NUMERICAL STUDY OF PLENUM SHAPED FLOW

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM WITH IMMERSION COOLING

FOR A COMMERCIAL EV BATTERY PACK

MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

PHASE 1

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR
THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Mechanical Engineering)
SUBMITTED BY
ARIYAN PATHAK
Under the supervision of
DR. SUBASH CHANDER

DR B R AMBEDKAR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
JALANDHAR, INDIA
November, 2024
 CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION

I certify that
a. the work contained in this report is original and has been done by me under the
guidance of my supervisor(s).
b. the work has not been submitted to any other Institute for any degree or
diploma.
c. I have followed the guidelines provided by the Institute in preparing the report.
d. I have conformed to the norms and guidelines given in the Ethical Code of
Conduct of the Institute.
e. whenever I have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, figures, and text)
from other sources, I have given due credit to them by citing them in the text of
the report and giving their details in the references. Further, I have taken
permission from the copyright owners of the sources, whenever necessary.

Signature of the Student

ABSTRACT

Batteries play a pivotal role in modern life, powering devices ranging from small consumer
electronics to large-scale applications like electric vehicles (EVs). This report explores
battery technology, with a focus on rechargeable secondary batteries, particularly lithium-
ion (Li-ion) batteries, due to their high energy density, efficiency, and widespread use. Key
battery parameters such as energy density, capacity, cycle life, and thermal management
are examined to understand their impact on performance and applicability.

Among secondary batteries, Li-ion batteries stand out for their superior energy efficiency,
lightweight design, and long cycle life. However, they face challenges such as temperature
sensitivity and safety risks, particularly thermal runaway at high temperatures. Low
temperatures also impair their performance, limiting their application in cold climates.
These challenges underscore the critical need for effective Battery Thermal Management
Systems (BTMS) to regulate temperature and ensure optimal performance.

The report reviews various cooling techniques within BTMS, including air cooling, liquid
cooling, heat pipes, nanofluids, and phase change materials (PCM). Each method offers
unique benefits, such as temperature uniformity and enhanced heat dissipation, but also
presents challenges like complexity, leakage risks, and cost. Advanced solutions such as
hybrid systems combining heat pipes and PCM, or nanofluids with improved
thermophysical properties, are actively being researched to enhance battery safety and
reliability.

The findings emphasize the necessity of BTMS to support the growing demand for high-
capacity batteries in EVs and other applications. As battery technology advances, further
innovation in cooling and thermal management will be essential to address safety,
performance, and environmental sustainability. This report highlights the need for
continued research and development in Li-ion batteries to enable a future powered by clean
and efficient energy solutions.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to all those who have supported and contributed
to the successful completion of this project.

First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr Subhash Chander, our project supervisor, for
their invaluable guidance, continuous support, and constructive feedback throughout this
project. Their insightful suggestions and encouragement were instrumental in shaping the
direction of our work.

I am also deeply grateful to Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology,

Jalandhar for providing the resources and facilities necessary to conduct this research.
Special thanks to the Department of Mechanical Engineering for their assistance and
cooperation.

I would like to acknowledge the contributions of our team members: Baneet Kumar, Mahak
Varshney, and Rahul Raj. Each member's dedication, hard work, and collaboration were
instrumental in achieving our project goals. The collective effort and diverse skills of the
team were key to our success.

Lastly, I am grateful to the Professors of the Mechanical department whose guidance and
constructive criticism made this project possible.

