ANTIDERIVATIVE TABLES

Forms Involving ax^ + bx -\- c

dx 1 2ax + 6 — — 4ac
la. I In + C ifb^ 4ac > 0
ax"^ + bx + c \/b^ - 4ac 2ax + b + y/b^ — 4ac
2 1 2ax + b
if
lb. tan -+ C 4ac < 0
V4ac — b^ V4ac — b^
^ 2
lc. + C if ^>2 4oc = 0
2(2x + b

2
■I ax^ + bx + c
dx = — Inlax^ + bx + c\-— [
2a ' '
1
2a J ax^ + bx + c
dx

1
3
•I {ax^ + bx + c)'
dx =
2ax + b
{r — l)(4a<; — b^)(ax^ + bx + cY ^

+
2{2r - 3)a f 1
dx
(r — l)(4ac — b^) J {ax^ + bx + cY ^

4 . I (ax^ + bx + c)’
dx =
— (2c + bx)
(r — l)(4ac — b^)(ax'^ + bx + cY ^
(2r - 3)b f 1
— dx
(r — l)(4ac — b^) JJ I(ax^ + bx + c)
 Rational Forms Involving a + bu

udu 1
5.
a + bu b^
u^ du 1
6.
a + bu V
udu a
7. + ln|a + bu\ + C
(a + buY

I u^du J_ ^2
8. a +bu — 2a ln|a + bu\ + C
(a + bu)^ a bu
du a + bu
9. + C
1 u{a + bu) a u

10
•I ( du
u^ia + bu)
1 b , a + bu
--1—^ In
au a u
+ C

11 . j du
u{a + buY
1
a{a + bu)
- In
1
5
a
u
bu
+ C

Forms Involving V<2 + bu

12. J 2(3bu - 2a)

u\Ya + budu = -T^rr:;-(a + bu)^^ + C

13
■I u du
va+bu
2(bu — 2a)
3b^
a + bu + C

_ _ 1
14a.
I du
wVa + bu Va
In
\/a + bu — Va
Va + + Va
+ C if a > 0

2 a + bu
14b. tan + C if a < 0
—a -a
f Va + bu , ^ /-— f du
15 . J-du = 2va + bu + a j
u'Va + bu

Forms Involving ± v} and

du
16.
/ a^ + u^ a
tan ^-\- C
a
a + u
17.
I du
a — u
+ C

I u a
—

18. + C
u + a

(Continued on inside back cover)

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 < ^

A .
Carol Ash
Robert B. Ash
Department of Mathematics
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

IEEE
PRESS

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York

 IEEE PRESS

1985 Editorial Board

M. E. Van Valkenburg, Editor in Chief

J. K. Aggarwal, Editor, Selected Reprint Series
Glen Wade, Editor, Special Issue Series

J. M. Aein L. H. Fink R. W. Lucky

James Aylor S. K. Ghandhi E.A. Marcatili
J.E. Brittain Irwin Gray J. S. Meditch
R. W. Brodersen H.A. Hans M. G. Morgan
B. D. Carroll E. W. Herold W. R. Perkins
R. E Cotellessa R. C. Jaeger A. C. Schell
M. S. Dresselhaus J. O. Limb Herbert Sherman
Thelma Estrin D. L. Vines

W. R. Crone, Managing Editor

Teresa Abiuso, Administrative Assistant

David G. Boulanger, Associate Editor
Evan B. Polenghi, Illustrator
This book is set in Baskerville.

Copyright © 1986 by
THE INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL
AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS, INC.
345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017-2394
All rights reserved.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

IEEE Order Number: PC01776

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ash, Carol, 1935-
The calculus tutoring book.

Includes index.
“IEEE order number PC01776” — T.p. verso.
1. Calculus. 1. Ash, Robert B. 11. Title.
QA303.A75 1986 515 85-23049

ISBN 0-87942-183-5
CONTENTS
/

Preface

1/FUNCTIONS
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Graph of a Function 4
1.3 The Trigonometric Functions 10
1.4 Inverse Functions and the Inverse Trigonometric Functions 19
1.5 Exponential and Logarithm Functions 23
1.6 Solving Inequalities Involving Elementary Functions 29
1.7 Graphs of Translations, Reflections, Expansions and Sums 32
Review Problems for Chapter 1 38

2/LIMITS
2.1 Introduction 41
2.2 Finding Limits of Combinations of Functions 45
2.3 Indeterminate Limits 48
Review Problems for Chapter 2 51

3/THE DERIVATIVE PART I

3.1 Preview 53
3.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Derivative 56
3.3 Derivatives of the Basic Functions 63
3.4 Nondifferentiable Functions 70
3.5 Derivatives of Constant Multiples, Sums, Products and Quotients 71
3.6 The Derivative of a Composition 78
3.7 Implicit Differentiation and Logarithmic Differentiation 81
3.8 Antidifferentiation 84
Review Problems for Chapter 3 92

4/THE DERIVATIVE PART II

4.1 Relative Maxima and Minima 95
4.2 Absolute Maxima and Minima 98
4.3 L’Hopital’s Rule and Orders of Magnitude 105
4.4 Indeterminate Products, Differences and Exponential Forms 110
4.5 Drawing Graphs of Functions 113
4.6 Related Rates 116
4.7 Newton’s Method 120
4.8 Differentials 122
4.9 Separable Differential Equations 128
Review Problems for Chapter 4 134
V
vi • Table of Contents

5/THE INTEGRAL PARTI

5.1 Preview 137
5.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Integral 139
5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 146
5.4 Numerical Integration 151
5.5 Nonintegrable Functions 155
5.6 Improper Integrals 157
Review Problems for Chapter 5 ^ 161

6/THE INTEGRAL PART II

6.1 Further Applications of the Integral 163
6.2 The Centroid of a Solid Hemisphere 173
6.3 Area and Arc Length 176
6.4 The Surface Area of a Cone and a Sphere 181
6.5 Integrals with a Variable Upper Limit 183
Review Problems for Chapter 6 188

7/ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
7.1 Introduction 191
7.2 Substitution 192
7.3 Pre-Table Algebra I 195
7.4 Pre-Table Algebra II: Partial Fraction Decomposition 198
7.5 Integration by Parts 203
7.6 Recursion Formulas 204
7.7 Trigonometric Substitution 207
7.8 Choosing a Method 209
7.9 Combining Techniques of Antidifferentiation with the Fundamental Theorem 212
Review Problems for Chapter 7 214

8/SERIES
8.1 Introduction 217
8.2 Geometric Series 220
8.3 Convergence Tests for Positive Series I 222
8.4 Convergence Tests for Positive Series II 228
8.5 Alternating Series 232
8.6 Power Series Functions 238
8.7 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions I 241
8.8 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions II (Maclaurin Series) 248
8.9 The Taylor Remainder Formula and an Estimate for the Number e 252
8.10 Power Series in Powers oix - b (Taylor Series) 254
Review Problems for Chapter 8 257

9/VECTORS
9.1 Introduction 259
9.2 Vector Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication and Norms 263
9.3 The Dot Product 270
9.4 The Cross Product 276
 Table of Contents • vii
9.5 The Scalar Triple Product 282
9.6 The Velocity Vector 285
9.7 The Acceleration Vector 290
Review Problems for Chapter 9 294

lO/TOPICS IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

10.1 Spheres 297
10.2 Planes 298
10.3 Lines 302
10.4 Cylindrical and Quadric Surfaces 307
10.5 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates 312
Review Problems for Chapter 10 317

11/PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
11.1 Graphs and Level Sets 319
11.2 Partial Derivatives 325
11.3 Chain Rules for First-Order Partial Derivatives 331
11.4 Chain Rules for Second-Order Partial Derivatives 334
11.5 Maxima and Minima 337
11.6 The Gradient 346
11.7 Differentials and Exact Differential Equations 355
Review Problems for Chapter 11 361

12/MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
12.1 Definition and Some Applications of the Double Integral 363
12.2 Computing Double Integrals 370
12.3 Double Integration in Polar Coordinates 377
12.4 Area and Volume 382
12.5 Further Applications of the Double Integral 387
12.6 Triple Integrals 391
12.7 Triple Integration in Spherical Coordinates 398
12.8 Center of Mass 404
Review Problems for Chapter 12 408

APPENDIX
A1 Distance and Slope 409
A2 Equations of Lines 410
A3 Circles, Ellipses, Hyperbolas and Parabolas 411
A4 The Binomial Theorem 412
A5 Determinants 413
A6 Polar Coordinates 416

SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS 419

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE SOLUTIONS 527
LIST OF SYMBOLS 528
INDEX 529
AUTHORS’ BIOGRAPHIES 534
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PREFACE
/

This is a text in calculus, written for students in mathematics and

applied areas such as engineering, physics, chemistry, computer science,
economics, biology, and psychology. The style is unlike that of the usual text
that the student encounters when enrolling in a standard calculus sequence.
We’ll try to explain the reasoning behind our approach, which is based on
more than 20 years of teaching experience.
Mathematicians and consumers of mathematics (such as engineers)
seem to disagree as to what mathematics actually is. To a mathematician, it
is important to distinguish between rigor and intuition. To an engineer,
intuitive thinking, geometric reasoning, and physical deductions are all
valid if they illuminate a problem, and a formal proof is often unnecessary
or counterproductive.
Most calculus texts claim to be intuitive, informal, and even friendly,
and in fact one can find many worked-out examples, as well as some geo¬
metric and physical reasoning. However, the dominant feature of these
books is formalism. Definitions and theorems are stated precisely, and many
results are proved at a level of rigor that is acceptable to a working mathe¬
matician. We admit to a twinge of embarrassment in arguing that this is bad.
However, our calculus students have ranged from close to the best to be
found anywhere, to far from the worst, and it seems entirely clear to us that
most students are not ready for an abstract presentation, and they simply
will not learn the formalism. The better students will succeed in reading
around the abstractions, so that the textbook at least becomes useful as a
source of examples.
Our approach uses informal language and emphasizes geometric and
physical reasoning. The style is similar to that used in applied courses and,
for this reason, students find the presentation very congenial. They do not
regard calculus as a strange subject outside their normal experience. In¬
variably, a number of students are motivated toward further study of
mathematics, and there is no better preparation than to learn to think
intuitively, geometrically, and physically.
We expect that this text will be used for independent study, or as a
supplement or reference for those who are having difficulty in a standard
calculus course; for maximum benefit to the student, detailed solutions to
all problems are supplied. (We have used the book as a classroom text, and
have found the inclusion of detailed solutions to be a useful feature here as
well.) The problems are limited in number so that it is feasible to work
through all of them. They have been carefully chosen so that a student who
does most of them will be well prepared for applications of calculus in later
courses. The text and problems concentrate on basic material rather than
fringe topics; as a result the book is of manageable size.
We believe that for a student encountering calculus for the first time,
our approach is most appropriate. We hope that faculty who teach

IX
courses in which calculus is applied will, after seeing how well the approach
works, try to influence departments of mathematics to change their style
of teaching.
The close cooperation and teamwork of the staff at IEEE PRESS were
invaluable. In particular, we would like to express our gratitude to David
Boulanger, Associate Editor; W. Reed Crone, Managing Editor; and
David L. Staiger, Staff Director.
We wanted the diagrams in the book to be freehand line drawings,
similar to those sketched by an instructor at a blackboard or a student
working at home. We thank our artist, Evan Polenghi, for carrying out our
conception with skill and grace.
Above all, we thank Professor M. E. Van Valkenburg, Dean of the
School of Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
and Editor in Chief of IEEE PRESS, for making the publication of this
text possible.

CAROL ASH
ROBERT ASH
 We begin calculus with a chapter on functions because virtually all
problems in calculus involve functions. We discuss functions in general, and
then concentrate on the special functions which will be used repeatedly
throughout the course.

1.1 Introduction

A function may be thought of as an input-output machine. Given a

particular input, there is a corresponding output. This process may be
represented by various schemes, such as a table or a mapping diagram
listing inputs and outputs (Fig. 1). Functions will usually be denoted by
single letters, the most common being / and g. If the function g produces
the output 3 when the input is 2, we write g(2) = 3.

rA^LE KlArPlN^p PIA6RAM

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F16. I
Often functions are described with formulas. If f(x) — + x then
/(3) = 9 + 3 = 12, f(a) = + a, f{a + b) = {a + b)^ + {a + b) =
+ 2ab + b'^ + a + 6. We might refer to “the function + x” without
using a special name such as /.
For example, if/(x) = 2x — 9 then

/(3) = 6 - 9 = -3
m = -9
f{a) = 2fl - 9
/(a + b) = 2{a + b) - 9 = 2a + 2b -
f{a) + f{b) = 2a - 9 + 2b - 9 = 2a + 2b - IS
f{3a) = 2(3fl) - 9 = 6a - 9
3/(a) = 3(2a - 9) = 6a - 27
f{a^) = 2a^ -9
{f{a)f = (2a - 9)2 = 4a 2 - 36a + 81
/(-a) = 2(-a) - 9 = -2a - 9
-/(a) = -(2a - 9) - -2a + 9. 1
2 • 1/Functions

The input of a function / is called the independent variable, while the

output is the dependent variable. We say that the function f maps x to f(x), and
call f(x) the value of the function at x. The set of inputs is called the domain
of /, and the set of outputs is the range.
A function/(x) is not allowed to send one input to more than one
fU/06TlOM output. Figure 2 illustrates a correspondence that is not a function. For
example, it is illegal to write'g(x) = ± V2x^ + 3, since each value of x
produces two outputs. It certainly is legal to write and use the expression
FI6. X ±V2x^ + 3, but it cannot be named g{x) and called a function.
Functions often arise when a problem is translated into mathematical
terms. The solution to the problem may then involve operating on the
functions with calculus. Before continuing with functions in more detail
we’ll give an example of a function emerging in practice. Suppose a pigeon
is flying from point A over water to point B on the beach (Fig. 3), and the
energy required to fly is 60 calories per mile over water but only 40 calories
per mile over land. (The effect of cold air dropping makes flying over water
more taxing.) The problem is to find the path that requires minimum
energy. The direct path from A to B is shortest, but it has the disadvantage
of being entirely over water. The path ACB is longer, but it has the advan¬
tage of being mostly over land. In general, suppose the bird first flies from
A to a point P on the beach x miles from C, and then travels the remaining
10 — X miles to B. The value x = 0 corresponds to the path ACB, and
X = 10 corresponds to the path AB. The total energy E used in flight can
be calculated as follows:

E = energy expended over water + energy expended over land

= calories per water mile x water miles

+ calories per land mile x land miles

= 60 AP + 40 PB
(1) = 60V36 + x^ + 40(10 - x), 0 < X < 10.
Thus the energy is 2l function of x. Calculus will be used in Section 4.2 to
finish the problem and find the value of x that minimizes E.
In deriving (1), we restricted x so that 0 x 10 since we assumed
that to minimize energy the bird should fly to a point P between C and B as
indicated in Fig. 3. Since problems often restrict the independent variable
in a similar fashion, certain notation and terminology has become standard.
 1.1 Introduction • 3

• • o-o m--0 •-3» -4^ -O

[a.,fr] {cK,b) [a,b) [a,*)) (-K>,a)

FIG.H-
The set of all x such that a < x ^ b denoted by [a, b} and called a closed
interval (Fig. 4). With this notation, the variable x in (1) lies in the interval
[0, 10]. The set of all x such that a < x < ^ is denoted by {a,b) and called
an open interval. Similarly we use [a, b) for the set of x where a < x < b, (a, b]
for a < X b, [a, oo) for x > a, (a, oo) for x > a, (—oo, a] for x ^ a, and
(—00, a) for X < a. In general, the square bracket, and the solid dot in Fig. 4,
means that the endpoint belongs to the set; a parenthesis, and the small
circle in Fig. 4, means that the endpoint does not belong to the set. The
notation (—°o,oo) refers to the set of all real numbers.
As another example of a function, consider the greatest integer function:
Int X is defined as the largest integer that is less than or equal to x. Equiva¬
lently, Int X is the first integer at or to the left of x on the number line. For
example, Int 5.3 = 5, Int 5.4 = 5, Int 7 = 7, Int(—6.3) = —7. Note that
for positive inputs, Int simply chops away the decimal part. The domain of
Int is the set of all (real) numbers. (Elementary calculus uses only the real
number system and excludes nonreal complex numbers such as 3i and
4 + 2i.) The range of Int is the set of integers. Frequently, Int x is denoted
by [x]. Many computers have an internal Int operation available. To illus¬
trate one of its uses, suppose that a computer obtains a numerical result,
such as X = 2.1679843, and is instructed to keep only the first 4 digits. The
computer multiplies by 1000 to obtain 2167.9843, applies Int to get 2167,
and then divides by 1000 to obtain the desired result 2.167 or, in our
functional notation, ^ Int(1000 x).
Most work in calculus involves a few basic functions, which (amazingly)
have proved sufficient to describe a large number of physical phenomena.
As a preview, and for reference, we list these functions now, but it will
take most of the chapter to discuss them carefully. The material is im¬
portant preparation for the rest of the course, since the basic functions
dominate calculus.

Table of Basic Functions

Type Examples

Constant functions /(x) = 2 for all x,

g(x) = —77 for all X
„2 „3 „ „l/2 „-l „-99/5 „2.7
Power functions i\ y tA y lA j (A j (A y lA y lA

Trigonometric functions sine, cosine, tangent, secant,

cosecant, cotangent

Inverse trigonometric functions sin'^x, cos“^x, tan“^x

Exponential functions 2*, 3*, (1)*, 10* and especially e*,

where e = 2.71828 • • •

Logarithm functions log2X, logsX, logi/2X, logloX and

especially logpc, denoted In x
4 • 1/Functions

Problems for Section 1.1

1. Let/(x) - 2 - and g{x) = (x - 3)^. Find

(a) /(O) (d) g(0) (g) ig{b)r

(b) /(l) (e) g(l) {h)f(2a + b)
(c) /(/»*) (f) g{b^) (i) the range of/ and of g, if the domain is

2. Let /(x) = |x|/x.

(a) Find/(-7) and/(3).
(b) For what values of x is the function defined?
(c) With the domain from part (b), find the range of /.
(d) Does /(2 + 3) equal/(2) + /(3)?
(e) Does/(-2 + 6) equal f{-2) + /(6)?
(f) Does f{a + b) ever equal f{a) + /(/>)?

3.The number Xo is called a fixed point of the function/ if /(xo) = Xo; i.e., a
fixed point is a number that maps to itself. Find the fixed points of the following
functions: (a) |x|/x (b) Int x (c) x^ (d) x^ + 4.
4. Let/(x) = 2x + 1. Does f{a^) ever equal (/(a))^?
5. If/(x) = 2x + 3 then/(/(x)) =/(2x + 3) = 2(2x + 3) + 3 = 4x + 9.

(a) Find/(/(x)) if/(x) — x^.

(b) Find Int(Int x).
(c) If/(x) = -X + l,find/(/(x)),/(/(/(x))), and so on, until you see the pattern.

6. A charter aircraft has 350 seats and will not fly unless at least 200 of those
seats are filled. When there are 200 passengers, a ticket costs $300, but each ticket
is reduced by $ 1 for every passenger over 200. Express the total amount A collected
by the charter company as a function of the number p of passengers.

1.2 The Graph of a Function

Information can usually be perceived more easily from a diagram than

from a set of statistics or a formula. Similarly, the behavior of a function can
often be better understood from its graph, which is drawn in a rectangular
coordinate system by using the inputs as x-coordinates and the outputs as
y-coordinates; i.e., the graph of/ is the graph of the equation y = f{x). In
sketching a graph it may be useful to make a table of values of the input x
and the corresponding output y.
The graph of the function/(x) = -2x + 3 is the line with equation
y = —2x + 3 (Fig. 1). It has slope —2 and passes through the point (0,3).
The graph of Int x is shown in Fig. 2 along with a partial table of values
used to help plot the graph. The graph shows for instance that as x in¬
creases from 2 toward 3, Int x, the y-coordinate in the picture, remains 2;
when X reaches 3, Int x suddenly jumps to 3.

Example 1 The graph of a function g is given in Fig. 3. Various values of

g can be read from the picture: since the point (0,6) is on the graph, we
have g(0) = 6; similarly, g(4) = 11, g(10) = 4. Since P is lower than Q, we
can tell that g(2) < g(3). If g(x) represents the final height of a tree when
it is planted with x units of fertilizer, then using no fertilizer results in a
6-foot tree, using 10 units of fertilizer overdoses the tree and it grows to
 1.2 The Graph of a Function ■ 5

only 4 feet, while 4 units of fertilizer produces an 11-foot tree, the maxi¬
mum possible height according to the data.

