Batteries

Batteries

 A battery consists of two or more electric cells joined together.

 The cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy.
 The cells consist of positive and negative electrodes joined by an
electrolyte.
 It is the chemical reaction between the electrodes and the
electrolyte which generates DC electricity.
 There exist different types of batteries, and each of these types has
their own characteristics and properties.
 The choice of a specific type of battery over another one highly
depends on the application.
 Lead-acid batteries

 A battery has a range of performance criteria. These criteria will

include:
 specific energy
 energy density
 specific power
 typical voltages
 amp hour efficiency
 energy efficiency
 commercial availability
 cost, operating temperatures
 self-discharge rates
 number of life cycles
 recharge rates
 Battery Parameters

Charge (or Ahr) capacity

 The electric charge that a battery can supply is clearly a most crucial parameter.
 The SI unit for this is the Coulomb, the charge when one Amp flows for one second.
 The capacity of a battery might be, say, 10 Amphours. This means it can provide
1Amp for 10 hours.
Energy stored
 The energy stored in a battery depends on its voltage, and the charge stored.
 The SI unit is the Joule, but this is an inconveniently small unit, and so we use the Whr
instead.
Energy in Whr = V *Ahr
 Battery Parameters

Specific energy
 Specific energy is the amount of electrical energy stored for every kilogram of
battery mass. It has units of Wh.kg−1.
Energy density
 Energy density is the amount of electrical energy stored per cubic meter of battery
volume. It normally has units of Wh.m−3.
Specific power
 Specific power is the amount of power obtained per kilogram of battery.
 It is a highly variable and rather anomalous quantity, since the power given out by
the battery depends far more upon the load connected to it than the battery itself.
 Battery Parameters

Ahr (or charge) efficiency

 In an ideal world a battery would return the entire charge put into it, in which
case the amp hour efficiency is 100%. However, no battery does; its charging
efficiency is less than 100%.
 The precise value will vary with different types of battery, temperature and
rate of charge. It will also vary with the state of charge.
Energy efficiency
 This is another very important parameter and it is defined as the ratio of
electrical energy supplied by a battery to the amount of electrical energy
required to return it to the state before discharge.
 Battery Parameters

Self-discharge rates
 Most batteries discharge when left unused, and this is known as self-discharge.
 This is important as it means some batteries cannot be left for long periods
without recharging. The rate varies with battery type, and with other factors such
as temperature; higher temperatures greatly increase self-discharge.
Battery temperature, heating and cooling needs
 Although most batteries run at ambient temperature, some run at higher
temperatures and need heating to start with and then cooling when in use.
 In others, battery performance drops off at low temperatures, which is
undesirable, but this problem could be overcome by heating the battery.
 When choosing a battery the designer needs to be aware of battery temperature,
heating and cooling needs, and has to take these into consideration during the
vehicle design process.
 Battery Parameters

Battery life and number of deep cycles

 Most rechargeable batteries will only undergo a few hundred deep
cycles to 20% of the battery charge.
 However, the exact number depends on the battery type, and also
on the details of the battery design, and on how the battery is used.
 This is a very important figure in a battery specification, as it
reflects in the lifetime of the battery, which in turn reflects in
electric vehicle running costs.
 Lead Acid Batteries
 For more than 100 years, lead-acid batteries have been used for
different applications such as residential and commercial
applications
 The best known and most widely used battery for electric vehicles is
the lead acid battery.
 Lead Acid Batteries

Performances :
• Range of powers qq 100 W to 10 MW
• Specific energy 25 to 35 Wh / kg
• Cost (€ / kW) 100 to 500 (HP)
• Maximum duration 1 to 8 hours
• Overall efficiency (in%) 70 to 85

Advantages: Disadvantages:
• Capacity; • Low Efficiency
• Good energy density; • Low life (cycling)
• Potential environmental impact
• Moderate investment
cost
 Lithium Batteries

 This type of batteries is generally

used in electric grid applications,
electronics, and transportation.
 Lithium-ion batteries use the
circulation of Li+ ions from a
negative electrode, generally
made of graphite, toward a
transition metal oxide
(manganese or cobalt dioxide) to
generate a current during
discharge
Lithium Batteries
 Lithium Batteries

