ASSOSA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

Course Title: Fundamentals of Research Course ECTS: 5 ECTS (135 Hrs)

methods and Report Writing Course Duration: Whole Semester

Instructor’s Name: Taye Regasa
Course Code: EnLa 311

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Overview of Research
In the broadest sense the term research is defined as gathering data, information and facts for the
advancement of knowledge.
Research is mostly used terminology in different academic and business institutions. Research as
consciously and creative human activity involves discovering and learning new things. Where
there is a problem there is always a research. It is an essential tool for understanding the events
and structure of the social world. Research can mean different things to different people. People
have defined research differently according to their perception.
Research-Commonly refers to a search for knowledge. Some people consider research as a
movement from known to unknown.

Science and scientific research

Scientific method is a cyclical process of generating ideas, conducting research, analyzing the
findings and using them to generate more ideas.
The eventual goal is to build theory- an explanations of why and how the processes occur,
supported by current evidences.
Motivation of research
Research is not a trouble- free duty rather it is time consuming, tiresome and expensive
undertaking.
The possible motives for doing research can be either one or a combination of the following:
 Desire to get degree with its consequential benefit.

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  Desire to get respect and promotion (to own respect in society)
 Desire to face a challenge in solving the unsolved problem
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work
 Directive of government
 Employment condition

. Types of research
Like its definition research has been classified differently. Generally research can be classified on
the basis of the following traits:
 On the basis of the outcomes of research: whether the research tries to solve a particular
problem or makes a general contribution to the knowledge, research can be classified on
the following traits.
 Fundamental Research:
Fundamental research is also called academic or basic or pure research. Such research is aimed at
investigating or search for new principles and laws. It is mainly concerned with generalization and
formulation of a theory. Fundamental research is organized only for the attainment of knowledge
and truth. With change of time and space, it is necessary to make in the fundamental principles in
every branch of science; thus, this type of research also verifies the old established theories,
principles and laws.
In general, fundamental research is concerned with the theoretical aspect of science.
E.g. The relationship between crime and economic status

 Applied Research
A research aimed finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society, a group or industry
(business organization). The results of such research would be used by either individuals or
groups of decision-makers or even by policy makers.
 While pure research discovers principles and laws, applied research discovers their application
in solving some social, economical or any other problems.
E.g. The improvement of safety in the work place

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Types of Applied Research
 Social impact analysis: the major purpose of social assessment is to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment can be used for planning and
making choices among alternative policies.
 Evaluation Research: is widely used type of applied research that addresses the question,
“did it works?” Evaluation is a process of establishing value judgment based on evidence.
Applied research being impact analysis or evaluation research uses two tools namely; need
assessment and cost benefit analysis
Need Assessment: a research collects data, to determine major needs and their severity. It is often
a preliminary step before deciding on a strategy to help people.
Cost benefit analysis: this is commonly used in social impact analysis. Economics developed
cost benefit analysis, in which the researcher estimates the future costs and the expected benefits of
one or several proposed actions and gives them monetary values.

 On the basis of the purpose (the reason why a research is conducted)

 Exploratory Research (Pilot Survey)
It is also called preliminary research. As it s name implied, such research is aimed at discovering,
identifying and formulating a research problem and hypothesis. When there are few or no studies
that can be referred such research is needed.
 Descriptive Research
The main purpose of such research is description of the state of nature or affairs, as it exists at
present. In social science and business research we often use the term ex-post facto research for
descriptive research. The main characteristic of such research is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; he can report what has happened or what is happening.
E.g. what is the absentee rate in a particular office?
Goals of Descriptive Research
 To provide an accurate profile of a group
 To describe a process, mechanism or relationship
 To provide a verbal or numerical picture about a phenomenon
 To find information to stimulate new explanations
 To present basic background information on a context
 To create a set of categories or classify types

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  To document information that contradicts prior beliefs about a subject.
 Analytical research: Analytical research on the other hand, goes beyond simple description
of the state of nature.
When a researcher encounters an issue that is already known and have a description of it, you may
begin to ask “why” things are the way they are.
Analytical research uses facts or information already available, and analyses them to make a
critical evaluation of the material.
Goals of analytical research
 To determine the accuracy of a principle of a theory
 To find out which competing explanation is better
 To advance knowledge about an underling process
 To link different issues or topics under a common general statement
 To build and elaborate a theory so it becomes more complete
 To extend a theory or principle in to new areas or issues
 To provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction
Example: How can we reduce the number of complaints made by customer?
How can we expand the range of our services?
The two common Examples of analytic research are the following:
 Case study: is a type of analytical research in which researchers examine many feature of
very few elements in depth over duration of time. Case can be individual, group,
organization, movement, events or geographic units. The data in case study are usually
more detailed, varied and extensive
In case study a researcher may intensively investigate, one or more cases or compare a
limited set of cases focusing on a several factors.
 Tracer study is also known as follow up study. It is a type of explanatory research that
aims at investigating the subsequent development of individuals after a specified treatment
or condition.
Tracer study is used to make an investigation on the direction of movement as and
predicts what is likely to take place to the future.
Trace study is designed to establish patterns of change in the past in order to predict
future patterns or conditions by analyzing data collected about subjects and
environment.