The vertical line test Not every curve can be the graph of a function. The
curve in Fig. 4 is disqualified because one x is paired with several y’s, and
a function cannot map one input to more than one output. In general, a
curve is the graph of a function if and only if no vertical line ever intersects the curve
6 ■ 1/Functions

more than once. In other words, if a vertical line intersects the curve at all, it
does so only once.

Equations versus functions The hyperbola in Fig. 5 is the graph of the

equations)) = 1. It is also (solve for y) the graph of the function/(x) = 1/x.
The hyperbola in Fig. 6 is the graph of the equation — 2x^ = 6. It is not
the graph of a function because it fails the vertical line test. However, the
upper branch of the hyperbola is the graph of the function V2x^ + 6 (solve
fory and choose the positive square root since y > 0 on the upper branch),
and the lower branch is the graph of the function —V2x^ + 6.

Continuity If the graph of / breaks at x = Xq, so that you must lift the
pencil off the paper before continuing, then / is said to be discontinuous at
X = Xq. If the graph doesn’t break at x = xq, then / is continuous at Xq.
The function — 2x + 3 (Fig. 1) is continuous (everywhere). On the
other hand, Int x (Fig. 2) is discontinuous when x is an integer, and I/x
(Fig. 5) is discontinuous at x =0.
Many physical quantities are continuous functions. If h{t) is your
height at time t, then h is continuous since your height cannot jump.
NOT A FOMCTiONj
One-to-one functions, non-one-to-one functions and nonfunctions A
ri6.7 function is not allowed to map one input to more than one output (Fig. 7).
 1.2 The Graph of a Function • 7

NOM-OfOE'rO'OM&
But a function can map more than one input to the same output (Fig. 8),
in which case the function is said to be non-one-to-one. A one-to-one function
maps different inputs to different outputs (Fig. 9).
The function is not one-to-one because, for instance, inputs 2 and
-2 both produce the output 4. The function is one-to-one since two
different numbers always produce two different cubes.
A curve that passes the vertical line test, and thus is the graph of a function, will
further be the graph of a one-to-one function if and only if no horizontal line
intersects the curve more than once (horizontal line test). The function in Fig. 10
fails the horizontal line test and is not one-to-one because X] and X2 produce
the same value of y.

FI6.^

1 Fio. 10

Constant functions If, for example,/(x) = 3 for all x, then / is called a

constant function. The graph of a constant function is a horizontal line
(Fig. 11). The constant functions are among the basic functions of calculus,
listed in the table in Section 1.1.

Power functions Another group of basic functions consists of the power

functions x\ such as
FI6.ll
(A"V ^ V
i\ • v

x~^ = 1/x
X (the positive square root of x)

x^^^ = — {''Vxy

^2,6 = ^26/10 =

To sketch the graph of x*, we make a table of values and plot a few
points. When the pattern seems clear, we connect the points to obtain the
final graph (Fig. 12). The connecting process assumes that x^ is continuous,
something that seems reasonable and can be proved formally. In general,
x’^ is continuous wherever it is defined. If r is negative then x" is not defined
at X = 0 and is discontinuous there; the graph of 1/x, that is, the graph of
x~\ is shown in Fig. 5 with a discontinuity at the origin. Figure 13 gives the
graph of x^ (a parabola) and of x^. For -1 < x < 1, the graph of x^ lies
below the graph of x^ since the fourth power of a number between — 1 and
8 • 1/Functions

1 is smaller than its square; otherwise lies above x^. Figure 14 gives the
graph of )) = V^, the upper half of the parabola x = y^.

Increasing and decreasing functions Suppose that whenever a > />, we

have f{a) > f{b); that is, as x increases,/(x) increases also. In this case, / is
said to be increasing. The grapli of an increasing function rises to the right
(Figs. 12 and 14).
Suppose that whenever a > b, v/e have/(a) <f{b)\ that is, as x in¬
creases,/(x) decreases. In this case,/ is decreasing. The graph of a decreasing
function falls to the right (Fig. 1).
The functions x^ and x‘‘ (Fig. 13) decrease on the interval (—°o, 0] and
increase on [0,°°); overall, on (—°°, “), they are neither increasing nor de¬
creasing. The function 1/x (Fig. 5) decreases on the intervals (-“,0) and
(0,oo) but is neither decreasing nor increasing on the interval (—00,00).
 1.2 The Graph of a Function • 9

Motion along a line Suppose that at time t, the position x of a particle

(such as a car) moving on a number line is given by the function x =
Then at time t = -3, the particle is at position x = 9; at time t = -1, it is
at position x = 1; at time t = 0, it is at position x = 0; at time t = 4, it is at
position X — 16, and so on. Note that there is nothing mysterious about
negative time. If time is measured in minutes, then t = 0 is a fixed time,
such as 12:30 p.m. on Jan. 20, 1947, and negative values of t correspond to
times before that moment. For example, t = —3 is 3 minutes earlier, that
is, 12.27 p.m. Instead of drawing the graph of x = (a parabola in a t, x
coordinate system), we might sketch the motion as in Fig. 15. Until time 0,
the particle moves from right to left on the x-line and decelerates (look at
the decrease in distance between consecutive times to see the deceleration).
After time 0, the particle moves from left to right and accelerates. (For
clarity, the right-to-left part of the motion is drawn above the left-to-right
motion in Fig. 15, but, in reality, the particle is assumed to travel back and
forth on the same road, not on a double-decker road.)

One of the applications of calculus (Section 3.2) will be the com¬

putation of the speed and acceleration at any instant of time, given the
position function.

Problems for Section 1.2

1. Sketch the graph. Is the function increasing? decreasing? one-to-one?

continuous? (a) 2x (b) x + |x| (c) |x|/x (d) f{x) is the larger of x and 3
2. Let/(x) be 0 if X is an even integer, 1 if x is an odd integer, and undefined
otherwise. Sketch the graph of/.
3. Figure 16 shows the graph of a function/.

FI6. 16
10 • 1/Functions

(a) Find/(-l),/(0) and/(6).

(b) Estimate x such that fix) = 4.
(c) Find X such that fix) < 0. *
4. Suppose / is an increasing function. If x decreases, what does fix) do?
5. Are the following functions continuous?

(a) the cost ciw) of mailing ^ package weighing w grams

(b) your weight wit) at time t
6. What can you conclude about the graph of / under the following
conditions.

(a) fix) > 0 for all x

(b) fix) > X for all x (for example, /(5) is a number that must be larger
than 5)
7. (a) Sketch the power functions x~^, x~^, x~^'^ on the same set of axes,
(b) Sketch the power functions x, x®, x’, x® on the same set of axes.
8. A function/ is said to be even if/(—x) = fix) for all x; for example,/(7) = 3
and /(-7) = 3, /(-4) = -2 and /(4) = -2, and so on. A function is odd if
/(-x) = -fix) for all x; for example,/(3) = -12 and/(—3) = 12,/(—6) = —2 and
/(6) = 2, and so on. The functions cos x and x^ are even, sin x and x^ are odd,
2x + 3 and x^ + x are neither.

(a) Figure 17 shows the graph of a function fix) for x ^ 0. If / is even, com¬
plete the graph for x ^ 0.
(b) Complete the graph in Fig. 17 if / is odd.

9. Find fix) if the graph of / is the line AB where A = (1,2) and B — (2,5).
10. Let/(t) be the position of a particle on a number line at time t. Describe the
motion if

(a) / is a constant function (c) / is a decreasing function

(b) fit)^ t - 2 (d) fit) > 0 for all t

1.3 The Trigonometric Functions

We continue with the development of the basic functions listed in

Section 1.1 by considering the six trigonometric functions. The functions
are entitled to be called basic because of their many applications, two of
which (vibrations and electron flow) are described later in the section. We
assume that you have studied trigonometry before starting calculus and
therefore this section contains only a summary of the main results. A list of
trigonometric identities and formulas is included at the end of the section
for reference.

Definition of sine, cosine and tangent Using Fig. 1, we define

X sin 6
(1) sin 0 = —, cos 6 tan 6 = — =
r X cos 0

Figure 1 shows a positive 0 corresponding to a counterclockwise rotation

away from the positive x-axis. A negative 0 corresponds to a clockwise
rotation.
The distance r is always positive, but the signs of x and y depend on
the quadrant. If 90° < 0 < 180°, so that 0 is a second quadrant angle, then
 1.3 The Trigonometric Functions • 11

X IS negative and y is positive; thus sin d is positive, while cos d and tan d
are negative. In general, Fig. 2 indicates the sign of sin d, cos d and tan 6
for 6 in the various quadrants.

-h ■F _ —
-t

— —
— -F —

5|(?M OF Q ^I6N G oF tay^ G

R6.X

Degrees versus radians An angle of 180° is called tt radians. More gener¬

ally, to convert back and forth use

^2^ number of radians _ tt

number of degrees 180 ‘
Equivalently

180
(3) number of degrees =-x number of radians
TT

(4) number of radians = X number of degrees.

One radian is a bit more than 57°. Tables 1 and 2 list some important angles
in both radians and degrees, and the corresponding functional values.

Table 1 Table 2
Degrees Radians sin cos tan Degrees Radians sin cos tan
0° 0 0 1 0 30° 77/6
1
|V3 1/V3
2
90° 77/2 1 0 none 45° 77/4 IV2 iV2 1
180° TT 0 -1 0 60° 77/3 iV3 1
V3
2
270° 3-77/2 -1 0 none
360° 277 0 1 0

In most situations not involving calculus, it makes no difference

whether we use radians or degrees, but it turns out (Section 3.3) that for
the calculus of the trigonometric functions, it will be better to use radian
measure.
One geometric instance where radians are preferable involves arc length
on a circle. Suppose a central angle 6 cuts off arc length 5 on a circle of
radius r (Fig. 3). The entire circumference of the circle is 27rr, the indicated
arc length s is just a fraction of the entire circumference, namely, the
fraction 0/360 if 0 is measured in degrees, and 0/2tt if 0 is measured in
radians. Therefore, with 0 in radian measure.

n6.3 (5) s r0.

12 • 1/Functions

If degrees are used, the formula is 5 = • 27rr - which is not as

attractive as (5).

Reference angles Trig tables list sin d, cos 6 and tan 0 for 0 < 0 < 90°.
To find the functions for other angles, we use knowledge of the appropriate
signs given in Fig. 2 plus reference angles, as illustrated in the following
examples. ^
If 0 is a second quadrant angle, its reference angle is 180° - 0, so 150
has reference angle 30° (Fig. 4), and

sin 150° = sin 30° = |, cos 150° = -cos 30° - -fVS,

tan 150° = -tan 30° = -1/V3.

If 0 is in the third quadrant, its reference angle is 0 - 180°, so 210° has

reference angle 30° (Fig. 5), and

sin 210° = -sin 30° = cos 210° = -cos 30° = -|V3,

tan 210° = tan 30° = l/VI.
If 0 is in quadrant IV, its reference angle is 360° - 0, so 330° has
reference angle 30° (Fig. 6), and

sin 330° = -sin 30° ='-\, cos 330° = cos 30° = ^Vs,
tan 330° = -tan 30° = -l/VS.
Right triangle trigonometry In the right triangle in Fig. 7,

opposite leg adjacent leg

sin 0 cos 0 =
hypotenuse ’ hypotenuse ’
(6)
opposite leg
tan 0 =
r(6.7 adjacent leg
 1.3 The Trigonometric Functions • 13

Graphs of sin x, cos x and tan x Figures 8—10 give the graphs of the
functions, with x measured in radians. The graphs show that sin x and cos x
have period 2tt (that is, they repeat every 27r units), while tan x has
period tt. Furthermore, -1 < sin x < 1 and -1 < cos x < 1, so that each
function has amplitude 1. On the other hand, the tangent function assumes
all values, that is, has range (-<»,«>). Note that sin x and cos x are defined
for all X, but tan x is not defined at x = ±tt/2, ±3-77/2, • • •.

The graph of a sin(&x + c) The function sin x has period 277 and ampli¬
tude 1. The function 3 sin 2x has period tt and amplitude 3 (Fig. 11). /n
general, a sin bx, for positive a and b, has amplitude a and period 27rlb. For
example, 5 sin |x has period 4-77 and amplitude 5.
14 • 1/Functions

Z-rr

Fl6.ll
The graph of a sin{bx + c) not only involves the same change of period
and amplitude as a sin bx but is also shifted. As an example, consider
sin(2x - {tt). To sketch the graph, first plot a few points to get your
bearings. For this purpose, the most convenient values of x are those which
make the angle 2x — Itt a multiple of 7r/2; the table in Fig. 12 chooses
angles 0 and tt/A to produce points (0, —1), (7r/4,0) on the graph. Then
continue on to make the amplitude 1 and the period tt as shown in Fig. 12.

^_jL_

Application to simple harmonic motion If a cork is pushed down in a

bucket of water and then released (or, similarly, a spring is stretched and
released), it bobs up and down. Experiments show that if a particular cork
oscillates between 3 units aboye and 3 units below the water level with the
timing indicated in Fig. 13, its height h at time t is given by h{t) = 3 sin

Jim U-u riME t-o r/Mf t-TT riMfr=Z7T fiKlEt^ZTr

F\(p. 15
 1.3 The Trigonometric Functions • 15

(Note Aat there is nothing strange about time tt. It is approximately

3.14 minutes after time 0.) More generally, the amplitude, frequency and
shift depend on the cork, the medium and the size and timing of the initial
push down, but the oscillation, called simple harmonic motion, always has the
form a sin{bt + c), or equivalently a cos{bt + c).
Another instance of simple harmonic motion involves the flow of the
alternating current (a.c.) in a wire. Electrons flow back and forth, and if i(t)
is^ the current, that is, the amount of charge per second flowing in a given
direction at time t, then i{t) is of the form a sin{bt + c) or a cos(bt + c). If
i{t) — 10 cos t then at time i = 0, 10 units of charge per second flow in the
given direction; at time t = nr/2, the flow momentarily stops; at time t = tt,
10 units of charge per second flow opposite to the given direction.

The graph of f(x) sin x First consider two special cases. The graph of
y = 2 sin X has amplitude 2 and lies between the pair of lines y = ±2
(Fig. 14), although usually we do not actually sketch the lines. The lines,
which are reflections of one another in the x-axis, are called the envelope of
2 sin X. The graph ofy = — 2 sin x also lies between those lines; in addition,
the effect of the negative factor —2 is to change the signs of y-coordinates,
so the graph is the reflection in the x-axis of the graph of 2 sin x (Fig. 14).

Similarly, the graph of x^ sin x is sandwiched between the curves

y = ±x^ which we sketch as guides (Fig. 15). The curves, called the en¬
velope of x^ sin X, are reflections of one another in the x-axis. Furthermore,

P16.I5
whenever is negative (as it is to the left of the 31-axis) we not only change
the amplitude but also reflect sine in the x-axis to obtain sin x. The result
in Fig. 15 shows unbounded oscillations.
In general, to sketch the graph off{x) sin x, first draw the curve y = f{x) and
the curve y = -f{x), its reflection in the x-axis, to serve as the envelope. Then change
the height of the sine curve so 'that it fits within the envelope, and in addition
reflect the sine curve in the x-axis whenever f{x) is negative.

Secant, cosecant and cotangent By definition,

1 1 cos X 1
CSC X = -, cot X
(7) sec X =-,
sin X sin X tan X
cos X
In each case, the function is defined for all values of x such that
the denominator is nonzero. For example, esc x is not defined for
X = 0,±n, ±27r, • • •. The graphs are given in Figs. 16-18.

In a right triangle (Fig. 7),

hypotenuse hypotenuse
sec 6 = CSC d =
adjacent leg ’ opposite leg ’
(8)
adjacent leg
cot 6 =
opposite leg
 1.3 The Trigonometric Functions • 17

Standard trigonometric identities

Negative angle formulas

(9) sin(-x) = -sinx, cos(-x) = cosx, tan(-x) = -tanx,

csc(-x) = -cscx, sec(-x) = secx, cot(-x) = -cotx
Addition formulas

sin(x + ji) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

(10) sin(x — 3>) = sin x cos y — cos x sin y
cos(x + )i) = cos X cos y — sin x sin y
cos(x — )>) = cos X cos y + sin x sin y
Double angle formulas

sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

(11) cos 2x = cos^x - sin^x = 1-2 sin^x = 2 cos^x - 1

„ 2 tan X
tan 2x = --5-
1 — tan'^x
Pythagorean identities

sin^x + cos^x = 1
(12)
1 + tan^x = sec^x

1 + cot^x = csc^x

Half-angle formulas

.9, 1 — cos X
(13) sin'^f^ -

21
1 + cos X
COS 2^ =

Product formulas

sin(x + 3>) + sin(x — y)

18 • 1/Functions

sin(x + )!) “ sin(x — y)

(14) cos X sin y =---

cos(x + y) + cos(x — y)
cos X cos y =---

cos(x y) — cos(x + y)
sin X sin y ----

Factoring formulas
X — y . X + y
sin X + sin y = 2 cos

X + y . X — y
(15) sin X - sin y = 2 cos — s.n —

X + y X — y
cos X + cos y = 2 cos — cos —

X + y . y - X
cos X — cos y = 2 sin — sm¬

Reduction formulas

cosl^TT — 6) = sin 6

ile) sinl^TT — 6) = cos 6

cos(7r — 6) = —cos 6

sinl-TT — 6) = sin d

Law of Sines (Fig. 19)

(17)
sin A _ sin B _ sin C
a b c

Law of Cosines (Fig. 19)

(18)
c^ = a^b^ — 2ab cos C

Area formula (Fig. 19)

(19)
area of triangle ABC = jab sin C

Problems for Section 1.3

1. Convert from radians to degrees,

(a) 7r/5 (b) 57r/6 (c) -tt/S
2. Convert from degrees to radians,
(a) 12° (b) -90° (c) 100°
 1.4 Invorse Functions and the InvGrs© Trigonometric Functions • 19

3. Evaluate without using a calculator.

(a) sin 210° (b) cos Stt (c) tan 57r/4
4. Sketch the graph.

(a) sin (d) 5 sin(|x + tt)

(b) tan 4x (e) 2 cos(3x - ^tt)
(c) 3 cos TTX

5. Let sin x = a, cos y = b and evaluate the expression in terms of a and b,

if possible.

(a) sin(-x) (d) -cosy

(b) cos(-)i) (e) sin^x
(c) -sin X (f) sin x^

6. In each of (a) and (b), use right triangle trigonometry to find an exact
answer, rather than tables or a calculator which will give only approximations.

(a) Find cos 0 if 0 is an acute angle and sin 6 = 2/3.

(b) Find sin 0 if 0 is acute and tan 0 = 7/4.

7. Sketch the graph.

(a) X sin x (b) x^ sin x

1.4 Inverse Functions and the Inverse

Trigonometric Functions

If a function maps a to b we may wish to switch the point of view and

consider the inverse function which sends b to a. For example, the function
defined by F = fC + 32 gives the Fahrenheit temperature F' as a function
of the centigrade reading C. If we solve the equation for C to obtain
C = |(F' — 32) we have the inverse function which produces C, given F. If
the original function is useful, the inverse is probably also useful. In this
section, we discuss inverses in general, and three inverse trigonometric
functions in particular.

The inverse function Let / be a one-to-one function. The inverse of f

denoted by f~^, is defined as follows: if f {a) = b thenf~\b) = a. In other
words, the inverse maps “backwards” (Fig. 1). Only one-to-one functions
have inverses because reversing a non-one-to-one function creates a pairing
that is not a function (Fig. 2).
FIC. I
Given a table of values for f a table of values for/~‘ can be constructed
by interchanging columns. A partial table for/(x) = 3x and the correspond¬
i^or A FOiJc-riON
ing partial table for its inverse are given below.

X f{x) X f ^(x)

FIC.X 2 6 6 2
5 15 15 5
7 21 21 7

Clearly, f~^{x) = |x. Note that we may also think of as the “original”
function with inverse 3x. In general,/ andf^^ are inverses of each other.
Figure 1 shows that if/ and/~^ are applied successively (first/ and then
f~\ or vice versa) the result is a “circular” trip which returns to the starting
point. In other words,
20 • 1/Functions

(1) / *(/W) = ^ and /(/ '(x)) - X.

