Moral Frameworks

By

Zyon N. Addison

A book report submitted to Dr. Stanley Ihekweazu in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

Engineering Ethics – EAET 410

South Carolina State University

Fall Semester 2022

Abstract/Synopsis:

This report goes over and discusses the themes discussed in the third chapter of the

Engineering Ethics textbook. It discusses and defines in great detail ethical theories. An ethical

theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes, and guides moral

reflection. This report will stress the importance of ethical theories and how they affect different

areas of life. Although not a simple way to be implemented into every aspect of life, ethical

theories will illuminate connections between engineering codes of ethics and ordinary morality.

It goes over five different types of ethical theories. Those five different types of ethical theories

being utilitarianism, rights ethics, duty ethics, virtue ethics, and self-realization and self-interest.

The before-mentioned five types of ethical theories will be discussed and defined in detail. The

importance of the five types of ethical theories will also be discussed. This report will also prove

the importance of moral reasoning and making moral choices in engineering as a whole. Overall,

this report will explain the importance of the five types of ethical theories and how they impact

different aspects of our lives.

Acknowledgments:

To Whom It May Concern:

I would like to acknowledge the receipt of Ethics in Engineering written by Mike W.

Martin and Roland Schinzinger and dedicate this report to my school, South Carolina State

University. Thank you for your hard work and dedication. I would also like to thank South

Carolina State University for allowing me to advance my education level and work towards a

better career and lifestyle. Thank you.

Zyon Niziah Addison

Senior | SC State University

Mechanical Engineering
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Table of Contents:

1. Abstract/Synopsis…………………………………………………………………Page 2

2. Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………Page 3

3. Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………Page 4

4. List of Figures……………………………………………………………………Page 5

5. List of Tables……………………………………………………………………Page 6

6. Introduction………………………………………………………………………Page 7

7. Utilitarianism…………………………………………………….……………. Page 8-9

8. Rights Ethics & Duty Ethic……………………………………………………Page 10-11

9. Virtue Ethics…………………………………………………………………Page 12

10. Self-Realization & Self-Interest………………………………………………Page 13-14

11. Conclusion………………………………………………………………………Page 15

12. References………………………………………………………………………Page 16
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List of Figures:

1. None
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List of Tables:

1. None
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Introduction:

An ethical theory is a comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes,

and guides moral reflection. When used properly, it provides a framework for making moral

choices and resolving moral dilemmas. It is not a simple formula, but rather a comprehensive

way to identify, structure, and integrate moral reasons. Ethical theories also give a basis for the

requirements in engineering codes of ethics by reference to broader moral principles. By doing

so, they illuminate connections between engineering codes of ethics and morality which is the

justified moral values that play a role in all areas of life. Following in this discussion, five types

of ethical theories and traditions will be discussed in detail: utilitarianism, rights ethics and duty

ethics, virtue ethics, and self-realization ethics. For utilitarianism, it says that we ought to

maximize the overall good, taking into equal account all those affected by our actions. Rights

ethics says we should respect human rights, and duty ethics says we ought to respect individuals’

autonomy. Virtue ethics says that good character is central to mortality. Self-realization ethics

emphasizes the moral significance or self-fulfillment. None of these theories has won a general

agreement among professionals, and each has different versions. Nevertheless, suitably modified,

the theories complement and enrich each other so much to the intent that they usually agree with

respect to the right action in certain situations. Taken individually and together, they provide

illuminating perspectives on engineering ethics. A quote: Mary Midgley once said “Moral

judgements are, like other judgements, always accountable. We can reasonably be asked,

sometimes by others and always by ourselves, to give reasons for them. We can then be expected

to give those reasons from a system, however rough and incomplete, with which the rest of our

lives coheres, and which is understandable both to outward and inward questioners.”.
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Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is the view that we ought to always produce the most good for the most

people, while also giving equal consideration to everyone effect by the actions we commit. The

standard of right conduct is maximization of good consequences. “Utility” is sometimes used to

refer to these consequences, and other times it is used to refer to the balance of good over bad

consequences. At first glance, utilitarianism seem simple and plausible especially since morality

involves producing good consequences. Especially when referring to the most central principle

in engineering codes; “Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the

public in the performance of their professional duties.”, utilitarianism is a straight-froward way

