2*7806 2-7849 2*7892 2-7935 2*7978 4 9 13 17 22 26 30 34 39
£2 2 * 8 o 2 0 2*8063 2*8105 2*8147 2*8189 2*8231 2-8273 2*8314 2-8356 2 -8 .397 1 4 8 13 17 21 25 29 34 38
?3 2*8439 2*8480 2*8521 2*8562 28603 2*8643 2*8684 2*8724 2-8765 2*8805 4 5 12 16 20 24 28 32 37
£4 2*8845 2*8885 2*8925 2*8965 2 9004 2-9044 2-9083 2*9123 2*9162 2*9201 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
26 8*9240 2*9279 2*9318 2-9357 2-9395 2-9434 2*9472 2*9511 2-9549 2*9587 4 8 12 15 19 23 27 31 35
£6 2 962 5 2 9663 2*9701 2*9738 2-9776 2-9814 2*9851 2988S 9926 2*9963 4 8 II 15 19 23 26 30 34
£7 3*0000 3-0*037 3-0074 30111 3-0147 3-0184 3 * C 2 2 I I 3 * 0 2 5 7 3*0293 3*0330 4 7 11 15 18 22 26 29 33
£8 3*0366 3*0402 3-0438 3-047*1 3-0510 3*0546 3*058163*0617 3-0652 3*o 6 8 8 4 7 11 14 18 21 25 29 32
£9 3-0723 30758 3-0829 3*0864 3*0899 3-0934 3-0968 3-1003 3-1038
30794 3 7 lo 14 17 21 24 28 31
30 3-1072 3*1107 3*1141 3*1176 3*1210 3*1244 3 -* 2 7 8 3-1312 3*1346 3-1380
81 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
3-1414! 3-1448 3*1481 3 - i 5 ' 5 3 - *548 3-1582 3*1615 3*1648 3*1682 3-1715 3 7 10 13 17 20 23 27 30
82 3-174S 31781 3*1814 3-1847 3*1880 3 -*9 i 3 3-1945 3-1978 3*2010 3-2043 3 7 10 13 16 20 23 26 29
SS 3*2075 3*2ic 3 3*2140 3-2172 3-2204 3-2237 3-2269 3-2301 3-2333 3-2364 3 6 10 13 16 19 22 26 29
84 3-^396 3-2428 3*2460 3-2491 3-2522 3-2554 3*2586 3-2617 3*2648 3-2679 3 6 10 13 16 19 22 25 28
35 3-27111 3-2742 3-2773 3*2804 3-2835 3*2866 5-2257 3*2527 3*2958 3*2989 13 15 18 22 25 27
8R 3*5080 3
3-30191 3-3050 3 -3 HI 3-3141 3-3171 3-3202 3-3232 3-3262 33292 3 12 15 18 21 24 27
87 3-3322 j 3-3352 3-3382 3-3412 3-3442 3-3472 3-3501 3-3531 3-3561 3-3590 3 12 15 18 21 24 27
8S 3-3620 3-3649 3-3679 ■^*3708 3-3737 3-3767 3-3796 3-3825 3-3854 3-38S3 12 15 18 20 23 26
89 3
3-3912 3-3941 3-5970 3-3999 3*4028 3*4056 3-4085 3 4114 3-4142 3-4171 3 12 14 17 20 23 26
40 3*4200 3*4223
5-4256 3-4285 3-4313 3-4341 3-4370 3-439S 3-4426 3-4454
41 3 -4 *r8 2
3-4510 3-4538
3 11 14 17 20 23 25
3-4566 3-4594 3*4622 3*4650 3-4677 3-4705 3-4733
42 3-4760 3-4788 3-4815 3*4870
3 11 14 17 19 22 25
3-4843 3*4898 3-4925 3-4952 3-4980 3*5007 3 11 14 16 19 22 25
43 3-5034 3-5061 3-5088 3 -5 « i 5 3-5142 3 '5 » 6 9 3-5196 3-5223 3*5250 3-5277 3
41 I I 13 16 19 22 24
3-5303 3-5.330 3 - 5 3 5 7 3-5384 3-5410 3-5437 3-5463 3-5490 3-5516 3-5543 3 I I 13 16 19 il.2 4
45 3 -SS^ 9 3 5 5 9 5 3-5622 3-5674 3 - 5 7 0 0 3-5726 3-5752 3-5778 3-5805 3
46 3-50301 3-5856 3*5882
to 13 16 18 21 23
3-5934 3*5960 3-5986 3*6011 3-6037 3-6063 10 13 15 18 21 23
47 3*6oSS S3-6114 3-6139 3-6165 3-6190 3*6216 3-6241 3-6267 3*6292 3-6317 3 10 13 15 18 20 23
48 3 * 6 3 4 2 1 3-636S 3
36393 3-6443 3*6468 3-6493 3*6518 3-6543 3-6568 3 10 13 15 18 20 23
3-65931 3 * 6 6 ! 8 3-6643 *6663 3 6692 3-6717 3-6742 3-6766
3-6791 3*68 i 6 2 10 12 15 17 20 22
50 3684c 13-6865 3*6889 36938 3-6963 3-6537 3-7011 3-7036 3-7060
SI 3-708.? 3-7109 1 0 12 15 17 20 22
3*7133 3-7181 3-7205 3-7229 3-7253 3-7277 3-7301 10 12 14 17 19 22
6S 3-7325 3-7349 3 * 7 3 7 3 3-7421 3-7444 3-7468 3-7492 3-7516 3-7539
58 3-7563 3-7586 3*7610 10 12 14 17 19 22
3-7657 3-7681 3-7704 3-7728 3-7751 3-7774
54 3-7798 3*7821 37844 9 12 14 16 19 21
3-7891 3 -79'4 3-7937 3-7960 3-7983 3*8oo 6 9 12 14 16 19 21
\

APPE.VDIX 413

CUBE ROOTS. From io t o ioo.