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 Common examples of such study are that a researcher may conduct a tracer study of the
former graduates of the faculty of Business and Economics to know:
o Whether all of the graduates are employed or absorbed by the labor market
o Whether there is a mismatch between the training graduates received and the
type of jobs they are handling
o Whether a new environmental trend justifies the need of change.
 Predictive research: Such research goes beyond explaining why and how things
happened. It predicts the probability of happening similar situation in other places.
It tries to explain about the probability of happening in similar things in the future.

E.g. how would an increase interest rate affect our profit margin?
What type of packing will improve the sales of our products?
 On the basis of their process
That is, on the basis of data used in the research process research an be
 Qualitative research: Such research is applicable for phenomena that cannot be expressed
in terms of quantity. Things related to quality and kind. Research designed to find how
people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is an example of such
research.
 Quantitative research: Quantitative research on the other hand, is concerned with
quantitative phenomena. It is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable for phenomena that can be expressed in term of quantity.
 On the basis of the environment in which they carried out :
 Field research: It is a research carried out in the field. Such research is common in social
science, agricultural science, history and archeology.

 Laboratory research: It is a research carried out in the laboratory. These are commonly
experimental research. Such researches are common in medical science, agriculture and in
general in natural sciences.

 Simulation research: Such research uses model to represent the real world. Simulation is
common in physical science, economics and mathematics.
 On the basis of the time required to complete the research:

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  One –time research: it is a research limited to a single time period
 Longitudinal research: Such research is also called on-going research.
It is a research carried out over several times.

Common Objectives of Research

Any research activity is designed to discover and answer to questions through the application of
scientific procedure. It is an activity aimed at finding out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered yet or to verify or reject that the existing phenomenon (theory, principle or
law) accepted as true.
Through each research, study has its own specific objectives; any research has got the following
common (general) objectives.
 To generate new knowledge, principle and scientific law
 To review and synthesize existing knowledge. That is, To verify the validity of the
previous work
 To investigate some existing situation or problem
 To explain new phenomena
 To examine the cause of the problem
 To examine the nature of the problem
 To provide solutions to a problem
 To conduct or create a new procedure and new system
 A combination of any one of the above
Research and Scientific method
The two terms, research and scientific methods are closely related. The researcher is not interested
in particular results; rather he is interested in the repeatability and validity of results and their
application to more complicated and general situations.
Research methodology and techniques are mostly different from one science to another or can be
different from research to research.

 The philosophy common to all research methodology and technique is called scientific
methods.

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Steps in Scientific methods
The steps in scientific methods are summarized as follows:
 Observation: the first or initial step in the scientific method is a minute and careful
observation of the subject matter of research.
 Recording: the next step to observe in scientific method is a careful recording of all
information (data) obtained in the first step, i.e. observation
 Classification: the collected data (information) have to be classified and organized. The
classification implies systematically arranging and organizing the recorded data on the
logical basis so that they will become viable for the analysis and to make generation.
 Generalization: It is an extension of general laws and principles on the basis o the pattern
exhibited by the classified material. This general law is known as scientific law.
 Verification: the scientific method does not stop only at the formulation of general law.
The general principle must be verified.

FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS

THERE ARE SIX PRIMARY FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC METHODS
 Induction: the movement of knowledge from particular facts to general rule or principle.
 Deduction: a movement in knowledge from a general rule to a particular case.
 Historical: historical method is back ward movement in knowledge to trace the cause of
phenomenon
 Comparative: this method is used for the analysis and comparison of two contemporary
(coexisting and present) phenomenon.
 Structural: a study of what a things, what are its outline and significant feature is a
structural study (the comparison of a thing)
 Functional: In contrast to the structural method, functional method studies the processes
and their cause, that is, how and why of a thing.

METHODS VERSUS METHODOLOGY

 Research techniques: Refers the behavior and instruments we use in performing
research operation such as observing, recording data, data processing techniques
and the like.

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  Research methodology: methodology is a broad term used to refer to the research
design, methods approaches, and procedures used in an investigation that is well
planned to find out something.In the other word, itcan be understood as all those
approaches and techniques those are used in conducting a particular research.

