MATH2023

Chapter 16
Vector Calculus

Contents
16.3 The Divergence Theorem
16.4 Green’s Theorem and Stoke’s Theorem

16.3 The Divergence Theorem

Let G be a simple solid whose boundary surface S has positive (outward) orientation and let
F(x, y, z) = f (x, y, z) i + g(x, y, z) j + h(x, y, z) k be a smooth vector field with f , g and h have
continuous partial derivatives on an open region that contain G. Then
ZZ ZZ ZZZ
F· dS = F· n dS =
b ∇· F dV.
S S G

Note that n
b is a unit normal field pointing out of G. The volume integral of the divergence of
a vector field, taken throughout a bounded domain G, equals the surface integral of the normal
component of the vector field taken over the boundary of G (= S). In other words, the total
divergence within G equals the net flux emerging from G.
(Proof: see the textbook p434)

A two-dimensional Divergence Theorem

Let R be a domain in the xy-plane with piecewise smooth boundary curve C. If

F = F1 (x, y) i + F2 (x, y) j

is a smooth vector field, then

I ZZ
F·n
b ds = ∇ · F dA
C
R

where n
b is the unit outward normal on C.
(Proof: see the textbook p439)

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Ex. 3.1 A fluid with density 1500 flows with velocity v = −y i + j + z k. Find the rate of flow
outward through the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 52 , i.e., find the flux of the vector field F(x, y, z) =
1500(−y i + x j + 2z k) over the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 52 .

x
-5
0 -2.5
∇· F = 1500 × 2 = 3000 5 2.5

Using the divergence theorem because the sphere is a closed surface 5

ZZ ZZZ
4
F· n
b dS = 3000 dV = 3000 × π53 = 500, 000π.
3 z
0
S G

Using the method of surface integral: the surface S is given by -5

-5
r(φ, θ) = 5 sin φ cos θ i + 5 sin φ sin θ j + 5 cos φ k, -2.5
0
2.5
y 5

where φ ∈ [0, π], θ ∈ [0, 2π],

∴ rφ ×rθ = 25 sin2 φ cos θ i + 25 sin2 φ sin θ j + 25 sin φ cos φ k.

krφ ×rθ k = 25 sin φ
rφ ×rθ 1
n
b= = r(φ, θ)
krφ ×rθ k 5
ZZ Z 2π Z π
∴ F·n
b dS = 1500 (−125 sin3 φ sin θ cos θ + 125 sin3 φ sin θ cos θ + 250 sin φ cos2 φ) dφ dθ
0 0
S
π 
1 3
= 3000π(250) − cos φ = 500, 000π.
3 0

ZZ
Ex. 3.2 Find F· n
b dS if F(x, y, z) = (x3 + yz) i + x2 y j + xy 2 k, S is the surface of the solid
S

bounded by the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 and x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 9.

∇· F = 3x2 + x2 + 0 = 4x2

Using the divergence theorem

ZZ ZZZ
x
F· n
b dS = ∇· F dV 0
-0.1
0.1
S G 0.1
ZZZ
= 4x2 dV (x = ρ sin φ cos θ) 0.05

z
G 0

Z 2π Z π Z 3
-0.05
= (4ρ2 sin2 φ cos2 θ)ρ2 sin φ dρdφdθ
0 0 2 -0.1
-0.1
3376 -0.05
= π. 0
0.05
15 y 0.1

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ZZ  
1 3
Ex. 3.3 F · n dS, where F(x, y, z) = z x i + 2
y + tan z j + (x2 z + y 2 ) k and S is the top half of
3
S
the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1. (Note that S is not a closed surface).

Let S1 be the disk x2 + y 2 6 1 and S2 = S1 + S (S2 is a closed surface).