Mean Differeooea.
•6 •7 •8 •9
123 4 6 6 7 8 9
58 3*8030 3*8076 3*8099 3*8121 3*8144 3*^67 3*8190 3*8213 3*8236 2 11
14 16 18 21
66 7 9
3*8304 3*8327 3*8350 3*8372 3*8395 3*8417 3*8440 3*8463 2 7 9 II
14 16 18 20
67 3*8508 3*8530 3*8552 3*8620 3*8642 3*8687 2 16 18 20
7 9 11
13
68 3*8709 3*8731 3*8753 rim r iis 3*8842 3*88^ 3*8880 3*8908 2 7 9 11
13 15 18 20
69 3*8930 3*8952 3*8974 rim 3*9018 3*9040 3*9061 3*9083 3*9105 3*9127 2 7 11 13
9 15 18 20
60 3*9149 3*9170 3*9192 3*9214 3*9235 3*9257 3*9279 3*9300 3*93«2 3*9343 2 6 11 13
9 IS 17 19
61 J‘9365 3*9386 3*9408 3*94*9 3*9451 3*9472 3*9494 3*9515 3*9536 3*9558 2 6 11 13
68 3*9579 9 15 17 19
3*9600 3*9621 3*9643 3*9664 3*9685 3*9706 3*9727 3*9748 3*9770 2 6 8
11 13 15 17 19
68 3*9791 3*9812 3-9833 3*9854 3*9875 3*9896 3*9916 3*9937 3*9958 3*9979 2 6 8
10 13 15 17 19
64 4*0000 4*0021 4*0042 4*0062 4*0083 4*0104 4*0125 4*0145 4*oi66 4*0187 2 6 8
10 12 14 17 19
65 4*0207 4*0228 4*0248 4*0269 4*0290 4*0310 4*0331 4*0351 4*0372 4*0392 2 6 8
10 12 14 16 18
68 4*0412 40433 4*0453 4*0474 4*0494 4*0514 4*0535 4,*0555 4*0575 4*0595 2 6 8
10 12 14 16 18
07 4*0615 4*0636 4*0656 4*0676 4*0696 40716 4*0736 4*0756 4*0777 4*0797 2 6 8
10 12 14 16 18
68 4*0817 4-0837 4*0857 4*0877 4*0896 4*0916 4*0936 4*0956 4*0976 4*0996 2 6 8
10 12 14 16 18
69 4*1016 4-1035 4*1055 4*1075 4*1095 4*1H i 4*1134 41154 4*1174 4*1193 2 6 8
10 12 14 16 18
70 4*1213 4*1232 4*1252 4*1272 4*1291 4*i3« 4*1330 4*1350 4*1370 4*1389 2 6 8
10 12 14 16 18
71 4*1408 4*1428 4*1447 4*1466 4*14^ 4*1505 4*1524 4*1544 4*1563 4*1582 2 6 8
10 12 14 16 17
72 4*1602 4*1621 4*1640 4*1659 4*1679 4*1698 4*1717 4*1736 4*1755 4*1774 2 6 8
10 11 13 15 17
78 4*1793 4*1812 4*1832 4*1851 4*1870 4*1889 4*1908 4*1927 4*1946 4*1964 2 6 8
10 11 13 15 17
74 4*1983 4*2002 4*2021 4*2040 4*2059 4*2078 4*2097 4*2115 4*2134 4*2153 2 6 89 11 13 15 17
75 4*2172 4 ‘2190 4*2209 4*2228 4*2246 4*2265 4*2284 4-23M 4*2321 4*2340 2 6 79 11 13 15 17
76 4*2358 4*2377 4*2395 4*2414 4*2432 4*2451 4*2469 4*2488 4*2506 4*2525 2 6 79 11 13 15 17
77 4*2543 4*2562 4*2580 4*2598 4*2617 4*2653 4*2672 4*2690 4*2708 2 79 11 13 15 17
78 4*2727 4*2745 4*2763 4*2781 4*2799 4*2836 4*2854 4*2872 4*2890 2 5 79 11 13 14 16
79 4*2908 4-2927 4*2945 4*2963 4*2981 4*2999 4*3017 4*3035 4*3053 4*3071 2 5 79 11 13 14 16
80 4*3089 4*3107 4*3125 4*3143 4*3160 4*3178 4*3196 4*3214 4*3232 4*3250 a S 79 11 13 14 16
81 4*3267 4*3285 4*3303 4*3321 4*3339 4-3356 4*3374 4*3392 4W 9 4*3427 2 5 79 11 12 14 i6
82 4*3445 4*3462 4-3480 4*3498 4*3515 4*3533 4*3551 4*3568 4*3586 4*3603 2 5 79 11 12 14 16
88 4*3621 4*3638 •4*3656 4*3673 4*3691 4*3708 4*3726 4*3743 4*3760 4*3778 2 5 79 10 12 14 16
84 4*3795 4*3813 4*3830 4*3847 4*386, m 4*3899 4*3917 4*3934 4*3951 2 5 79 10 12 14 16
85 4-3968 4*3986 4*4003 4*4020 4*4037 4*4054 4*4072 4*4089 4*4106 4*4123 a S 79 10 12 14 16
86 4*4140 4*4157 4*4174 4*4191 4*4208 4*4225 4*4242 4*4259 4*4276 4*4293 a 5 79 10 12 14 IS
87 4*4310 4*4327 4*4344 4*4361 4*4378 4*4395 4*4412 4*4429 4*4446 4*4462 2 5 79 10 12 14 15
4*4480 4*4496 4*4513 4*4530 4*4547 4*4564 4*4580 4*4597 4*4614 4*4631 a 5 78 10 12 13 15
4*4647 4*4664 4*4681 4*4698 4*4714 4*4731 4*4748 4*4764 4*4781 4*4797 a 5 78 10 12 13 15
90 4*4814 4*4831 4*4847 4*4864 4*4880 4*4897 4*4913 4*4930 4*4946 4*4963 a 5 78 10 la 13 15
91 4*4979 4*4996 4*5012 4*5029 4*5045 4*5062 4*5078 4*5094' 4*5111 4*5127 a 5 78 10 12 13 15
92 4*5144 4*5160 4*5176 4*5193 4*5209 4*5242 4*5258 4*5274 4*5290 2 5 78 10 11 13 15
93 4*5307 4-5323 4*5339 4*5355 4*5371 4*5404 4*5420 4*5436 4*5452 2 5 68 10 11 13 14
94 4*5468 4*5484 4*5501 4*5517 4*5533 4*5549 4*5565 4*5581 4*5597 4*5613 2 5 68 10 11 13 14
95 4*5629 4*5645 4*5661 4*5677 4*5693 4*5709 4*5725 4*5741 4*5757 4*5773 2 5 5 8 10 11 13 14
96 4*5789 4*5804 4*5820 4*5836 4-5852 4*5868 4*5884 4*5900 4*5915 4*5931 a 5 6 11 13 14
97 4*5947 4*5963 4*5979 4*5994 4*6oio 4*6026 4*6042 4*6057 4*6073 4*6089 2 5 6 11 13 14
98 4*6104 4*6x20 4-6136 4*6151 4*6167 4*6183 4*6198 4*6214 4*6229 4*6*45 2 3 5 6 !8 9^ 11 13 14
99 4*6261 4*6276 46292 4*6307 4*6323 4*6338 4*6354 4*6369 4*6385 4*6400 « 35 6 8 9 11 12 14
 \

414 ELEMENTS OF PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY

CUBE ROOTS. From io o t o iooo.