Research methodology can be put in to three groups:

 The first group include approaches or techniques of data collection
 The second group consists of those statistical techniques used to established
relationship between variables
 The third group consists of those techniques involved in evaluating the accuracy of
the result obtained
Methods:is a way of systematically solve the research problem. Method can be understood as a
science of studying how research is done scientifically

Research process
Process is a series of interlinked steps to be taken to show the overall situations in the research.
Research process deals with the ways and strategies used to understand the world around us. This
is a guide to basic elements of scientific research.
 Before starting the details of research methods, it is appropriate to have a brief overview of
the research processes. Research processes consist of a series of actions or steps, which are
necessary to successfully carry out research activities.
 The research process consists of a number of closely related activities. The first step can
determine the nature of the last step to be undertaken.
However, the following order of steps provides a useful procedural guideline regarding processes.
Identifying the research problem (observation)
 The first stage of any research is to observe the world around us and to ask
question why things are happening.
 Every phenomenon in the universe has a reason behind it, and the aims of
research are to understand and evaluate what is happening.

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Evaluation of the Problem
Before the final decision is made on the investigation of the problem, the feasibility of the problem
has to be tested with regard to personal suitability of the researcher and social value of the
problem. In short, the research problem should be evaluated in terms of the following criteria:
 Is the problem research able?
Some problem cannot be effectively solved through the process of research. Particularly research
cannot provide answers to philosophical and ethical questions that don’t show the relationship
exiting between two or more variables.
 Is the problem new?
As much as possible, the research problems need to be new. One should not target his
investigation to the problem that has already been thoroughly investigated by other researchers.
To be safe from such duplication, the researcher has to go through the record of previous studies in
a given field.
 Is the problem significant?
 The question of significance of the problem usually relates to what a researcher hopes to
accomplish in a particular study.
 What his /her purpose in undertaking to solve the particular problem selected/chosen?
 What new knowledge does he/she hopes to add to the sum total of what is known?
 What value is this knowledge likely to have?
When all this questions are answered by the researcher the problem should be considered for
further investigation. The major dimensions are academic awareness and policy.
 Is the problem feasible for the particular researcher?
In addition to the above points, the feasibility of the research problem should also be examined
from the point of view of the researcher’s personal aspect.
 Research competency:
 The problem should be in an area in which the researcher is qualified and competent.
 The researcher has to make sure that he/she is familiar with the existing theories, concepts,
and laws and related to the problem.
 He/she must also possess the necessary skills and competence that may be needed to
develop, administer, and interpret the necessary data gathering tools.

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  Interest and enthusiasm:
 The researcher has to make sure that the problem really interests him/her.
 He/she must also be truly enthusiastic about the problem. If the problem is chosen
properly by observing these points, the research will not be boring; rather it will be love’s
labor.
 Financial consideration:
 The researcher should ascertain whether he has necessary financial resources to carry on
the investigation of the selected problem. An estimate of the expenditure involved in the
data gathering equipment, printing, test material, travel, and clerical assistance to be
specified.
 Time requirement:
 Research should be undertaken within a given scope of time, which was allocated, with
careful analysis of the prevailing situation.
 Each and every of research process require time.
 Particularly, it is worthwhile to plan for the time that will be needed for the development
and administration of tools, processing and analysis of data and writing of the research
report.
 Administration consideration:
 The researcher has to pay attention to all administrative matter that is necessary to bring
his/her study to its full completion.
 In this regard the researcher should consider kinds of data, equipment, specialized
personnel and administrative facilities that are needed to complete study successfully.
 The researcher must assure whether the pertinent data are available and accessible to him/
her.
Extensive literature survey (reviewing literature)
For most areas, this stage involves sifting through and reviewing earlier studies about similar
phenomena. Most research is built up on the work of previous researchers, so there should be a
wealth of literature resources available.
Purpose of reviewing literature
 To identify a gap
 To look for controversies

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  To learn about methodology
Setting research questions, objectives
 Objective tell us what should be researched
 Hypothesis are possible answers to the research questions

Hypothesis (prediction)
Once the selection and definition of the problem have been accomplished, the derivation of
working hypothesis is the most important step in the research process.

 The word hypothesis is a compound of two words, ‘hypo’ and ‘thesis’.

 Hypo means, under or below and thesis means a reasoned theory or rational viewpoint.

The term hypothesis is defined as a proposition that is stated in a testable form and predicts a
particular relationship between two or more variables.