For S1 , n b = −x2 z − y 2 = −y 2 (since z = 0 on S1 )
b = − k, so F · n
ZZ ZZ S
F·n
b dS = −y 2 dA
S1 S1
Z 2π Z 1
1
=− r 2 sin2 θ rdr dθ = − π.
0 0 4

S1
Note also that ∇ · F = z 2 + y 2 + x2 , therefore
ZZ ZZZ
F·nb dS = (x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) dV
S2 G
Z 2π Z π/2 Z 1
2
= ρ2 ρ2 sin φ dρ dφ dθ = π.
0 0 0 5
Since the surface S = S2 − S1 ,
ZZ ZZ ZZ
2 1 13
∴ F·nb dS = F·n
b dS − b dS = π + π =
F·n π.
5 4 20
S S2 S1

Ex. 3.4 Show that ∇ · (f ∇g) = (∇g) · (∇f ) + f ∇2 g.

ZZ ZZZ
Hence show that (f ∇g − g∇f ) · n
b dS = (f ∇2 g − g∇2 f ) dV .
S G

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Ex. 3.5 Let G be the region x2 + y 2 + z 2 6 4a2 , x2 + y 2 > a2 . The surface S of G consists of cylindrical
part, S1 and a spherical part, S2 . Evaluate the flux of

F = (x + yz) i + (y − xz) j + (z − ex sin y) k z

out of G through
n
(a) the whole surface S,
(b) the surface S1 , and S2

(c) the surface S2 . a 2a y

n
S1
x

F = (x + yz) i + (y − xz) j + (z − ex sin y) k

divF = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3.

(a) The flux of F out of G through S = S1 ∪ S2 is

ZZ ZZZ
F·n
b dS = ∇ · F dV
S G
Z Z Z √
2π 2a 4a2 −r 2
=2 3 r dzdrdθ
0 a 0
Z 2a p
= 12π r 4a2 − r 2 dr
a
√
= 12 3πa3 .

xi + yj
(b) On S1 , n
b=− , dS = a dθdz. The flux of F out of G through S1 is
a
ZZ ZZ
−x2 − xyz − y 2 + xyz
F·nb dS = a dθ dz
a
S1 S1
Z Z √
2π 3a √
= −a2 √ dzdθ = −4 3πa3 .
0 − 3a

(c) The flux of F out of G through the spherical part S2 is

ZZ ZZ ZZ
F·n
b dS = F·n
b dS − F·n
b dS
S2 S S1
√ √ √
= 12 3πa3 + 4 3πa3 = 16 3πa3 .

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16.4 Green’s Theorem (2D) and Stoke’s Theorem (3D)

Green’s Theorem gives the relationship between a line integral y

around a simple, closed, piecewise smooth curve C oriented counter-

clockwise and a double integral over the plane region D bounded by
C. D
Green’s Theorem: Let C be a positive oriented, piecewise-
smooth simple closed curve in the xy-plane and D be the region C
bounded by C. If F(r) = P (r) i + Q(r) j, where P and Q have con-
tinuous partial derivatives on an open region that contains D, then x

I I ZZ   Counter-clockwise
∂Q ∂P – positive orientation
F· dr = P dx + Q dy = − dA
C C ∂x ∂y
D

i i k
ZZ
∂ ∂
= (∇×F)· k dA where ∇×F = 0 = (Qx − Py ) k.
∂x ∂y
D
P Q 0

Note that k is normal to the xy-plane, hence it is normal to the region D.

I
Ex. 4.1 Evaluate (y − sin x) dx + cos x dy, where C is the
C
triangle of the figure. (a) directly, (b) by using Green’s
theorem in the plane.
π π
(a) Along OA, r = (1 − t)(0, 0) + t( , 0) = ( t, 0), 06t61
2 2 y
Z 1   
π π π
∴ 0 − sin t dt + cos t· (0) = −1
0 2 2 2
B
π π π
Along AB, r = (1 − t)( , 0) + t( , 1) = ( , t), 06t61
1
2 2 2
Z 1 (π/2,0)
∴ (t − 1)· (0) + (0)· dt = 0 0 A x
0

π π π y

Along BO, r = (1 − t)( , 1) + t(0, 0) = ( − t, 1 − t), 06t61 2

2 2 2
Z 1h
π i π  π 1.5

∴ 1 − t − cos t − dt + sin t (−dt)