5 6 7 8 9 •1 •2 •3 4 5 •6 •7 .8 *9

10 4-6416 4-6570 4-6723 4-6875 4-7027 4-7177 4-7326 4-7475 4-7622 47769 15 45 60 75 105 120 135
2®
11 47914 4-8059 4-8203 4-8346 4 8 4 8 8 4 8629 4-8770 4 -891O1,4 9049 4-9187 14 28 42 56 71 99 113 127
12 49324 4-9461 4-9597 4-9732 4-9866 50000 50133 5 0 2 6 5 5-0397 50528 13 27 10 53 67 80 93 106 120
13 5 0658 5-0788 5-0916 5-1045 5-1172 5-1299 5-1426 5-1551 5-1676 5-1801 13 25 38 51 64 76 89 IQ2 114
14 5 1925 5-2048 5-2171 5-2293 5-2415 S-2536 5-2656 5-2776 5-2896 53015 12 24 36 48 61 73 85 97 109
15 5 3133 5-3 2 5 * 5-3368 5-3485 53601 5-3717 5-3832 S-3947 5-4061 5-4175 12 23 35 46 58 70 81 93 104
10 5-4288 5 4401 5-45*4 5-4626 5-4848 5-4959 5-5069 5-5178 5-5288 11 22 33 44 56 67 78 89 too
17 5 -5 3 9 7 5-5505 5-5613 5-5721 5-5828 5 5934 5-6041 5-6147 5-6252 5-6357 11 21 32 43 54 64 75 86 96
18 5-6462 5-6567 5-6671 5-6774 5-6877 5-69^ 5-7082 57185 5-7388 10 21 31 41 52 62 72 82 93
19 57489 -7590 5 7690 5-7790 S-7890 5 7 9 8 9 5-8088 5-8186 5-8285 5 8 3 8 3 10 20 30 40 50 59 69 79 89
20 5 8480 5-3578 ^ 8 6 7 5 5-8771 5-8868 58964 5-9059 S-9155 5-9250 5-9345 10 19 29 38 48 58 67 77 86
21 5-9439 5-9533 59627 5-9721 5-9814 5-9907 6-0000 6-0092 6-0185 6-0277 9 19 28 37 47 56 65 74 84
22 6 0 3 6 8 6 -0 4 5 9 6 0550 60 6 4 1 6-0732 60822 6-0912 6-1002 6-1091 6-1180 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 8i
23 6 1269 6-1353 6-1446 6-1534 6-1622 6-1710 6-1797 6-1885 6-1972 6-2058 9 18 26 35 44 53 62 70 79
24 6-2145 6-2231 6-2317 6-2403 62488 6-2573 6-2658 6-2743 6-2828 6 2912 9 17 26 34 43 51 60 68 77
26 6-2996 6-3080 6-3164 63247 6 3 3 3 0 6-3413 6-3496 6-3579 6-3661 6 3 7 4 3 8 17 25 33 42 50 58 66 75
26 6-3825 6 3 9 0 7 6-3988 6-4070 6-4151 6-4232 6-4312 6-4393 6-4473 6-4553 8 16 24 32 41 49 57 65 73
27 6 4 6 3 3 6-4713 6-4792 6 4872 6-4951 6-5030 6-5108 6-5187 6-5265 6-5343 8 16 24 32 40 47 55 63 71
28 6-5421 6-5499 6-5577 6-5654 6-5731 6-5808 65885 6-5962 6-6039 66115 8 15 23 31 46 54 62 69
32 60 68
29 6 6191 6 6 2 6 7 6-6343 6-6419 6-6494 6-6569 6-6644 6-6719 6-6794 6-6869 8 15 23 30 38 45 53
30 6 6 9 4 3 6-7018 6 7092 6-7166 6-7240 6-7313 6 7 3 8 7 6-7460 6 7 5 3 3 6-7606 7 15 22 30 37 44 52 59 67
31 67679 6-7752 67824 6-7897 6-7969 6-8041 6-8113 68185 6-8236 68328 7 14 22 29 36 43 50 58 65
32 6-8399 6-8470 6 8541 68612 68683 6-8753 6-8824 6 -S894 6-8964 6-9034 7 14 2T 28 36 43 50 57 64
33 6-9104 69174 6-9244 69313 6-9382 69451 6-9521 69589 6-9658 6 -97.27 7 14 21 28 35 41 48 55 62
34 6 ^ 9 5 6-9864 6-9932 7 -ocoo 7 0068 7-0136 70203 7-0271 7-0338 7-0406 7 14 20 »7 34 41 48 54 61
35 7-0473 7-0540 7-0607 7-0674 7-0740 7-0807 7-0873 70940 7-1006 7 -ro 72 7 13 20 27 34 40 47 54 60
36 7-1138 7-1204 7 1269 7-1335 7-1400 7-1466 7-1531 7-1596 7-1661 71726 7 13 20 26 33 32
46 52 59
37 7-1791 7-1855 7-1920 7-1984 7-2048 7-2112 7-2177 7-2240 7-2304 7-2368 6 13 19 26 32 38 45 51 58
38 7-2432 7-2495 7 -2 5 |8 7-2622 7-2685 7-2748 7-2811 7-2874 7-2936 7-2999 6 13 19 25 32 38 44 50 57
39 7-3061 7-3124 7-3186 7-3248 7 3310 7-3372 7-3434 7-3496 73558 7-3619 6 12 19 25 31 37 43 50 56
40 7-3681 7-3742 7-3803 7-3864 7-3925 7-3986 7-4047 7-4108 7-4169 7-4229 6 12 18 24 31 37 43 49 55
41 7-4200 7-4350 7-4410 7-4470 7-4530 7-4590 7-4650 7-4710 7-4770 7-4829 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54
42 7-4889 7-4948 7-5007 7-5067 7-5126 7-5185 7-5244 7-5361 7 5 4 2 0 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 47 53
43 7-5478 7-5537 7-5595 7-5654 7 5712 7-5770 7-5828 7 5886 7-5944 7*6 o o i 6 J2 17 23 29 35 41 46 52
44 7-6059 7-6117 7-6174 7 6 2 3 2 7 6289 7 6346 7-6403 7-6460 7-6517 7-6574 6 11 17 23 29 34 40 46 51
45 76631 7-6688 7-6744 7-6801 7 6 8 5 7 7-6914 76970 7 7026 7-7082 7-7138 6 11 17 22 28 34 39 45 50
46 7-7194 7-7250 7-7306 7 7362 7 7418 7-7473 77529 77584 7-7639 7 7695 6 11 17 22 28 34 39 45 50
47 7-7750 7 -780517-7860 7-7915 7 7970 7-8025 7-8079 78134 7-8188 7-8243 6 II 17 22 28 33 39 44 50
48 7-8297 7-8352 7-8406 7 8460 7 8514 7-85<>8 7-8622 7-8676 7-8730 7-8784 5 11 16 22 27 32 38 43 49
49 78837 7-8891 7 8944 7-^998 7 9051 7-9105 7-9158 7-9211 7-9264 7-9317 5 11 16 21 27 32 37 42 48
50 7-9370 7 9423 7 9 4 7 6 7 9528 7-9581 7-9634 7-9686 7 9739 79791 7-9843 5 11 16 21 27 32 37 42 48
51 7 9 8 9 6 7-9948 8 0000 8-0052 8 0 1 0 4 8 -0156 : 8-0208 gr0260 8 - o u i 8-0363 5 10 16 21 26 3' 36 42 47
52 8 0415 8 0466 80517 8 0 5 6 9 8 0 6 2 0 80671 ' 8-0723 8-0774 8-0825 8 0 8 7 6 5 10 15 20 26 31 36 41 46
53 8-0927 S 0978 8 1028 8 1079 8 1130 8 i i 8o I 8' I 231 8 1281 8 1332 8-1382 3 10 15 20 26 3« 36 41 46
54 8-M 33 8 1483 8 '5 3 3 8 1583 8 1633 8 i 6 8 3 |8 1733 8 1783 8 1833 8 1882 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
 415
APPENDIX

CUBE ROOTS. From ioo to iooo.