 This stage is where you must make a statement of intent and develop strong
hypothesis
 It must be testable to prove or disprove this statement;
 At this stage you may express personal opinion favoring one side or the other
 You must make statement predicting what you expect the final answer to be

IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS
A well-grounded hypothesis provides the following advantages:

 Represents specific objective, which determine the nature of the data needed to test
the proposition
 Offer basis for selecting the sample, the research procedure, and the statistical
analysis needed
 Keeps the study restricted in scope thereby preventing it from becoming too broad
 Sets a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study

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 SOURCE OF HYPOTHESIS
The inspection for hypothesis comes from a number of sources which includes the following:

 Professional Experience:The daily life experience or the day to day observation of the
relationship (correlation) between different phenomena leads the researcher to hypothesize
a relationship and to conduct a study if his/ her assumptions are confirmed.
 Past Research or Common beliefs:Hypothesis can also be inspired by tracing past
research or by commonly held beliefs.
 Through direct analysis of data or deduction from existing theory: Hypothesis
may also be generated through direct analysis of data in the field or may be deducted from
a formal theory. Through attentive reading, the researcher may able to get acquaintance
with relevant theories, principles and facts that may alert him or her to identify valid for
his/her study
 Technological and social changes: Directly or indirectly exerts an influence in the
function of an organization. All such changes bring about new problems for research.

FORMS OF HYPOTHESIS
Statement of research hypothesis can take a declarative (positive) form, negative form, the null
form, or the question form.

Positive:

Students who learn in small class size will perform significantly better in mathematics test than
those who learn in large class size.

Negative:

Students who learn in small class size will not perform significantly better in math’s test than those
in large class size.

Null Form:

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There is no significances difference between students who learn in small class size and those who
learn in large class size in their mathematics performance.

Question Form:

Is there significant difference between students who learn in small class size and those in large
class size in their math’s performance?

In general, when a researcher makes a positive statement about the outcome of the study, the
hypothesis takes declarative forms. When the researcher negates about outcome of the study, the
hypothesis takes the negative form.
When the researcher makes a statement that no relationship exists, the hypothesis takes the null
form. In the question form hypothesis, a question is asked as to what the outcome will be instead
of stating what outcome is expected. It should also be noted that a working proposition stated
either in declarative, negative, null, question form is a matter of preference by the researcher.

Preparing the research design

 The overall framework of the study to answer the research questions and
 To achieve our objectives, the research design can be qualitative, quantitative
and mixed approach
Determine sample design
 It is about selecting a small number of items or options (called a sample) of a
universe (called population).
 There probability and non-probability sampling
Collecting data
 Questionnaires
 Interview
 Focus groups
 Observation
Processing and analysis of the data
 Cleaning: removing erroneous data and checking inconsistencies;
 Coding data to account for missing values;
 transforming
Writing report

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  Writing a work plan
 Communicating your finding and recommendation to administrators, program
coordinators and decision makers

Criteria of Good Research

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that, they
all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects scientific
research to satisfy the following criteria:

 The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
 The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
 The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under:

 Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic

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 characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
 Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows
from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
 Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
 Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

Theories in scientific research

Research paradigms

 According to lather (1986), research paradigm inherently reflects the researcher’s beliefs
about the world that’s/he lives in and wants to live in. It constitutes the abstract beliefs and
principles that shape how a researcher sees the world, and how s/he interprets and acts within
that world.
 Are operating rules about the appropriate relationship among theories, methods and evidence
that constitutes the actual practice of the numbers of a particular scientific community
 According to Willis (2007), paradigm is a comprehensive belief system, world view, or
framework that guides research and practices in the field.
 Positivism
 Constructivism/ Naturalist
 Post-Positivism
 Critical theory/Postmodernism

Positivism

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  There is a real world out there, whose characteristics can be observed,
measured and generalized in a way that come close to truth

Constructivism/ Naturalist

 The world is socially constructed by language and language is

constituted by cultural meanings negotiated by people with identities
shaped by their historical experience and social location

Post-Positivism

 There is imperfect reality and only somewhat apprehensible. Rigorous

procurers are used to apprehend what is apprehensible.

Critical theory/Postmodernism

 Reality is shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, gender

values; the dialogue between investigator and subjects is considered a
dialogue to transform ignorance into informed consciousness.

How do paradigms define research?

 Our theory or models of reality determine the questions we ask, the problems we
perceive, the methods we select, the data we collect and the policies and actions we
initiate (Holling 1976)
 Paradigms are way of thinking about reality and thus about conducting research. A
paradigm determines the type of questions that are legitimate, how they will be
answered, and in what context they will be interpreted.

Comparing paradigms

The word ontology comes from two Greek words.

 “Onto” which means existence or being real

 “Logia” which means science or study

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The word epistemology comes from two Greek words

 “Episteme” which means knowledge or understanding

 “Logia” which means science or study

 Ontology: The natures of the “reality” Common question what is real?”

It deals with the assumption we make about the kind and nature of reality and what
exists.
 Epistemology: Validation of knowledge claims: the relationship of the “knower” to
what is “knowable.” Common questions “How do we know about the world
around us?”
 It is an issue concerns the questions of what should be regarded as acceptable
knowledge in a discipline.

