Chapter 7

Vector Space

(除了標註※之簡報外，其餘採用李宏毅教授之投影片教材)
Vector Spaces and Their
Subspaces
(Chap. 7.1)
Introduction
• Many things can be considered as “vectors”.
• E.g. a function can be regarded as a vector
• We can apply the concept we learned on those
“vectors”.
• Linear combination
• Span
• Basis
• Orthogonal ……
• Reference: Chapter 6

Chap. 7.1
(Abstract) Vector Space
For any vectors u, v and w in V, and scalars a and b in R,
u + v and au are in V, and the following axioms hold
1. u+v=v+u
2. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
3. There is an element in V such that + u = u
4. There is an element –u in V such that –u + u =
5. 1u = u
6. (ab)u = a(bu) zero vector
7. a(u+v) = au + av
8. (a+b)u = au + bu
 Why 0u = 0 and (-1)u = -u ?
• Can you prove that 0u = 0 (i.e., zero vector)?
• 0u
• = 0+0u (from (3))
• = (-0u + 0u) + 0u (from (4))
• = -0u +( 0u + 0u) (from (2))
• = -0u +( (0+0)u) (from (8))
• = -0u + 0u (0+0=0 as 0 is in R)
•=0 (from (4))

• Can you prove that (-1)u = -u (i.e., inverse of u)?

※
Are they vectors?
Are they vectors?
• A matrix

• A linear transform
• A polynomial
Are they vectors? What is the zero vector?

• Any function is a vector? Infinite

function

Vector?
Objects in Different Vector Spaces
In Vector Space R1
1 2 3

(1,0) (2,0) (3,0)

In Vector Space R2
Objects in Different Vector Spaces
All the polynomials with degree less
than or equal to 2 form a vector space

All functions as a vector space

(infinite dimension)
Subspaces

Chap. 6.1
Review: Subspace
• A vector set V is called a subspace if it has the
following three properties:
• 1. The zero vector 0 belongs to V
• 2. If u and w belong to V, then u+w belongs to V
Closed under (vector) addition
• 3. If u belongs to V, and c is a scalar, then cu
belongs to V
Closed under scalar multiplication
Are they subspaces?
• All the functions pass 0 at t0
• All the matrices whose trace equal to zero
• All the matrices of the form

• All the continuous functions

• All the polynomials with degree n
• All the polynomials with degree less than or equal
to n
P: all polynomials, Pn: all polynomials
with degree less than or equal to n
Linear Combination
and Span

Chap. 7.2
Linear Combination and Span
• Matrices

Linear combination with coefficient a, b, c

What is Span S?
All 2x2 matrices whose trace equal to zero
Linear Combination and Span
• Polynomials

Is linear combination of the

“vectors” in S?
Linear Transformations
(Chap. 7.2)

Chap. 7.2
Linear transformation
• A mapping (function) T is called linear if for all
“vectors” u, v and scalars c:
• Preserving vector addition:

• Preserving vector multiplication:

Is matrix transpose linear?

Input: m x n matrices, output: n x m matrices

Linear transformation
• Derivative: linear?

function f Derivative function f’

e.g. x2 e.g. 2x

linear?
• Integral from a to b scalar

function f Integral
e.g. x2
(from a to b) e.g.
Null Space and Range
• Null Space
• The null space of T is the set of all “vectors”
such that T(v)=0
• What is the null space of matrix transpose?
• Range
• The range of T is the set of all images of T.
• That is, the set of all “vectors” T(v) for all v in the
domain
• What is the range of matrix transpose?
One-to-one and Onto

• U: Mmn  Mnm defined by U(A) = AT.

• Is U one-to-one? yes
• Is U onto? yes

• D: P3  P3 defined by D( f ) = f 
• Is D one-to-one? no
• Is D onto? no
Isomorphism (同構)
Biology Graph

Chemistry
Isomorphism
• Let V and W be vector space. W V
• A linear transforma on T: V→W is called an isomorphism if
it is one-to-one and onto
• Invertible linear transform
• W and V are isomorphic.

Example 1: U: Mmn  Mnm defined by U(A) = AT.