6 7 8 9 -1 2 3 4 5 6 7 *8 *9

S1932 *1982 8*2031 8*2081 2130 8*2180 8*2229 8-2278 8-2321 8-2277 5 10 IS 20 25 29 34 39 44
8*2426 *2475 8*2524 8*2573 2621 8-2O70 8*2719 8*2768 8*2816 8*2865 5 10 IS 20 25 29 34 39 44
67 8-29*3 2962 8*3010 8-3059 3*07 8*3*55 8*3203 8*3251 8*3300 83348 5 10 14 19 24 29 34 38 43
58 8*3396 *3443 8*349* 8*3539 3587 8-3634 8*3682 8-3730 8-3777 8-3825 5 10 14 19 24 29 34 38 43
59 83872 •39*9 8*3967 8-4014 4061 8*4108 8-4*55 8-4202 8-4249 8-4296 5 9 14 19 24 28 33 38 42
60 8-4343 •4390 8*4437 8-4484 *4530 8-4577 8*4623 8-4670 8-4716 8-4763 5 9 14 19 24 28 33 38 42
61 8-4809 •4856 8-4902 8*4948 *4994 8-5040 8-5086 8*5132 ^-5178 8*5224 5 9 14 18 23 28 32 37 41
68 8-5270 53*6 8*5362 8*5408 8*5453 8-5499 8-5544 8-5590 8-5635 8*5681 5 9 14 18 23 28 32 37 41
68 8-5726 *5772 8*5817 8-5862 *5907 8*5952 8-5997 8-6043 8-6088 8*6132 5 9 14 18 23 27 32 36 41
64 8-6177 6222 8-6267 8-6312 6357 8-6401 8*6446 8-6490 8-6535 8-6579 5 9 14 18 23 27 32 36 41
65 8-6624 6668 8*6713 8-6757 6801 8-6845 86890 8-6934 8-6978 8-7022 4 9 13 18 22 26 31 35.40
66 8-7066 •7110 8*7154 8-7198 *7241 8-7285 8-7329 8*7373 8-7416 8-7460 4 9 13 18 22 26 31 35 40
67 8*7503 •7547 8*7590 8-7634 7677 8*7721 8-7764 8-7807 8-7850 8-7893 4 9 13 17 22 26 30 34 39
88 8-7937 7980 8-8023 8*8066 8109 8*8152 8-8194 8-8237 8-8280 8-8323 4 9 13 17 22 26 30 34 39
69 8-8366 8408 8-845* 8-8493 8536 8*8578 8*8621 8-8663 8-8706 8-8748 4 9 *3 17 21 25 30 34 38
70 8-8790 8833 8*8875 8*8917 8-8959 8*9001 8*9043 8-9085 8-9127 8-9169 4 8 13 17 21 25 30 34 38
71 8-9211 -9253 8*9295 8-9337 8-9378 8*9420 8*9462 8*9503 8-9545 8-9587 4 8 13 17 21 25 29 33 38
89628 8-9670 897*1 8*9752 8-9794 8*9835 8*9876 8-9918 8-9959 9-0000 4 8 12 17 21 25 29 33 37
90041 9-0082 9-0123 9-0164 9-0205 9*0246 9*0287 9-0328 90369 9 0410 4 8 12 16 21 25 28 29 33 37
32 37
90450 90491 9-053* 9*0572 90613 9*0654 9*0694 9*0735 9*0775 9*0816 4 8 12 16 20 24
9-0856 9*0896 9*0937 9*0977 9*1017 9*1057 9*1098 9-1138 9-1178 9*1218 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
9*1258 9-1298 9-1338 9**378 9*1418 9*1458 9*1498 9*1537 9*1577 91617 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 28 32 36
9*1933 9*1973 9*2C12 4 8 12 16 20 24 32 36
9*657 9-1696 9**736 9*1775 91815 9*1855 9*1894
9-2052 9-2091 92*30 9*2170 9*2209 9*2248 9*2287 9-2326 9*2305 9*2404 4 8 12 16 20 24 27 31 35
12 16 19 23 27 31 35
9-2443 9-2482 925*1 9*2560 9-2599 9*2638 9*2677 9*2716 9*2754 9*2793 4 8
8 0 9*2832 9*2870 9*2909 9*2948 9*2986 9*3025 9*3063 9*3102 9*3140 9*3179 4 8 12 15 19 23 27 31 35
9*3523 9*3561 4 8 11 15 19 23 27 31 34
81 19*3**7 9*3255 9*3*94 9*3332 9*3370 9*3408 9*3447 9*3485 9*3902
82 9*3599 93637 9*3675 9*3713 9*3751 9*3789 9*3827 9*3865 9*39*10 4 8 II 15 19 23 27 30 34
88 19*3978 9-4016 9*4053 9*4091 9*4129 9*4166 9*4204 9*4241 9*4279 94316 4 8 11 15 19 23 26 30 34
84 n9*4354 9*439* 9*4429 9*4466 9*4503 9*4541 9*4578 9*4615 9*4652 9*4690 4 7 11 15 19 22 26 30 34
85 1 9*4727 9*4764 9*4801 9*4838 9*4875 9*4912 9*4949 9-4986 9*5023 9*5060 4 7 11 15 19 22 26 30 33
86 9*5097 9*5*34 9*5171 9*5207 9*5244 9*5281 9*5317 9*5354 9*5391 9*5427 4 7 11 15 18 22 26 29 33
87 9*5464 9*550* 9*5537 9*5574 9*5610 9*5647 9*5683 9*5719 9*5756 9*5792 4 7 11 15 18 22 25 29 33
88 95828 9-5865 9*590* 9*5937 9*5973 9*6010 9*6046 9*6082 9*6118 9*0154 4 7 11 §4 18 22 25 29 33
88 9-6190 9-6226 9-6262 9*6298 9*6334 9*6370 9*6406 9*6442 9*6477 9*6513 4 7 11 14 18 22 25 29 32
9 0 9*6549 9*6585 9*6620 9*6656 9*6692 9*6727 9-6763 9*6799 9*6834 9*6870 4 7j^i 14 18 21 25 28 32
91 9*6905 9*694* 9-6976 9*7012 9*7047 9*7082 9*7118 9*7153 9-7188 9*7224 4 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32
92 9*7259 9*7294 9*7329 9*7364 9*7400 9*7435 9*747 9*7505 9*7540 9*7575 4 7 11 14 18 21 25 28 32
98 9*7610 9*7645 9*7680 9*7715 9*7750 9*7785 9*781 9*7854 9-7889 9*7924 3 7 10 14 17 21 24 28 31
24 28 31
94 1 9.7959 9*7993 9-8028 9*8063 9*8097 9-8132 9*8167 9*8201 9*8236 9*8270 3 7 10 14 17 21
9*851 9*8546 9*8580 9*8614 7 10 14 17 21 24 27 31
98 1 9*8305 9*8339 9*8374 9-8408 9*8443 9*8477 3
9*8888 9*8922 9*8956 3 7 10 14 17 2 0 24 27 31
96 9-8648 9-8683 9*87*7 9*875 9*8785 9*8819 9*9227 9*9261 9.9295 3 7 10 14 17 2 0 24 27 3»
97 9-8996 9*9024 9*9058 9*9092 9*9126 9*9160
98 1 9*9329 9*9363 9*9396 9*9430 9*9464 9*9497 9*953 9*9565 9*9598 9*9632 3 .7 10 13 17 20 24 27 30
; 9*9900• 9*9933 9-9967 3 7 10 13 17 20 33 27 3^0
99 9-9666 9*9699 9*9733 9*9766 9*9800 9*9833
 \