For example, multiplying a number by 3 and then multiplying that

result by 1 /3 produces the original number.

Example 1 In functional notation, the centigrade/fahrenheit equations

show that if/(x) = fx + 32"then/“\x) = f(x — 32).

The graph of/“^(x) One of the advantages of an inverse function is that

its properties, such as its graph, often follow easily from the properties of
the original function. Comparing the graphs of / and f * amounts to com¬
paring points such as (2,7) and (7,2) (Fig. 3). The points are reflections of
one another in the line y = x. In general, the graph of f ^ is the reflection of
the graph of f in the line y = x, so that the pair of graphs is symmetric with
respect to the line. If /(x) = x^, and x ^ 0 so that f is one-to-one, then
f~\x) = Vx. The symmetry of the two graphs is displayed in Fig. 4.

The inverse sine function Unfortunately, the sine function as a whole

doesn’t have an inverse because it isn’t one-to-one. But various pieces of the
sine graph are one-to-one, in particular, any section between a low and a
high point passes the horizontal line test and can be inverted. By con¬
vention, we use the part between — 7r/2 and tt/2 and let sin”*x be the inverse
of this abbreviated sine function; that is, sin^^x is the angle between — 7r/2 and
7r/2 whose sine is x. Equivalently,

(2) sin"^a = b if and only if sin b = a and — 7r/2 ^ b < tt/2 .

The graph of sin“‘x is found by reflecting sin x, —ttI'I ^ x ^ 7r/2, in the
line y = X (Fig. 5). The domain of sin“^x is [—1,1] and the range is
[-71/2,77/2].
The sin * function is also denoted by Sin * and arcsin. In computer
programming, the abbreviation ASN of arcsin is often used.

Example 2 Findsin“‘|.
Solution: Let x = sin“' then sin x = We know that sin 30° =
sin(—330°) = 5, sin 150° = f, * • •. We must choose the angle between —90°
and 90°; therefore sin“' \ = 30°, or, in radians, sin~' | = 77/6.

Example 3 Find sin"'(—1).

Of all the angles whose sine is -1, the one in the interval [-77/2,77/2]
is —77/2. Therefore, sin“^(—1) = —77/2.
 1.4 Inverse Functions and the Inverse Trigonometric Functions • 21

Warning 1. The angles — 7r/2 and 37r/2 are coterminal angles; that is, as
rotations from the positive x:-axis, they terminate in the same place. How¬
ever — 7r/2 and 37t/2 are not the same angle or the same number, and
arcsin(-l) is -7r/2, not 37r/2.
2. Although (1) states that f~\f{x)) = x, sin~'(sin 200°) is not 200°.
This is because sin“‘ is not the inverse of sine unless the angle is between
-90° and 90°. The sine function maps 200°, along with many other angles,
such as 560°, —160°, 340°, —20°, all to the same output. The sin“‘ function
maps in reverse to the particular angle between -90° and 90°. Therefore,
sin“*(sin 200°) - -20°.

The inverse cosine function The cosine function, like the sine function,
has no inverse, because it is not one-to-one. By convention, we consider the
one-to-one piece between 0 and tt, and let cos“*x be the inverse of this
abbreviated cosine function (Fig. 6). Thus, cos“V is the angle between 0 and
TT whose cosine is x. Equivalently,

FI6.6.
(3) cos = b if and only if cos b = a and Q < b tt .

The domain of cos^'x is [—1,1] and the range is [0, tt].

The cos“* function is also denoted by Cos“^ arccos and ACN.

Example 4 Find cos“^(—5).

Solution: The angle between 0° and 180° whose cosine is —5 is 120°.
Therefore, cos“'(—5) = 120°, or in radians, cos“‘(—1) = 27r/3.

Warning The graphs of sin x and cos x wind forever along the x-axis, but
the graphs of sin~^x and cos"*x (reflections oiportions of sin x and cos x) do
not continue forever up and down the y-axis. They are shown in entirety in
Figs. 5 and 6. (If either curve did continue winding, the result would be a
nonfunction.)

The inverse tangent function The tan"^ function is the inverse of the
branch of the tangent function through the origin (Fig. 7). In other words,
tan“^x is the angle between — 7r/2 and 7r/2 whose tangent is x. Equivalently,

(4) tan ^a = b if and only if tan b = a and - tt/2 < b < 7r/2.

The tan“‘ function is also denoted Tan“\ arctan and ATN.

For example, tan“‘(-l) = -7r/4 because -7r/4 is between -tt/2 and
7r/2 and tan(—7r/4) = — 1.

Example 5 The equation y = 2 tan 3x does not have a unique solution

for X. Restrict x suitably so that there is a unique solution and then solve for
X. Equivalently, restrict x so that the function 2 tan 3x is one-to-one, and
then find the inverse function.
Solution: To use tan~‘ as the inverse of tangent, the angle, which is 3x
in this problem, must be restricted to the interval {-\Tr,\TT), that is,
-2 77- < 3x < Itt. Consequently, we choose -77/6 < x < 77/6. With this
restriction,

\y = tan 3x (divide both sides of the original equation by 2)

tan“* ly = 3x (take tan“* on both sides)

5 tan“‘ ly = X (divide by 3).

Equivalently, if /(x) = 2 tan 3x and -77/6 < x < 77/6, then f-\x) =
I tan * 5X.
 1.5 Exponential and Logarithm Functions • 23

Problems for Section 1.4

1. Suppose / is one-to-one so that it has an inverse. If f(3) = 4 and fib) = 2

fmd,ifpossible./->(3),/-/4),/->(5),/-(2). ^
2. Find the inverse by inspection, if it exists.

(a) X - 3 (c) 1/x

(b) Intx (d) -X

3. If/(x) = 2x - 9 find a formula for f~\x).

4. Find/-'(/(17)).
5. Show that an increasing function always has an inverse and then decide if the
inverse is decreasing.
True or False? Iff is continuous and invertible then /’is also continuous.
7. Are the following pairs of functions inverses of one another?
(a) and Vx (b) x® and ^
8. Find the function value.
(a) cos^'O (e) sin“'(-5V3)
(b) sin“'0 (f) tan~‘l
(c) sin~’2 ???? (g) tan“’(-l)
(d) cos“’(-|V3)

9. Estimate tan~’1000000.
10. True or False? (a) If sin a = b then sin-'i = a (b) If sin“’c = d then
sin d — c.
11. Place restrictions on 6 so that the equation has a unique solution for 9, and
then solve, (a) z = 3 -h i sin rrd (b) x = 5 cos(20 - Itt)
12. Odd and even functions were defined in Problem 8, Section 1.2. Do
odd (resp. even) functions have inverses? If inverses exist, must they also be odd
(resp. even)?

1.5 Exponential and Logarithm Functions

This section completes the discussion of the basic functions listed in

Section 1.1 by considering the exponential functions and their inverses, the
logarithm functions. As with the other basic functions, they have important
physical applications, such as exponential growth, discussed in Section 4.9.

Exponential functions Functions such as 2*, (?)* and 7* are called

exponential functions, as opposed to power functions x/ and x\ In gen¬
eral, an exponential function has the form b\ and is said to have base b.
Negative bases create a problem. If/(x) = (-4)* then f{\) = and
f{\) = which are not real. Similarly, there is no (real)/(|),/(|),/(|), • • •;
the domain of (~4)* is too riddled with gaps to be useful in calculus. (The
power function x'^^ also has a restricted domain, namely [0, oo), but at least
the domain is an entire interval.) Because of this difficulty, we do not consider
exponential functions with negative bases.
To sketch the graph of 2*, we first make a table of values. (Remember
that 2~\ for example, is defined as \/2\ and 2*^ is 1.)

X -7 -3 -1 0 1 4 10
1 1 1
2* 128 8 2 1 2 16 1024

For convenience, we used integer values of x in the table, but 2* is also

defined when x is not an integer. For example.
 22/3 _ 23.1 _ 231/10 _

and the graph of 2* also contains the points (2/3,"'5^) and (3.1,).
We plot the points from the table, and when the pattern seems clear,
connect them to obtain the final graph (Fig. 1). The connecting process
assumes that 2* is continuous.t Figure 1 also contains the graphs of (f)* and
3* for comparison.

The exponential function c* In algebra, the most popular base is 10, while
computer science often favors base 2. However, for reasons to be given in
Section 3.3, calculus uses base e, a particular irrational number (that is, an
infinite nonrepeating decimal) between 2.71 and 2.72; the official defini¬
tion will be given in that section. Because calculus concentrates on base e,
the function is often referred to as the exponential function. It is some¬
times written as expx; programming languages use EXP(X).
Figure 2 shows the graph of e*, along with 2* and 3* for comparison.
Note that 2 < e < 3, and correspondingly, the graph of e’‘ lies between the
graphs of 2* and 3*. We continue to assume that exponential functions
are continuous.
In practice, a value of e\ such as e^, may be approximated with tables
or a calculator. Section 8.9 will indicate one method for evaluating di¬
rectly. A rough estimate o£ can be obtained by noting that since e is
slightly less than 3, is somewhat less than 9.

tThe connecting process also provides a definition of 2* for irrational x, that is, when x
is an infinite nonrepeating decimal, such as it. For example, tt = 3.14159..., and by con¬
necting the points to make a continuous curve, we are defining 2" by the following sequence
of inequalities:
23.14 ^ ^ 2®'*^*

23.14! < 2" < 2^'*'**®

23.1415 <; 2^^ < 2^'*'**^®

 1.5 Exponential and Logarithm Functions • 25

Fie.x
The graph of e’‘ provides much information at a glance:

(1) c* is defined for all x.

(2) c* > 0 ; in fact, the range of c* is (0, oo).

(3) c* is increasing.

The function In x Since e* passes the horizontal line test and is one-to-one,
it has an inverse, called the natural logarithm function and denoted by In x.
It is also written log,x and called the logarithm with base e. In other words,

(4) In a = ^ if and only if e*’ = a.

For example, if ’ = z then \nz = 2p — q. As an important consequence

of (4), since

(^) = 1 and = e,
we have

(6) In 1 = 0 and In e = 1.

The graph of In x is the reflection of c* in the line y = x (Fig. 3). The

graph reveals the following properties (7)-(10).
-)C

e.

FIG.3
26 • 1/Functions

(7) In X is defined for x > 0 ; we cannot take the logarithm of a

negative number or of 0.

(8) The range of In x is °o).

(9) In X is negative if 0 < x < 1, and positive if x > 1.

(10) In X is increasing.

Since In x and are inverses,

(11) In = X and ^‘"* = x;

that is, when exp and In are applied successively to x, they cancel each other
out.” For example. In e' = 7, = 8, In = 0 + 6, = 6x.

Warning It is impossible to take In of a negative number, but it is

perfectly possible for In x to come out negative. In fact, by (9), In x is negative
whenever 0 < x < 1. For example, ln(-3) is impossible, but In x = -3
is possible.

Laws of exponents and logarithms The familiar rules of exponents hold

for e*.

(12) e’^gy =

(13) g^jgy =

(14) = lA*

(15) {ey = e^.

We will derive the property of logarithms analogous to (12). Let a =
and 6 = ^^ so that, by (4), x = In a and y = \n b. Then (12) becomes
ab = which, by (4), may be rewritten as

(16) In a6 = In a + In 6.

Similarly, the other rules of exponents lead to the following laws

of logarithms:

(17) In — = In a — In b
b

(18) In — = —In a
a

(this is a special case of (17) since In ^ = In 1 — In a = 0 — In a = —In a)

(19) In a* = 6 In a .

We assume throughout that identities and equations involving the loga¬

rithm function never involve the logarithm of a negative number or 0. For
example, we might use (19) to write In x^ = 2 In x. It is understood that x
must not be 0 or negative, so that In x^ and In x are both defined.
Note that In x^ means In(x^), not (In x)^.

Example 1

(a) In 4 + In 3 = In 12 (by (16))

(b) In 81 = In 3^* = 4 In 3 (by (19))
 1.5 Exponential and Logarithm Functions • 27

(c) I In 9 = In 9*^2 = In V9 = In 3 (by (19))

(d) In = 3 In ^ = 3 (by (19) and (6))
(e) In Xje = -In ^ = -1 (by (18) and (6))

Warning 1. In 3x is not 3 In x; instead, In 3jc = In 3 + In x.

2. 2 In 3x is neither In 6x nor 6 In x, nor In 3x^ instead, 2 In 3x =
ln(3x)^ = In 9x^.
3. In 2x + In 3x is not In 5x; instead. In 2x + In 3x = In 6x1

Example 2

(a) In 3^'** = In 3 + In = In 3 + 4x (by (16) and (11))

(b) ^21n3x ^ ^1„(3x)2 ^ ^In9x2 ^ 9^2 (jg)
(c) 2 In X + In X = In x^ + In X = In x^ (by (19) and (16))

Logarithms with other bases There are logarithm functions with bases
other than e, corresponding to exponential functions with bases other than
e: log2X is the inverse of 2*, logsx is the inverse of 3*, logi/gx is the inverse
of (2)*, and so on. Since calculus uses the exponential function with base e,
in this book we will consider only the logarithm function with base e, that
is. In X.

The elementary functions We have now introduced all the basic functions
listed in Section 1.1. However, applications often involve not only the basic
functions, but combinations of them, such as the sum x^ + x or the product
x^ sin X. Still another way of combining two functions / and g is to form
the functions f{g{x)) and gif{x^, called compositions. If/(x) = sin x and
g{x) = Vx then/(g(x)) = sin Vx andg(y(x)) = V sin x. The basic functions
plus all combinations formed by addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
composition, a finite number of times, are referred to as the elementary functions. For
example, sin x, 2x^ + 4, sin x^, 1/x and x cos 2x are elementary functions.
All the basic functions are continuous wherever they are defined, and
it can be shown that the elementary functions also are continuous except
where they are not defined, usually because of a zero in a denominator.
For example, e^’^ is continuous except at x = 0 where it is not defined,
(x^ + sin x)/(x - 1) is continuous except at x = 1 where it is not defined,
sin x^ is continuous everywhere.

Solving equations involving e* and In x To solve the equation = 7,

take In on both sides and use In e* x to get x = In 7. To solve the equation
In X = -6, take exp on both sides and use = x to get x = e~^.

Example 3 Solve 4 ln(2x + 5) = 8.

Solution:
ln(2x + 5) = 2 (divide by 4)

2x + 5 = e^ (take exp)

X = f(^^ — 5) (algebra)

Example 4 Solve In 12x + In 3x = 4.

First solution:
In 36x^ = 4 (In c + In 6 = In ab)
28 • 1/Functions

36x^ = (take exp)

It looks as if the solution should be x = ±ie^, but if x is negative, then 12x

and 3x are also negative, and there is no In 12x or In 3x. Thus the only
solution is X =

Second solution: v v
^ini2x+in3* _ ^4 (take exp)

glnl2xgln3x ^ ^4 ^

(12x)(3x) = (^‘"‘^ = a)
36x2 ^ g4

X = 5^2 (as in the first solution)

Warning If In 12x + In 3x = 4, it is not correct to take exp of each term to

get 12x + 3x = if exp is used at all, it must be applied to each entire side
of the equation, to obtain g‘"i2*+in3x ^ ^4 general, ii p + q = 4: then
applying exp to both sides produces - e'^, not e^ + e^ = e‘^; and ap¬
plying In to both sides produces ln(jf? + ^) = In 4, not \n p -t- In g = In 4.

Example 5 Solve In(-x) = 3. Note that writing In(-x) does not violate the
principle that it is impossible to take In of a negative number. The function
ln(—x) is defined for —x > 0, that is, for x < 0.
Solution: Take exp on both sides to obtain —x = e^,x = —e^.

Solving inequalities involving e* and In x Consider the inequalities

(a) < 5 and (b) In x > To solve (a), take In on both sides to get the
solution X < In 5. For (b), take exp on both sides to get x >
Note that, in general, we can’t “do the same thing” to both sides of an
inequality and expect another similar inequality to result, li a > b, we
cannot conclude that sin a > sin b (for example, 277 > 0, but sin 27? =
sin 0). If a > b, we cannot square both sides to conclude that a2 > /,2 (for
example, 2 > — 3, but 4 < 9). However, if we operate on both sides of an
inequality with an increasing function, the sense of the inequality is main¬
tained. Since exp and In are increasing functions (as opposed to the squar¬
ing function and the sine function which are not) it is true that ifa > b then
e^ > e^ and In a > In 6, justifying the method for solving (a) and (b).

Problems for Section 1.5

1. Arrange each set of numbers from smallest to largest without using tables or
a calculator.

(a)
(b) e-^ e-\
(c) -e®, -e’

2. Simplify each expression.

(a) (e)
(b) Ine'' (f)
(c) (g) exp(ln X + In y)
(d) In Ve
 1.6 Solving Inequalities Involving Elementary Functions • 29

3. Let In 2 — a, In 3 — 6 and write each expression in terms of a and b.

(a) In 6 (g) In 2 + In 3
(b) In 8 (h) (In 2) (In 3)
(c) lnV3 (i) (In2)/(ln3)
(d) ln81 (j) (ln2r
(e) In i (k) In 2"
(f) Inf

4. For which values of x is the function defined.

(a) ln(2x + 3) (d) In In x

(b) In sin ttx (e) In In In x
(c) (f) In In In In x

5. Show that —ln(V2 — 1) simplifies to ln(V2 + 1).

6. True or False?

(a) If In a = In b, then a = b.
(b) If = e*, then a — b.
(c) If sin a - sin b, then a = b.
4 - 2 In 3 - In 2
7. Show that exp simplifies to e'^ejlS

8. Show that 2^“ = (In fact, some computers evaluate 2®, not by finding
2 • 2 • 2, but by converting 2^ to and evaluating that expression.)
9. Suppose a car travels on the number line so that its position at time t is e'.
Describe the car’s motion during the time interval (—<», “).
10. Solve

(a) 2e~’‘ -3 = 0 (k) 4 In X + In 2x = 3

(b) ln(2x + 7) = - (l) ln(5x - 3) = In 2x
(c) = -5 (m) ln(5x + 3) = In 2x
(d) —2 < In X < 8 (n) ln(x + 1) + In X =
(e) > 5 (o) =
(f) —In X = 4 (p) X In X = 0
(g) ln(—x) = 4 (q) xe’‘ + 2^* = 0
g5x+3 ^
(h) (r) e’' In X = 0
(i) In In X = —2 25
(s) „ . . „ = 5
(j) arcsin e’‘ = tt/S 2 + In 3x
.
11 Show that In |V2 simplifies to —f In 2.
12. A scientist observes the temperature T and the volume V in an experi¬
ment and finds that In T always equals -| In V. Show that must therefore
be constant.
13. The equation 4 In x + 2(ln x)^ = 0 can be considered as a quadratic equa¬
tion in the variable In x. Solve for In x, and then solve for x itself.
14. True or False? (a) If a = ^>, then = e\ (b) If a -I- 6 = c, then
+ e* = e'^.

15. Find the mistake in the following “proof” that 2 < 1. We know that (|)^ < f,
so ln(f)^ < In |. Thus 2 In | < In f. Cancel In f to get 2 < 1.

1.6 Solving Inequalities Involving Elementary Functions

This section contains algebra needed in Chapters 3 and 4. A simple

inequality such as 2x + 3 > 11 is solved with the same maneuvers as the
equation 2x + 3 = 11 (the solution is x >4), but, in general, inequal¬
X — 2x + 1
ities are trickier than equations. For example, to solve > 0, we
X — 5
want to multiply on both sides by x — 5 to eliminate fractions. But if
X <5, then X — 5 is negative and multiplication by x — 5 reverses the
inequality; if x >5, then x — 5 is positive, and the inequality is not re¬
versed. (For equations, this type of difficulty doesn’t arise.) This section
offers a straightforward method for solving inequalities of the form
/(x) > 0,/(x) < 0, or equivalently for deciding where a function is positive
and where it is negative.
In order for a function / to change from positive to negative, or vice
versa, its graph must either cross or jump over the x-axis. Therefore, a.
nonzero continuous / cannot change signs; its graph must lie entirely on
one side of the x-axis. Suppose / is 0 only at x = —3 and x = 2, and is
discontinuous only at x = 5, so that within the open intervals (—°°, ~3),
(—3,2), (2,5) and (5, oo),/ is nonzero and continuous. Then in each interval
/ cannot change signs and is either entirely positive or entirely negative.
One possibility is shown in Fig. 1. In general, we have the following method
for determining the sign of a function /, that is, for solving the inequalities
/(x) > 0,/(x) < 0.