 Methodology: how we know what we know; what ways we think are legitimate for
generating knowledge. Common questions “How do we know what we know?”

 Causality: the possibility of causal linkages, distinction between cause and effect
Common questions “what is the relationship between/ among….?”
 Neutrality: the role of value, degree of subjectivity. Common questions

“How far are we free of bias?”

Positivist:

 Ontology: a single reality exists independent of any observer’s interest in it, which
operates by natural laws. Truth is that set of statements isomeric to reality
 Epistemology:Dualist, objectivist; it is possible & mandatory for an observer to exteriorize
the phenomenon studied, being detached & distant (i.e. subject object dualism)
 Methodology:The aim of inquire is to develop a nomothetic body of knowledge in the
form of generalizations that are through statements free from context.
 Causality :Phenomena can be explained as cause and effect relationship

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  Neutrality:Inquiry is value free. This can be achieved through the application of objective
methodology

Constructivist:

 Ontology:Relativist, there are multiple, socially constructed realities. “Truth” is the best
informed and most sophisticated construction about which there is consensus

 Epistemology:Monistic, subjectivist, an inquirer and the subject are interlocked or fused in

such a way that findings are the literal creation of the interaction inquire process
 Methodology:The aim of inquire is to develop an ideograph body of knowledge in the
form of working hypothesis that describe individual causes
 Causality:Cause and effects cannot be distinguished. All entities are in a state of
simultaneous shaping
 Neutrality:Inquiry is value bound. Influenced by inquirer values, choices of paradigm,
choice of theory and context.

Post-Positivist:

 Ontology: Critical realism; imperfect reality & only somewhat apprehend able b/c
of flawed humanity
 Epistemology:Modified dualistic views and objectivity rigorous procedures are
used to apprehend what is what is apprehend able. Beliefs in critical tradition. Do
the finings fit with preexisting knowledge?
 Methodology:Critical multiplism ; grounded theory and triangulation
 Causality:Phenomena can be explained as cause –effect relationship
 Neutrality:Inquiry is not completely value free but can be made more objective

Critical theory/Post modernism:

 Ontology:Material world of structured contradictions and/or exploitation w/c can

be objectively known only by ideological biases
 Epistemology:Investigator and investigated are interactively dialogical
approaches: avoid false consciousness facilitate transformation linked. Ignorance
and misapprehensions in to more informed consciousness

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  Methodology:Field research; historical analysis; dialectical analysis
 Causality:Cause-effects are modified by history. Time is an important variable
 Neutrality:Inquiry is influenced by values and/or biases of the investigator

Believes of ontology

 There is only one reality

 There are multiple realities
 Reality can be one and many

Believes of epistemology

 Knowledge can be measured using scientific rules, tools and designs

 Knowledge is interpretive in nature, so needs to be interpreted and explained
 Knowledge could be examined using best tools, scientific designs

Ont
olog
y

research
philosophy

Epis
tem
olog
y

First believes of ontology

 There is only one reality + measured using reliable tools and designs= positivism (there is
one solution to a particular problem and it can be measurable)

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Second believes of ontology

 There are multiple realities + knowledge needs to be interpreted and explained

=constructivism ( there are multiple realities and they can be interpreted)

UNIT TWO: BASICS OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

Research design

 What is research design

 What is the purpose of research design?
 What are the types of research design?
 What is the difference between fixed design and flexible design?
 How do we create research design?
 What is the difference between research design and approach?
 What makes a good research design?
 What are the characteristics of research design?

Research design is a well organized procedure utilized by a researcher or scientist to carry out
scientific study. It is a plan of collecting and analyzing data in an economic, efficient and relevant
manner. Research design is a plan of collecting of organizing framework for doing the study and
collecting the necessary data, is nothing but the conceptual structure with in which research is
conducted.

Purposes of research design

 To minimize the expenditure

 To facilitate the smooth scaling
 To collect relevant data
 To provides an overview for other experts
 To provide direction

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Types of research design

 Descriptive research design, (answer the questions what and how)

 Explanatory research design (what and why)
 Exploratory research design
 Evaluative research design

The following general rules should be followed in planning and preparing a research design:

The design decision should be oriented in answering the following question:

 What is the study?

 Why is the study being made?
 Where will be the study being carried out? Here a researcher is
expected to define place and the research target population?
 What the Nature and scope of the problem
 What types of data are required?
 Where can the required data be found and what techniques of data
collection will be used?
 What period of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 How will be the data analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

Features of good research Design

Important features of good research design can be summarized as follows:

 It is a plan that contains a clear statement of the research problem and specifies the source
and types of information relevant to the research problem
 It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used for gathering the data or the relevant
information

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 Indicate the population to be studied and methods to be used in processing and analyzing
the data.
 It also tentatively includes the time and cost budgets, since most studies done under these
two constraints.