416 APPEiroiX 10

RECIJ>R0C\LS OF NUMBERS. F rom i to lo .

Numbers in difference columns to he aubtracted, not added.

Mean Differences.
0 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 0 I 0 000 99010 98039 97087 96154 95238 94340 93458 92593 91743
11 •9 0 9 0 9 90090 89286 88496 87719 86957 86207 85470 84746 84034
1 -2 •83333 82645 81967 81301 80645 80000 79365 78740 7Sj:25 77519
1-3 •7 6 9 2 3 76336 75758 75188 74627 74074 73529 72993 72464 71942
14 •7 1 4 2 9 70922 70423 69930 ^ 4 4 4 68966 68493 68027 67568 67114
15 •66667 66225 65789 65359 64935 64516 64103 63694 63291 62893
1 -8 •62500 62112 61728 61350 60976 60606 60241 59880 59172 37 74 1 1 0 147 184 221 258 2 9 :: 331
59524
1-7 •5 8 8 2 4 58480 58140 57803 56818 56180 55866 33 6 5 9 8 131 1 6 4 1 9 6 229 262 294
57471 57143 56497
1 -8 •5 5 5 5 6 53763 53476 52910 2 9 58 88 1 1 7 1 4 6 '1 7 5 204 234 263
55249 54945 5 4 6 4 5 54348 54054 53191
1-9 •5 2 6 3 2 52356 52083 51546 51282 51020 50761 50251 2 6 53 79 105 132 158 184 2 x0 2 3 7
51813 50505
2 0 •5 0 0 0 0 49261 49020 48780 47847 24 48 71 95 1 1 9 1 4 3 167 190 214
49751 49505 48544 48309 48077
21 •4 7 6 ; 9 47393 4 7 1 7 0 46948 46729 46512 46296 46083 4 5 8 7 .2 45662 22 43 65 86 108 130 151 17J 1 9 4
22 •4S4SS 4 5 2 4 9 4 5 0 4 5 44843 44643 44444 44248 44053 43860 43^8 20 40 59 79 99 1 1 9 1 3 9 TSS 1 7 8
2-3 •4 3 4 7 8 43290 43103 42918 42735 42553 42373 42194 42017 41841 18 36 54 72 91 109 1 2 7 14.S 1 6 3
24 •4 1667 41494 41322 41152 40984 40816 40650 40486 40323 40161 1 7 33 50 67 84 100 117 134 150

2 -5 •4 0000 39841 39683 39526 39370 39216 39063 38911 38760 38610 15 31 46 62 77 92 108 123 139
20 •3 8462 38314 38168 38023 37879 37736 37594 37453 3 7 3 1 3 37175 14 29 43 57 72 86 100 114 129
27 •3 7 0 3 7 36900 36765 36630 36496 36364 36232 36101 35971 35842 13 26 40 53 66 79 92 106 1195
20 •3 5 7 1 4 35587 35461 35336 35211 35088 34965 34722 34602 12 25 37 49 62 74 86 9 8 111
34843
2-9 •3 4483 34364 34247 34130 34014 33898 33784 33670 33557 33445 12 23 35 46 58 69 81 92 104
30 •3 3 3 3 3 33223 33113 33003 32895 32787 32680 32573 32468 32362 11 2 2 32 43 54 65 76 86 97
31 •3 2 2 5 8 32154 32051 31949 31847 31746 31646 31546 31447 31348 10 2 0 30 40 51 61 71 81 91
3-2 •3 1 2 5 0 31153 31056 30960 30864 30769 30675 30581 30488 30395 10 19 29 38 48 57 67 76 86
3-8 •3 0 3 0 3 3 0 2 II 30120 30030 29940 29851 29762 29674 29586 29499 9 18 27 36 45 53 62 71 80
3-4 •2 9412 29326 29240 29155 29070 28986 28902 28818 28736 28653 8 17 25 34 42 50 59 67 76
S 'S •2 8 5 7 1 2 S4 9 0 28409 28329 28249 28169 28090 28011 27933 27855 8 16 24 32 40 47 55 63 71
88 •2 7 7 7 S 27701 27624 27548 27473 27397 27322 27248 27174 27100 8 15 23 30 38 45 53 60 6£
3-7 •2 7 0 2 7 26954 26882 26810 26738 26667 26596 26525 26455 26385 7 14 21 28 36 43 50 57 64
S3 •2 6 3 1 6 26247 26178 26110 26042 25974 25907 2 5 8 4 0 '2 5 7 7 3 25707 7 14 20 27 34 41 48 54 61
3-9 •2 5 6 4 1 25575 2 5 5 1 0 2 5 4 4 5 2 5 3 8 1 25316 25189 25126 25063 6 13 26 32 58
25253 19 38 45 51
40 •2 5 0 0 c 2 4 9 3 8 2 4 8 7 6 2 4 8 1 4 2 4 7 5 2 24691 24631 24570 24510 24450 6 12 18 24 31 37 43' 49 55
4*1 •2 4 3 9 0 24331 24272 24213 24096 24038 23981 23866 6 12 29 46
24155 23923 17 23 35 41 52
4 ‘3 •2 3 8 1 0 23753 23697 23641 23529- 23474 23310 6 11 22 28
23585 23419 23364 17 33 39 44 50
4-3 •2 3256 23202 23148 23095 23041 22989 22936 22883 22831 16
22779 5 11 21 27 32 37 42 48
4-4 •2 2 7 2 7 22676 22624 22523 22472 22422 22272
22573 2^371 22321 5 10 15 20 20 31 36 41 46
45 •2 2222 22173 22124 22075 22026 21978 21930 21882 21834 21786 5 10 14 io 24 29 34 38 43
4-8 •2 1 7 3 9 21692 21645 21598 21552 21505 21368 21322 28
21459 21413 5 9 14 23 32 37 41
4-7 •2 1 2 7 7 21231 21186 21142 21097 21053 21008
4-8 •2 0 8 3 3 20790
20964 20921 20877 4 9 13 18 22 26 31 35 40
20747 20704 20661 20619 20576 20534 20492 20450 22 26
4-9 •2 0 4 0 8
4 9 13 17 30 34 39
20367 20325 20284 20243 20202 20161 20121 20080 20040 8 12 16 20
4 25 29 33 57
50 •2 0 0 0 0 19960 19920 19 8 8 1 1 9 S41 19802 19763 19724 19685 19646 8 12 16 20 27
4 24 31 35
5-1 •1 9 6 0 8 19569 19531 19493 19455 19417 19380 19342 19268 4 8 11 19 23 26
19305 15 30 34
5-2 •1 9 2 3 1 19194 19157 19120 19084 19048 19011 1S9 7 5 18939 18904 4 7 11 18 22
•I 8868
15 25 29 33
6 ’3 18832 18797 18762 18727 18691 18657 18622 18587 10 18 21 24 28
18553 3 7 14 31
5*4 •1 8 5 1 9 1 8 4 S4 18450 1 S4 1 6 18382 18282 18248 18215 10 20 24 27 30
18349 18315 3 7 14 17