Step 1 Find values of x where / is discontinuous. For an elementary

function /, these occur where / is not defined, in practice because of a zero
in a denominator.
Step 2 Find values of x where f is zero; that is, solve the equation
fix) = 0.
Step 3 Look at the open intervals in between. On each of the intervals,
/ maintains only one sign. To find the sign that/ takes on each interval, test
one number from each interval.

Example 1 Solve the inequalities

x^ — 2x -I- 1 x^ — 2x -t- 1
(1)
X — 5
> 0, X — 5
< 0.
X — ZX -r 1
Equivalently, if/(x) =---, decide where/ is positive and where/
is negative. ^
Solution: Step 1 The elementary function / is discontinuous only at
X = 5, where it is not defined because of a zero in the denominator.
Step 2 Solve the equation /(x) = 0.
 1.6 Solving Inequalities Involving Elementary Functions • 31

- 2x + I
-r-= 0
X — 5

- 2x -I- 1 = 0 (multiply by X - 5; equivalently, a fraction

is 0 if and only if its numerator is 0)
(x - 1)^ = 0
X = 1

Step 3 Consider the intervals (-oo, 1), (1,5) and (5, ^). Test one value of
X from each interval.

interval a value of x in the interval f(x) sign of / in the interval

(-00, 1) 0 1
5 negative
(1>5) 1
2 3 negative
(5,00) 6 25 positive
Therefore, /(x) is positive for x > 5, and negative for x < 1 and for
1 < X < 5. Equivalently, the solution to the first inequality in (1) is x > 5,
and the solution to the second inequality isx<lorl<x<5.
Note that Steps 1 and 2 locate points where the function either jumps
or touches the x-axis. These are places where/might (but doesn’t have to)
change sign by crossing or jumping over the x-axis. Indeed, in this example,
/ changes sign at x = 5 but not at x = 1. The graph in Fig. 2 shows what
is happening. At x = 1,/ touches the x-axis but does not cross, so there is
no sign change. At x = 5, / happens to jump over the axis, so there is a
sign change.

Problems for Section 1.6

1. Decide where the function / is positive and where it is negative,

10 - lOx"
(a) (d) -
9(x - 3)^ X

X -H 1
(b) (e) x^ -I- X
X — 1
x^ — X + 2

Solve

16 54 1 9 1
~2 + -T> + -r < 3 (c) —-r > 0
X X' 2x 6x -H 4 x" - 4
 1.7 Graphs of Translations, Reflections, Expansions
and Sums

Considerable time is spent in mathematics finding graphs of functions

because graphs can be extremely useful. It is possible to see from a graph
where a function is positive^ negative, increasing, decreasing, large, small,
one-to-one, discontinuous, and so on, when it may be very hard to do this
from a formula.
Suppose that the graph of y = fix) is known. We will develop efficient
techniques for finding the graphs of certain variations of/. For example, in
trigonometry it is shown that the graph of sin 2x can be obtained easily
from the graph of sin x by changing the period to tt. Similarly, the graph
of 2 sin X can be derived from the graph of sin x by changing the amplitude
to 2. We will generalize these ideas to arbitrary graphs. In each case, the
problem will be to find the graph of a variation of/, assuming that we have
the graph of/. We are not concerned here with how the original graph was
obtained. Perhaps it was found by plotting many points, possibly it was
generated by a computer, it may be a standard curve such as y = c* or it may
have been drawn using techniques of calculus, coming later.
We will first consider three variations in which an operation is per¬
formed on the variable x in the equation y = /(x), resulting in horizontal
changes in the graph. Then we examine three variations obtained by oper¬
ating on the entire right-hand side of the equation y =/(x), resulting in
vertical changes in the graph. Results are summarized in Table 1. Finally we
consider the graph of a sum of functions, given the individual graphs.

Horizontal translation The graph ofy = -I- 3x^ — 1 is given in Fig. 1.

The problem is to draw the graph of the variation y = (x — 7)^ -f-
3(x —If — 1. First, look for a connection between the two tables of values.

OLD NEW
X y = x^ -f 3x^ — 1 X y = (x - 7)^ + 3(x - If - \

2 2' + 3(2^) - 1 = 19 9 2^ + 3(2^) - 1 = 19

5 5^ -1- 3(5^) - 1 = 199 12 5* + 3(5^) - 1 = 199

Substituting x = 9 into the new equation involves the same arithmetic

(because 7 is immediately subtracted away) as substituting x = 2 in the
 1.7 Graphs of Translations, Reflections, Expansions and Sums • 33

original equation. Similarly, x — 12 in the new equation produces the same

calculation as x = 5 in the old equation. In general, if (a, b) is in the old
table then (a + 7,6) is in the new table. Now that we have a connection
between the tables, how are the graphs related? The new point (9,19) is
7 units to the right of the old point (2,19). In general, given the (old) graph
3* ~ l^he (new) graph of y =/(x — 7) is obtained by translating
(i.e., shifting) the old graph to the right by 7 units (Fig. 2). This agrees with
the familiar result thatx^ + is a circle with center at the origin, while
(x - 7)2 + is a circle centered at the point (7,0), that is, translated
to the right by 7.

Similarly, the graph of y — /(x + 3) is found by translating y = /(x) to

the left by 3 units.

Horizontal expansion/contraction Consider the following two equations

with their respective tables of values.

OLD NEW
X y = x^ + 3x2 — 1 X y = (5x)^ + 3(5x)2 - 1
2 2' + 3(22) - 1 = 19 2/5 2® + 3(22) - 1 = 19
5 5^ + 3(52) _ 1 = 199 1 5^ + 3(52) - 1 = 199

Substituting x = 2/5 in the new equation produces the same calcu¬

lation as X = 2 in the old equation (because each occurrence of 2/5 in the
new equation is immediately multiplied by 5). If {a, b) is in the old table then
(fl/5, b) is in the new table. In general, given the graph of y = fix) (Fig. 3a),
the graph of y —/(5x) is obtained by dividing x-coordinates by 5 so as to
contract the graph horizontally (Fig. 3b). Similarly, the graph of y = f^x)
is found by tripling x-coordinates so as to expand the graph off horizontally
(Fig. 3c). Note that in the expansion (resp. contraction), points on they-axis
do not move, but all other points move away from (resp. toward) they-axis
so as to triple widths (resp. divide widths by 5).
The expansion/contraction rule says that the graph of y = sin 2x is
drawn by halving x-coordinates and contracting the graph of y = sin x
horizontally. This agrees with the standard result from trigonometry that
y = sin 2x is drawn by changing the period on the sine curve from 2tt to
77, a horizontal contraction.
34 • 1/Functions

y-
i^fLs^wr^ fM
rHE V'AXl^

^ 5) '5

Horizontal reflection Consider the following two equations and their

respective tables of values.

OLD NEW
X y = x^ + 3x^ — 1 X y = (—x)^ + 3(—x)^ — 1
2 2* + 3(2') - 1 = 19 -2 2^ + 3(2^) - 1 = 19
5 53 -H 3(5^) - 1 = 199 -5 5^ + 3(5^) - 1 - 119

Substituting x = — 2 into the new equation results in the same calcu¬

lation as X = 2 in the original. If (a, b) is in the old table then {—a, b) is in the
new table. In general, given the graph of y =/(x) (Fig. 3a), the graph of
y = /(-x) is obtained by reflecting the old graph in the y-axis (Fig. 3d) so
as to change the sign of each x-coordinate.

Vertical translation Consider the equations

y = x^ -f 3x^ — 1 and y = (x^ -f 3x^ — 1) -I- 10.

For any fixed x, the y value for the second equation is 10 more than the first
y. In general, given the graph of y =/(x), the graph of y =/(x) -t- 10 is
obtained by translating the original graph up by 10.t Similarly, the graph
of y =/(x) — 4 is found by translating the graph of y =/(x) down by 4.

Vertical expansion/contraction Consider the equations

y = x^ -t- 3x^ — 1 and y = 2(x^ + 3x^ — 1).

For any fixed x, the y value for the second equation is twice the first y. In
general, given the graph of y = /(x), the graph of y = 2/(x) is obtained by
doubling the y-coordinates so as to expand the original graph vertically.
Similarly, the graph of y = |/(x) is found by multiplying heights by 2/3, so
as to contract the graph of/(x) vertically.

tThe conclusion that 31 = /(*) + 10 is obtained by translating up by 10 may be compared

with a corresponding result for circles, provided that we rewrite the equation as (y - 10) =
f(x). The circle has center at the origin, while + {y - 10)^ = is centered at
the point (0,10), that is, translated up by 10. Similarly, the graph of (y - 10) = f{x) is obtained
by translating y = f(x) up by 10.
 1.7 Graphs of Translations, Reflections, Expansions and Sums • 35

The familiar method for graphing y = 2 sin x (change the amplitude

from 1 to 2) is a special case of the general method for y = 2f{x) (double
all heights).

Vertical reflection Consider 3) = f{x) versus y =- -f(x). The second y is

always the negative of the first y. Thus, the graph ofy = -f{x) is obtained
from the graph of y = f(x) by reflecting in the x-axis. A special case ap¬
peared in Fig. 14 of Section 1.3 which showed the graphs of y = 2 sin x
andy = — 2 sin x as reflections of one another.

Table 1 Summary

How to obtain the graph from

Variation of y = /(x) the original y — fix)
An operation is performed on
the variable x
y =fi-x) Reflect the graph ofy = /(x) in the
y-axis
y =fi^x) Halve the x-coordinates of the graph
of y = /(x) so as to contract
horizontally
y =f{h) Multiply the x-coordinates of the
graph of y = /(x) by 3 so as to
expand horizontally
y = fix + 2) Translate the graph of y = /(x) to the
left by 2
II

Translate the graph of y = /(x) to the

H
1

right by 3
An operation is performed on
fix), i.e., on the entire right-
hand side
y = -fix) Reflect the graph of y = /(x) in the
x-axis
y = ^fix) Double the y-coordinates of the
graph of y = /(x) so as to expand
vertically
y = ifix) Multiply the y-coordinates of the
graph of y = /(x) by | so as to
contract vertically
y = fix) + 2 Translate the graph of y = /(x) up
by 2
oa

Translate the graph of y = /(x) down

II

by 3

Example 1 The graph of cos 'x is shown in Fig. 4. Six variations are given
in Figs. 5-10.

Warning The graph of/(x - 1) (note the minus sign) is obtained by trans-
lating/(x) to the right (in the positive direction). The graph of/(x) — 1 (note
the minus sign) is found by translating/(x) down (in the negative direction).
36 • 1/Functions

hl6.5
Fi6,6

Fie.?

FIG. 10
FI6.1
 1.7 Graphs of Translations, Reflections, Expansions and Sums • 37

The graph of f(x) + g{x) Given the graphs of f{x) and g{x), to sketch
y ~ fi^) g'M. add the heights from the separate graphs of f and g, as
shown in Fig. For example, the new point D is found by adding height
AB to height AC to obtain the new height AD. On the other hand, since
point PJ^s a negative y-coordinate, the new point i? is found by subtracting
length PQ_ from QS to get the new height QR.

To sketch y = cos x + sin x, draw y = cos x and y = sin x on the same

set of axes, and then add heights (Fig. 12). For example, add height AB to
height AC to obtain the new height AD', at x = tt, when the sine height
is 0, the corresponding point on the sum graph is point E, lying on the
cosine curve.

Problems for Section 1.7

1. Sketch the graph and, in each case, include the graph of In x for comparison
(a) ln(—x) (d) In 2x
(b) —In X (e) ln(x + 2)
(c) 2 In X (f) 2 + In X

2. Figure 13 shows the graph of a function, which we denote by star x. Sketch

the following variations given on the next page.
38 • 1/Functions

(a) star (d) star x - 2

(b) f star X (e) star(—x)
(c) star(x — 2) (f) —star x

3. Find the new equation of the curve y = 2x^ + (2x + 3)® if the curve is
(a) translated left by 2 (b) translated down by 5.
4. Sketch the graph.
(a) y = |sin x| (d) y =
(b) y = |ln x| (e) y = ln|x|
(c) y = |g'‘|

5. Sketch each trio of functions on the same set of axes.

(a) X, In x,x + In X
(b) X, In x,x — In X
(c) X, sin x,x + sin x

6. The variations sin^x, sin®x and ^sin x were not discussed in the section.
Sketch their graphs by graphically squaring heights, cubing heights and cube¬
rooting heights on the sine graph.

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 1

1. Let/(x) = Vs — X.

(a) Find/(-4).
(b) For which values of x is / defined? With these values as the domain, find
the range of /.
(c) Find /(a^) and {f{a)f.
(d) Sketch the graph of/ by plotting points. Then sketch the graph of/~', if
it exists.
V

2. For this problem, we need the idea of the remainder in a division problem.
If 8 is divided by 3, we say that the quotient is 2 and the remainder is 2. If 26.8 is
divided by 3, the quotient is 8 and the remainder is 2.8. If 27 is divided by 3, the
quotient is 9 and the remainder is 0.
If X s 0, let/(x) be the remainder when x is divided by 3.

(a) Sketch the graph of /.

(b) Find the range of/.
(c) Find/“‘(x) if it exists.
(d) Find/(/(x)).
 Chapter 1 Review Problems • 39

3. Describe the graph of f under each of the following conditions.

(a) f{a) - a for all a
(b) f{a) f{b) a b
(c) f{a +7) = f {a) for all a

4. If logax is the inverse of 2*, sketch the graphs of log2X and In x on the same
set of axes.
5. Find sin“*(-|V2).
6. Solve for x.

(a) = 2 ln(3x +4) (b) 31 = 4 + e®’'

7. Sketch the graph.

(a) g“*sinx (e) sin~‘la:

(b) sin“'(a: + 2) (f) sin Sttx
(c) sin“'x + Itt (g) 2 cos(4a: - tt)
(d) I sin“‘x

8. The functions sinh x = ^{e’‘ - e~’‘) and cosh x - + e~’‘) are called the
hyperbolic sine and hyperbolic cosine, respectively.

(a) Sketch their graphs by first drawing and |e

(b) Show that cosh^x - sinh^x = 1 for all x.

9. Solve the equation or inequality.

(a) In X - ln(2x - 3) = 4 (c) 2e* + 8 < 0

(b) In X < -8 (d) —^

10. Simplify 5e^'^\

11. Show that In X — In 5x simplifies to —In 5.
 V

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2/LIMITS /

2.1 Introduction

We begin the discussion of limits with some examples. As you read

them, you will become accustomed to the new language and, in particular,
see how limit statements about a function correlate with the graph of the
function. The examples will show how limits are used to describe discon¬
tinuities, the “ends” of the graph where x oo or x —oo, and asymptotes.
(An asymptote is a line, or, more generally, a curve, that is approached by
the graph of/.) Limits will further be used in Sections 3.2 and 5.2 where
they are fundamental for the definitions of the derivative and the integral,
the two major concepts of calculus.

A limit definition The graph of a function/ is given in Fig. 1. Note that

as X gets closer to 2, but not equal to 2, /(x) gets closer to 5. We write
lim;,.^2 f(x) = 5 and say that as x approaches 2,/(x) approaches 5. Equiva¬
lently, if X —> 2 then/(x) ^ 5. This contrasts with/(2) itself which is 3.
If point A in Fig. 1 is moved vertically or removed entirely, the limit of
/(x) as X —> 2 remains 5. In other words, if the value off atx = 2 is changed
from 3 to anything else, including 5, or if no value is assigned at all to/(2),
Fie. I we still have lim;(^2 fix) = 5.
In general, we write

lim/(x) = L
X'*a

if, for all X sufficiently close, but not equal, to a,f{x) is forced to stay as close
as we like, and possibly equal, to L.

One-sided limits In Fig. 2, there is no/(3), but we write

(1) lim/(x) = 4,

meaning that if x approaches 3 from the left, that is, through values less than
3 such as 2.9,2.99, • • •, then/(x) approaches 4; and

FIG.X (2) lim fix) = 5 ,

meaning that if x approaches 3 from the right, that is, through values greater
than 3 such as 3.1,3.01,•••, then/(x) approaches 5.
We call (1) a left-hand limit and (2) a right-hand limit. The symbols
3— and 3+ are not new numbers; they are symbols that are used only
in the context of a limit statement to indicate from which direction 3
is approached.
In this example, if we are asked simply to find lim^^3/(x), we have to
conclude that the limit does not exist. Since the left-hand and right-hand
limits disagree, there is no single limit to settle on.
41
42 • 2/Limits

Infinite limits Let

1
fix) =

A table of values and the graph are given in Fig. 3. There is no /(3), but

TC fU) % fM
-f n f
-10
3.i 10
i.if -ZP to
f.lf -too lol too

FIS. 3
we write

lim/(x) = 30
x-*3 +
meaning that as x approaches 3 from the right,/(x) becomes unboundedly
large; and we write

lim fix) = — 00
x-»3-
to convey that as x approaches 3 from the left,/(x) gets unboundedly large
and negative.
There is no value for lim;,,3/(x), since the left-hand and right-hand
limits do not agree. We do not write lim;c..3 fix) = ±°°.
In general, lim^,a/W = °° means that for all x sufficiently close, but not
equal, to a,fix) can be forced to stay as large as we like. Similarly, a limit of
—00 means that fix) can be made to stay arbitrarily large and negative.

Limits asx—> oo,x^ —oo For the function in Fig. 4, we write

 2.1 Introduction • 43

(3) Vimfix) = 4

to indicate that as x becomes unboundedly large, far out to the right on the
graph, the values of y get closer to 4. More precisely,

(3') lim/(x) = 4—

because the values of y are always less than 4 as they approach 4. Both (3)
and (3') are correct, but (3') supplies more information since it indicates
that the graph off{x) approaches its asymptote, the liney = 4, from below.
For the same function, lim;c,_oo/(x) = oo because the graph rises un¬
boundedly to the left.
If a function f{t) represents height, voltage, speed, etc., at time t, then
lim,^.„„ f{t) is called the steady state height, voltage, speed, and is sometimes
denoted by /(°o). It is often interpreted as the eventual height, voltage,
speed reached after some transient disturbances have died out.

Example 1 There is no limit of sin x a.s x ^ because as x increases

without bound, sin x just bounces up and down between — 1 and 1.

Example 2 The graph of e’‘ (Section 1.5, Fig. 2) rises unboundedly to the
right, so

(4) lim e* = 00 .

Alternatively, consider the values ee e• • • to see that the limit

is 00. We sometimes abbreviate (4) by writing = oo.
The left side of the graph of e’^ approaches the x-axis asymptotically
(from above), so

(5) lim e^ — 0.
X

Alternatively, consider to see that the limit

is 0 (more precisely, 0+). The result in (5) may be abbreviated by = 0.

Warning The limit of a function may be L even though / never reaches

L. The limit must be approached, but not necessarily attained. We have
lim*^_oo = 0 although never reaches 0; for the function / in Fig. 1,
limx*2 f{x) — 5 although/(x) never attains 5.

Example 3 The graph of In x (Section 1.5, Fig. 3) rises unboundedly to

the right, so

(6) lim In X = oo.

X-»x

The graph of In x drops asymptotically toward the y-axis, so

(7) lim In X = —oo.

x-»0+

Limits of continuous functions Iff is continuous at x = a so that its graph

does not break, then lim,c^a/(^) is simply f{a). For example, in Fig. 2,
lim,c^_] /(x) =/(—!) = 2. If there is a ^continuity at x = a, then either
\iinx.,afix) and/(a) disagree, or one or both will not exist.

Example 4 The function x^ — 2x is continuous (the elementary

functions are continuous except where they are not defined) so to find
the limit as x approaches 2, we can merely substitute x — 2 to get
lim;(^2(^^ — 2x) = 8 — 4 = 4.

Some types of discontinuities Figure 1 shows a point discontinuity at

X = 2, Fig. 2 shows a. jump discontinuity at x = 3 and Fig. 3 shows an infinite
discontinuity at x = 3. In general, a function / has a point discontinuity at
X = a if lim^^afix) is finite but not equal to/(a), either because the two

values are different or because/(fl) is not defined. The function has a jump
discontinuity at x = a if the left-hand and right-hand limits are finite but
unequal. Finally,/ has an infinite discontinuity at x = a if at least one of the
left-hand and right-hand limits is or — A function with an infinite
discontinuity at x = a is said to blow up at x = a.

