Communicative English-I/U23ENBC01

UNIT-II-COMMON ERRORS IN WRITING AND COMPREHENSION

STRATEGIES

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Subject-verb agreement refers to the grammatical concept that the subject of a sentence must
align with the main verb of that same sentence. In particular, singular subjects take singular
verbs and plural subjects take plural verbs.
Subject-verb agreement, also called “subject-verb concord,” refers to matching the subject and
verb of a sentence in tense, aspect, and mood (abbreviated as TAM), which translates to number,
person, and gender.
English doesn’t use grammatical gender (except for pronouns), and only the verb be changes
based on whether it’s first, second, or third person. That means most English subject-verb
agreement is about quantity: if the subject is singular, the verb must be singular; if the subject is
plural, the verb must be plural.

ADVANCED SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT RULES

1. When the subject of a sentence is composed of two or more nouns or pronouns connected
by and, use a plural verb. She and her friends are at the fair.

2. When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are connected by or or nor, use a singular verb.
The book or the pen is in the drawer

3. When a compound subject contains both a singular and a plural noun or pronoun joined
by or or nor, the verb should agree with the part of the subject that is nearer the verb.
The boy or his friends run every day.
His friends or the boy runs every day.

4. Doesn't is a contraction of does not and should be used only with a singular subject. Don't is a
contraction of do not and should be used only with a plural subject. The exception to this rule
appears in the case of the first person and second person pronouns I and you. With these
pronouns, the contraction don't should be used.
He doesn't like it.
They don't like it.

5. Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees
with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.
One of the boxes is open
The people who listen to that music are few.
The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.
The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.
The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.
1. The words each, each one, either, neither, everyone, everybody, anybody, anyone, nobody,
somebody, someone, and no one are singular and require a singular verb.

Each of these hot dogs is juicy.

Everybody knows Mr. Jones.

Either is correct.

7. Nouns such as civics, mathematics, dollars, measles, and news require singular verbs.
The news is on at six.
Note: The word dollars is a special case. When talking about an amount of money, it requires
a singular verb, but when referring to the dollars themselves, a plural verb is required.
Five dollars is a lot of money.
Dollars are often used instead of rubles in Russia.

8. Nouns such as scissors, tweezers, trousers, and shears require plural verbs. (There are two
parts to these things.)
These scissors are dull.
Those trousers are made of wool.

9. In sentences beginning with "there is" or "there are," the subject follows the verb. Since
"there" is not the subject, the verb agrees with what follows.
There are many questions.
There is a question.

10. Collective nouns are words that imply more than one person but that are considered singular
and take a singular verb, such as group, team, committee, class, and family.
The team runs during practice.
The committee decides how to proceed.
The family has a long history.
My family has never been able to agree.
The crew is preparing to dock the ship.

11. Expressions such as with, together with, including, accompanied by, in addition to, or as
well do not change the number of the subject. If the subject is singular, the verb is too.
The President, accompanied by his wife, is traveling to India.
All of the books, including yours, are in that box.

Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers

Misplaced Modifiers

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the word it
modifies / describes. Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward,
ridiculous, or confusing. Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.

There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers:

1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost
always distort the intended meaning.
 Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.

Corrected

corrected

2. Placement of adverbs can also change meaning in sentences.

For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change the
sentence's meaning.

Just means only John was picked, no one else:

Just means that John was picked now:

Just means that John hosted only the program, nothing else:

Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness depends
upon what the writer has in mind.
Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a sentence
whose meaning is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous.

This sentence, for example, suggests that we brought a lunch slowly:

To repair the meaning, move the adverb slowly so that it is near ate.

Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, merely, and almost. They are often misplaced
and cause an unintended meaning.

This sentence, for example, means that I only contributed the money:

Repaired, however, the sentence means that I contributed only $10.00.

Like adjectives, adverbs are commonly misplaced in everyday speech, and may not cause
listeners difficulty. However, such sentences are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have
NO place in your writing.