lliulifiD |ii'

' Jilt
Hi.
X

APPENDIX
417

RECIPROCALS OF NUMBERS. F rom i to io.

Numbers in difference columns to be subtracted, not added.
Mean Differences.
8
123 4 5 6 7 8 9

7 10 13 16 20 23 26 29
18116 18083118051 18018 17986 17953 17921 178891 3 22 25 28 I
17668 17637 1 7 6 0 6 I 1 7 5 7 5 I 3 6 9 13 16 19
17794 177621 17731 17699 21 24 27
17483 174521 17422 17391 17361 17331 17301 172711 3 6 9 12 15 18
20 23 26!
17182 17153117123 17094 17065 17036 17007 16978 13 6 9 12 15 18
16750116722 1669413 6 9 11 14 17 20 23 25
16S92 16863116835 16807 16779
19 22 25
16611 16584116556 16529 16474 16447 164201 3 6 8 11 14 16
16502
19 21 24]
16340 16313116287 16260 16207 16181 16155 3 5 8 11 13 16
16234
18 21 23
16077 16051116026 16000 15949 15924 15898 3 5 8 10 13 15
15974 17 2» 22
15699 15674 1564912 5 10 12 IS
*5323 5798115773 15748 15723
1 0 12 14 17 19 22
15576 15552115528 15504 15456 15432 15408 2 5
15480
15221 15198 15175 2 5 9 12 14 16 19 21
15337 153U | 15291 15267 15244 14948 2 5 9 11 14 16 18 201
15106 15083115060 15038 15015 14993 14970
14881 14859114837 14815 14793 1 4 7 7 1 14749 14728 2 4 . 9 11 13 15 18 20
4556 14535 14514 I 2 4 911 13115 17 19
14663 14641114620 14599 14577 143061 2 4 8 10 12 14 17 19
14451 i 4t 3o | 14409 14388 14368 14347 14327
14164 1410412 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
14245 14225114205 14184 13966 14144 13928 i 39 oS| 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18!
14124

14045 14025114006
13986 3947
13717 2 4 6 8 10 11 13 15 17
13850 13831113812 13793 13774 13755 13736
13605 13569 13550 1353212 4 6 7 9 11 13 15 1 7 ,
13661 13643113624 13587
13351 2 4 5 7 9 II 13 15 16
3387 13369
13477 13459113441 13423 13405 1 12 14 i 6 |
3210 13193 1317512 4 5
13298 13280113263 13245 13228 I 13021 1300412 3 5 12 14 15
13123 13106113089 13072 13055 12887 1
>3038
12853 1283712 3 5 12 13 151
12953 12937112920 12903 11 13 15
12723 ] 12690 12674 1 2 3 5
12788 12771112755 12739 1251612 3 5 11 13 14
12626 12610112594 12579 12563 1 12531
11 12 14
12376 1236112 3 5
12469 12453112438 12422 12407 12225 1221012 3 5 I I 12 1 4 I
12315 12300112285 12270 12255 12063 | i 3 4 10 12 13
12165 12151112136 12121 12107
12077 10 T1 I 3 I
ii9i9|i^ 3 4
12019 12005111990 11976 11962 11947 11933 4 10 I I 13
11806 1 1 7 9 2 11779 1 3
11876 11862111848 11834 11820 10 I I 12
11696 11682 11669 11655 11641 11 3 4
11737 11723111710 11521 11507 | i 3 4
9 I I 12
11601 11587111574 11561 11547 11534 11390 11377 I 3 4 9 10 I 2 j
11416 11403 9 la 121
11468 11455I11442 11429 11261 11249 I 1 3 4
11287 11274
1133S 11325 11312 11299 11161 11148 11136 11123 I 1 3 4 9 10 i r |
1121 11198111186 11173 9 10 I I
11038 11025 11013 iiooi 11 a 4 8 10 I I
11086 11074I11062 11050 10881 I 1 2 4
•m il
10953110941 10929 10917 10905 10893 1076411 2 8 9 1 1
•10989 10965 10799 10787 10776 4 8 , 9 io|
•10870 10846 10834110823 I081I 10684 10672 10661 1065011 2 4
10730 10718110707 10695 10560 10549 10537 | i 2 3 8 9 10
•10753 10616 10604110593
10582 10571
•10638 8 9 10
10460 10449 10438 1 0 4 2 8 1 1 2 3
•10526 10504 10493110482 ' 10471
10363 10352 10341 10331 1032011 2 3 8 9 10
10395 10384110373 10256 10246 10235 10225 10215 I 1 2 3
7 8 10
•10417 10288 10277110267 7 8 9
•1 0 3 0 9 10152 10142 10132 1 0 1 2 ! l o i i i 11 2 3
10183 1 looiol 1 2 3 7 8 9I
.1 0 2 0 4
10081 • 1005c1 10040 10030
•loioi
41 8 APPaJDIX 11

RANDOM SAMPLING NUMBERS

20 17 42 28 22 17 59 66 38 61 702 10 86 10 31 55 92 52
74 49 04 49 03 04 10 33 53 70 11 54 48 63 94 60 94 44
94 70 42 31 38 67 23 42 29 65 40 88 78 71 37 18 48 66
22 29 78 15 69 84 32 52 32 54 15 12 54 02 01 37 38 37
93 15 12 18 27 30 30 52 41 87 50 57 58 51 42 36 12 53

45 04 77 97 36 14 99 45 52 95 69 85 03 83 51 67 85 56
44 91 99 49 89 38 94 60 48 4b 07 77 64 72 59 26 08 51
19 96 47 57 89 65 27 84 30 93 63 37 26 24
16 23 91 02
04 50 65 04 05 65 82 42 ^O 51 55 04 61 47 88 83 99 34
32 70 17 72 63 61 66 26 24 71 22 77 88 33 17 78 08 92