Problems for Section 2.1

1. Find the limit

(a) lim;,.3 (e)

(b) lim;,...oo Vx (f) tan x
(c) limx..o cos X (g) lim,..2(x^ -H 3x - 1)
(d) limx,-oo tan”‘x

2. Find lim Int x as (a) x 3— (b) x 3-(-

3. Find lim |x|/x as (a) x —> 0— (b) x —> 0+
4. Find lim tan x as (a) x —*■ (b) x ^
5. (a) Draw the graph of a function / such that / is increasing, but lim;,,»/(x)
is not 00. (b) Draw the graph of a function/ such that lim^** /(x) = oo, but/ is not an
increasing function.
6. Identify the type of discontinuity and sketch a picture.

(a) lim*,3 fix) = 2 and /(3) = 6

(b) lim^^s /(x) = 00
(c) lim,t,2+ /(x) = 4 and lim;,..2-/(x) = 7
(d) lim,c*.3+ fix) = -oo and lim,c-3-/(x) = 5
7. Does lima..o f{2 + a) necessarily equal /(2)?
8. Use limits to describe the asymptotic behavior of the function in Fig. 5.

9. Let /(x) = 0 if X is a power of 10, and let fix) = 1 otherwise. For example,
/(lOO) = 0,/(1000) = 0,/(983) = 1. Find
 2.2 Finding Limits of Combinations of Functions • 45

(a) lim^.es/W
(b) lim^.,00f{x)
(c) lim;,,oo/(x)

10. Use the graph off{x) to find limj,.,»/(x) if

(a) f{x) = X sin X (b) /(x) =

2.2 Finding Limits of Combinations of Functions

The preceding section considered problems involving individual basic

functions, such as sin x and In x. We now examine limits of combinations
of basic functions, that is, limits of elementary functions in general, and
continue to apply limits to curve sketching.

Limits of combinations To find the limit of a combination of functions we

find all the “sublimits” and put the results together sensibly, as illustrated
by the following example.
Consider
+ 5 + In X
lim---.

We can’t conveniently find the limit simply by looking at the graph of the
function because we don’t have the graph on hand. In fact, finding the limit
will help get the graph. The graph exists only for x > 0 because of the term
In X, and finding the limit as x —> 0+ will give information about how the
graph “begins.” We find the limit by combining sublimits. If x —» 0+ then
x^ 0, 5 remains 5 and In x ——oo. The sum of three numbers, the first
near 0, the second 5 and the third large and negative, is itself large and
negative. Therefore, the numerator approaches —oo. In the denominator,
e’‘ ^ I so 2^* —> 2. A quotient with a large negative numerator and a de¬
nominator near 2 is still large and negative. Thus, the final answer is —«=.
We abbreviate all this by writing

x^ -f 5 + In X 0 + 5 + (-0°)
lim (Fig. 1).
2^* 2
In each limit problem involving combinations of functions, find the
individual limits and then put them together. The last section emphasized
the former so now we concentrate on the latter, especially for the more
interesting and challenging cases where the individual limits to be com¬
bined involve the number 0 and/or the symbol °o.
Consider °o/0—, an abbreviation for a limit problem where the numer¬
ator grows unboundedly large and the denominator approaches 0 from the
left. To put the pieces together, examine say

100 1000
-200, -7000,
- 1/2 -1/7

which leads to the answer —<». In abbreviated notation, oo/O— = —<».

Consider 2/°°, an abbreviation for a limit problem in which the nu¬
merator approaches 2 and the denominator grows unboundedly large.
Compute fractions like
46 • 2/Limits

1.9 2.001
.019, .002001,
100 *1000
to see that the limit is 0. In abbreviated notation, 2/°° — 0 or, more pre¬
cisely, 2/°° = 0+.
To provide further practice, we list more limit results in abbreviated
form. If you understood the preceding examples you will be able to do the
following similar problems when they occur (without resorting to memo¬
rizing the list).

8
8

II
0x0 = 0

1
°=0
00
0 -h 0 = 0 00
- = 00

o
8
O |i

o
II
o
II

— 00
— 2 X 00 = —00
o

8
8

II
II

8
II
5 00 -)- X = 00
- = 00 00
0+ 00 X 00 = X - = —00
0-
5 X X —00 = —X
10 = 1

(6-) X 00 X
3* = 00 (0+)“ = 0

y
/ 1\”

_2_ ^ Q
=0
X* = X

00^^2 = X

(0+)' = 0
— 00

Example 1 lim,(^a, e’' \n x = c» x oo = oo, lim;t^o+ In x = 1 x — oo = — oo.

The graph of a -I- 6c" Consider the function /(x) = 2 — e^’‘. From
Section 1.7 we know that the graph can be obtained from the graph of c*
by reflection, contraction and translation. The result is a curve fairly simi¬
lar to the graph of c*, but in a different location. The fastest way to deter¬
mine the new location is to take limits as x oo and x -oo, and perhaps
plot one convenient additional point as a check:

/(oo) = 2-c" = 2- ^= - CO
/(-oo) = 2-= 2- 0 = 2
and, as a check.

/(b) = 2-1 = 1.
The three computations lead to the graph in Fig. 2.

Example 2 Let

F{(b, '7\ fix) =

5 — X

Then/ is not defined at x = 5. Find lim,.5/(x) and sketch the graph of/ in
the vicinity of x = 5.
 2.2 Finding Limits of Combinations of Functions • 47

2 2
Solution: We have - = —. On closer examination, if x re-
5 - X 0
mains larger than 5 as it approaches 5, then 5 — x remains less than 0 as it
approaches 0. Thus

,.2 2 ^ . 2 2
7 - ~ and (similarly) lim- = — = oo
X.5+ 5 - X 0- 5 - X 0+

Since the left-hand and right-hand limits disagree, lim,(^.5/(x) does not
exist. However, the one-sided limits are valuable for revealing that / has
an infinite discontinuity at x = 5 with the asymptotic behavior indicated
in Fig. 3.

Warning A limit problem of the form 2/0 does not necessarily have the
FI6.3
answer co. Rather, 2/0+ = oo while 2/0— = —oo. in general, in a problem
which is of the form (non 0)/0, it is important to examine the denominator
carefully.

Example 3 Let/(x) = e . Determine the type of discontinuity at x = 0

where / is not defined.
Solution:

lim = 0+ (Fig. 4).

Therefore f has a point discontinuity at x =0. If we choose the natural

definition /(O) = 0, we can remove the discontinuity and make / con¬
FI6,‘t tinuous. In other words, for all practical purposes, is 0 when x = 0.
In general, if a function g has a point discontinuity at x = a, the
discontinuity is called removable in the sense that we can define or redefine
g{a) to make the function continuous. On the other hand, jump discon¬
tinuities and infinite discontinuities are not removable. There is no way to
define /(5) in Example 2 (Fig. 3) so as to remove the infinite discontinuity
and make / continuous.

Problems for Section 2.2

1. Find

(f)
(g) l/«
(h) 3”

(c) 00-4

-19 (j) (-°°)'’

(d)
0 -

1
(e)

2. Find

(a) lim (In x)^ (d) lim

x-*0 + X-.4

(b) lim^ (e) lim ln(3x - 5)

x*2
X + 5
(c) lim (x In x) (f) lim --
X -*0+ x-*'-4 X + 4
48 • 2/Limits

(g) lim x{x + 4) ^ ^ i

(h) lim ,
X--00 e
3 (k) lim -—
(i) hm ^-r X-0+ In x
*-77/2 sm X — 1
3. Find the limit and sketch the corresponding portion of the graph of the
function:

1.1 .2
(a) lim -5 (b) lim - (c) lim-5
x*o X *-o Sin X x-*i X — X

4. Use limits to sketch the graph:

(a) -2 (b) 3 + 2e^^

5. The function/(x) = has a discontinuity atx = 0 where it is not defined.
Decide if the discontinuity is removable and, if so, remove it with an appropriate
definition of/(O).
6. Let /(x) = sin 1/x.
(a) Try to find the limit as x 0 + . In this case, / has a discontinuity which is
neither point nor jump nor infinite. The discontinuity is called oscillatory.
(b) Find the limit as x “5.
(c) Use (a) and (b) to help sketch the graph of / for x > 0.

2.3 Indeterminate Limits

The preceding section considered many limit problems, but deliber¬

ately avoided the forms 0/0, 0 x 00, 00 - 00 and a few others. This section
discusses these forms and explains why they must be evaluated with caution.
Consider 0/0, an abbreviation for

j. function /(x) which approaches 0 as x ^ a

x-a function g(x) which approaches 0 as x —> a

Unlike problems say of the form 0/3, which all have the answer 0, 0/0
problems can produce a variety of answers. Suppose that as x —> a, we have
the following table of values:

numerator .1 .01 .001 .0001

denominator .1 .01 .001 .0001 ...

Then the quotient approaches 1. But consider a second possible table
of values:

numerator 2/3 2/4 2/5 2/6

denominator 1/3 1/4 1/5 1/6

In this case the quotien t approa ches 2. C)r consid(sr still am3ther possible
table of values:

numerator 1/2 1/3 1/4 1/5

denominator .1 .01 .001 .0001 • • .

Then the quotient approaches <». Because of this unpredictability, the limit
form 0/0 is called indeterminate. In general, a limit form is indeterminate when
 2.3 Indeterminate Limits • 49

different problems of that form can have different answers. The characteristic of
an indeterminate form is a conflict between one function pulling one way
and a second function pulling another way.
In a 0/0 problem, the small numerator is pulling the quotient toward
0, while the small denominator is trying to make the quotient oo or — oo. The
result depends on how “fast” the numerator and denominator each ap¬
proach 0.
In a problem of the form o°/°o, the large numerator is pulling the
quotient toward oo, while the large denominator is pulling the quotient
toward 0. The limit depends on how fast the numerator and denominator
each approach oo.
In a problem of the form (0+)°, the base, which is positive and nearing
0, is pulling the answer toward 0, while the exponent, which is nearing 0,
is pulling the answer toward 1. The final answer depends on the particular
base and exponent, and on how “hard” they pull.
In a problem of the form 0 x oo^ the factor approaching 0 is trying to
make the product small, while the factor growing unboundedly large is
trying to make the product unbounded. In an oo^ problem, the base tugs the
answer toward oo while the exponent, which is nearing 0, pulls toward 1. In
a I” problem, the base, which is nearing 1, pulls the answer toward 1, while
the exponent wants the answer to be oo if the base is larger than 1, or 0 if
the base is less than 1. In a problem of the form oo - oo, the first term pulls
toward oo while the second term pulls toward —oo. Thus, 0 X oo, oo^*, 1“ and
00 — 00 are also indeterminate.
Here is a list of indeterminate forms:

0 00 —00 —00 00
0 X 00, 0 X — 00 00 00, (-00) - (-00), (0+)'’, r,oo«.
0 ’ 00 ’ 00 ’ —00 ’ —00 9

Every indeterminate limit problem can be done; we do not accept

“indeterminate” as a final answer. For example, if a problem is of the form
0/0, there is an answer (perhaps 0, or 1, or -2, or oo, or -oo, or “no limit”),
but it usually requires a special method. We discuss one method in this
section, but most indeterminate problems require techniques from differ¬
ential calculus. Further discussion appears in Section 4.3.

Highest power rule The problem lim;,..x(2x^ - x^) is of the indeterminate

form 00 — 00, but by factoring out the highest power we have

lim 2x^^l — = 00 X = oox(l-0) = oox l = oo.

The final limit depends entirely on 2x'^ since the second factor approaches
1. This illustrates the proof of the following general principle:

(2) As X —> 00 or X —> —00, a polynomial has the same limit

as its term of highest degree.

For example, lim;,,-oo(x‘‘ + 2x^ + 3x — 2) = lim;(^_x x'' = oo.

 - I .
Similarly the problem lim^-5-,0 ^^3 ^ _|. 2 indeterminate

form 00/00, but by factoring out the highest power in the numerator and
denominator we have

1-5
x^ — x^ — I X X
hm --——r = lim
5x^ + 7x + 2 bx
)c-*-x x-»-x
i ^
5x^ 5x^
1-0-0 , .
The second factor is of the form q q> approaches 1. Therefore,

y3 _ v2 - 1 1 _
. 3 ^ O = n "" T canceling) " 5 ■
X-.-X 5x* + 7x + 2 x.-x 5x^ 5

In general, we have the following principle:

(3) As X ^ 00 or X -00, a quotient of polynomials has the

same limit as the quotient
term of highest degree in numerator
term of highest degree in denominator
which cancels to an expression whose limit is easy to evaluate.

x^ + x^ + 1
Example 1 Describe the left end of the graph of 3 _ - ‘^^2
6x® — 7x^ + X + 4
Solution: By the highest power rule,

x^ + x^ + 1 x^ X
^ ~a 3 ^7 2 I T ~A liro “Z 5 = lim — = ^.
x^-x 6x — lx + X + 4 x^-x bx x-*-^ O

Therefore at the left end, the curve rises unboundedly.

Warning The highest power rule for polynomials and quotients of poly¬
nomials is designed only for problems in which x —» °o or x —> — °o. The
highest powers do not dominate if x ^ 6 or x —^ —10 or x ^ 0. In fact if
X —» 0 then the lowest powers dominate because the higher powers of a small

X are much smaller than the lower powers.

Summary To find the limit of a combination of functions, find all the

sublimits.
If you are fortunate, the result will be in a form that can be evaluated
immediately; for example, 8/4, which is 2, or 3 x oo, which is 0°.
If the sublimits produce a result of the form 6/0, then the denominator
must be examined more carefully. If it is 0+, then the answer is °o; if it is
0—, then the answer is —00; and if the denominator is neither (perhaps it
is sometimes 0+ and sometimes 0—) then no limit exists.
If the sublimits produce an indeterminate form, perhaps the highest
power rule will help; if not, wait for methods coming later.
 Chapter 2 Review Problems • 51

Problems for Section 2.3

1. - x"*)
/
+ X®® - 7
2. lim-34 -as (a) X ^ 00 (b) x ^ 0 (c) x ^ 1

X
3. lim --as (a) X 00 (b) x -> 1 + (c) x -> 1- (d) X — 00
[ — X

3y ^ — 2^ 4" 4
4. lim--- as (a) X ^ 00 (b) x ^ 1-
X — X
(x + 3) (2 — x)
5. lim
X-»co
(2x + 3) (x - 5)
x^ — 4
6. lim
jc-2 X — 2
2x — 5
7. lim
X-*30 3x^ + 4x

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 2

1. Find

(a) lim X cos x (c) lim e cos x

x-O X-»oo

(b) lim(x + cos x) 2x + 4

X-.0 (d) lim
X-» —OO 3x + 5
2x"* + 3x
2. Find lim as (a) X — 00 (b) X 2
x' + 5

3. Find lim —js as (a) x ^ oo (b) x ^ 0 (c) x ^ 1

X - X
4. Find lim(2x — 4x®) as (a) x oo (b) x —> 2
5. (a) Show that In sin x is not defined at x = 0 or x = tt, or as x ^ 0— or
X —> 7r + . (b) Find limx^o+ In sin x. (c) Find lim^^w- In sin x.
6. Use limits to help sketch the graph of 1 — e^.
7. Suppose / is not defined at x == 3. Identify the type of discontinuity and
decide if it is removable if

(a) limx.3 /(x) = 5

(b) limx.3-/W = 6 and limx,3+ /(x) = oo
 V
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3/THE DERIVATIVE PART I

3.1 Preview

This section considers two problems which introduce one of the funda¬
mental ideas of calculus. Subsequent sections continue the development
systematically.

Velocity Suppose that the position of a car on a road at time t is f{t) =

12t — t^. Assume time is in hours and distance is in miles. Then/(0) = 0,
/(I) = 11,/(2) = 16, so the car is at position 0 at time 0, at position 11 at
time 1, and so on (Fig. 1). The problem is to find the speedometer reading
at any instant of time.

t-0 t=l

-I-—)-1-(—po^irioN
0 ^11 16

Fl6.1
It is easy to find average speeds. For example, in the two hours between
times t = 0 and ^ = 2, 16 miles are covered so the average speed is 8 mph.
An average speed over a period of time is not the same as the instantaneous
speedometer readings at each moment in time, but we can use averages to
find the instantaneous speed for an arbitrary time t.
First consider the period between times t and t + Ai. (The symbol At
is considered a single letter, like h or k, and is commonly used in calculus
to represent a small change in t.) The quotient

change in position _ later position — earlier position

(1)
change in time At
fit + At) - fit)
At

is called the average velocity. It will be positive if the car is moving to the right,
and negative if the car is moving to the left (when the later position is a
smaller number than the earlier position). The average speed is the absolute
value of the average velocity.
To find the instantaneous velocity at time t consider average velocities,
but for smaller and smaller time periods, that is, for smaller and smaller

53
54 • 3/The Derivative Part I

values of A/. In particular, we take the instantaneous velocity at time t to be

f{t + A/) - f{t)

(2) lim
A(-0

Therefore, for our specific function/(/) = 12/ —

instantaneous velocity at tinle t

12(/ + A/) “ (/ + A/)^ — (12/ ~ /^)
= lim---
A(-0 A/

.. 12/ + 12A/ - /' - 3/2A/ - 3/(A/)2 - {Mf - 12/ + /^

= lim-7-
A('*0 A/
= lim (12 - 3/2 - 3/A/ - (A/)2)
A(-»0

= 12 - 3/2.
We began with/(/) = 12/ — /^ representing position. The function 12 — 3/2
just obtained is called the derivative of / and is denoted by/'(/). It repre¬
sents the car’s instantaneous velocity. If the derivative is positive then the
car is traveling to the right, and if the derivative is negative the car is
traveling to the left; the absolute value of the derivative is the speedometer
reading.! Velocity is even more useful than speed because the sign of the
velocity provides extra information about the direction of travel. For ex¬
ample,/'(O) = 12, indicating that at time / = 0, the car is traveling to the
right at speed 12 mph. Similarly,/'(2) = 0, so at time 2 the car has tempo¬
rarily stopped; /'(3) = —15, so at time 3 the car is traveling to the left
at 15 mph.

Slope The slope of a line is used to describe how a line slants and, as a
corollary, to identify parallel and perpendicular lines. The problem is to
assign slopes to curves in general.
A curve that is not a line will not have a unique slope; instead the slope
will change along the curve. It will be positive and large when the curve is
rising steeply, positive and small when the curve is rising slowly, and nega¬
tive when the curve is falling (Fig. 2).
To compute the slope at a particular point A on a curve, we draw a line
tangent to the curve at the point (Fig. 2) and take the slope of the tangent
line to be the slope of the curve. If the curve is the graph of a function/(x),
then the problem is to find the slope of the tangent line at a typical point A
with coordinates (x, /(x)). We can’t determine the slope immediately because
we have only one point on the tangent, and we need two points to find the
slope of a line. However, we can get the slope of the tangent by a limiting
process. Consider a point 5 on the curve near A with coordinates
(x + Ax, /(x + Ax)). (Figure 2 shows Ax positive since 5 is to the right of A;
Ax can also be negative, in which case B is to the left of A.) The line AB is
called a secant and has slope

change in y-coordinate _ Ay _ /(x + Ax) - f{x)

change in x-coordinate Ax Ax

tinitially, in (1), we assumed that A< > 0 so that t + At is a later time than t. However, the
limit in (2) allows At to be negative as well. In that case, a similar argument will show that the
derivative obtained still represents an instantaneous velocity with these properties.
 3.1 Preview • 55

which is equivalent to (1), but with the independent variable named x

instead of t. If we slide point B along the curve toward point A, the secant
begins to resemble the tangent at point A. Figure 2 shows some of the
in-between positions as the original secant AB approaches the tangent line.
This sliding is done mathematically by allowing Ax to approach 0 in (T).
Therefore we choose

(2') hm ~M
Ax
as the slope of the tangent, and hence as the slope of the curve at
point A.
From the calculations in the velocity problem we know that if
fix) = 12x - x^ then the limit in (2') is 12 - 3x^ denoted /'(x). Since
/(I) = 11 and/'(I) = 9, the point (1,11) is on the graph of /, and at that
point the slope is 9. Similarly,/(2) = 16 and /'(2) = 0, so the slope on the
graph at the point (2,16) is 0;/(3) = 9 and/'(3) = -15 so the slope at the
point (3,9) is —15. Figure 3 shows a partial graph of/.
In the first problem, (1) appeared as an average velocity; in the second
problem, the same quotient, eq. (T), represented the slope of a secant line.
In the first problem, the limit in (2) was an instantaneous velocity/ (t), in
the second problem, the limit appeared again in (2') as the slope/'(x) of a
curve. It is time to examine/' systematically. In the next section we will
define the derivative and look at a few applications to help make the
concept clear.