3. Misplaced phrases may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that
does not make sense.

The problem sentences below contain misplaced phrases that modify the wrong nouns.

To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the phrases next to the noun they are supposed to
modify.

Example 1 (a buyer with leather seats?)

Corrected

4. Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning that
does not make sense.

The problem sentences below contain misplaced clauses that modify the wrong nouns.

To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are supposed to
modify.

Example (a hamper that Ralph wore?)

Corrected

Be careful! In correcting a misplaced modifier, don't create a sentence with two possible
meanings.

Example
Problem: Did the teacher say this on Monday or will she return the essays on Monday?)

Correction #1 (meaning the essays will be returned on Monday)

Correction #2 (meaning that the teacher spoke on Monday)

DANGLING MODIFIERS

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to the word or
words it modifies (i.e. is placed next to).

Two notes about dangling modifiers:

Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply moving

it to a different place in a sentence.

In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence, although it
can also come at the end.

Sometimes the dangling modifier error occurs because the sentence fails to specify
anything to which the modifier can refer.

Example
This sentence means that my mother enrolled in medical when she was nine years old!

At other times the dangling modifier is placed next to the wrong noun or noun substitute.

Example 1

Because of the placement of walking to the movies, this sentence suggests that
the cloudburst is walking to the movies even though a possible walker - Jim - is mentioned
later.

How to correct dangling modifiers

Dangling modifiers may be corrected in two general ways.

Correction Method #1

 Leave the modifier as it is.

 Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually modified.

This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies.

Thus, this dangling modifier may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that I was looking toward the west.

Using the same method, this dangling modifier

may be corrected to
 Now the sentence means that Jim was drenched by the cloudburst.

Correction Method #2

 Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject and verb.
 Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.

Thus, the dangling modifier

may be corrected to

Now the sentence means that I (not my mother!) was nine years old when my mother enrolled
in medical school.

SQUINTING MODIFIERS

A squinting modifier is a word or phrase that can modify either the word before it or the word
after it. For example, consider the following sentence: “I'm looking for a new car that's fuel-
efficient.” In this sentence, the words “that's fuel-efficient” are acting as a squinting modifier.
A squinting modifier is a type of misplaced modifier. A squinting modifier makes the
meaning of a sentence ambiguous because it is unclear whether it modifies text before it or
after it.

Examples of Squinting Modifiers

Here are some examples of squinting modifiers (shaded):
 Cycling up hills quickly strengthens your quadriceps.
 (In this example, the adverb quickly is a squinting modifier. It is unclear
whether quickly pertains to Cycling up hills or strengthens.)

 Taking a moment to think clearly improves your chances.

(In this example, the adverb clearly is a squinting modifier. It is unclear whether it
modifies to think or improves.)
 Saving lives often induces pride.
(We do not know whether often applies to saving lives or induces pride.)
 She told her nephew eventually the dog would have to go back to its owner.
(Does eventually apply to told or would have to go back?)
 Public speakers who pause briefly refocus their audience.
(Does briefly apply to pause or refocus?)

A Squinting Modifier is a Type of Misplaced Modifier

A squinting modifier can feasibly "look" left or right. A normal misplaced modifier (i.e., one
that isn't squinting) is also ambiguous, but doesn't sit between the two things it could feasibly
be modifying. Here is an example from the film Hot Fuzz:

"He was a hero at his last police station. He once shot a robber with a Kalashnikov."
"Great, where did he get that?"
"No, the robber had the Kalashnikov."

In this example, the adverbial phrase with a Kalashnikov (a type of assault rifle) is a
misplaced modifier. It isn't squinting because there is nothing to its right. However, it is
unclear whether it pertains to shot or a robber. Read more about misplaced modifiers.

Why Squinting Modifiers Are Important

A squinting modifier makes a written sentence ambiguous. Sentences with squinting

modifiers are normally not ambiguous when spoken (due to voice intonation). However, you
must avoid squinting modifiers when writing.