0 2 2 2
1

 2
 1 1 1
π t π 2 π
=− t− + sin t + cos t 0.5

2 2 2 π 2
0 0 0
x

π 2 0.5 1 1.5 2

=1− − F(r) = (y − sin x) i + cos x j

4 π
(b) Let P = y − sin x and Q = cos x, then
I
P dx + Q dy =
C

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Z
Ex. 4.2 xy dx + 2x2 dy, C consists of the segment from (−2, 0) to (2, 0) and top half of the circle
C
x + y 2 = 4.
2

C1 : r(t) = (1 − t)(−2, 0) + t(2, 0) = (4t − 2, 0) 06t61

y
C2 : r(t) = (2 cos t, 2 sin t) 0 6 t 6 π
Z Z C1
1
2 2
xy dx + 2x dy = (4t − 2) · 0 · 4 dt + 2(4t − 2) · (0) = 0
C1 0 D
Z Z π
-2 C2 2 x
xy dx + 2x2 dy = (2 cos t)(2 sin t)(−2 sin t) dt + 2(2 cos t)2 (2 cos t) dt y
C2 0 2
Z π 1.5

=8 (− cos t sin2 t + cos3 t) dt = 0 1

0
0.5

or using Green’s theorem -2 -1 1 2

x

I -0.5

xy dx + 2x2 dy = F(r) = xy i + 2x2 j

C

Computing Area:
ZZ I
∂Q ∂P
If − = 1, then A = dA = P dx + Q dy.
∂x ∂y C
D

There are several possibilities:

(i) P = 0, Q=x
(ii) P = −y, Q = 0
(iii) P = −y/2 Q = x/2
I I I
1
∴A= x dy = − y dx = x dy − y dx.
C C 2 C y

0.5

2/3 2/3 2/3

Example Find the area of the hypocycloid x +y =a .
x
-1 -0.5 0.5 1

-0.5

3 3
Let x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ, where 0 6 θ 6 2π. -1

I Z 2π
1 1
A= x dy − y dx = (a cos3 θ × 3a sin2 θ cos θ dθ + a sin3 θ × 3a cos2 θ sin θ dθ)
2 C 2 0
Z 2π
3 2
= a (cos4 sin2 θ + sin4 θ cos2 θ) dθ
2 0
Z 2π
3 2 1
= a sin2 2θ dθ
20 4
Z 2π  
3 2 1 − cos 4θ 3π 2
= a dθ = a .
8 0 2 8

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General version of Green’s Theorem*

Green’s Theorem can be extended to apply to region with holes. Let P (x, y), Q(x, y), Py , Qx be
continuous on a closed set D whose boundary consists of closed curves, C0 , C1 , C2 , · · · , Cn oriented
counter clockwisely with C0 enclosing the others. Then

C0 C0

C1 C2 -C 1 -C 2 D1

D = D2

where D = D1 + D2 and Di is bounded by Ci′ .

ZZ   ZZ ZZ Z Z
∂Q ∂P
− dA = + = +
∂x ∂y C ′1 C ′2
D D1 D2
Z n Z
X
= (P dx + Q dy) − (P dx + Q dy).
C0 j=1 Cj

(The purpose of this general version of Green’s theorem is for dealing with the cases when P or Q is
not defined somewhere insider a closed curve or when changing curves to simplify the computation.)

I
−x2 y dx + x3 dy
Example , where C is the ellipse 4x2 + y 2 = 1.
C (x2 + y 2 )2
If C ′ is the circle x2 + y 2 = 4, then C is interior to C ′ , and everywhere except at (0, 0). Note
also that
    y
∂ x3 ∂ −x2 y
=
∂x (x2 + y 2 )2 ∂y (x2 + y 2 )2 C’
1

I I C
−x2 y dx + x2 dy −x2 y dx + x3 dy
∴ I= = 1/2 2 x
C (x2 + y 2 )2 C′ (x2 + y 2 )2

On C ′ , let x = 2 cos θ, y = 2 sin θ, where 0 6 θ 6 2π, then

Z 2π
−4 cos2 θ 2 sin θ(−2 sin θ) dθ + (2 cos θ)2 2 cos θ dθ
y

I= 2

0 16
Z 2π Z 2π   1

2 1 + cos 2θ
= cos θ dθ = dθ = π.
0 0 2 -2 -1 1 2
x

−x2 y i + x3 j -1

F(r) =
(x2 + y 2 )2
-2

* Will NOT be tested.