V V

3.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Derivative

Definition of the derivative The derivative of a function / is another

function, called/', defined by

fix + Ax) - fix)

(1) f'{x) = lim
Ax-*0 Ax

(We will assume for the present that the limit exists. Section 3.3 discusses
instances when it does not exist.) Equivalently, if y is a function of x, the
derivative y' is defined by

(2) y = lim = lim 4^

^x*o change m x ax.o Ax

The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. The branch of

calculus dealing with the derivative is called differential calculus.

Speed and velocity Section 3.1 showed that if fit) is the position of a particle
on a number line at time t then/'(/ is the velocity of the particle. If the velocity
is positive, the particle is traveling to the right; if the velocity is negative, the
particle is traveling to the left. The speed of the particle is the absolute value
of the velocity, that is, the speed is \f'it)\. If/(3) = 12 and/'(3) = —4 then at
time 3 the particle is at position 12 with velocity —4, so it is traveling to the
left at speed 4.

Slope Section 3.1 showed that/'(x) is the slope of the tangent line at the
point (x,/(x)) on the graph off. Thus/'(x) is taken to be the slope of the
graph off at the point (x,/(x)). If the slope is positive, then the curve is
rising to the right; if the slope is negative, the curve is falling to the right.
If/(3) = 12 and/'(3) = —4 then the point (3,12) is on the graph of/ and
at that point the slope is —4.

Example 1 Figure 1 gives the graph of a function/. Values off may be

estimated from the slopes on the graph off. It looks as if/'(—3) is a large
positive number since the curve is rising steeply at x = —3. The curve levels
off and has a horizontal tangent line at x = —2, so/'(—2) = 0. Similarly,
/'(—I) is large and negative, while/'(100) is a small negative number. We
can plot a rough graph of the function/' (Fig. 2) by plotting points such as
A = (-3, large positive), = (-2,0), C = (-1, large negative), D = (100,
small negative). Note that on the graph of/' we treat values of/' as
y-coordinates, just as we do for any function, although the values of/' were
obtained originally as slopes on the graph of /.
 3.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Derivative • 57

Notation If 3) - f{x) there are many symbols for the derivative of/. Some
of them are

dy
dx ’ D.f. Df,
dx
The notation dy/dx looks like a fraction but is intended to be a single
inviolate symbol.

More general physical interpretation of the derivative So far, the deriva¬

tive is a velocity if/ represents position, and is a slope on the graph of/.
More abstractly, the quotient

change in / _ f(x + Ax) - f{x)

change in x Ax

is the average rate of change of / with respect to x on the interval between

58 • 3/The Derivative Part I

X and X + Ax. Thus/'(x) is the instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to

X. Suppose/(3) = 13 and/'(3) = -4. If x increases, (that is,/(x)) changes
also, and when x reaches 3, y is 13. At that moment); is decreasing instan¬
taneously by 4 units for each unit increase in x.
In general, we have the following connection between the sign of the
derivative and the behavior ^of//_^,

If f'{x) is positive on an interval then f increases on that interval. In

(3) particular, a graph with positive slope is rising to the right.
If f'{x) is negative on an interval then f decreases on that interval.
(4) In particular, a graph with negative slope is falling to the right.
If fix) is zero on an interval then f is constant on that intetwal. In
(5) particular, a graph with zero slope is a horizontal line.

Example 2 Let f{t) be the temperature at time t (measured in hours).

Then/'(0 is the rate at which the temperature is changing per hour. If
/(2) = 40 and f'{2) = -5 then at time 2 the temperature is 40° and is
dropping at that moment by 5° per hour.

Example 3 Consider the steering wheel of your car with the front wheels
initially pointing straight ahead. Let 6 be the angle through which you turn
the steering wheel, and let f{d) be the corresponding angle through which
the front wheels turn (Fig. 3). As in trigonometry, positive angles mean
counterclockwise turning.
If/' is negative, take the car back to the dealer, driving very cautiously
along the way, since wires are crossed somewhere. When 6 increases,/(0)
decreases, so when you turn the steering wheel counterclockwise, the
wheels turn clockwise.
If/' is constantly 0, again take the car back to the dealer, but you’ll need
a tow truck, because no matter how the steering wheel is turned there is no
turning in the wheels.
If/' is 10, the steering is overly sensitive, since for each degree of
turning of the steering wheel there is 10 times as much turning of the
wheels (in the same direction at least, since 10 is positive). Even/' = 1 is
probably too large;/' = ^ is more reasonable. In this case, as you turn the
steering wheel in a particular direction, the wheels also turn in that direc¬
tion (because ^ is positive), but each degree of turning in the steering wheel
produces only ^ of turning in the front wheels.

riG.3
 3.2 Definition and Some Appiications of the Derivative • 59

Higher derivatives The function /' is the derivative of/. The derivative
of/ is yet another function, called the second derivative of / and denoted hy
/ . A second derivative may sound twice as complicated as a first derivative,
but if/" is regarded as the first derivative of/' it isn’t a new idea at all:/"
is the instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x. If/"(6) = 7 then, when
^ ~ 6,/ is in the process of increasing by *7 units for every unit increase in
X. There are many notations for the second derivative, such as

(2) d^ dY ^
/"> /
dx^’ dx^’ dx^^^’’

Similarly, /'", the derivative of /", is called the third derivative of /, and
so on.

Example 4 Let C be the cost (in dollars) of a standard shopping cart of

groceries at time t (measured in days). Suppose that at a certain time,
dC/dt = 2 and d^C/dt^ = — .03. Then at this instant, C is going up by $2 per
day (inflation), but the $2/day figure is in the process of going down by
3y/day per day (the rate of inflation is tapering off slightly). If the second
derivative remains —.03 for a while then in another day, the first derivative
will decrease to 1.97, and C will be rising by only $1.97 per day. If the
second derivative remains —.03 long enough, the first derivative will even¬
tually become zero and then negative, and C will start to fall.

Acceleration Let f{t)he the position of a particle on a number line a*^ dme
t (use miles and hours) so that f'(t) is the velocity of the particle. The
problem is to interpret f"{t) from this point of view.
Suppose /'(3) = — 7 and /"(3) = 2. Then, at time 3, the particle is
moving to the left at 7 mph. Since/" is the rate of change of/', the velocity,
which is —7 at this instant, is in the process of increasing by 2 mph per hour,
changing from —7 toward —6 and upwards. The absolute value of the
velocity is getting smaller so the speed is decreasing. Thus the car is slowing
down (decelerating) by 2 mph at this instant.
Unfortunately, the word acceleration has two meanings. Physicists and
mathematicians call /" the acceleration; their acceleration is the rate of change of
VELOCITY. But drivers use acceleration to mean the rate of change of SPEED,
that is, an indication that the car is speeding up or slowing down. The
(mathematician’s) acceleration f"(x) does not, by itself, determine whether
a driver is accelerating or decelerating; both/" and /' must be considered.
If/'(3) = 7 and/"(3) = 2 then, at time 3, the particle is traveling to the
right at 7 mph, and the velocity, which is 7 at this instant, is in the process
of increasing by 2 mph per hour. Its absolute value is increasing and the car
is speeding up by 2 mph per hour. Further examination of the four possible
combinations of signs gives the following general result:

If the velocity f and the acceleration f" have the same sign then the particle
is speeding up (accelerating). If they have opposite signs then the particle is
(6) slowing down (decelerating). For example, suppose/"(4) = —5.If/'(4)
is also negative, then at time 4 the particle is accelerating by 5 mph
per hour. If/ '(4) is positive, then at time 4 the particle is decelerating
by 5 mph per hour.

Warning If the acceleration/" is positive, it is not necessarily true that the

particle is speeding up. If the acceleration/" is negative, it is not necessarily
60 • 3/The Derivative Part I

true that the particle is slowing down. The conclusions are true if the
particle is traveling to the right, but the conclusions are false if the particle
is traveling to the left.

Units If/(0 is the temperature at time t (measured in hours) then the

units of/' are degrees/hour, and the units of/" are degrees/hour per hour,
that is, degrees/hour^. If/(0 is position at time t (miles and hours) then the
units of the velocity/' are miles/hour, and the units of the acceleration/"
are miles/hour per hour, or miles/hour^. In general, if / is a function of
X then the units of/' are (units of/)/(unit of x), and the units of/" are

(units of/)/(unit of xf.

Concavity The derivative/'(x) is the slope of the graph of/(x) at the point
(x,/(x)). The problem is to interpret the second derivative /"(x) from a
geometric point of view.
If/' is positive then the graph of / is rising to the right, but this still
allows some leeway. The graph can “bend” in two possible ways as it goes
up. The two types of bending are called concave up and concave down
(Fig. 4). Similarly, when/' is negative, the graph off has negative slope but
the graph can be either concave up or concave down (Fig. 5).
We can use the second derivative to detect the concavity. If/" is positive
on an interval then/' is increasing, so the graph off has increasing slope,
as in Figs. 4(a) and 5(a). If/" is negative on an interval then/' is decreasing.

FIG.^

‘7U>Pe-i

SL0P&-5

(p\)6d^ci\V^ VP Cl^)P:)MCA[/P OoiklM

Fie.5
 3.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Derivative * 61

so the graph off has decreasing slope, as in Figs. 4(b) and 5(b). Iff" is zero
on an interval then the slope/' is constant, and the graph off is a line. We
summarize as follows.

/" on an interval graph of / in that interval

positive concave up
negative concave down
zero a line
A point on the graph off at which the concavity changes is called r point
of inflection.

Example 6 Suppose /'(x) > 0 for 2 < x < 7, f"{x) < 0 for 2 < x < 5,
/ (5) = 0, and f"{x) > 0 for 5 < x ^ 7. Sketch a graph consistent with
the data.
Solution: The graph off rises om [2, 7], is concave down until x = 5 and
then switches to concave up. Th^ point (5,/(5)) is a point of inflection
(Fig. 6).
The sketch deliberately omits the axes (but assumes, as usual, that they
are horizontal and vertical). Since we have no information about the values
of /, we don’t know any specific heights on the graph. The curve can
intersect the x-axis, or lie entirely above or below it.

Problems for Section 3.2

1. If the curve in Fig. 7 is the graph of/, estimate/'(0),/'(-100) and/'(100).

Sketch the graph of f'{x).

FI6.7
2. Let p be the price of a camera and S the number of sales. Find the probable
sign of dS/dp.
3. Let y be the distance (in feet) from a submerged water bucket up to the top
of the well at time t (in seconds). Suppose dy/dt = -2 at a particular instant. Which
way is the bucket moving, and how fast is it going?
4. If dy/dx is positive, how does y change if x decreases?
5. Let f(x) be your height in inches at age x, and let/'(13.7) = 2.

(a) By about how much will you grow between age 13.7 and age 14?
(b) Why is your answer to (a) only approximate?
 6. A street (number line) is lined with houses. Let/(x) be the number of people
living in the interval [0,x]. For example, if f{8) — 100 then 100 people live in the
interval [0,8].

(a) What does /(x + Ax) -/(x) represent in this context?

fix “f" Ax) — f(x)
(b) What does the quotient 4-represent?

(c) What does /'(x) represent?

(d) What values of/'(x) are impossible?

7. Suppose Smith’s salary is x dollars and Brown’s salary isy dollars. If Smith’s
salary increases, how will Brown fare in comparison if dy/dx is (a) 2 (b) 1/2
(c) -1 (d) 0?
8. Let X be the odometer reading of a vehicle and /(x) the number of gallons
of gasoline it has consumed since purchase. Describe /'(x) for a van and for a
motorcycle (what units? positive? negative? which is larger?).
9. True or False?
(a) If/(2)-g(2), then/'(2) = g'(2).
(b) If / is increasing, then f is increasing.
(c) If/ is a periodic function, that is, / repeats every b units, then/' is also
periodic.
(d) If / is even, then /' is even (even functions were defined and their graphs
discussed in Problem 8 of Section 1.2).

10. The posted speed limit at position, x on a straight road is L(x), and a car
travels so that at time t its position on the road is f{t). For example, if/(2) = 3 and
L(3) = 50 then, at time 2, the car is at position 3 on the road and the posted speed
limit is 50 mph. Suppose that at time 6 the car breaks the law and exceeds the speed
limit. Express this fact mathematically using a derivative and an inequality.
11. Let /(x) == X for all x. Find/'(x) (a) using the definition in (1) (b) using
slope (c) using velocity.
12. If the curve in Fig. 7 is the graph of g', sketch a possible graph of g.
13. Let f(t) be the temperature in your city at time t. If it is uncomfortably hot
at time t - 2, are you pleased or displeased with the indicated data?

(a) /'(2) = 6,/"(2) - -4 (b) /'(2) = -6,/"(2) = -4 (c) /'(2) = 0

14. Let s(t) be the position of a particle on a line at time t (miles and hours). Find
the direction of motion and the speed at time 3. Is the particle speeding up or
slowing down, and at what rate?

(a) 5'(3) = -4,T'(3) = -1 (c) T(3) = 0,f'(3) = 2

(b) T(3) = 5,T'(3) - -2 (d) ^'(3) - 2,f'(3) - 0

15. Suppose /(2) = 3,/(10) = 4;/'(x) is positive on [2,8), zero at x = 8, and

negative on (8,10];/" is positive on [2,6), zero at x =6, and negative on (6, 10].
Sketch a rough graph of / on [2,10].
16. What kind of second derivative (positive? negative? large? small?) would the
car owner prefer in Example 3?
17. If/'(x) decreases from 5 to 1 as x increases from 3 to 4, what can you
conclude about/(x) and/"(x) for 3 x < 4?
18. Let /(x) be the cost to a refinery of starting up production and turning out
X barrels of oil.

(a) What does it mean if /(60) = 400?

(b) /'(x) is called the marginal cost. What does it represent to the refinery? In
particular, what does it mean if/'(60) = 21 and/'(100) = 10?
(c) Suppose/(lO) = 200 and/'(lO) = 3. Interpret physically.
 3.3 Derivatives of the Basic Functions • 63

3.3 Derivatives of the Basic Functions

We now begin computing derivatives. In this section we find the deriva¬

tives of (almost) all the basic functions; a summary appears at the end of the
section. Sections 3.5 and 3.6 will develop rules for differentiating combina¬
tions (sums, products, quotients, compositions) of the basic functions. Then
you will be able to differentiate any elementary function. (If the derivatives
of the basic functions and sin x are known, along with the rules for
differentiating compositions and products, then such elementary functions
as sin x and sin x can be differentiated.)

Derivative of a constant function If f{x) is a constant function then the

graph of / is a horizontal line and has slope 0. Thus/'(x) = 0. In other
words, D^c = 0 for any constant c.

Derivative of the function x The graph of/(x) = x is the line y = x. The

line has slope 1 so/'(x) = 1. In other words D,,x = 1. (See also Problem 11
in the preceding section.)

Derivative of the function x^ It is easy to find DxC and D^x using slopes.
However, the graph of x^ (Fig- 1) has varying slope, so D^x^ is not easy to
predict. To get the precise formula for / (x), we use the definition of
the derivative:

/'w =
Ax^.0
+ y-/w
Ax
, |i„, fc + Ax

Now, expand (x + Ax)® by the binomial theorem (Appendix A4) to get

/'(x) = lim + 9x^Ax + a2x\^xf + ••• + fl8^(Ax)^ + (Ax)® - x®

Ax^O Ax

(The values of the coefficients a2, ‘ ‘ ,(i% will turn out to be unimportant,
so we don’t bother computing them.) Then

fix) = lim[9x® + fl2^’Ax + •■• + a85c(Ax)^ + (Ax)®] = 9x®.

A*^0
Thus D^x^ = 9x®. Note that the slope 9x® is a large positive number when
X = ±4 for example, corresponding to the steep rise in the graph of x® at
^ ~ —4, and 9x® is a small positive number when x is corresponding to
the gentle rise in the graph at x = ±|.

Derivative of x" The formula Z)„x® = 9x® is a special case of the more
general pattern D^x'" = rx*^"’. This pattern, called the power rule, also works
for every other power function: to differentiate x^ lower the exponent by
1 and drop the old exponent down to become a multiplier. For example,
D„x^ = 2x, D^x® = 3x^, and similarly

d{\/x^) d{x-^) „ _4 3 , .
dx ~ dx ~ ^ exponent -3 goes down to -4),

d (x 1
dx dx 2Vx'
64 • 3/The Derivative Part I

The proof of the power rule for x\x\x\--- is similar to the proof for x .
The rule holds for r = 1 since the desired formula D^x* = lx° amounts to
the formula D^x = 1, already proved. Section 3.5 will prove the power rule
for r a negative integer and Section 3.7 will give the proof for fractional r.

Warning There are many ways to indicate that the derivative of x® is 3x^.
For example, you may write D*x^ = 3x^, d{x^)/dx = 3x^, if/(x) - x then
/'(x) = 3x1 But do not write f'{x^) = 3x^ and do not write x^ = 3x .
Letters other than x and y may be used. If z = t^ then dz/dt — 2t, if
f{u) = then f'{u) = 4m®.

Example 1 Find the slope at the point (2,8) on the graph of y = x® and
find the equation of the tangent line at the point.
Solution: If/(x) = x® then/'(x) = 3x2 and/'(2) = 12. So the slope at
(2, 8) is 12. The tangent line has slope 12 and contains the point (2,8) so its
equation is y — 8 = 12(x — 2).

Derivative of sin x We can make an educated guess for the derivative of

sin X, based on slopes on the sine curve (Fig. 8 of Section 1.3). It looks as if
the slope of sin x at x = 0 is about 1, the slope at x = tt/2 is 0, the slope at
X = IT is -1, the slope at x = 37r/2 is 0, and so on. Thus, the derivative of
sin X is a function with the following table of values:

X derivative of sin x

0 1
7r/2 0
77 -1
377/2 0
277 1

A well-known function that has these values is cos x; and we guess that
Dx sin X = cos x.
We will continue with the proof to confirm the guess, but must admit
that students who find it too lengthy to read can grow up to lead rich full
happy lives anyway. For the proof we use the definition of the derivative.

sin(x + Ax) — sin x

Dx sin X lim
Aj:^0 Ax
2 cos |(2x + Ax) sin |Ax
= lim (by the identity in (15) of
A*-*0 Ax
Section 1.3)
5
sin f Ax
(1) = lim cos f(2x v+ Ax) (rearrange).
f Ax

As Ax -» 0, the first factor in (1) approaches cos x. If we let 0 = |Ax for

convenience, the second factor is (sin 6)/6 where 0^0. Therefore, to
complete the proof we must show that

sin B
(2) lim = 1.
d
First consider the special case where 9 ^ 0+ so that we may use a picture
with a positive angle 6. Consider a circle of radius 1 and a sector with angle 6
FI6.7. (Fig. 2). Then
 3.3 Derivatives of the Basic Functions • 65

(3) area of triangle OAB = \bh = 0A ' AB = \AB

and

(4) area of triangle OAC = \bh = ^OA • DC = |DC .

By trigonometry,

(5) tan 0 = ^ = AB and sin 0 = ^ .

Therefore, by (3), (4) and (5),

area of triangle OAB = ^ tan 6 and area of triangle OAC — I sin 6

(6)

The area of the entire circle with radius 1 is tt, and the sector OAC is a
fraction of the circle, namely, the fraction 0/277' if 6 is measured in radians.
Therefore

0) area of sector OAC = — • tt =

277

Now we are ready to put the ingredients together to prove (2). Since area
of triangle OAC < area of sector OAC < area of triangle OAB, we have, by
(6) and (7), ^ sin 6 < ^6 < | tan 6. Divide each term by f sin 6 (which is
positive since 0 0+) to get

sin 0 cos 0’

and take reciprocals to obtain

sin 0
cos 0 < < 1.
0
We know that lim0^,o+ cos 0 — 1, so as 0 0+, (sin 0)/0 is squeezed be¬

tween 1 and a quantity approaching 1. Therefore lim0,o+ —— = 1. For the

0
case where 0^0-, note that (sin 0)/0 takes on the same values when 0
approaches 0 from the left as from the right; that is, (sin 0)/0 is the same
whether 0 equals b or —b since

sin(—0) _ —sin b _ sin b

—b —b b

Therefore, more generally, we have the two-sided limit in (2). This in turn
concludes the proof that D,, sin x = cos x.