to interpret it. Even the word, “welfare”, is a rough synonym for “overall good” which is utility,

and safety and health can be viewed as important aspects of that good. Yet there are two main

versions of utilitarianism, those being act-utilitarianism and rule-utilitarianism. Act-utilitarianism

focuses on each situation and the alternative actions in the situation. A particular action is right if

it is likely to produce the most good for the most people in a given situation when compared to

alternative choices that might have been made. Rule-utilitarianism says that we should take rules,

rather than isolated actions, much more seriously. Rule-utilitarianism right actions are those

required by rules that produce the most good for the most people. Because rules interact with

each other, a set of rules must be considered. It would be more beneficial to look at utilitarianism

in a cost-benefit analysis situation, to better understand the entire definition of utilitarianism and

the role it plays within ethical theories. When the Ford Motor corporation was in the early stages

of development for its Pinto automobile, crashworthiness tests revealed that the vehicle could not

sustain a front-end collision without the windshield breaking.

A quick-fix type of solution was adopted, moving the drivetrain backward. As a result, the

differential was moved extremely close to the gas tank, thus making many fuel tanks collapse

and explode upon rear-end collisions at low speeds. In 1971, The Ford Motor Company would

develop a cost-benefit analysis that would decide whether to add an $11 part per car that would

greatly reduce injuries by protecting the vulnerable fuel tank. The cost of not installing the part,

and instead paying out costs for death and injuries from accidents was projected using a cost-

benefit analysis. Ultimately the cost annual cost for death and injury estimated to be $49.5

million versus the estimated $137 million for adding the part. Ford’s cost-benefit analysis is

understood to be a utilitarian calculation, and it is much like one. It appealed solely to the sum of

good and bad consequences, and it sought to maximize the good over the bad. In contrast,

utilitarian analyses consider the costs and benefits to everyone affected by the project or

proposal. They weigh the interests of each person affected equally, giving no preference to

members of a corporation, adopting a long-term view, and usually do not reduce good or bad to

dollars.
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Rights Ethics

Rights ethics regard human rights as fundamental, and duty ethics regards duties of

respect for autonomy as fundamental. Historically, the theories developed as distinct moral

traditions, but their similarities are far more pronounced than their differences. Both theories

emphasize respect for individuals’ dignity and self-wroth, in contrast with utilitarian’s emphasis

on the general good. Rights ethics and duty ethics are mostly mirror images of each other. For

example, you have a right to life, I have a duty not to kill you. As well as I have a duty not to

deceive you then you have a right not to be deceived. Rights enter into engineering in many

ways. There are many examples such as holding paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the

public can be interpreted as having respect for the public’s right to life by producing safe

products, rights to privacy, and rights not to be injured by dangerous products. Even employers

have rights to faithful service from employees, and employees have rights to reciprocal fair and

respectful treatment from employers. However, rights ethics is distinctive in that it makes human

rights the ultimate concern, the moral bottom line. Human rights constitute a moral authority to

make legitimate moral demands on others to respect our choices, recognizing that others can

make similar claims on us. Rights ethics provide a powerful foundation for the special ethical

requirements in engineering and other professions. Rights ethics are familiar because they

provide the moral foundation of the political and legal system of the United States. In the

Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson wrote: “…that they are endowed by their

Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of

Happiness.”. Human rights are those we have as humans, whether the law recognizes them or

not.
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Duty Ethics

Duty ethics says that right actions are required by duties to respect the liberty or

autonomy, or self-determination, of individuals. An import list of duties that can be applied any

person: 1. Do not kill. 2. Do not cause pain. 3. Do not disable. 4. Do not deprive of pleasure. 5.

Do not deprive of freedom. The list can go on for a long time, but a question arises, how do we

know that these are our duties? It has been argued by a famous duty ethicist that all such specific

duties derive from one fundamental duty to respect people. People deserve respect because they

are moral agents who are capable of recognizing and voluntarily responding to moral duty. Duty

ethics can be described as autonomy which is the moral self-determination or self-governance to

have the capacity to govern one’s life in accordance with moral duties. Hence, respect for

persons amounts to respect for their moral autonomy. We also have duties to ourselves because

we are rational and autonomous beings. We have a duty not to commit suicide which would end

a valuable life. We have duties to develop our talents as part of unfolding our rational natures.