Fixing a Squinting Modifier

You can eliminate the ambiguity by changing the position of the squinting modifier or by
restructuring your sentence.
 Cycling up hills strengthens your quadriceps quickly.
 Taking a moment to think clearly about the issue improves your chances.
FUSED SENTENCES
A fused sentence is when a sentence consists of two independent clauses that are incorrectly
linked. Such sentences are also known as run-on sentences. They are quite long and
confusing to read. There are many common grammar mistakes people make while speaking
and writing English. In this article we’re going to take a look at some fused
sentence examples.

1. He ran away she followed him to his place.

2. He made pancakes for breakfast he ate them all in one go.
3. She was sad she put on her favorite movie.
4. We wanted to eat pizza he wanted to eat a burger.
5. I bought a dress it fits me perfectly.
6. She came first in class she loves studying.
7. We were out of milk we asked the neighbor’s if we could borrow some
from them.
8. I have been working on my book and thesis for two years it’s almost done
now.
9. The student needs to make small changes to her assignment she will
submit it by tomorrow.
10. He wanted to be a part of the drama club he wants to play a lead role in
the upcoming play.
11. We went for a college trip to a hill station we had a really good time.
12. We five have been friends for ten years we are inseparable.
13. She is a great person she’s an even greater friend.
14. We’re going sightseeing it’s our favorite vacation activity.
15. He looks a lot like his great-grandfather he was a very handsome man.

Fused sentence corrections

1. He ran away she followed him to his place.

 Correction 1- He ran away; she followed him to his place.

A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- He ran away. She followed him to his place.

A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- He ran away so she followed him to his place.

A coordinating conjunction ‘so’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

2. He made pancakes for breakfast he ate them all in one go.

 Correction 1- He made pancakes for breakfast; he ate them all in one go.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- He made pancakes for breakfast. He ate them all in one go.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- He made pancakes for breakfast and he ate them all in one go.
A coordinating conjunction ‘and’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

3. She was sad she put on her favorite movie.

 Correction 1- She was sad; she put on her favorite movie

A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- She was sad. She put on her favorite movie.

A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.
 Correction 3- She was sad so she put on her favorite movie.
A coordinating conjunction ‘so’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

4. We wanted to eat pizza he wanted to eat a burger.

 Correction 1- We wanted to eat pizza; he wanted to eat a burger.

A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- We wanted to eat pizza. He wanted to eat a burger.

A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- We wanted to eat pizza but he wanted to eat a burger.

A coordinating conjunction ‘but’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

5. I bought a dress it fits me perfectly.

 Correction 1- I bought a dress; it fits me perfectly.

A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- I bought a dress. It fits me perfectly.

A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- I bought a dress that fits me perfectly.

A coordinating conjunction ‘that’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

6. She came first in class she loves studying.

 Correction 1- She came first in class; she loves studying.

A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- She came first in class. She loves studying.

A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- She came first in class since she loves studying.

A coordinating conjunction ‘since’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

7. We were out of milk we asked the neighbor’s if we could borrow some from them.

 Correction 1- We were out of milk; we asked the neighbor’s if we could borrow

some from them.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- We were out of milk. We asked the neighbor’s if we could borrow

some from them.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.
 Correction 3- We were out of milk so we asked the neighbor’s if we could borrow
some from them.
A coordinating conjunction ‘so’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

8. I have been working on my book and thesis for two years it’s almost done now.

 Correction 1- I have been working on my book and thesis for two years; it’s
almost done now.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- I have been working on my book and thesis for two years. It’s
almost done now.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- I have been working on my book and thesis for two years and it’s
almost done now.
A coordinating conjunction ‘and’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

9. The student needs to make small changes to her assignment she will submit it by
tomorrow.

 Correction 1- The student needs to make small changes to her assignment; she
will submit it by tomorrow.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- The student needs to make small changes to her assignment. She
will submit it by tomorrow.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- The student needs to make small changes to her assignment so she
will submit it by tomorrow.
A coordinating conjunction ‘so’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

10. He wanted to be a part of the drama club he wants to play a lead role in the
upcoming play.

 Correction 1- He wanted to be a part of the drama club; he wants to play a lead

role in the upcoming play.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- He wanted to be a part of the drama club. He wants to play a lead

role in the upcoming play.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- He wanted to be a part of the drama club because he wants to play

a lead role in the upcoming play.
A coordinating conjunction ‘because’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.
 11. We went for a college trip to a hill station we had a really good time.