03 64 59 07 42 95 81 37 06 41 20 81 92 34 51 90 39 08
02 49 00 50 67 86 83 48 31 83 19 07 67 68 49 03 27 47
61 00 95 86 98 36 14 08 48 88 51 07 33 40 C6 86 33 76

89 08 90 49 28 74 21 04 69 96 60 45 22 03 52 90 01 W
01 72 33 85 52 40 60 07 66 71 89 27 14 27 55 24 85 79

27 56 49 79 34 34 32 22 60 53 91 17 38 26 44 70 93 14
49 05 74 48 la 55 35 25 24 28 20 22 35 66 66 34 26 35
49 74 27 25 97 26 32 94 42 23 61 28 59 58 92 59 03 66
20 27 22 43 88 08 19 85 08 12 47 65 65 63 57 07 97 85
49 87 77 96 43 39 76 93 08 79 22 18 54 55 93 75 97 26

08 72 87 46 75 73 00 11 27 07 05 20 30 85 22 21 04 67
95 97 98 62 17 2 / 2 l 42 64 71 46 22 32 75 19 32 20 99
37 99 57 31 70 40 42 55 46 12 24 32 36 74 69 20 72 10

05 79 58 37 85 33 75 18 88 71 23 44 54 28 00 48 96 23
55 85 3 4 00 79 91 23 29 01 41 39 51 40 36 65 26 11
67 28 96 25 68 36 24 72 03 85 49 24 05 69 64 86 08 19
85 86 94 78 32 59 51 82 86 43 73 84 45 60 80 57 06 97
40 10 60 C9 05 88 78 44 63 13 58 25 37 11 18 47 65 62

94 55 89 48 90 80 77 80 26 89 86 44 23 74 66 20 20 19
11 63 77 77 23 20 33 62 62 19 29 03 94 15 56 37 14 09

64 00 26 04 54 55 38 57 94 32 68 40 26 04 24 25 03 61
50 94 18 23 78 41 60 58 10 60 88 86 30 21 45 98 70 96
66 98 37 96 4A 13 45 05 34 59 75 85 48 97 27 19 17 75

66 91 42 83 60 77 90 91 50 50 79 62 57 66 72 28 08 70
33 58 12 18 02 07 17 49 21 29 39 45 90 42 48 84 85 43

70 16 72 40 73 05 50 90 02 04 98 24 05 30 27 25
52 49
74 98 93 90 78 30 69 47 96 62 45 58 40 37 89 76 84 41
50 26 54 30 01 88 69 57 54 45 69 88 23 21 05 69 93 44

49 46 61 89 33 79 95 84 28 34 19 35 28 73 39 59 56 34
19 64 13 44 71 39 73 88 62 03 36 00 25 96 86 76 67 90

64 17 46 67 86 59 81 40 62 61 14 00 23 28 55 86 23 38
18 43 97 37 68 97 56 56 57 95 01 88 11 89 48 07 42 07
65 58 60 87 51 09 96 61 15 58 66 81 66 88 44 75 37 01

31 00 91 14 85 65 31 75 43 15 45 93 61 78 34 53
79 90
07 23 00 15 59 05 16 09 94 42 20 40 63 76 65 67 34 11
14 24 01 51 95 46 30 32 33 19 00 14 19 28 40 51
90 98
21 34 13 41 03 13 85 65 30 00 97 56 30
53 82 62 02 82
04 50 75 25 20 33 54 84 39 31 23 33 59 64
98 17 26 15
30 62 45 50 54 54 64 17 89 25 59 41
08 91 12 44 82 40
84 87 67 39 85 54 97 37 33 41 II 74 90 50
37 21 46 77
 419
A p p a r o ix 1 2

Pseudo-random Num bers

12651 61646 11769 75109 86996 97669 25757 32535 07122 76763
81769 74436 02630 72310 45049 18029 07469 42341 98173 79260
36737 98863 77240 76251 00654 64688 09343 70278 67331 98729
82861 54371 76610 94934 72748 44124 05610 53750 95938 01485
21325 15732 24127 37431 09723 63529 73977 95218 96074 42138

74146 47887 62463 23045 41490 07954 22597 60012 98866 90959
90759 64410 54179 66075 61051 75385 51378 08360 95946 95547
55683 98078 02238 91540 21219 17720 87817 41705 95785 12563
79686 17969 76061 83748 55920 83612 41540 86492 06447 60568
70333 00201 86201 69716 78185 62154 77930 67663 29529 75116

53536 07779 04157 41172 36473 42123 43929 50533 33437'

14042
59911 08256 06596 48416 69770 68797 56080 14223 59199 30162
62368 62623 62742 14891 39247 52242 98832 69533 91174 57979
57529 97751 54976 48957 74599 08759 78494 52785 68526 64618
15469 90574 78033 66885 13936 42117 71831 22961 94225 31816

18625 23674 53850 32827 81647 80820 00420 63555 74489 80141
68394 88562 70745 23701 45630 65891 58220 35442 60414
74626
11119 16519 27384 90199 79210 76965 99546 30323 31664 22845
41101 17336 48951 53674 17880 45260 08575 49321 36191 17095
32123 91576 84221 78902 82010 30847 62329 63898 23268 74283

26091 68409 69704 82267 14751 13151 93115 01437 56945- 89661
67680 79790 48462 59278 44185 29616 76531 19589 83139 28454
15184 19260 14073 07026 25264 08388 27182 22557 61501 67481
58010 45039 57181 10238 36874 28546 37444 80824 63981 39942
56425 53996 86245 32623 78858 08143 60377 42925 42815 11159

84066 13592 60642 17904 99718 63432 88642 37858 2543!

82630
14927 23900 48761 44860 92467 31742 87142 03607 32059
40909
22505 07489 85986 74420 21744 97711 36648 35620 97949
23740
63824 07953 85965 87089 11687 92414 67257
32990 97446 07311
91946 78437 34365 82469 12430 84754 19354 72745
05310 24058

27534 88913 49055 19518 47712 67677 51889 70926

21839 39937
94051 28382 83725 72643 74233 97252 17133
08833 42549 93981
00931 91560 95372 97642 33856 54825 55680
58336 11139 47479
47431 52726 30289 4241-1 91886 51818 78292
62032 91144 75478
04118 58301 24375 65609 85810 18620 49198
45171 30557 53116

35609 63698 78356 50682 22505 01692 36291

91611 62656 60128
49174 93582 73604 78614 78849 23096 72825
55472 63819 86314
53994 10970 86557 65661 41854 26037 53296
18573 09729 74091 71296
82136 83644 94455 06560 78029 98768
60866 02955 90288 19415
82767 60890 74646 79485 13619 98868 40857
45043 55608

75945 28394 79334 70577 38048 03607 06932

17831 09737 79473
18128 11178 32601 27994 05641 22600 86064
40137 03981 07585
97706 16039 47517 43300 59080 80392 63189
77776 31343 14576
95635 05635 81673 68657 09559 23510 95875
69605 44104 40103
26499 09821 87331 80993 61299 36979 73599 35055
19916 52934