Sampling

Sampling Design and Procedure

Some fundamental definitions

 Population: is the theoretically specified aggregation of survey elements from which

the survey sample is actually selected.
 Sampling Frame: is the list of elements from which the sample drawn
 Sample: a subset or some part of a larger population.
 Sample Design: is a definite plan for obtaining a sample frame.
 Sampling: is the process of using a small number or part of a larger population to
make conclusion about the whole population.

The Need for Sampling

 Sampling is a critical issue in survey research; usually the time, money, and effort involved
do not permit a researcher to study all possible members of a population. Furthermore, it is
generally not necessary to study all possible cases to understand the phenomenon under
consideration.

 Sampling comes to our aid by enabling us to study a portion of the population rather than
the entire population.

 Since the purpose of drawing a sample from a population is to obtain information concerning that
population, it is extremely important that individuals included in a sample constitute a

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 representative cross section of individuals in the population. I.e. samples must be representation if
one is to be able to generalize with confidence from the sample to the population.

Sampling Techniques

They are basically of two types: non-probability sampling and probability sampling.

I. Non- probability sampling

The non-probability sampling is much less complicated and less expensive. It is very
convenient in situations when the sample to be selected is very small and the researcher
wants to generalize some idea of the population characteristics or of the problem using well-
informed member in a short time.

The non-probability sample may prove perfectly adequate if the researcher has no desire to
generalize his findings beyond the sample, or if the study is merely a trial run for a larger
study.

There are four types of non-probability sampling

1. Convenience sampling: Non-probability samples that are unrestricted are called

convenience samples or accidents sample. In this sample, the investigator chooses
the closest live persons as respondents.
2. Quota Sampling: it is non-probability sampling, which is equivalent to stratified
sampling with added requirement that each stratum is generally represented in the
sample in the same proportion as in the same population. When stratified random
sampling is impractical to use because of difficulty of getting complete list of the units
in the strata of the population, quota sampling becomes appropriate.
3. Purposive Sampling: in purposive or judgmental sampling the investigator doesn’t
necessary have a quota to fill from within various strata as in quota sampling, but
neither does he just pick the nearest bodies as in convenience sampling. Rather the
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 researcher uses his own judgment about which respondent to choose and pick only
those who best meet the purposes of the study.
4. Snow Balling Sampling: the term snowball comes from the analogy of snowball,
begins small but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls down hill. This method of
sampling is conducted in stages. In the first stage a few persons having the required
characteristics are identified and interviewed. The second stage involves
interviewing those persons who again lead to still more persons who can be
interviewed in the third stage, and so on.
II. Probability Sampling

It implies that the probability of selection of each respondent is known. Sampling is

important in all research, but it is particularly critical in surveys. The findings of survey are
presented in numerical form, such as percentages, averages, and measures of variability.

The different sampling methods of probability sampling include:

I. Simple Random Sampling: each member of the population understudy has an equal chance of
being selected. The method involves selecting at random from al list of the population (sample
frame) the required number of subjects for the sample. Because of probability chance, the sample
should contain subjects with characteristics similar to the population as a whole: some old, some
young, some tall, some short, some rich, some poor etc.

2. Systematic sampling:this method is themodified form of simple random sampling. It involves

selecting from population lists in a systematic random fashion. For example, from a population of
2000 a sample of 200 is required and then every 10th person can be selected. The starting point for
the selection is chosen at random.

3. Stratified Sampling: it involves dividing the population in to homogonous groups, each group
containing subjects with similar characteristics. For example, group A might contain males and group
B females. In order to obtain a sample representative of the whole population in terms of sex,
random sampling selection of subjects from group A and group B must be taken. I needed, the exact
proportion of males to females in the whole population can be reflected in the sample.

4. Cluster (multi stage) sampling:

It is used when the population under study is large, when the distribution of the members is
scattered, or when the selection of individual members is not continent for several reasons. Cluster

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sampling is used in situations where the population members are naturally grouped in unit that can
be used conveniently as clusters. Example: A researcher is interested to survey the Math’s
achievement of 4th grade students in elementary schools found in Ethiopia. It is practically
impossible to test all 4th grade students in elementary school students in the country by a single
researcher.

Since the 4th graders are naturally grouped by regions, Zones, Woredas, schools and classes, the
researcher may take zones or Woredas or schools as clusters. If schools are selected, it will be easier
for him to take students as sample. Then, all students in the selected schools are to be selected.
Cluster sampling differs from stratified random sampling in that in cluster sampling random selection
occurs not with the individual members but with the clusters. The clusters for the sample are
randomly selected from the large population of cluster and once a cluster is selected for the sample,
all the population members in that clusters are included in the sample. This is in contrast to stratified
sampling in which the individual members within strata are randomly selected.