 Correction 1- We went for a college trip to a hill station; we had a really good
time.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- We went for a college trip to a hill station. We had a really good
time.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- We went for a college trip to a hill station and we had a really good
time.
A coordinating conjunction ‘and’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

12. We five have been friends for ten years we are inseparable.

 Correction 1- We five have been friends for ten years; we are inseparable.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- We five have been friends for ten years. We are inseparable.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- We five have been friends for ten years therefore we are
inseparable.
A coordinating conjunction ‘therefore’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

13. She is a great person she’s an even greater friend.

 Correction 1- She is a great person; she’s an even greater friend.

A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- She is a great person. She’s an even greater friend.

A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- She is a great person and an even greater friend.

A coordinating conjunction ‘and’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

The word ‘she’s’ in the second clause has also been omitted.

14. We’re going sightseeing it’s our favorite vacation activity.

 Correction 1- We’re going sightseeing; it’s our favorite vacation activity.

A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- We’re going sightseeing. It’s our favorite vacation activity.

A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.
 Correction 3- We’re going sightseeing since it’s our favorite vacation activity.
A coordinating conjunction ‘since’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

15. He looks a lot like his great-grandfather he was a very handsome man.

 Correction 1- He looks a lot like his great-grandfather; he was a very handsome

man.
A semi-colon has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible clauses.

 Correction 2- He looks a lot like his great-grandfather. He was a very handsome

man.
A full stop has been used to divide the sentence into more sensible tinier sentences.

 Correction 3- He looks a lot like his great-grandfather who was a very handsome
man.
A coordinating conjunction ‘who’ has been added to correct the fused sentence.

The word ‘he’ in the second clause has also been omitted.

How to fix a fused sentence?

 Fused sentences can be fixed by being divided into smaller, more sensible
sentences.
 They may be divided by full stops, commas, colons, or even semi-colons.
 Sometimes, they need not be divided but can be made to make sense by adding
conjunctions.
 One can add a coordinating conjunction in the middle of a sentence by
identifying the area of the sentence that needs said correction.
 One needs to read such sentences very carefully to highlight the mistake and
make changes wherever possible.

COMMA SPLICE

A comma splice occurs when a comma is incorrectly used to join two independent clauses.
This is considered a grammatical error because it can affect the clarity and flow of a sentence.

To fix a comma splice, you can use a semicolon, use a period, or add a conjunction.

Using a semicolon to fix a comma splice

You can replace the comma with a semicolon when a logical or sequential connection
between the two parts of the sentence is clear. A semicolon is similar to a period, but it
suggests a closer link between the two clauses.

The word appearing immediately after a semicolon should begin with a lowercase letter.

Examples: Semicolon joining two independent clauses

  Ted finished his chores, he felt tired.
 Ted finished his chores; he felt tired.

Using a period to fix a comma splice

You can replace the comma with a period so that each of the independent clauses is a separate
sentence.

This is particularly effective when the ideas of the two clauses are distinct and the
relationship between them does not need to be emphasized.

Examples: Period separating two independent clauses

 Jeremy lives in Alaska, he has been fishing ever since he was a child.
 Jeremy lives in Alaska. He has been fishing ever since he was a child.

Adding a conjunction to fix a comma splice

You can also fix a comma splice by retaining the comma and adding a coordinating or
subordinating conjunction to one of the clauses.