 The advantage of this technology:

 the mass energy density it supplies (between 80 and 150 Wh/kg),
 These batteries undergo a relatively low self-discharge compared to
other accumulators and require little maintenance.
 Their expected number of deep load/discharge cycles varies between
1,000 and 4,000, and can be much higher for lower discharge depths.
 The disadvantage of this technology:
 Their high cost continues to affect their competitiveness negatively.
 Lithium Batteries

 Currently, there are three main technologies:

1. Lithium-ion (Li-ion)
 Lithium remains in the ionic state due to the use of an insertion compound and due to
the negative (generally of graphite) as well as positive electrodes (cobalt dioxide,
manganese and iron phosphate).
 Li-ion batteries supply a significant energy density averaging 150 Wh/kg; they have a
low rate of self- discharge, no memory effect and require no maintenance.
 To slow down their aging process, it is preferable to use them with a low discharge
depth.
 There is a risk of explosion if they are recharged in poor conditions, which is why
designers have developed an adapted security system (battery management system, or
BMS) for these batteries.
 Lithium Batteries

2. Lithium-ion polymer (Li-Po) technology,

 The material of the electrodes is identical to lithium-ion technology but the electrolyte is
composed of polymer gel.
 Li-Po batteries are lighter in weight and are safer than Li-ion batteries, but they are also
more costly.
3. Lithium metal polymer (LMP) technology,
 The negative electrode is composed of metallic lithium.
 LMP batteries have an energy density of around 110 Wh/kg; are entirely solid, which
reduces the risk of explosion; and have no memory effect, but optimally function at a
high temperature of 85°C.
 Sodium sulfur batteries

• Anode: The anode of a sodium-sulfur

battery is typically made of solid sodium
(Na).
• Cathode: The cathode consists of a sulfur
(S) electrode, where sulfur undergoes a
chemical reaction with sodium ions.
Working Principle:
• During discharging, sodium ions migrate
from the anode through a solid electrolyte
to the cathode, where they combine with
sulfur to form sodium polysulfides.
• During charging, the reverse reaction
occurs, converting sodium polysulfides back
into sodium and sulfur.
 Sodium sulfur batteries

 The sodium-sulfur option can be used for large capacities (several

MW and several MWh with a typical time constant of 7 h), which
makes it suitable for storage systems supporting electrical grids.
 NaS technology uses widely available, low-cost materials (sodium
sulfide, aluminum oxide and aluminum) and is an attractive solution
for energy storage in fixed batteries, the regulation of grids and the
optimization of station operations over periods of several hours
 Nickel-based batteries (NiCd, NiMH, and
NiZn)

 Battery systems that use nickel-electrode are nickel- cadmium

(NiCd), nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), nickel-iron (NiFe), nickel-
hydrogen (NiH2), nickel-zinc (NiZn).
 The most used one in utility industries is nickel-cadmium (NiCd).
 NiCd and NiMH are commonly used than the other types.
 The cathode electrode consists of nickel-hydroxide, whereas the
electrolyte of nickel-based batteries is an aqueous solution of
potassium hydroxide and lithium hydroxide.
 The anode electrode is made up of cadmium hydroxide, zinc
hydroxide, and metal alloy for NiCd, NiMH, NiZn batteries,
respectively.
 Nickel-based batteries (NiCd, NiMH, and
NiZn)

 NiCd battery storage has a cycle lifetime of about 1500-3000 cycles.

 Nicd has a longer lifetime than lead-acid batteries, whereas NiMH
and NiZn have smaller or almost the same calendar life- time.
 The downsides of this technology are high self- discharge rates,
which is approximately 10% per month, and high cost.
 Nickel-based batteries are 10 times more expensive and have lower
efficiency range than lead- acid batteries.
 The toxic “cadmium” material has a negative impact on the
environment.
 Flow batteries