Thank you all for your invaluable contributions.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Certificate by the Supervisor
Acknowledgement
List Of Symbols
Abstract
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 Literature Review
References
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Batteries are crucial part of our lives nowadays; it is impossible to imagine a

world without batteries. Whether it is a small watch, an inverter source or an
Electric Vehicle all are incomplete without a battery. We use batteries on daily
basis, so it is important to study them and to develop them for efficiency and
risk-free storage of energy. We start this report by defining battery.
A battery is source of electric power which includes a number of cells with
external sources for powering electrical devices. When a battery is
discharging (supplying power), Cathode acts as positive terminal and Anode
acts as negative terminal.
1.1 Types of Battery
There are various types of batteries available but they are broadly
classified as:
1. Primary battery
2. Secondary battery
1.1.1 Primary batteries cannot be reused, once used they are disposed and
recycled.
They are not chargeable. Examples are the ones we use in our watches,
Remotes, Toys etc. These are further classified as:

Primary
battery

Alkaline Aluminium
Dry cell
battery battery
Studying and defining these batteries is out of context for this report so we are
not diving deep into these and moving further with Secondary batteries.
1.1.2 Secondary batteries are those which can be recharged and can be used
for multiple times. These have less environmental impact than primary one’s.
We use such type of batteries in our electronic items such mobile phone,
Laptops, EV’s etc.

Commercially these types of batteries are classified as:

Secondary
batteries

Lead-acid Nickel Cadmium Nickel-metal Lithium ion

battery battery hydride battery battery

This discussion is primarily focused on Lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion) which is a

part of secondary batteries. So, it is essential to mention merits and demerits of
all the above-mentioned batteries which provides enough information about
selection of Li-ion batteries.
Before discussing about these batteries there are some terms needed to be
defined to know in detail about these.
Energy density: The energy density of a battery describes amount of energy
battery can store per mass or volume. It is typically measured in Watt-hour per
liter (Wh/L) or watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg).
Capacity: The number of ampere-hours a battery can supply after being fully
charged.
Cycle: The process of discharging a fully charged battery to a specific state of
discharge.
Depth of Discharge (DoD): The percentage of capacity a battery has been
discharged to.
Rated Capacity: The capacity, in ampere-hours (Ah) of a cell or battery as
measured by subjecting it to a load, temperature and cut-off voltage point
specified by the manufacturer.
State of charge: The state of charge (SOC) of a battery is the amount of charge
it has relative to its maximum capacity, expressed as a percentage.
C-rate: A battery's C-rate is a relative metric that measures how quickly a
battery can be charged or discharged in relation to its maximum capacity. A 1C
rate means the battery can be fully charged or discharged in one hour. A 2C rate
means it can be fully charged or discharged in 30 minutes. A C/5 rate means it
can be fully charged or discharged in five hours. A higher C-rate means the
battery can provide more power and current.
Lead-acid battery
A lead acid battery is a rechargeable battery that uses lead and sulphuric acid to
function. The lead is submerged into the sulphuric acid to allow a controlled
chemical reaction. This chemical reaction is what causes the battery to produce
electricity. Given below are some merits and demerits of lead-acid batteries.

Merits Demerits

 Cost: Lead-acid batteries are  Maintenance: They require

typically less expensive than more maintenance than other
other types of batteries. types of batteries.

 Power output: They can  Energy density: They have

provide a high-power output a relatively low energy
and high surge currents. density, meaning they have a
limited amount of energy
stored per unit weight.

 Rechargeability: They are  Size: They are very heavy

easily rechargeable. and large because of their
low energy density.

 Power-to-weight ratio: They  Lifespan: They have a

have a large power-to-weight lifespan of about 2-3 years.
ratio.
 Ni-Cd battery

The nickel–cadmium battery (Ni–Cd battery or NiCad battery) is a type

of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and
metallic cadmium as electrodes.

Merits Demerits

 Long cycle life: Ni-Cd  Toxic: Ni-Cd batteries contain

batteries can last 15–20 years cadmium, a heavy metal that is
depending on use and toxic to organisms.
environment.

 Durable: Ni-Cd batteries are  Memory effect: Ni-Cd

robust and difficult to damage. batteries only fully charge after
a series of full discharges.

 Good charge retention: Ni-Cd  Environmental concerns: Ni-

batteries retain their charge Cd batteries can pollute the air
well. or water when disposed of.