Add a coordinating conjunction

To keep the two clauses together in a single sentence, you can add a coordinating
conjunction like “and,” “but,” or “so” immediately after the comma.

This helps you to convey the relationship between the two independent clauses.

Coordinating Function Example

conjunction
And Indicate He plays the guitar, and he can sing.
connection
But Indicate contrast Sarah tied her shoelaces, but the shoes were still
loose.
So Introduce a result Mike lost his phone, so he had to buy a new one.

Add a subordinating conjunction

A subordinating conjunction can also be added to either the first or second clause if you want
to keep the two clauses in a single sentence. This places emphasis on the clause
that doesn’t contain the conjunction.

Subordinating Function Example

conjunction
Although Introduce a contrast Although I’ve been lifting weights, I haven’t gotten
any stronger.
Because Introduce a result or Everyone brought their umbrellas, because it was
outcome expected to rain.
Once To mean “as soon as” Once the dog starts barking, the baby wakes up.
Conjunctive adverbs
A conjunctive adverb (e.g., “however,” “thus,” “therefore,” “nonetheless”) connects two
clauses by using the second clause to modify the first. Conjunctive adverbs are typically
placed at the start of a sentence or clause and followed by a comma.

Comma splices often occur when conjunctive adverbs are mistaken for coordinating
conjunctions and used in a similar way. To fix this, replace the comma with a semicolon or a
period, or use a coordinating conjunction instead.

Examples: Comma splice caused by a conjunctive adverb

 I don’t speak French, however I wish I did.

 I don’t speak French; however, I wish I did.
 I don’t speak French. However, I wish I did.
 I don’t speak French, but I wish I did.

Is a comma splice ever OK?

While comma splices are not acceptable in formal or academic writing, they are very
common in conversational contexts like text messaging, social media, and email, and nobody
is likely to object to them there.

They can also be used in creative writing. For example, comma splices are commonly used in
fiction to emphasize the speed of a character’s speech or thoughts. This rhetorical device is
called asyndeton.

Example: Asyndeton in Charles Dickens’s A Tale of Two Cities“It was the best of times, it
was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the
epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season
of Darkness …”

Worksheet: Comma splice examples

Test your knowledge of comma splice by using our practice worksheet below. Determine
which sentences contain a comma splice.

1. George has lived in New York, Houston, Toronto, and Paris.

2. Linda got out of bed, brushed her teeth, and ate breakfast.
3. The bakery is on the left, the hardware store is on the right.
4. I want to go to the cinema, however I have to finish writing an essay.
5. Salman left at four o’clock, so he’ll be here soon, you should stay to meet him.

SENTENCE FRAGMENT

A sentence fragment is a sentence that is missing either its subject or its main verb. Some
sentence fragments occur as the result of simple typographical errors or omission of words.
They can often be avoided with careful proofreading. Incorrect: Went to the store yesterday.
What is a sentence fragment?
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence; it’s a partial sentence that’s missing another
necessary part to make it complete.
Put simply, a sentence fragment is a clause that falls short of a complete because it is missing
one of three critical components: a subject, a verb, and a complete thought.

Fixing sentence fragments

Fixing a sentence fragment involves one of two things: giving it the components it lacks or
fastening it onto an independent clause. Consider the following:

There are many ways to frighten little brothers; for example, you could hide under their beds
and wait for dark.
Notice that in order to properly connect these two clauses with a semicolon, you need to do
some rewriting in order to ensure both can function as independent clauses. In other words,
you need to fortify the fragment with a subject and a verb to turn it into a sentence. Notice in
the example above that by doing so, you’ll need to edit other parts of your fragment to turn it
into a grammatically correct independent clause.

If a semicolon seems too formal for your purposes, you could write your text as two
sentences—but don’t forget to make sure the second one has a subject and a verb:

There are many ways to frighten little brothers. For example, you could hide under their beds
and wait for dark.
Both remedies result in structurally sound sentences.

Sentence fragment examples

Here is a glaring example of a sentence fragment:

Because of the rain.