 A flow battery is a type of rechargeable battery where

rechargeability is provided by two chemical
components dissolved in liquids contained within the system and
most commonly separated by a membrane.
 One of the biggest advantages of flow batteries is that they can be
almost instantly recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid, while
simultaneously recovering the spent material for re-energization.
 The fundamental difference between conventional batteries and
flow cells is that energy is stored as the electrode material in
conventional batteries but as the electrolyte in flow cells
 Flow batteries
 As in the case of conventional batteries, the
operating principle of flow batteries (FBESS) is
based on the electrochemical reactions that occur in
electrochemical cells.
 Flow batteries differ from conventional ones in the
fact that the electrolyte is not permanently stored in
the cells but, instead, two aqueous electrolytic
solutions (A and B) are contained in separate tanks.
 During the charging process, these aqueous
solutions are pumped through the electrochemical
cells, where the electrochemically active material
dissolved in electrolyte A is oxidized at the anode,
and the electro- chemically active material in
electrolyte B is reduced at the cathode.
 The discharge cycle comprises the reverse process.
 Flow batteries

 Three technologies have been developed to date:

– vanadium and sulfuric acid-based (VRB and Sumimoto);

– zinc bromide-based (several companies, including ZBB);
– sodium bromide and sodium polysulfide-based (Regenesys); this technology
seems to be facing prohibitive difficulties.
 Vanadium technology (Electromotive Force (EMF) of 1.7 V) seems to be among
the most promising, with a long lifespan (more than 10,000 cycles) and a very
attractive potential cost-to-stored- energy ratio.
 High-capacity systems (from approximately 100 kWh to approximately 10 MWh)
are in the more or less advanced experimental stage.
 To give some values, the stack of a VRB system has a power density of 30 W/kg
(and 90 W/kg at its peak) for a per- cycle efficiency of around 83% for
load/discharge cycles of several hours each.
 Problem 1

 A battery 4 A.h under 24 V.

1. Calculate the energy content of the full-size battery (in W.h and in J ).
2. This battery feeds an electric bike which consume in average a current
of 0.5 A. How long does it take for the battery to fully discharge?
3. This time the bike attacks a climb and consumes 3 A. How long does it
take for the battery to discharge completely?
4. The battery is fully charged at the beginning. Then, it is used for 2h15
and1.4 A. What is the final charge (amount of electricity) of the
battery?
 Problem 1

 A battery 4 A.h under 24 V.

1. Calculate the energy content of the full-size battery (in W.h and in J ).

2. This battery feeds an electric bike which consume in average a current of 0.5 A.
How long does it take for the battery to fully discharge?

3. This time the bike attacks a climb and consumes 3 A. How long does it take for
the battery to discharge completely?

4. The battery is fully charged at the beginning. Then it is used for 2h15 and1.4A.
What is the final charge (amount of electricity) of the battery?
 Problem 2

 A battery provided a quantity of electricity of 1800 Coulombs for

one minute. Calculate the intensity of the current delivered by the
battery (1A = 1 C / s).
 An accumulator battery discharges completely in 1h30 when it
discharges 7A. Calculate the capacity of the battery in amperes-
hours.
 An incandescent lamp operates 5 hours 20 minutes a day and is
traversed by a current of 0.7 A. Calculate in Amperes-hours the
amount of electricity consumed in a month of thirty days.
 Problem 2

 A battery provided a quantity of electricity of 1800 Coulombs for one minute.

Calculate the intensity of the current delivered by the battery (1A = 1 C / s).

 An accumulator battery discharges completely in 1h30 when it discharges 7A.

Calculate the capacity of the battery in amperes-hours.

 An incandescent lamp operates 5 hours 20 minutes a day and is traversed by a

current of 0.7 A. Calculate Amperes-hours the amount of electricity consumed in a
month of thirty days.
 Problem 3

 We have a 12 V battery of 20 A.h.

1. Calculate the complete energetic capacity in W.h of la batterie.
 Problem 3

 We have a 12 V battery of 20 A.h.

 1. Calculate the complete energetic capacity in W.h of labatterie.

 The behavior of this battery is studied in two cycles defined by: Cycle 1: zone A (discharge
at Ǫ0 A for ņ6 min) then zone B (charge) Cycle 2: zone C then zone D.
 Problem 3

 Calculate the quantities of electricity supplied (Q> 0 discharged) and received (Q

<0 storage mode) during cycle 1.
 Calculate the quantities of electricity supplied (Q> 0 discharged) and received (Q
<0 storage mode) during cycle 2.
 The initial state of charge being 60%, deduct the state of charge of the battery
after these 2 cycles (pay attention to the signs).
 Problem 3

 Calculate the quantities of electricity supplied (Q> 0 discharged) and received (Q

<0 storage mode) during cycle 1.