 Low maintenance: Ni-Cd  Self-discharge: Ni-Cd

batteries require little batteries have high self-
maintenance. discharge rates.

 Wide operating temperature  Lower energy density: Ni-Cd

range: Ni-Cd batteries perform batteries have a lower energy
well at low and high density than newer
temperatures. technologies.

Nickel-metal hydride battery

A nickel–metal hydride battery (NiMH or Ni–MH) is a type of rechargeable
battery. The chemical reaction at the positive electrode is similar to that of
the nickel cadmium (NiCd), with both using nickel oxide hydroxide (NiOOH).
However, the negative electrodes use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead
of cadmium. NiMH batteries can have two to three times the capacity of NiCd
batteries of the same size, with significantly higher energy density, although
only about half that of lithium-ion batteries.
Here are some of merits and demerits of Ni-metal hydride battery:

Merits Demerits

 Long life: NiMH batteries  Weight: NiMH batteries are

have a longer life cycle than heavier and bulkier than
lead-acid batteries. lithium-ion batteries.

 Power and energy  Voltage: NiMH batteries have

density: NiMH batteries have a lower cell voltage than
higher power and energy lithium-ion batteries.
density than other types of
rechargeable batteries.

 Temperature range: NiMH  Self-discharge: NiMH

batteries can operate in a wide batteries have a self-discharge
temperature range, from below rate of around 1% per day.
−30 °C to over 100 °C.

 Memory effect: NiMH  Heat: NiMH batteries generate

batteries don't have the more heat than other types of
"memory effect" of nickel- rechargeable batteries when
cadmium (NiCd) batteries, discharging quickly or
meaning they can be charged overcharging.
or discharged at any level and
still maintain a high level of
performance.

 Safety: NiMH cells use an  Lifespan: NiMH batteries have

aqueous electrolyte, which is a shorter lifespan than lithium-
less flammable than the ion cells.
solvents used in lithium-ion
cells.
 1.2Li-ion battery

Here comes the key element of this project. Li-ion batteries are widely
accepted and tested all over the world. These batteries have various shapes and
sizes depending on the application. A Li-ion battery is a secondary
(rechargeable) battery that uses the reversible intercalation of Li+ ions
into electronically conducting solids to store energy.
The advantages of Li-ion batteries override other batteries and also overcome
disadvantages in them. The reasons for a wide application of these batteries in
Electronics and EV’s are:

 Higher specific energy.

 Higher energy density.
 Higher energy efficiency.
 A longer cycle life.
 A longer calendar life.

Li-ion battery is a complete package in itself due to above written properties

which is the reason for their wide to be used in EV’s.

Since every coin has a flip side, similarly there are a few shortcomings to Li-
ion batteries as well. Before exploring further there is a need to learn about
structure and basic working of Li-ion batteries.

1.2.1 Structure of Li-ion battery:

A typical lithium-ion battery is made up of the following components:

 Electrodes: A lithium-ion battery has two electrodes, a negative anode

and a positive cathode, that store lithium.
 Electrolyte: An electrolyte liquid carries lithium ions between the
electrodes during charging and discharging.
 Separator: A separator blocks the flow of electrons between the
electrodes to prevent a short circuit. The separator has tiny pores that
allow lithium ions to move.
 Current collectors: Two current collectors, one positive and one
negative, collect, concentrate, and distribute electrical current. They are
usually made of aluminum for the cathode and copper for the anode.
 Housing: The battery is usually housed in a shell made of ABS, stainless
 steel, or a small amount of aluminum casting.

Fig. Working of Li-ion battery

Working of Li-ion batteries

A lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery works by movement and storage of lithium ions

and electrons between its positive and negative electrodes to store and release
electrical energy.

The process of charging and discharging a lithium-ion battery revolves around

the movement of lithium ions from one electrode to another.

When the battery is charging, lithium ions are pushed from the cathode,
through the electrolyte, towards the anode, owing to the external electrical
power source. As these ions reach the anode, they combine with the electrons
present, essentially 'storing' the energy.