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 UNIT 3: DATA COLLECTION

Sources and Method of Data Collection

 The more information the researcher has about the phenomena the better will be his
investigation, and explanation about it.

 Without information no investigation will be made. In order to carry on any research

activity, information should be gathered from proper sources.

 The more valid is the sources of information, the more reliable will be the information
received, which will lead to correct and reliable conclusion.

Generally, the sources of information are two types,

Primary:

 are those information gathered by researcher himself and are gathered for the first time,
thus, happening to be original.

 The sources of such information are individuals and the incidence around them.

 These data are obtained by means of questionnaires and schedules or some other
techniques.

Secondary:

 Secondary data are those, which have already been collected by someone and which, have
already been passed through statistical process.

 Are information, which are gathered or obtained indirectly. The researcher does not obtain
them himself or directly rather he gathered them from published and unpublished materials.

Examples of secondary data

 Personal documents such as diaries, letters, photographs, and so on

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  Public documents such as books, manuscripts, records, census reports of survey by private
and public institution, and various information published in newspapers and magazines.

Primary Sources

Observation

 Direct observation is the most reliable method for gathering information relate to the life
style, status, conduct, behavior, language, custom and tradition and the like phenomenon.
The observer should be absolutely detached and objective in gathering facts.

The main advantages of this method:

 Information obtained under this method relates to what is currently happening.

 It is not complicated by either the past behavior or future intention or attitude.

 It is independent of respondents and is not demanding the active cooperation of the

respondents.

Limitation of observation method

 It is an expensive method

 The information provided by this method is very limited.

 Sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the observation task

 Some people or phenomena are rarely accessible to direct observation

 Subjective Interpretation

Types of observation

Participant Observation

 the researcher lives in the group or in the community as a member of it and participates in
their life. He experiences what the member of the group experience.

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 Advantages of this approach

 The researcher is enable to record the natural behavior of the group

 The researcher can even gather information, which could not be easily being obtained if he
observes in a disinterested fashion.

 The research can verify the truth of the statement made by informant in the context of the
study

Non Participant observation

 The researcher does not participate in the group life but observe as an external spectator.
Under such approach the presence of the researcher is unknown to the people.

Advantage of this approach

 Check and control is possible

 Since the observer is not a part of a group he is less subjective

 Wider range of experience can be obtained

Limitation of this approach

 Internal information cannot be obtained

 If the presence of the observer is known, it is very hard to observe the natural behavior of
the observed object.

The choice between participant and non-participant observation depends up on factors like,

 Purpose of the study (Type of the study)

 The cost of the research or availability of fund to carry out the research

 Availability of the group or community (whether it is possible to be a part of a community

or that group)

Convenience to the observer

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 Interview

Interview can be either personal interview or interview through telephone

 In an interview, the researcher meets people and discusses his social economic or some
other problem with them.

 During the courses of discussion, he gathers facts. An interview is different from schedules
(interview questionnaires).

 A schedule includes some predetermined questions asked by the researcher in definite

order without change.

 But the interview has no such definite form or order of question.

 The researcher may ask any question on the basis of his insight in to the problem

Types of personal interview

Structured Interview:

 Personal interview method of data collection is usually carried out in a structured and pre-
planned way.

 Structural interview involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and has highly
standardized techniques of recording.

 It is not possible for interviewer to change even the sequences of the questions.

 The recording formats also are standardized.

Unstructured Interview:

 such interview is characterizedby a flexibility of questions to questioning.

 It does not follow a systemof pre-determined question and standardize techniques of

recording information.

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  The researcher is allowed much greater freedom to, if it is needed, supplementary
questions or at times he may omit certain questions.

 Interviewer can change the sequences of question and he has also freedom in recording the
response to include some aspects and exclude the other.

 Unstructured interview is much more difficult and time consuming than that of the
structured one.

Merits of the personal interview method

 More information in greater depth can be obtained

 Interviewer by his own skill cans over co me the resistance, in any, of the respondent.

 There is greater flexibility and the opportunity to restructure questions specially in

unstructured interview

 Personal information can be obtained easily

 The interviewer can control which person will answer the question

Misinterpretation of the answer for questions is easily avoided

Weakness of the Personal Interview

 It is very expensive method specially when large and wide spread geographical sample is
taken

 There is still the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the respondent.

 Certain group of respondent (such as important official) may not be easily approachable
under this method

 This method is relatively more time consuming specially when the sample is large

Telephone interview

 This method of collecting information involves contacting respondents on telephone itself.

Strength of such method

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 It is flexible compared to mailing method

 It is faster than other method

 It is relatively cheaper than personal interview

 Recall is easy and callback are simple and economical

 There is a higher rate of response

 Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondent

Weakness of this method

 Little time is given to respondent for considering possible answer. Mostly the interview
will not exceed five minute at most

 Surveys are restricted to respondents having telephone

 Cost consideration may restrict expensive geographical coverage

 There is high possibility of biased- ness from the side of interviewer

 Since questions have to be short and to the point, probes are difficult to handle.