 Calculate the quantities of electricity supplied (Q> 0 discharged) and received (Q

<0 storage mode) during cycle 2.

 The initial state of charge being 60%, deduct the state of charge of the battery
after these 2 cycles (pay attention to the signs).
 Problem 4

 Battery Capacity Problem:. A lithium-ion battery has a rated capacity

of 3,000 milliampere-hours (mAh). If a device draws a constant current of
100 milliamperes (mA), how long will the battery last before it's fully
discharged?
 Depth of Discharge (DoD) Problem: A lead-acid battery with a
capacity of 100 ampere-hours (Ah) is discharged to a depth of 60%. How
many ampere-hours have been used, and how many remain?
 Battery Efficiency Problem: A battery charger takes 2 hours to
charge a 12-volt battery with a capacity of 80 ampere-hours. During the
charging process, the battery charger draws 100 watts from the power
supply. What is the efficiency of the battery charger?
 Battery Cycle Life Problem: A lithium-ion battery is rated for 500
charge-discharge cycles. If the battery is charged and discharged
once a day, how many years will it last?
 Problem 4

 Solution of the Battery Capacity Problem

 You can calculate the battery's runtime by dividing its capacity by

the current:

 So, the battery will last for 30 hours.

 Problem 4

 Solution of the Depth of Discharge (DoD) Problem :

 To find the ampere-hours used and remaining, you can calculate based on the depth
of discharge (DoD):
 Ampere-hours used = Capacity × DoD = 100 Ah × 0.60 = 60 Ah
 Ampere-hours remaining = Capacity - Ampere-hours used = 100 Ah - 60 Ah = 40 Ah
 So, 60 ampere-hours have been used, and 40 ampere-hours remain.
 Problem 4

 A battery charger takes 2 hours to charge a 12-volt battery with a capacity

of 80 ampere-hours. During the charging process, the battery charger
draws 100 watts from the power supply. What is the efficiency of the
battery charger?
 Solution of the Battery Efficiency Problem :
 The efficiency of the charger can be calculated using the formula:

 To calculate the useful output energy, first, calculate the energy (in
watt-hours) delivered to the battery:
 Problem 4

Now, you can calculate the efficiency:

--> the efficiency of the battery charger is 100%, indicating that it
delivers all the input energy to the battery.
 Problem 4

Solution of the Battery Cycle Life Problem:

To find the battery's lifespan in years, divide the number of cycles by
the cycles per day and then divide by 365 days per year:

Now, convert days to years:

So, the battery will last for approximately 1.37 years if charged and
discharged once a day.
 Problem 5
 A utility company is planning to implement a grid-scale energy storage
system using lithium-ion batteries to store excess electricity generated
during periods of low demand and discharge it during peak demand. The
utility needs to design a system with a total energy capacity of 50 MWh
and a power output of 20 MW. They have selected a specific lithium-ion
battery module with the following specifications:
- Battery Module Capacity: 500 kWh
- Battery Module Voltage: 400 V
- Maximum Discharge Rate: 1 C (100% of the module's capacity per hour)
- Efficiency during charging: 95%
- Efficiency during discharging: 90%
 What is the minimum number of these battery modules required for the
energy storage system, and how long can it provide the rated power
output?
 Problem 5

Solution:
1. Calculate the minimum number of modules required:
The total energy capacity needed is 50 MWh. To find the number of
modules required, we need to convert this to kilowatt-hours (kWh) and then
divide it by the capacity of a single module:

2. Calculate the maximum discharge power:

Each module has a maximum discharge rate of 1 C, which means it can
discharge its capacity in 1 hour. Since the capacity of a single module is 500
kWh, it can provide a discharge power of 500 kW. To meet the required
power output of 20 MW (20,000 kW), you would need 40 modules (20,000
kW / 500 kW/module).
 Problem 5
3. Calculate the duration at rated power:
To find out how long the system can provide the rated power output, you
can divide the total energy capacity by the rated power output:

So, the utility company would need a minimum of 100 battery modules, and
the energy storage system can provide the rated power output for 2.5 hours.

This problem involves calculating the number of modules needed to meet a

specific energy capacity and power output requirement while considering
factors such as module capacity, voltage, and efficiency. It's a more complex
example that reflects real-world considerations when designing grid-scale
energy storage systems.