We have a duty to avoid harmful drugs that undermine our ability to exercise our rationality. In

contrast, duty ethics describe our duties we have as human beings.

Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics emphasizes more on character rather than rights and rules. Character is the

pattern of virtues, which are morally desirable features, and vices, which are morally undesirable

features, in an individual. Virtues are desirable habits or tendencies. There are words for specific

virtues in engineering and in everyday life such as competence, honesty, courage, loyalty, and

humility. Similarly, words for specific vices are also familiar such as, incompetence, dishonesty,

cowardice, disloyalty, and arrogance. The comprehensive virtue of engineers is responsible

professionalism. This umbrella virtue implies four categories of virtues: public well-being,

professional competence, cooperative practices, and personal integrity. Virtue ethics enable

engineers to meet the standards of excellence and thereby achieve internal goods, especially

public or community goods, without allowing external goods such as money and power to

distract their public commitments. The virtues thereby add to the personal meaning that

engineers find in their work by linking individual lives to wider communities. All four categories

play key roles in engineers’ commitments to the safety, health, and welfare of the public. This is

obviously true of the public-spirited, proficiency, and self-governance virtues, but it is equally

true of the teamwork virtues required within the organizations that make possible contemporary

technological development. Though virtue ethics does present many positive aspects, it does

have challenges or areas that need refinement. One issue that arises is that virtue ethics seem

incomplete and when taken by itself, it appears too vague. Critics of virtue ethics argue that the

meaning and requirements of virtues need to be spelled out in terms of at least rough guidelines

or rules, lest the virtues fail to provide adequate moral guidance. For example, honesty requires

certain kinds of actions, done from certain kinds of motives. It implies do not tell lies.
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Self-Realization & Self-Interest

Each of the preceding ethical theories leave considerable room and concern for self-

interest. The concern is for individuals pursuing what is good for oneself. Utilitarians believe that

self-interest should enter into our calculations of the overall good. Rights ethics says that we

have rights to pursue our legitimate interests, whereas duty ethics says we have duties to

ourselves. Virtue ethics links our personal good with participating in communities and social

practices. However, self-realization ethics gives greater prominence to self-interest and to

personal commitments that individuals develop. Similar to the other preceding ethical theories

discussed, the theories self-realization and self-interest have multiple versions to consider. This

will depend upon how the person is conceived. In one version, called ethical egoism, the self is

conceived in a highly individualistic manner. In a second version, the person to be realized is

understood in terms of caring relationships and communities. Ethical egoism says that each

person should always and only promote our own self interests. The theory is ethical because it is

a theory about morality, and it is egoistic because it says the sole duty of each person is to

maximize our well-being. Self-interest is understood as our long-term and enlightened well-

being. Ethical egoism presents independence as a value of great importance as well as self-

respect which is the realization of our vulnerabilities and interdependencies, and it is compatible

with caring about other persons as well as ourselves. The second version of self-realization ethics

is more community oriented.

This version says that each individual should pursue self-realization, but it emphasizes the

importance of caring relationships and communities in understanding self-realization and in

defining the person themselves to be fulfilled while also highlighting personal commitments.

Self-realization ethics emphasizes that we are social beings whose identifies, and meaning are

linked to the communities in which we participate. Consequently, self-realization ethics points to

the particular commitments individuals make in their work, as well as their personal lives.

Indeed, a central theme is how personal commitments motivate, guide, and give meaning to the

work of engineers and other professionals.

Conclusion:

Chapter three of the textbook speaks about ethical theories, the different types, their level

of importance, and how they relate to engineering as well as everyday life. An Ethical theory is a

comprehensive perspective on morality that clarifies, organizes, and guides moral reflection.

They are used to evaluate actions, rules, and character. There are five different types which are

utilitarianism, rights ethics and duty ethics, virtue ethics, and self-realization and self-interest.

Each one of the ethical theories present their own individual level of importance and meaning,

but they all do have the same thing in common. They are used to evaluate and solve ethical

issues. The overall morality is extremely important in one’s self and especially in engineering.

Ethical theories take a look at this and give explanation for the many types of ethical theories and

which type is best to use.

References:

1. Martin, M. W., & Schinzinger, R. (2014). Ethics in Engineering. Mcgraw-Hill Education

(India) Private Limited.