Derivative of cos x To find D,^ cos x note that the cosine and sine graphs
(Figs. 8 and 9 of Section 1.3) are translations of one another. The slope
at X on the cosine graph is the same as the slope at x + ^tt on the sine
graph. In other words, cos'x = sin'(x + ^tt). But sin' is cos, so D„ cos x =
cos(x + 577). Furthermore, cos(x + 577) = -sin x. To see this, either use the
trig identity for cos(x + y) or note that the cosine curve translated to the left
by 577 is the same as a reflected sine curve (Fig. 3). Therefore we have the
final result D,, cos x = —sin x. (Equivalently, De cos 0 = —sin 0, Dy cos y =
—sin y, D„ cos u = —sin u, and so on.)
66 • 3/The Derivative Part I

Flo. 3
Derivatives of the other trigonometric functions The functions tan x,
cot X, sec X and esc x are various quotients of sin x and cos x. We will find
their derivatives in Section 3.5 using a quotient rule, but for completeness
we include them in the table of basic derivatives in this section.

Notation If/(x) = sin x then/'(7r) means the value of the derivative when
X = 77. Thus,/'(7r) = cos 77 = -1. We might also let;) = sin x and use the
notation y'\x=-n — cos x\x=.^ - cos 77 = —1.

Radians versus degrees Radian measure is used in calculus rather than

degrees because the derivative formula for sin x (and hence all the other
trigonometric functions) is simpler in radians. We will explain why in
this paragraph but if you find it difficult, as many students do, consider
it optional.
The rate of change of sin x is different when x is measured in radians
than when x is measured in degrees. In particular, sin x changes more
rapidly with respect to x when x represents radians. A change of 1 radian
has more effect on sin x than a change of 1 degree. In fact, I radian has the
same effect as approximately 57°. Equivalently, if the rate of change of sin x
per radian is q then the rate of change of sin x per degree is approximately
■^q, actually 7^^. Therefore the formula D;, sin x = cos x, which holds when
radian measure is used, becomes sin x = 7^ cos x when degree measure
is used.
Both the guess and the proof of the derivative formula sin x = cos x
were based on radian measure. In the proof, formula (7) assumed radian
measure. Similarly, the guess was based on a graph of sin x using radian
measure on the x-axis. If degrees are used (Fig. 4) then the graph of sin x
has a different appearance. The slopes are smaller, ranging between -1/57
and 1/57 approximately (actually between —77/180 and 77/180) rather
than between -1 and 1. Slopes read from Fig. 4 lead to sin x = 7I0 cos x,
X in degrees.

FlO
 3.3 Derivatives of the Basic Functions • 67

The formula sin x - cos x, x in radians, is simpler than sin x =

cos X, X in degrees. Therefore radian measure is used in calculus.

Derivative of e* and a definition of the number e Finding D^e’‘ is a sub¬

stantial and difficult problem, especially since it is at this stage that we must
define the number e. We 11 start by assuming that we have not yet singled
out a favorite base, and try to find the derivative of b’‘, where 6 is a fixed
positive number. We have

- b^
lim (definition of the derivative)
A1-.0 Ax
(8) 7)^* - 1
lim 6* (factor).
A*-*0 Ax

Now look at sublimits. The factor b’‘ does not change since it does not
contain Ax. Thus we concentrate on finding the limit of the second factor.

(9)
Ax

which is of the indeterminate form 0/0. The quotient in (9) happens to be

the slope of the line through the points (0,1) and (Ax, ^^*), a secant line on
the graph of (Fig. 5). If Ax ^ 0, then the point (Ax, 6^*) slides along the
graph toward the point (0,1) and the secant approaches the tangent line.
Therefore, the limit of (9) is the slope of the tangent line, or equivalently,
the slope on the graph of at (0,1). Consequently (8) becomes

(8 ) D^b^ — mb’‘ where m is the slope at (0,1) on the graph of 6*.

1 ^
j\00

7 p05iTW£ The value of m depends on the value of b. The slope m at the point (0,1)
on the graph of 100* (Fig. 6) is a large positive number; thus D*100* =
m 100* where is a specific large positive number. On the other hand, the
slope m at (0,1) on the graph of LOT (Fig. 7) is a very small positive
number. We have the most convenient version of (8') when the slope at
(0,1) on the graph of ft* is 1. Somewhere between the extremes of 100* and
FIG,6 LOT, there is such a ft* (Fig. 8). That particular ft is named e. Thus we arrive
68 • 3/The Derivative Part I

at the following definition oi e\ e is the base such that the graph of b’‘ has slope
1 at the point (0,1). This definition of e is not yet of computational value; in
fact we cannot tell immediately from the definition that e is between 2.71
and 2.72. (One of the ways of computing e will be demonstrated later in
Section 8.9.) However, with the definition of e we do immediately have the
derivative of e’‘. Set m = \, b = e 'm (8') to get D^e^ = e’‘.

The derivative of the inverse function If we find the general connection

between the derivatives of inverse functions, we can use it to easily find the
derivatives of In x, sin“’x: and cos~^x, now that we have derivatives for f*,
sin X and cos x.
Suppose y is an invertible function of x. Then x is a function ofy, and
we want the connection between the original derivative dy/dx and the in¬
verse derivative dx/dy. Suppose dy/dx = 3, meaning that if x increases, then
y increases 3 times as much. If the perspective is changed, and y is viewed
as the independent variable, then if y increases, x also increases, but only
1/3 as much; that is, dx/dy = 5. In general.

dx _ I
(10)
dy dy
dx

The inverse formula is easy to remember, because if we pretend that dy/dx

and dx/dy are fractions, the formula looks like standard algebra.

Derivative of In x Let y = In x. Then x = e\ and

d{\n x) _ dy _ 1 _ 1
dx' dx dx e^
dy

We don’t stop here because when y is a function of x we expect the deriva¬

tive to be a function of x also. Thus we must express \/e^\n terms of x, which
is easy because e^ = x. Therefore, dy/dx — 1/x, that is, D* In x = 1/x.

Derivatives of the inverse trigonometric functions We continue to take

advantage of (10). To find the derivative of sin"'x, let y = sin"^x, so that
X = sin y where —jtt < y < 577. Then
 3.3 Derivatives of the Basic Functions • 69

_ dy _ I _ 1
dx dx dx cos y
dy

We want to express the answer in terms of x since 3; is a function of x. We

know that sin y — x, and cos^y = 1 — sin^)) by a trig identity, so cos^y =
I — X . Thus cos y is either VI— x^ or —VI — x^. In this case,y is an angle
between — jTT and so its cosine is positive. Therefore cos y = VI — x^
and sin“’x = l/Vl - x^.
Derivatives of cos 'x and tan“*x may be obtained similarly and are
listed in the table of basic derivatives.

Table of basic derivatives

D^c = 0 Dx sin X cos X
Dx sin ^x
D^x — 1 Dx cos X = — sm X Vl — x^
D^x’' = rx''~^ Dx tan X sec^ X 1
Dx cos~^x
(power rule)
Dx cot X -csc^x
Vl - x^

Dx sec X
1
D* In X = — sec X tan x Dx tan ^x —

X 1 + x^
Dx CSC X —CSC X cot X
D.e^ =

Problems for Section 3.3

1. Find

(a) DxX^^ d(^

(b) Bxl/x^ (f)
dx
(c) (g) Dxt)
(d)
d / 1 (h)
(e) dt
dx\Vx (i) 0.4

2. If/(z) = In z, find/'(z).
3. Ify = X, find y'.
4. If/(x) = 7 for all x, find /'(x).
5. If u == tan t, find du/dt.
6. Find y' and y" if (a) y = In x (b) y = sin x (c) y = e’‘.
7. If/(x) = 1/V^ find/'(l7).
8. If /(x) = sin X find /(tt) and/'(7r).
9. Differentiate the function.

(a) x-^ (g) x-^*

(b) x'^ (h) x^
(c) V? (i) I/x^
(d) I/x^ j_
(e) X (T ^
(f) In X 1

(k) -
X

10. Examine the graph of In x and convince yourself that the slopes do look
like 1/x.
70 • 3/The Derivative Part I

11. Use (10) together with the derivative formula for tan x to prove the deriva¬
tive formula for tan“*x. . ^ ^
12. The sin“' function is the inverse of sin x when x is restricted to [—2'rr, a'^r]-
Consider a second sin'^ function, called 11 sin"’, defined as the inverse of sin x
when X is restricted to [7r/2, Stt/S]-

(a) Sketch the graph of )> == II sin"’x. v

(b) Does the derivative of II sin"'x equal 1/V1 — x'"’ ? If not, find its derivative.

da 1
13. If a = find da/db and db/da directly and verify that — =

14. A block bounces up and down on a spring so that at time t, its height is sin t
(use meters and seconds).

(a) Find the speed of the block at time t = 27r/3.

(b) Is the block speeding up or slowing down at time t — and by
how much?
(c) When is the speed of the block maximum? minimum?

15. Find the slope at (-2, 16) on the graph of y = x^ and find the equations of
the lines tangent and perpendicular to the graph at the point.

3.4 Nondifferentiable Functions

It is possible for a function not to have a derivative for some value of

X. We mention this possibility not because it will happen frequently and
hinder you in later work, but because you will understand the derivative
better if you see examples where one doesn’t exist. A function that doesn’t
have a derivative at x = Xq must correspondingly have a graph with no slope
at the point (xo,/(xo)). We will illustrate a few (but not all) of the ways in
which this can happen.

Discontinuities Imagine traveling from left to right along the graph of /

in Fig. 1. It is a vertical step up to point A and then a vertical step back down
again, so we say that the left-hand slope at A is oo and the right-hand slope
is —00. But even if we are willing to accept infinite derivatives, the left-hand
and right-hand slopes don’t agree. Thus/ is not differentiable at x = 2; that
is, there is no/'(2).
Continuing from left to right in Fig. 1, it is a vertical step up to the
point B and then a slope of approximately 1 leaving point B. Thus, the

FI6.1
 3.5 Derivatives of Constant Multiples, Sums, Products and Quotients • 71

left-hand slope is and the right-hand slope is about 1. The disagreement

means that there is no/'(3).
Similarly, / is not differentiable at x =4, and in general, if f is discon¬
tinuous at X — Xo, then f is not differentiable at x = Xq- (Equivalently, if f is
differentiable then f is continuous.)

Cusps Continuing from left to right in Fig. 1, the slope coming into
point D, the left-hand slope, is about 1, while the slope leaving the point, the
right-hand slope, is about -2. Since the two values disagree, there is no
slope assigned to D and there is no f'(5). We call point Z) a cusp. In general,
a cusp arises when the graph is continuous but suddenly changes direction (so that
the curve is not “smooth”), and in this case f is not differentiable.
Note that differentiability is a more exclusive property than continuity:
a differentiable function must be continuous, but a continuous function
need not be differentiable (at the cusp in Fig. 1,/ is continuous but not
differentiable). In other words, the collection of differentiable functions is
a subset of the collection of continuous functions.

Example 1 Let/(x) = |x|. The graph of / (Fig. 2) has a cusp at x = 0, so

there is no/'(O). In particular, the figure shows that the left-hand slope is
-1 and the right-hand slope is 1. Let’s try to find/'(O) using the definition
of the derivative to see what happens:

|Ax|
/'(O) = lim ^ y^ = hm M = lim
Ax Ax Ax-»0 Ax

The limit doesn’t exist because the left-hand limit is — 1 and the right-hand
limit is 1 (see Problem 3, Section 2.1). Again we conclude that the left-hand
slope is -1, the right-hand slope is 1, and there is no/'(0).

3.5 Derivatives of Constant Multiples, Sums, Products

and Quotients

Now that we have derivatives for the basic functions, we’ll continue by
looking at combinations of functions. All our combination rules assume that
we are working with differentiable functions.

The constant multiple rule for the derivative of c/(x) The graph of 2/(x)
is a vertical expansion of the graph of/(x), which makes it twice as steep (for
example, see Figs. 4 and 7 in Section 1.7). Thus D„2f{x) = 2D„f{x) and, in
general, for any constant c,

(1) D„cf{x) = cDJix).

The constant factor c can be “pulled out” of the differentiation problem.

In other words, slide past the constant and then start differentiating. If
/(x) = 3 sin X then /'(x) = 3 cos x. If /(x) = —tan x then /'(x) = —sec^x.
Combining the power rule with (1), we have Dx4iX^ = 4 • 3x^ = 12x^.
Similarly, D„dix^ = 16x, and D*(—|x®) = -4x^.
Combining the formula D„x = 1 with (1), we have D,.d>x = 8 • 1 = 8.
Similarly, D^^x = Dflx = 7, D„{—x) = — 1 and so on.
 Note that (1) includes the case of a constant divisor. For example,

In t 1 1 1
A—= Ayln< =yT
It

and
2
£
dx

The sum rule for the derivative of /(x) + g(*) By definition of the
derivative,

f{x + Ax) + g{x + Ajc) - (fix) + g(x))

DAfix) + g{x)) = lim
A*->0 Ax

To evaluate this limit, first rearrange to separate the / and g parts.

D.(/W + ^(*)) = hm(^--- + )■

Further separation is possible since the limit of a combination of functions

is computed by finding the individual limits; in this case, the limit of the sum
is the sum of the limits. Therefore

f{x + Ax) — /(x) six + Ax) — g(x)

DAfix) + g{x)) = lim + hm^^^-£-
A* ->0 Ax Ax'*0 Ax

But the first limit on the right-hand side is /'(x), by definition of the
derivative, and the second limit is g'(x). Thus the sum rule is

(2) DAf + g) = DJ + D,g.

The derivative of the sum is the sum of the derivatives. In other

words, differentiate f and g separately, and then add. For example,
DA2x^ + 7x^ — 3x + 4) = 6x^ + 14x — 3.

The product rule for the derivative off(x)g(x) Again we’ll use the defini¬
tion of the derivative;

DjMgM = lim -iWsM.

A *-*0 Ax

Now add and subtract/(x + Ax)g(x) in the numerator, which is strange but
legal, to get

D,f(x)g(x) =
f(x -h Ax)g(x + Ax) — f(x + Ax)g(x) +/(x + Ax)g(x) — f(x)g(x)
Ax*0 Ax

Then factor and rearrange:

0,f(x)g(x) = lim(/(x + + /(x + Ax) -/W ^

Axi'OV Ax Ax /

Now there are four sublimits to examine. To find limA*.,o/(^ + Ax), we

simply substitute Ax = 0 because / is assumed differentiable, hence con-
 3.5 Derivatives of Constant Multiples, Sums, Products and Quotients • 73

tinuous. Thus the limit is f{x). For the next two sublimits, we have, by
definition of the derivative.

g(x + Ax) - g(jc)

g'{x) and = /'(x).
A*-»0 Ax Ax-^O Ax

Finally, lim^,(<.o g{x) — g(x) because Ax does not appear in the expression
g{x). Thus the final limit is /(x)g‘'(x) + f'ix)g{x); that is, the product rule is

(3) (fgV =fg' +f'g.

The derivative of a product is the first factor times the derivative of the second
plus the second times the derivative of the first. If /(x) = x^ sin x then
/'(x) = x^ cos X + 3x^ sin x.

Warning The derivative of x^ sin x is not 3x^ cos x. The derivative of

a product fg is not found by differentiating / and g separately and
multiplying.

Example 1

rf(xMn x) ,1
-- — X® • — + 3x^ In X = x^ + 3x^ In x.
dx X

The product rule for more than two factors If y — fg then y' =
fg' + fg- Suppose y = fgh, a product of three functions. By grouping, we
can rewrite y as f{gh) which represents y as a product of two factors, al¬
though one of the two factors is itself a product. Then

y' - figh)' + f'igh) (product rule for two factors)

^ f(gf^' + g'h) + figh) (product rule for two factors again)
^fgh' + fg'h ^ fgh.

Therefore the product rule for three factors is

(4) {fgh)' -fgh' +fg'h +f'gh.

If/(x) = x^ sin X cos x then

fix) — (x^ sin x) (—sin x) + x^ cos x cos x + 2x sin x cos x

= —x^ sin^x + x^ cos^x -I- 2x sin x cos x.

Similar results hold for products of four or more factors.

Warning Certain possibly ambiguous notations have standard inter¬

pretations in mathematics. The notation tan xe’‘ is assumed to mean tan(x^*).
If you intend (tan x) {e’‘) then you must insert the appropriate parentheses,
or better still write tan x which is unambiguous. Similarly, sin x cos x
means (sin x) (cos x), sin x^ means sin(x^) and sin^x means (sin x)^. Be careful
to have your notation match your intention.

The quotient rule for the derivative of/(x)/g(x) By the definition of the
derivative.
74 ' 3/The Derivative Part I

f{x + Ax) _ fix)

+ Ax) gjx)
£>x lim
gix) Ax'-'O Ax

Simplify the fraction on the right-hand side by multiplying numerator and

denominator by gix)g{x + Ax) to get

/W ^ gjx)fix + Ax) - fix)gjx + Ax)

*g(x) aI^ Axg(x)g(x + Ax)

Add and subtract/(x)g(x) in the numerator to obtain

fix) _ gix)fix + Ax) - fix)gjx) - /(x)g(x + Ax) + fix)gjx)

^*g-(x) Axg-(x)g(x + Ax)

Factor and rearrange to get

fix + Ax) -/(x)^ y-(^)(^g(x + Ax) - gjx)

gix)
Ax 7 Ax
= lim
g(x) Ax^’O gix)gix + Ax)

Finally, find the separate sublimits as in the proof of the product rule, to
produce the quotient rule

(5)

The derivative of a quotient is the denominator times the derivative of the numerator,
minus the numerator times the derivative of the denominator, all divided by the square
of the denominator.

Example 2 By the quotient rule,

4x (3x -I- 5) • 4 — 4x • 3 _ 20
3x + 5 ^ (3x + bf ' (3x + 5)2 ■

Warning It is correct but silly to use the quotient rule to write

x^ + 3x 6(2x + 3) — (x^ -I- 3x) • 0 _ 2x + 3

6 ~ 36 “

Instead, write the function as ^(x^ + 3x) and use the constant multiple rule
to get the derivative g(2x + 3) immediately.
\

Delayed proof of the tangent derivative formula The formula D* tan x =

sec^x, stated in Section 3.3, can now be justified by the quotient rule

^ ^ sin X
Dv tan X = D,-^
cos X

_ cos X cos X — sin x(—sin x)

cos^x
 3.5 Derivatives of Constant Multiples, Sums, Products and Quotients • 75

cos^x + sin^x
cos^x

1
(by a trigonometric identity)
cos^x

= sec^x.

The derivatives of cot x, sec x and esc x can be found in a similar manner.

Delayed proof of the power rule D^x’^ = rx'" * when r is a negative

integer Consider D^x“® for example. By the quotient rule and the pre¬
viously proved case of the power rule for r a positive integer (Section 3.3)
we have

1 0 - 1 • 9x® — 9x^
D,x~^ = = — -10
.„18 = — 9x

The proof in the general case is handled in the same way, with —9 replaced
by an arbitrary negative integer n

The derivative of a function “with two formulas” Suppose/(x) = |ln x|

Then/(x) = In x when In x ^ 0 but/(x) = — In x when In x < 0. Thus

if 0 < X < 1 if 0 < X < 1

so fix)
if X ^ 1 if X > 1.

(The graph off (see Problem 4b of Section 1.7) has a cusp at x = 1 and/
is not differentiable there. In fact, set x = 1 in the formula - 1/x to obtain
the left-hand slope —1 at the cusp, and set x = 1 in the formula 1/x to
obtain the right-hand slope 1, a different value.)
In general, if/(x) is defined by different formulas on various intervals
then /'(x) is found by differentiating each formula separately.