07678 56619 65325 30705 99582 53390 46357 13244

02606 58552
73160 87131 35530 47946 09854 18080 02321 05809 04898
65183
98914 44916 11322 89717 88189 30143 52687 19420 60061
10740
89822 71691 51573 83666 61642 46683 33761 47542 2355!
98642
25601 93663 25547 02654 94829 48672 28737 84994 13071
60139
420
apph to ix 13

Student’s /-distribution

Level o f significance fo r one tailed test

Degrees
of .10 .05 .025 .01
freedom .005 .0005
(40 Level o f significance fo r two tailed test
.20 .10 .05 .02 .01 .001
1 3.078 6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 636.619
2 1.886 2920 4.303 6.965 9.925 31.598
3 1.638 2.353
4 3.182 4.541 5.841 12.941
1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747
5 1.476 4.604 8.610
2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 6.859
6 1.440 1.943 2.447
7 3.143 3.707 5.959
1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998
8 1.397 3.499 5.405
1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 5.041
9 1.383 1.833 2.262
10 2.821 3.250 4.781
1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 4.587
11 1.363 1.796 2.201
12 2.718 3.106 4.437
1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681
13 1.350 3.055 4.318
1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012
14 1.345 1.761 4.221
2.145 2.624 2.977 4.140
15 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 4.073
16 1.337 1.746 2.120
17 2.583 2.921 4.015
1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567
18 1.330 2.898 3.965
1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878
19 1.328 1.729 3.922
2.093 2.539 2:861 3.883
20 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.850
21 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 3.819
22 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819
23 1.319 1.714 2.069
3.792
24 1.318 2.500 2.807 3.767
1.711 2.064 2.492
25 1.316 2.797 3.745
1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 3.725
26 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 3.707
27 1.314 1.703
28 2.052 2.473 2.771
1.313 1.701 3.690
29 2.048 2.467 2.763 3.674
1.311 1.699 2.045
30 2.46; 2.756 3.659
1.310 1.697 2.042 2.45', 2.750 3.646
40 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 3.551
60 1.296 1.671 2.000
’ 120 1.289 2.390 2.660 3.460
1.658 1.980 2.358 2.617 3.373
00 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 3.291
 X
\ X
421
APPENDIX 14

D istr ib u tio n o f F

at = .05

2 6 8 12 24 00
1 3 4 5

1 161.4 1 99.5 215.7 2 2 4 .6 23 0 .2 23 4 .0 2 3 8 .9 2 4 3 .9 ?4 9 .0 254.3

19.30 19.33 19.37 19.41 19.45 19.50
2 18.51 19.00 19.16 19.25
9 .1 2 9.01 8.9 4 8 .8 4 8 .7 4 8.6 4 8.53
3 10.13 9.55 9.28
6 .39 6 .2 6 6 .1 6 6 .0 4 5.91 5.77 5.63
4 7.71 6.94 6.59
5.41 5.19 5.05 4.9 5 4 .8 2 4 .6 8 4 .5 3 4 .3 6
5 6.61 5.79

4.53 4 .3 9 4.28 4.1 5 4 .0 0 3.84 3.67

6 5.99 5.14 4 .7 6
4.7 4 4 .35 4.1 2 3.97 3.87 3.73 3.57 3.41 3.23
7 5.59
3.58 3.44 3.28 3.12 2.93
8 5.32 4 .4 6 4.07 3.84 3.69
3.63 3.48 3.37 3.23 3.07 2 .9 0 2.71
9 5.12 4.2 6 3.86
3.33 3.22 3.07 2.91 2 .7 4 154
10 4 .9 6 4 .1 0 3.71 3.48

195 179 161 2 .4a

9
11 4 .8 4 3.98 3.59 3.36 3.2 0 3 .09
3.11 3.0 0 185 2.6 9 2.50 130
12 4.^5 3.88 3.49 3.26
13 4 .67 3.80 3.41 3.18 3.02 2.92 177 160 2.4 2 2.21
3.3 4 3.11 2.96 185 2.70 153 135 113
14 4 .6 0 3.74
3 .06 190 179 2 .6 4 2.48 2.2 9 2.0 7
15 4 .5 4 3.68 3.29

4 .4 9 3.63 3 .2 4 3.01 185 174 159 2 .4 2 2 .24 2.01

16
2.9 6 181 170 155 138 119 1.96
17 4 .4 5 3.59 3.2 0
193 177 2.66 151 134 115 1.92
18 4.41 3.55 3.1 6
3.52 3.13 2 .9 0 2 .7 4 163 2.48 131 111 1.88
19 4.3 8
187 2.71 160 2 .4 5 128 2 .0 8 1.84
20 4 .3 5 3.49 3.10

184 168 157 2.4 2 125 2.05 1.81

21 4 .3 2 3.47 3.07
182 2.66 155 140 123 103 1.78
22 4 .3 0 3.44 3.05
4 .2 8 3.42 3.03 180 164 153 138 2.20 2.00 1.76
23
178 162 151 136 118 1.98 1.73
24 4.2 6 3.40 3.01
176 160 2.49 134 116 1.96 1.71
25 4 .2 4 3.38 199

174 159 2.47 132 115 1.95 1.69

26 4 .2 2 3.37 198
157 146 130 113 1.93 1.67
27 4.21 3.35 196 173
28 4 .2 0 3.34 195 171 156 144 129 112 1.91 1.65

4 .1 8 3.33 193 2 .7 0 154 143 128 110 1.90 1.64

29
2.69 153 2 .4 2 127 2 .0 9 1.89 1.62
30 4 .1 7 3.32 192

4 .08 3.23 184 2.61 2.45 134 118 100 1.79 1.51
40
60 4 .0 0 3.15 176 152 137 125 110 1.92 1 .70 1.39

120 3.92 3.07 168 145 129 117 2.02 1.83 1.61 1.25
3.84 2.99 160 137 121 109 1.94 1.75 1.52 l.OC
C30

y, and yj represent the degrees of freedom associated with the larger and smaller
estim ates of variancejespectively.
 IS E dilion o f Elem ents of P ractical Geography’ is being presented in a fully
revised, up-to-date and enlarged form (since 1968) with 14 chapters to enable the
students o f geography to com prehend the latest m ethods and techniques so
essential for practical w orks— both laboratory and field survey. It is needless to
em phasize th a t the m odern trends in the evolution o f geographical knowledge are
en ancing the role o f geography as an integrating science, the understanding o f v
which will prom ote the application o f science and technology to hum an w elfare. /S
W ith this end in view several new them es have now been added to the book.
The c hapter on System Analysis, M odel Building and C o m puterization” will
aw aken the students tow ards com prehending m odern techniques and m ethods
involved in processing even complex d a ta and their plotting on sophisticated
m aps as well as graphical representations. Such practices as suggested in the
book are aim ed at subscribing to the urgent need for the balanced and integrated
courses o f philosophy, m athem atics and com puter program m ing along with
cybernetics which will be helpful in geographical investigation, data co m putation ,
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