Basic Principles of Interviewing

Interviewers should follow the following principles while conducting interview

 Ask only one question at a time

 Repeat the question if necessary

 Listen carefully to the subjects answer

 Observe the subjects facial expression, gesture and tone of the voice

 Allow the subjects sufficient time to answer the question

Questionnaire

Advantage (strength) of this method

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 Low cost even for larger sample size and widely spread geographically

 It is free from basis of the interviewer. Answer are in respondent’s world

 Respondents have adequate time to give through answers

 Respondents, who are not approachable, can be reached conveniently

Limitations of this method

 Low rate of return

 It can be only for literature respondent

 The control over the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent

 There is inbuilt inflexibility

 The slowest methods of all

Forms of Questions

Open-end form:

 the respondent is asked to provide his own answer to the question.

 His answer is not any ways limited.

 E.G the respondents might be asked, “What do feel the most important issue facing your
community?”

 The problem associated with such form of questioning is that, it is not possible to get
uniform answers and hence is difficult to process.

Closed Ended Questions:

 the respondent is asked to select his answer from among a list provided by the researcher
(Yes, no, I don’t etc).

 Closed ended questions are very popular in survey research since they provide a greater
uniformity response and because they are easy to process.

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  The major shortcoming of closed-ended questions on the researcher’s structuring of
response is that the checklist or the provided list of answers may not include all possible
answers.

Secondary Data Collection

 Secondary information is information, which has already been collected by someone and
which, have already been passed through statistical process.

 The researcher does not obtain them directly rater he gathered them from published an
unpublished material.

However, the researcher must be careful when using secondary data, particularly as the
only sources of data. Secondary data be useful, it must be:

 Available

 Relevant to the information needed

 Accurate and sufficient to meet data requirement

Secondary data may be obtained either from:

 Internal (within the company or organization)

 External sources (outside sources)

Internal secondary data: all companies or organizations any other organs keep record of
the every course of conducting business or any other activities:

External sources of the secondary data: The major sources of external information are:

 Government (federal, state, local)

 Trade association and trade press

 Periodicals

 Institution (research, academic)

 Commercial services and the like

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 The Secondary sources of information can be classified in to:

 Personal document

 Public document

Limitations of personal documents

 Difficult in collection

 They are rarely recorded and more seldom preserved

 Problem associated with the reliability of data.

 It is not possible to arrive at some definite conclusion say about a social problem on
the basis of personal document

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 UNIT 4: RESEARCH REPORT WRITING

 What is research report?

 What is the purpose of research report?
 What are the characteristics of good research report?
 What are the format/ layout of research report?

Research report

Research report is the last stages of research process in which what has been done during the
period of study or research is described. In the other word, research report is the last stages of
research process which written document that communicates the research findings.

Research report is a brief statement of most significant that is necessary for understanding the
generalizations the research reached on.

Purpose of research report

The purpose of research report is to convey the entire results of survey in sufficient details to the
interested persons or concerned bodies.

Research report writing

 How to make research report?

A research report is basically made up of three main divisions.

 Preliminary
 Body
 Supplementary

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There are different steps to be followed in research report writing

Step 1: analyzing the task

 What is the purpose of the report?  What is the topic of the report?
 Who is the audience for the report?  What is the expect format of the repor
 What is the word limit? t

Step 2: develop a rough plan

 Develop the section headings

 Write thesis statement
 Write down what you already know about the topic

Step 3: draft body of your report

 Write your first body draft

Step 4: the draft of your supplementary

 References: used in your report or referred to background information

 Appendices: extra information to the report

Step 5: draft of preliminary pages

 Title of the report

 Table of content
 Sub-headings, tables
 Appendices and give a page number for each
 Abstracts/synopsis: brief overview of the report on a condensed form.

Step 6: polish your report

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Check your report to ensure you have followed all of the guidelines as outlined in your course
information

Parts of research report

Preliminary parts of research report

 Title of the report

 Table of content
 Sub-headings, tables
 Appendices and give a page number for each
 Abstracts/synopsis: brief overview of the report on a condensed form.

Body of the research report

Introduction

 The purpose of your report thesis statement

 Background of the study

Literature review

 Chronological or thematic format

Methodology

 What and how you did it

 Written in passive voice

Results

 Indicate what you find

 Show the last research outcomes

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Discussion

 Discuss the relevance of results

Conclusion

 Summary of the most significant results

Recommendation

 Suggestions what needs to be done as a result of your findings

Supplementary research report

 References: used in your report or referred to background information

 Appendices: extra information to the report

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