Upon discharging, the reverse process occurs. The electrical device draws
power, causing the lithium ions at the anode to lose an electron, transforming
into Li+. These ions then migrate back through the electrolyte, moving towards
the cathode.
Reaching the cathode, these ions reclaim an electron, thus returning to their
original state. This movement of lithium ions while charging and discharging
creates a flow of electric current, providing power to the device.
 Shortcomings of Li-ion batteries

Li-ion batteries are temperature sensitive they show optimum performance

between 15°C to 45°C.
There is a need to maintain this temperature for better functioning and longer
life span of these batteries.

Not only performance and capacity concerns, but safety is also a concern at
high temperatures as Thermal runaway may cause a chain reaction in the
battery, causing spontaneous fire in the battery module.

As mentioned above, we can state that Li-ion are temperature dependent

batteries. Let us study in detail about other effects of temperature on LIB’s.

Effect of temperature on LIB’s:

Batteries are designed to perform at an optimum temperature, Batteries face

problems in performance, lifespan, capacity and safety. If the upper or lower
limits of temperature are pushed.

Currently, the main barrier to the popularity of the use of batteries in EV’s rise
in temperatures due to internal heat generation in the battery. The battery
temperature rise above atmospheric temperature is due to the joule’s heating
during operation of the battery and heat due to chemical reactions taking place
inside the battery, but this problem grows as:

1. Batteries are charged at high charging rate.

2. Batteries are discharged at high discharging rate.
3. The cooling system of the batteries is more dependent on atmospheric
temperature which may pose problems at high ambient temperatures.
4. Temperatures are continuously rising due to ineffective cooling systems
and continuous generation of heat due to discharging or charging.
As we have seen above the effects of high temperature on LIB’s, also lower
temperatures are not beneficial for the operation of Li-ion batteries.
Low temperature effect:
Battery performance is significantly diminished at low temperatures which will
limit their application in cold location such as Canada, Russia etc. Low
temperatures are expected to have a variety of effects on batteries, including
charge acceptance, power capacity, energy, life duration and round-trip
efficiency. Smart et al. charged a Li-ion cell at room temperature and
discovered that it was difficult to charge the cell to its full capacity and that
lithium plating might occur at high charging rates. It was discovered that if the
temperature dropped below 10°C, both the power and the energy of Li-ion
batteries might be lowered.

So, studying all these we understood that there is a need for Battery
thermal management system (BTMS) for Li-ion battery. A BTMS is
responsible for regulating temperatures of a battery to allow
electrochemical reactions to take place smoothly. A BTMS may include
cooling and heating systems to maintain battery temperature.

Commercially a heat pump is used to heat the battery in cold temperatures to

start the EV and there after its own heat is enough to smoothen and foster
battery operation without any disturbance so there is not enough research going
on to heat the battery and also not needed to develop such device.
The major race among researchers and commercial brands is to develop a
cooling device to keep battery temperatures below 45°C. The cooling methods
for Li-ion batteries are being developed from early 2000’s. Earlier Electric Cars
were using only air to cool the battery pack such as Nissan Leaf, but as the Car
performance and battery capacity rises so as the heat generated by them and
Companies came up with different methods to cool Li-ion batteries which are
given ahead in Literature review.
 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Cooling techniques to cool Li-ion batteries:

Liquid Zhou et al. Cell: 18650  1-C 3.24W

cooling (2023) Module: 4*5  2-C 11.48W
 3-C 22.18W
Xu, Yu et al. Numerical Study on a Liquid  (liquid cooling plate
(2023) Cooling Plate with a Double-Layer during discharging)
Mini Channel for a Lithium Battery
Module
Cell Dimensions: 148 × 93 × 28
(length × width × thickness)
Mass (g): 825 ± 10
Heat Pipes Bernagozzi et Cell: 18650  3-C 24oC (HP-
al. (2023) Module: N.A. (based on different PCM-Liquid cooling)
studies and module sizes)  4-C 28. 5oC (HP-
HP size :3mm, increase in liquid cooling).
mass:11.7% (free conv).
Battery power consumed by hybrid
HP: around 2-5%.
PCM Z. Sun et al Cell:26650  5-C 50oC (Paraffin)
(2021) Specification of cell:
Diameter: 26mm
Height: 65mm
 Paraffin wax as PCM
Md Mahmud et theoretical analysis
al (2023)
Nanofluids Hasan et al. Numerical investigation on cooling CFD simulation using
(2023) cylindrical lithium-ion-battery by different types of
Jindal et al. using different types of nanofluids Nanoparticles (metallic
(2022) in an innovative cooling system oxides) at varying Re.

Computational Fluid Dynamics CFD simulation uses two

(CFD) analysis of Graphene different concentrations
Nanoplatelets for the cooling of a and varying flow types for
multiple-tier Li-ion battery pack different battery pack
layouts.
Problems, Mechanism, and application-based differences in BTMS

Table 1 mechanism and problem of currently used BTMS

Different Mechanism Type of Problems Remarks

BTMS cooling
Liquid circulate a liquid Direct/  Higher sealing liquid cooling systems
Cooling coolant, such as water or Indirect requirements for the provide efficient heat
a specialized fluid, battery pack dissipation and
through channels within  Pumps and cooling enhanced thermal
the plates. This coolant systems are required management
absorbs heat from the  The system structure is compared to air
battery cells via direct more complex, the cooling methods.
contact and then carries overall weight is large, However, they require
the heat away as it and the cost is higher. more complex design
circulates through the and maintenance, and
cooling system. there is a risk of
leakage.

Heat Pipes Based on liquid-vapor Passive/ Application of heat

 Dependency on
phase change. hybrid pipes-based BTMS is
ambient temperature.
Movement of vapor and strictly limited to
 Only HP does not work
liquid is facilitated by research and study till
well in high
wick and pipe structure now.
temperatures.
 Cannot handle rapid
heat fluctuations
Nanofluids Nano fluids have better Active  Bulky pumps and other Nano fluids have
properties than water equipment are excellent
which provide better required. thermophysical
thermal management.  Leakage problems property that has
 expensive better conductivity,
and heat capacity.
PCM PCM is a material Passive/  Low thermal PCM are best at
capable of storing and hybrid conductivity of PCM maintaining
releasing thermal energy material temperature
by undergoing a phase  Continuous change of uniformity.
change. property of PCM
material due to
changes in the state of
the material
 Prolonged usage may
be a problem in harsh
conditions
References:

1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_battery
2 https://www.electronicsforu.com/technology-trends/learn-electronics/different-types-of-
batteries
3 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechargeable_battery
4 https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/energy-density#:~:text=On%20battery
%20materials%20and%20methods&text=The%20energy%20density%20of%20a,is%20thus
%2033.8%20Wh/kg.
5 https://www.relionbattery.com/blog/what-is-energy-density-why-does-it-matter
6 https://www.exidecare.com/know-your-battery/glossary-of-battery-terms
7 https://www.solar-electric.com/learning-center/battery-terms-glossary.html/#:~:text=One
%20coulomb%20is%20the%20amount,forces%20exerted%20between%20electric
%20charges.&text=A%20%22cycle%22%20is%20a%20somewhat,telephone%20batteries%20is
%20usually%2010%25.&text=How%20many%20times%20a%20battery,accelerated%20testing
%20is%20commonly%20done).
8 https://www.biologic.net/topics/interactive-battery-science-glossary-of-terms/#:~:text=battery
%20cycling%20curves%E2%80%9D.-,Depth%20of%20Discharge%2C%20DoD,is%20equivalent
%20to%20the%20SoC.&text=For%20more%20details%2C%20see%20State,of%20Health
%20(SoH)%E2%80%9D.
9 https://www.epectec.com/batteries/glossary-of-battery-terms.html