On its own, because of the rain doesn’t form a complete thought. It leaves us wondering what
happened because of the rain. To complete it, we need further explanation:

Because of the rain, the party was canceled.

Now the fragment has become a dependent clause attached to a sentence that has a subject
(the party) and a verb (was canceled). Our thought is complete.

In that example, making the sentence longer was the solution. But that doesn’t mean that
short sentences can’t be complete. This teensy sentence is complete:

I ran.

I ran may be a short thought, but it has a subject (I) and a verb (ran). Nothing in the sentence
demands further explanation. Another famous example of a short-but-complete sentence is
“Jesus wept.”

Avoiding sentence fragments not only makes your writing easier to read, but it can also make
you sound more polished in polite correspondence. We’ve all had emails ending with:
Looking forward to seeing you.

That sentence lacks a subject. Adding the subject will build a stronger, more confident-
sounding sentence:

I’m looking forward to seeing you.

It’s a subtle psychological difference, but if you are corresponding in a formal setting, it is
worth taking care to write complete sentences. Fragments can sound as if they are carelessly
blurted out.

READING COMPREHENSION

Comprehension is the reason for reading. If readers can read the words but do not understand
or connect to what they are reading, they are not really reading. Good readers are both
purposeful and active, and have the skills to absorb what they read, analyze it, make sense of
it, and make it their own.

Draw on prior knowledge

Good readers draw on prior knowledge and experience to help them understand what they are
reading.

Draw inferences

In addition to understanding the literal points that the author is making, good readers are able
to “read between the lines” and draw inferences about a wide range of hidden meanings, such
as why events are unfolding as they do, why characters behave in a certain way, what the
characters are thinking, and what might happen next.

Pay attention to sentences and text cohesion

Skilled readers notice every word in a sentence and are aware of how a single word can
subtly shift the meaning of a sentence or even a passage. Paying attention to the meaning of
pronouns and other connecting words/phrases within a complex sentence can make a
difference in their understanding of the text.

Some texts are more cohesive, meaning the author’s message is easily understood since the
reader can move quickly from one sentence to the next. Interestingly, skilled readers tend to
learn more from texts that are less cohesive, probably because they have to pay closer
attention to the meaning. Texts that are less cohesive have more complex sentences and
therefore, tend to be more difficult for poor comprehenders (comprehender -plural
comprehenders) Agent noun of comprehend: one who comprehends). Teachers have to pay
attention to the challenges and supports in the sentences of texts that we choose for our
readers.
 Self-monitor
During reading, good readers learn to monitor their understanding, adjust their
reading speed to fit the difficulty of the text, and address any comprehension problems they
have. After reading, they check their understanding of what they have read. Students who are
good at monitoring their comprehension know when they understand what they’re reading
and when they don’t.

Form mental images

Good readers often form mental pictures, or images, as they read. Readers (especially
younger readers) who picture the story during reading understand and remember what they
read better than readers who do not create a picture in their mind.

Summarize and retell

Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in the text and then put it into
their own words by retelling, verbally or in writing. Instruction in summarizing can help
students become more purposeful as they read and more expert in comprehending.
Summarizing can help students to:

 Identify main ideas orally or in writing

 Connect the main or central ideas orally or in writing
 Learn to weed out unnecessary information
 Remember what they have read
Skimming and Scanning

Skimming
It is a process of reading a text or the passage in order to get a rough idea of what the text or
passage contains. It is a rapid reading technique that prepares the reader for detailed reading.
The main objective of skimming is to understand the central idea and the main points of a
text. Its main purpose is to assemble main ideas contained in the text.
People often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time.
E.g. preparation during the exam time; browsing the NET Skimming is essential for better
understanding of a text. Skimming should answer the following questions about text.
1. What is the overall purpose of the text?
2. What is the central idea or theme?
3. What is the logical organization? (general to specific, specific to general,
chronological, more important to less important, less important to more important,
and so on,)
4. What does the author intend to do? (describe, instruct, report, narrate, explain,
argue, persuade, illustrate, and so on,)
5. What are the main points of the text?