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Stokes’ Theorem
Stokes’ Theorem can be regarded as a higher dimensional version
z
of Green’s Theorem. Stokes’ Theorem relates a surface integral over a n
surface S to a line integral around the boundary curve of S (which is a
space curve).
Stokes’ Theorem Let S be a non-closed surface, whose boundary con- S
sists of a closed smooth curve C with positive orientation. Let F(x, y, z) C
be a vector field whose components have continuous partial derivatives
on S. Then y
I ZZ
F· dr = (∇×F)· n
b dS
C x
S
positive direction around C
I I means the surface will al-
Note F· dr = F· T ds. ways be on your left, then
C C
your head pointing in the
direction of n

Stokes’ Theorem says that the line integral around the boundary curve of S of the tangential
component of F is equal to the surface integral of the normal component of the curl of F, taken
over a bounded surface S.

I
Ex. 4.3 Evaluate F· dr, where F(x, y, z) = −y 2 i + x j + z 2 k and C is the curve of intersection of
C
the plane y + z = 2 and the cylinder x2 + y 2 = 1. z
i j k y+z =2
∂ ∂ ∂ S
∇×F = = (1 + 2y) k
∂x ∂y ∂z
−y 2 x z2
C
Let g(x, y, z) = y + z − 2 = 0. This is a level surface, hence
the gradient of g is ∇g = (0, 1, 1), i.e. n = (0, 1, 1). R y

x2 + y 2 = 1
x
x
-1
0.5 0 -0.5
1

2.5
z
2

1.5

1
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
y 1

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Ex. 4.4 Verify Stokes’ Theorem: F(x, y, z) = y i + z j + x k, S is the part of the plane x + y + z = 1
that lies in the first octant, oriented upward C = C1 + C2 + C3 .
I Z
F· dr = (y dx + z dy + x dz) x = 1 − t, y = t, z = 0 t ∈ [0, 1]
C C1
Z z
+ (y dx + z dy + x dz) x = 0, y = t, z = −t t ∈ [0, 1]
Z
C2 1
+ (y dx + z dy + x dz) x = t, y = 0, z = −t t ∈ [0, 1]
C3 C2
Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
=− t dt + (−t) dt + t(−dt)
C3
0 0 0
S
Z 1 1 y
= −3 t dt = −3/2.
0 C1
1
x
Alternatively,

x
0.25 0
1 0.75 0.5

0.75

z
0.5

0.25

0
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
y 1

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Z
Ex. 4.5 Evaluate (y + sin x) dx + (z 2 + cos y) dy + x3 dz, where C is the curve
C
y
r(t) = (sin t, cos t, sin 2t), 0 6 t 6 2π. 0
-1

1
2.5
Note that C is a closed space curve.
0
I I z
2 3
∴ (y + sin x) dx + (z + cos y) dy + x dz = F · dr, -2.5

C C -5

1
where F(x, y, z) = (y + sin x, z 2 + cos y, x3 ).
0
x
-1

∇×F = (−2z, −3x2 , −1), since sin 2t = 2 sin t cos t ⇒ z = 2xy, i.e. C lies on the surface
z = 2xy. Let S be the part of this surface that is bounded by C. Then the projection of S
onto xy-plane is the unit disk D (x2 + y 2 6 1).
Normal vector of the level surface f (x, y, z) = z − 2xy = 0 is

n = ∇f = (−2y, −2x, 1). (Note that n points upward, Why?)

Therefore
I ZZ
F · dr = ∇×F · n
b dS
C
S
ZZ ZZ
= ∇×F · n dA = (−4xy, −3x2 , −1) · (−2y, −2x, 1) dA
D D
ZZ
= (8xy 2 + 6x3 − 1) dA
D
Z 2π Z 1
= (8r 3 cos θ sin2 θ + 6r 3 cos3 θ − 1) rdr dθ
0 0
= −π.

I ZZ
Ex. 4.6 Show that (f ∇g) · dr = (∇f ×∇g) · n
b dS
C
S

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