Example 2: T: P2  R3
Basis and Dimension
(Chap. 7.3)

Chap. 7.3
Independent
A basis for subspace V is a linearly independent
generation set of V.
• Example
S = {x2 - 3x + 2, 3x2  5x, 2x  3} is a subset of P2.
Is it linearly independent?
No
• Example
is a subset of 2x2 matrices.
Is it linearly independent?

implies that a = b = c = 0 Yes

 If {v1, v2, ……, vk} are independent,
Independent and T is an isomorphism, {T(v1),
T(v2), ……, T(vk)} are independent

• Example
The infinite vector set {1, x, x2, , xn, }
Is it linearly independent?
icixi = 0 implies ci = 0 for all i. Yes
• Example
S = {et, e2t, e3t} Is it linearly independent? Yes
aet + be2t + ce3t = 0 a + b + c=0
aet + 2be2t + 3ce3t = 0 a + 2b + 3c = 0
aet + 4be2t + 9ce3t = 0 a + 4b + 9c = 0
Basis
• Example
For the subspace of all 2 x 2 matrices,
The basis is

Dim = 4

• Example

S = {1, x, x2, , xn, } is a basis of P. Dim = inf

Vector Representation of Object
• Coordinate Transformation

basis

Pn: Basis: {1, x, x2, , xn}

Matrix Representations
of Linear Operators
(Chap. 7.4)

Chap. 7.3
Matrix Representation
of Linear Operator
• Example:
• D (derivative): P2 → P2 Represent it as a matrix

vector vector
Multiply a matrix

polynomial polynomial
Derivative
Matrix Representation
of Linear Operator
• Example:
• D (derivative): P2 → P2 Represent it as a matrix

vector vector
Multiply a matrix

polynomial polynomial
Derivative
2
Matrix Representation
of Linear Operator
• Example:
• D (derivative): P2 → P2 Represent it as a matrix

Not invertible
vector vector
Multiply a matrix

polynomial polynomial
Derivative
Matrix Representation
of Linear Operator
• Example:
• D (deriva ve): Func on set F → Func on set F
• Basis of F is
invertible
vector vector
Multiply a matrix

Function in F Function in F
Derivative
Matrix Representation Basis of F is
of Linear Operator

vector vector
Multiply a matrix

Antiderivative

Function in F Function in F
Derivative
 Eigenvalue
and Eigenvector

, , is eigenvector, is eigenvalue

Chap. 7.4
 Eigenvalue and Eigenvector
• Consider derivative (linear transformation, input &
output are functions)
Is an “eigenvector”? What is the “eigenvalue”?
Every scalar is an eigenvalue of derivative.
• Consider Transpose (also linear transformation,
input & output are functions)
Is an eigenvalue? Symmetric:
Symmetric matrices form the eigenspace
Is an eigenvalue? Skew-symmetric:
Skew-symmetric matrices form the
eigenspace.
Consider Transpose of 2x2 matrices

vector vector

What are the

eigenvalues?

2x2 matrices 2x2 matrices

transpose
Eigenvalue and Eigenvector
• Consider Transpose of 2x2 matrices

Matrix Characteristic polynomial

representation
of transpose

Symmetric matrices Skew-symmetric matrices

Dim=3 Dim=1
Inner Product Spaces
(Chap. 7.5)
 Norm (length):
Inner Product Orthogonal: Inner product is zero

“vector” v
Inner Product scalar
“vector” u

For any vectors u, v and w, and any scalar a, the following

axioms hold:
1. if 3.
2. 4.
Dot product is a special case of inner product

Can you define other inner product for normal vectors?

Inner Product
• Inner Product of Matrix

Frobenius
inner product

Element-wise multiplication
 1. if
2.
Inner Product 3.
4.
• Inner product for any function with input [-1, 1]

Is and
orthogonal?
yes

Can it be inner product for

general functions?
no
Orthogonal/Orthonormal Basis
• Let u be any vector, and w is the orthogonal projection of u
on subspace W.
• Let be an orthogonal basis of W.

• Let be an orthonormal basis of W.

Orthogonal Basis
Let be a basis of a subspace V. How to transform
into an orthogonal basis ?

Gram-Schmidt
Process

Then is an orthogonal basis for W

After normalization, you can
get orthonormal basis.
Orthogonal/Orthonormal Basis
• Find orthogonal/orthonormal basis for P2
• Define an inner product of P2 by

• Find a basis {1, x, x2}

Orthogonal/Orthonormal Basis
• Find orthogonal/orthonormal basis for P2
• Define an inner product of P2 by

• Get an orthogonal basis {1, x, x2-1/3}

Orthonormal Basis
Orthonormal Basis