Scanning: Scanning refers to the ability to locate specific information or facts as quickly as
possible. The reader runs their eyes down the pages with the purpose of finding answer to a
 question. While trying to look for the meaning of a word in a dictionary or looking for a
telephone number in the telephone directory, we scan and try to look for specific information.
Scanning is an important rapid reading technique, which provides better comprehension
while reading a scientific or technical text. It may serve several purposes.
a. A specific point or fact in a text,
b. Relevant graphic details,
c. A formulae in a text,
d. A word in a dictionary
e. Train or television schedules,
f. Any reference or bibliographical listings,
g. Examinations results, or
h. Any notes/questions/remarks at the end of the text.
The following suggestions will help to increase proficiency at scanning
1. Know what you want to find
2. Do not read everything

Intensive and Extensive Reading

Definition of Extensive Reading

Extensive Reading can be defined as a casual reading performed for pleasure or gaining
general understanding on a topic when the students are engrossed in a book, magazine or
newspaper. In this approach students read long texts and refer to various supporting study
material, only to enjoy the reading and gaining a better understanding of the concept.

That is why, for extensive reading, the readers look for easy, interesting and amusing books,
so as to improve their reading fluency and speed as well. The text is comparatively simple,
containing a few unfamiliar words.

Definition of Intensive Reading

Intensive Reading can be understood as the reading method which requires intimate study of
a text with the objective of getting its literary or linguistic meaning. The readers are supposed
to read the text with concentration and due care, in detail, as it has certain learning aims and
tasks.

Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
EXTENSIVE READING INTENSIVE READING
COMPARISON
Meaning Extensive reading is an approach to Intensive Reading is a reading method
language learning in which long text wherein learners are supposed to read
and a large amount of material are the short text carefully and deeply so
read by the students for general as to gain maximum understanding.
understanding.
Nature Supplementary Comprehensive
Purpose For acquiring information or for For understanding the literal meaning
pleasure. of the text.
Covers Reading of novels, magazines, Reading of textbooks.
newspaper.
BASIS FOR
EXTENSIVE READING INTENSIVE READING
COMPARISON
Material Selection Reading material is selected by the Reading material is decided and
individual himself. recommended by the teachers.
Involves Reading of a number of books on a Reading of a book again and again to
similar concept or subject. extract its literal meaning.
Use of dictionary No Yes
Helpful in Developing reading fluency Developing reading skills, vocabulary
and grammatical knowledge.

Comparison Chart

Key Differences Between Extensive and Intensive Reading

The main points of difference between extensive and intensive reading are explained below:

1. In extensive reading the reader reads multiple books, newspaper, magazines etc. to get
a general understanding of the topic of their interest. Conversely, Intensive reading is
concerned with classroom learning, wherein the student is compelled to read some
text as many times as required to deeply understand the topic.
2. Extensive Reading is a supplementary reading which is concerned with decoding of
the written material. On the other hand, intensive reading is comprehensive in nature,
as it involves comprehension of the written text.
3. Extensive reading is reading for fun, entertainment and pleasure, as well as to gain a
basic understanding of something. However, the primary focus of intensive reading is
to understand the literal meaning of the text being read.
4. Extensive reading involves a reading of novels, journals, newspaper and magazines.
As against, intensive reading is all about textbook reading.
5. As the topic is chosen by the teacher in case of intensive reading, it may not be
appropriate as per the student’s interest. On the contrary, in extensive reading, the
students are free to choose the material they want to read.
6. Extensive reading is concerned with reading different books and other study material
based on a similar concept or idea. In contrast, intensive reading involves reading the
given material, again and again, to understand it in full.
7. In extensive reading, readers are not supposed to use a dictionary, as understanding
each and every word contained in the material is not vital. As opposed, in intensive
reading readers have to use the dictionary, to understand the meaning of every single
word which is unfamiliar to them.
8. While extensive reading is important for improving the reading speed and fluency of
the reader, intensive reading develops critical thinking, analytical skills in the reader,
along with improving reading skills, vocabulary and grammatical knowledge.

In a nutshell, extensive reading is mainly used when an overall or superficial knowledge is

required on a subject, as no focus is made on the detailed study. On the other hand, intensive
reading is used where due attention is required, to learn specific details about the topic or
subject under study.
Prediction

A prediction is a forecast, but not only about the weather. Pre means “before” and diction has
to do with talking. So a prediction is a statement about the future. It’s a guess, sometimes
based on facts or evidence, but not always. A fortune teller makes a prediction using a crystal
ball. A meteorologist uses maps and scientific data to tell us about the possibility of rain,
snow or sunshine. And when I made the prediction that you would understand what this word
meant, it was based on instinct, a gut feeling telling me what would happen next.

Example Sentences
 All the local forecasters are predicting rain for this afternoon.
 She claims that she can predict future events.
 It's hard to predict how the election will turn out.
 Many people predicted that the store would fail, but it has done very well.
 Sales are predicted to be the same as last year.

Inferring: An inference can be defined as a statement that is based on some situations,

observations, facts or specific details; drawing inference is the process of knowing the
unknown from the known. All the theories and laws of science have gone through the process
of induction, which is an important method of drawing inferences. Induction is reasoning
process of general statement from specific observations. Inference and conclusion can be
drawn from the following: a. Facts b. specific details c. examples and illustrations d. factual
observations e. contextual clues.
.
Prediction: To be an efficient reader one needs to learn and practice prediction techniques.
Prediction is a rapid reading skill. It refers to the process of reading quickly in order to guess
the information that a passage or text contains. An efficient reader is able to think ahead,
hypothesis, and predict. Prediction about the content of a passage are generally based on
headings, sub-headings, one’s background knowledge of the subject, graphic or non-verbal
context such as graphs, diagrams, charts, and so on as well as linguistic clues. In order to
predict and respond to the content of a text, the reader should run his/her eyes through the
text, as fast he/she can in order to predict the information that the text contains. He/she should
pay particular attention to the heading, the sub-headings, the first paragraph, the first sentence
of each paragraph, and the topic sentence in each paragraph. He/she should also use his
background information to get an idea about the content of the text, and interpret aids in the
text that might make reading faster and easier.

Context: While reading textbooks, professional journals, reports, and technical manuals, we
may frequently find unknown and difficult words. We may find it difficult to understand the
message and this leads to poor comprehension. In such cases, the reader should apply various
strategies that will help him find out the meaning of an unfamiliar word/phase and newly
introduced specialist vocabulary. These strategies include analysis of the word structure to
guess its meaning and the identification of context clues and signal words to understand the
meaning of unknown words.

Analysis of word structure: One of the word meaning recognition strategies is to guess the
meaning of a word from its structure. The use of prefixes, suffixes, and word roots give clues
to the meaning of uncommon words. For example, suppose the reader comes across the word
‘interurban’ and he/she has never heard the word before but knows the meaning of the word
‘urban’. He/she can easily make out the meaning of this word if he/she knows that ‘inter’ is a
prefix that means ‘between’

Analysis of context clues: The context can also give a clue to the meaning of a word. The
reader needs to look for the contextual signal words, examples, illustrations, and linguistic
clues that indirectly help define an unknown word or phrase. He/she should analyze these
context clues in order to guess the meaning of an unfamiliar word or phrase.
Notice the signal clue in the example: Although she is very loquacious, she remains silent
before her father. The word ‘although’ contracts the word ‘loquacious’ with the words
‘remains silent’ and the reader can guess that the word ‘loquacious’ means someone ‘who
talks’ and does not remain silent.
Thus, the reader can guess the meaning of an unknown or unfamiliar word by analyzing its
structure or analyzing the contextual clues.