Example 3 We discussed velocity and acceleration in Section 3.2 but did

not actually compute them in that section since efficient techniques of
differentiation had not yet been developed. If/(0 = - 45t is the
position of a particle at time t, we are now prepared to describe its motion
using derivatives.
The velocity is f'{t) = — 6t — 45. To determine when the particle
travels left and when it travels right, we will determine the sign of/(t) using
the method of Section 1.6. The function/'(/ has no discontinuities, and is
0 when

- 6t - 45 = 0
- 2t - 15 ^ 0
{t + 3) {t - 5) = 0
t = -3,5.

To find the sign of/'(/ in the intervals (—0°, —3), (—3,5) and (5,°°), test a
value of/(/ for t in each interval. For example,/'(—100) is positive so f'{t)
is positive in (—<», —3). The results are shown in Table 1.
76 • 3/The Derivative Part I

Table 1

Time interval Sign of/' Particle

(-00,-3) positive moves right

(-3,5) negative moves left
(5,00) positive moves right

We continue further to determine the sign of the acceleration

f"{t) = 6/ - 6. The function/"(O is continuous, and is 0 when 6/ - 6 = 0,
/ = 1. Table 2 shows the sign of

Table 2

Time interval Sign of/"

(-00, 1) negative
(1,“) positive

By (6) of Section 3.2, the particle accelerates when/' and f" have the same
sign, and decelerates when f' and f" have opposite signs. Table 3 combines
Tables 1 and 2 to display the sign pattern.

Table 3

Time interval Sign of/' Sign of/" Particle

(-00,-3) positive negative moves right, slows down

(-3,1) negative negative moves left, speeds up
(1,5) negative positive moves left, slows down
(5,00) positive positive moves right, speeds up

It is helpful to locate a few positions precisely before plotting the

motion. Some key values of/(0 are/(—°o) = —oo,/(—3) = 81,/(I) = —47,
/(5) = — l75,/(oo) = °o. Figure 1 shows the final result.

Fie.
Example 4 Section 3.2 discussed slopes, and now we are ready to actually
compute some. Use the derivative to find the vertex of the parabola
y = 2x^ + 8x + 9, and sketch its graph.
Solution: At the vertex of a parabola the slope is 0. We have y' =
4x + 8, which is 0 when x = —2. Ifx = —2 then y = 1, so the vertex
is (-2,1). ' .
 3.5 Derivatives of Constant Multiples, Sums, Products and Quotients • 77

We know that the parabola opens upward since the coefficient of is

positive. Alternatively, 3)" = 4, and a positive second derivative implies that
the curve is concave up. Figure 2 gives the graph.

Problems for Section 3.5

1. Find f'{x) if (a) /(x) = 3x® + cos x (b) f{x) — 2x' 6x® — 4x + 5.
2. Find the fourth derivative of y.

(a) y = l/x (b) 3 = sin X (c) 3 = x

3. Differentiate

X
(^) (h) sec X tan x
"2
(b) 2x^ (i) 26” In X + 5x^

(c) (j) 2^* + In X

X-

j_
(d) 7^ (k) 4x^ tan
2x^
X® + 2x
(e) (1) X® sin X tan
_3
(f) 2x® cos X (m)
X

(g) Vx” In X (n)

3x

4. Find / ®*(r), the fifth-order derivative, if (a) /(r) = r' (b) fir) =
(c) f{r) = In r.
5. If/(x) = 3x^ - 2x, find/(-2),/'(-2) and/''(-2).
6. Find

dixe’') dfxe’‘)
(a) (c)
dx dx^
d^ixe’‘) d”{xe^)
(b) (d)
dx^ dx”

1 + 3x
sin X xe
7. Differentiate the function (a) (b) (c)
6x + x^ ' ' X ' ' 1 -I- 3e*
8. Prove that the derivative of sec x really is sec x tan x.
"2x^ — 4 if X 2
9. Find/'(x) if (a) /(x) = |sin x| (b) /(x)
if X > 2
10. Find the slope on the graph of 3 = 2x® + 6x at the point (1,8). Then find
the equation of the tangent line at the point.
11. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the graph of 3 = 5 —x^ at the
point (2, -11).
12. Use the second derivative to find the concavity of (a) 3 = sin x and
(b) 3 = X® and verify the accuracy of the graphs drawn in Sections 1.2 and 1.3.
13. Suppose the position of a particle at time t is — 3<®. Find its speed at time
< - 2. Is the car speeding up or slowing down at time t - 2, and by how much?
14. If/(x) = x^ + ax + b, and the line 3 = 2x — 2 is tangent to the graph off
at the point (3,4), find a and b.
15. Find the vertex of the parabola 3 = —3x^ — 4x + 2 and sketch its graph.
if X < 4
16. Let /(x) . Find a and b so that the graph of / has
^ax + b if X > 4
neither a discontinuity nor a cusp at x = 4.
 17. If)) = X sin X, show that y" + y = 2 cos x.
18. Suppose the temperature T at hour t — 15^. Use T, T' and T" to describe
the weather at time 3.
19. Use calculus to help sketch the graph of the function if
-x^ + 8x for X < 4
= 16 V V for 4 < X < 6

x^ — 20x + 100 for X 5: 6

20. If the position of a particle at time t is \2t — sketch its motion, showing
the direction of travel and when it speeds up and slows down.

3.6 The Derivative of a Composition

In this section we continue to find derivatives of combinations of func¬

tions so that you may differentiate all the elementary functions.

The chain rule for the derivative of a composition Compositions of the

basic functions, such as e'^ and sin x^ occur frequently, and the chain rule
we are about to derive is very important.
_2
The composition)! = sin can be written asy — sin u where u
In general, a composition can be denoted by y = y{u) where u — u{x),
meaning that y is a function of u, and u in turn is a function of x. We want
to express the composition derivative dyfdx in terms of the individual de¬
rivatives dy/du and du/dx. Suppose dy/du = 3 and du/dx = 2. Then, if x
increases, u increases twice as fast, and in turn, y increases 3 times as fast
as u. Overall, y is increasing 6 times as fast as x; that is, dy/dx = 3*2 = 6.
In general, we have the following chain rule:

(1)

This form of the chain rule is easy to remember because if we pretend that
dy/dx is a fraction with numerator dy and denominator dx, and similarly that
dy/du and du/dx are fractions, then the right side “cancels” to the left side.
For example, lety = sin x^. Theny = sin u where u = x^ and, by the
chain rule,

dy dy du 200 2
, = , ~r ~ cos u • zx = cos X • 2x = 2x cos x .
dx du dx

Before continuing with more examples, we will restate the chain rule
in a form that is more useful for rapid computation. The last example
shows that the basic derivative formula sin x = cos x leads to the result

sin x^ = cos x^ • 2x {insert the extra factor 2x).

More generally, from any known derivative formula D^f{x) = /'(x), we get

(2) Dxf{u{x)) = f'{u)u'{x) {insert the extra factor u'{x))

The result in (2) is a restatement of the chain rule from (1). It says that if
D^f{x) is known, probably from the list of basic derivatives, and x is replaced
by something else so that a composition is created, then
 3.6 The Derivative of a Composition • 79

^/(thing) =/'(thing) • D,. thing.

In other words, differentiate “as usual,” and then multiply by Z)„ thing. The
table of basic derivatives can be rewritten to incorporate the chain rule.

_1_
/ '(*) = ^
ox
Z)v3x
3x

Example 2 If y = (3x' - then y is of the form so, by the chain

rule for D^^u’,

y' = 25(3x' - 4xY^D,{3x- - 4x) - 25(3x- - 4x)--‘(6x - 4).

Warning The most common mistake made in computing derivatives is the

omission of the extra step demanded by the chain rule. For example,
D, sin X = cos X but sin x^ is not cos x^; rather, sin x" = 2x cos xl
Similarly, but is not rather,

Example 3 If y = sec 2x, find y' and y".

Solution: By the chain rule,

y' = sec 2x tan 2x • D^2x = 2 sec 2x tan 2x.

Then

y" = 2£>;t(sec 2x tan 2x) (rule for £),c/)

= 2(sec 2x • tan 2x + tan 2x • sec 2x) (product rule).

Now use the chain rule to differentiate tan 2x and sec 2x and obtain

y" = 2(sec 2x • sec^2x • 2 + tan 2x • sec 2x tan 2x • 2)

= 4 sec^2x + 4 sec 2x tan^ 2x.

Example 4 Let z = cos^50. The notation means (cos bOf so z is of the

form u^. Then

z'(0) = 3(cos bOYDg cos 56 (by the chain rule)

= 3(cos 56)^ • —sin 56 • 5 (by the chain rule again)

= —15 cos^50 sin 56 .

80 • 3/The Derivative Part I

Note that (cos 50)* is a composition of three functions, and the chain rule is
used twice to find its derivative.*

Example 5 Find dy/dx y — l/(3x + 4).

First solution: Write ^ as + 4)-‘ and use the chain rule to obtain

dy _ _ 6x
(3x^ + 4) ^ • 6x = - (3x2 + 4)2
dx
Second solution: By the quotient rule,
dy (3x2 _|. 4) . Q _ 1 • 6x __
dx (3x2 4 4)2 (3^2 _j_ 4)

Problems for Section 3.6

In Problems 1-56, find the derivative of the function.

1. g®" 30. In X®

2. sin 2x 31. (In xf

3.
32.
4. -e*
5. sin“*(3 — x) 33. sin^x
6. 2 cos 5x 34. X cos 2x
7. x^ sin 5x 35. cos(3 — x)
8. 5x^2- 36. cot e’‘
1 37. sin 4x
9- 2 + sin
^—X 38. X ln(2x + 1)
10. sin e’‘ 39. (3x + 4)®
11. e'* cos 4x 40. sec^3x'‘

12. x"(2x + 5)® 41. (4 - x)®

13. 2 cos 5x 2 + 7x
14. ln(5 - x)
15. In cos X 43. 3 sin"* |x
1 /j . 5 + 2x
lb. e 44. In sin e’‘
17. V3 + x2 45. cos®4x
18. tan~' ^x 46. e’‘ In x
4 1
19--T
cos 5x 47.
+ 1
20. sin TTX 48. CSC 4x
21. cos®x 49. 5 + 4 In In X

1 50. Vln X
22. sin —
X 51. In x/x
23. 52. x2 In 3
24. 53. Injxj
25. (tan“’x)®
4x
26. (x2 + 4f 54.
V2x + 3
27. sin x^
x2 + 2
28. cos^x 55. sin
X + 1
1
29. , , 2 - X
Vx^ + 4x 56 . 3x + 4
 3.7 Implicit Differentiation and Logarithmic Differentiation • 81

of an object with mass m and speed v is {mv\ More

specifically, if m and v are functions of time t then the kinetic energy is \m{t)v%t).
Suppose at a certain time, the mass is 5 grams, the speed is 3 meters per second, the
mass IS increasing by 2 grams per second and the speed is decreasing by 1 meter
per second Is the kinetic energy increasing or decreasing at this moment and by
how much? ^
58. Find In In In In • • • In In In 2ic, where there are 639 logarithm functions
m the composition.
59. Letf{x) be an arbitrary differentiable function. Differentiate the indicated
combinations

(a) cotf(x) (d) ln/(;c)

(b) xf{x) (e)
(c) {f(x)r
60. Suppose star x is a function whose derivative is e’^ix^ + 3). Find D star Sx
61. Let w = Find ai"(0).
62. Find the equations of the lines tangent and perpendicular to the graph of
y = (2 - xY at the point (3,1).
63. Find the 99th and 100th derivative of 1/(2 + 3x).
64. A 10-foot ladder leans up against a wall. Let x be the distance from the foot
of the ladder to the base of the wall, and let y be the distance from the top of the
ladder to the ^ound below. If the ladder slides down the wall then x increases while
y decreases. Find the rate of change ofy with respect to x in general. Then find the
rate of change in particular when x = 1 and again when x = 9.

3.7 Implicit Differentiation and

Logarithmic Differentiation

Implicit differentiation Suppose we want the slope on the graph of

(1) — 6x^ = 3

at the point (-2,3). The equation defines y implicitly as a function of x.

When the equation is solved for y to obtain

(2) y = (6x^ + 3)'^^,

theny is expressed explicitly as a function of x. From the explicit description

in (2),

v' — —(6x^ f • 12x =-——_

^ 3 (6x* + 3)“ ’

soy'U-2 = Therefore the slope at the point (-2,3) is -f.

It is possible to find the derivative y' without having the explicit expres¬
sion for y. This is particularly useful for equations that are too difficult to
solve for y. To find y' from the implicit description in (1), differentiate with
respect to x on both sides. In this procedure y is treated as a function of x, so
that the derivative ofy^ with respect to x is 3y^y' by the chain rule. Then

3y^y' — 12x = 0

t ^ __8
9 ■

Therefore, the slope at the point (-2, 3) is -8/9, as before.

 The process of finding )>' without first solving for > is called imphcit

Nm^that the derivative of with respect to x but if )» is a

function of X then the derivative of with respect to x is y , by the cha
rule. Similarly, if the differentiation is with respect to x, then the derivative ot
e* is but the derivative of e^ is e^y'\ the derivative of sin x is cos x but the
derivative of sin y isy^ cosy. . ,
The derivative of a term such as x'y' with respect to x requires the
product rule and the chain rule;

D,xY = x^D,y^ + y^D,x^ = x^ • 5y"y' + y^ Sx^’ = 5x*y^y' + Sx^y

Warning Don’t omit the extra occurrences of y' demanded by the chain
rule.

Example 1 The equation y^ + x^y + x^ - 3y = 0 is not easy to solve for

y, and as a matter of fact it does not have a unique solution for y since a
cubic equation has three solutions. The equation implicitly defines t ree
functions, corresponding to the indicated three sections of the graph in
Fig. 1. By a single implicit differentiation we can find the derivative ot
each function.

Differentiate on both sides of the equation with respect to x (use the

product rule on x^y) to obtain
3y^y' + x^y' + 2xy + 2x - 6yy' = 0.

Although it is difficult to solve the original equation for y, it is easy to solve

the differentiated equation'for y':

(3y^ + x^ - 6y)y' = -2xy - 2x,

, _ -2xy - 2x
^ 3y^ + x^ - 6y'
The derivative formula holds for each of the implicitly defined functions.
To find the slope at the point B, substitute x = 1, y = 1 to get y' = 2.
Similarly, substitute x = 1, y = 1 + V2 to find that the slope at point A is
-1 - \V2 (appropriately negative, since the curve is falling at A).
 3.7 Implicit Differentiation and Logarithmic Differentiation • 83

Delayed proof of the power rule D,*'" = rx'""* for fractional r Consider
y — X for example. Assuming that the function is differentiable, we are
now ready to use implicit differentiation to show that y' really is |x as
claimed in Section 3.3. Cube both sides of y = to obtain y^ = an
implicit description of y. This appears to be a step backwards when we
began with the explicit function y = x'^'^ but the implicit version has the
advantage of involving only integer exponents. Then, by the previously
proved cases of the power rule for r an integer (Sections 3.3—3.5), we have
3y^y' = 4x®, so

, _ 4^ _ 4x^ _ 4x^ _ 4
^ ~ 3y' “ ?,{x^y “ ~ y •

as desired. The proof in the general case is handled in the same way, but
with 4/3 replaced by p/q where p and q are arbitrary integers.

Logarithmic differentiation There are three kinds of functions involving

exponents.

1. The base contains the variable x and the exponent is a constant, such
as (3x + 4)^ and sin^x.
2. The base is e and the exponent contains the variable x, such as
and e^’^.
3. The base is not e and the exponent contains the variable x, such as
2*, (x^ + 2x)** and (sin x)*. (As usual, for this type we consider only
positive bases. The domain of the function (sin x)* is taken to be the
set of X for which sin x is positive.)

Derivatives of the first two types have already been discussed. To dif¬
ferentiate the first type, use D^u'' = ru'^^D^u. For example, D,,(3x + =
5(3x + 4)^ • 3 = 15(3x + 4)^. To differentiate the second type, use D^e'^ =
e'^DxU. For example, D^e^^ = 3e^*.
Consider y = (sin x)*, a function of the third type. To find its deriva¬
tive, first take logarithms on both sides and use \n o’" = b \n a to obtain

(3) In y = X In sin x.

This redescribes y implicitly (a step backwards) but it has the advantage of

avoiding exponents. Differentiate implicitly in (3) and use the product rule
on X In sin x to get

—y' = xDx{\n sin x) + In sin x • D^^x = x —r-— • cos x + In sin x.

y sin X

Therefore

(4) y' = y (x cot x + In sin x).

When y' is obtained by implicit differentiation, it is expressed in terms of

X and y, as in (4). However, in this case we may replace y by the explicit
expression (sin x)* to obtain the final answer y' = (sin x)*(x cot x + In sin x).
The process of taking logarithms on both sides of y =/(x) and then
finding y' by implicit differentiation is called logarithmic differentiation. It is
used to differentiate functions of the third kind and, in general, may be
used in any problem in which In /(x) is easier to differentiate than/(x).
84 • 3/The Derivative Part

Warning D*(sin xf is not x(sin xf

Example 2 Find
Solution: If 31 =8* then In 3 = x In 8, which we may write more sug¬
gestively as In y = (In 8)x. Note that In 8 is a constant. Just as the derivative
of 5x is 5, so the derivative of (In 8)x is simply the number In 8. Thus by
implicit differentiation we have

—y' = ln8 .

y' = y In 8.

Replace y by the explicit expression 8* to get the final answer D* 8* — 8 In 8.

Warning D^S’‘ is not x8*“h

Problems for Section 3.7

1. Find dy/dx if (a) y = x sin y (b) x + y = y tan y + x tan x.

2. Find dy/dx and dx/dy ify - cos(x^ + y^).
3. Find the line tangent to the graph of the equation at the indicated point, first
by solving for y, and then again by implicit differentiation.

(a) x^ + y^ = 1, point (|, (b) s/x + Vy = 3, point (1,4)

4. If Iny = 1 - xy definesy =/(x), find/'(O).

5. Show that the ellipse 4x^ + 9y^ = 72 and the hyperbola x^ ~ ~ ^ inter¬
sect perpendicularly, that is, at the point of intersection, the product of the slopes
is —1.
6. If y(x) is defined implicitly by = y, show that y satisfies the equation
(1 - xy)y' = y^.
X® sin X
7. Let y = Find y' with (a) the product rule for three factors and
x^ + 4 ’
(b) logarithmic differentiation.
8. Differentiate the function:
(a) 2* (e) (2x + 3)'*
(b) x" (f) 4""^®
(c) x""^ (g)
(d) x" (h) (2x + 3)""

3.8 Antidifferentiation

So far we have concentrated on finding/', given/. We now turn to the

problem of finding/, given/'. This process is called antidifferentiation. One
important application occurs at the end of the section and more applica¬
tions will appear later.

The set of antiderivatives of a function We say that ^x^ is an antiderivative

of x^ because D^\x‘^ = x*. Also, + 7) = x®, /)x(^x^ — 2) = x^ and, in
general, Dx{\x‘^ + C) = x® where C is an arbitrary constant. Therefore all
functions of the form |x^ -t- C are antiderivatives of x^. All of the anti-
FI6. I derivatives of x^ have “parallel” graphs (Fig. 1) in the sense that they all
 3.8 Antidifferentiation • 85

have slope x^. There are no antiderivatives of except the functions \x‘^ + C
since the only way to produce the slope x^ is to translate up or down.
f
The notation f{x) dx stands for the entire collection of antiderivatives
of f{x), and we write

[x^dx — — + C.
J 4

Some antiderivative formulas Antiderivatives for some of the basic

functions can be obtained by reversing derivative formulas. We have
Dx sin X — cos x, so / cos xdx = sin x + C. Similarly, cos x = —sin x, so
/(—sin x)dx = cos x + C. However, it is more useful to have a formula for
f sinxdx, since it is sin x and not — sin x that is considered the basic
function. Therefore, we use Dx(—cosx) = sin x to obtain / sinxrfx =
-cos X + C. Proceeding in this way, we assemble the following list.

(1) j kdx — kx + C (where k stands for a constant)

(2) j sin xdx = —cos x + C

(3) j cos xdx = sin x + C

(4) j e’‘dx — e’^ + C

f x^+^
(5) 1 X dx = ,+C, r ^ 1
J r + 1

(6) 1 — dx = In X + C, X > 0
J X

In (6), the function 1/x is defined for x 0 but the antiderivative In x

is defined only for x > 0. We can do better if we observe that by Problem 53
in Section 3.6, ln|x| = 1/x. Therefore we can extend (6) to

(6')
/ — dx = Inlxl + C,
X
X ^ 0.

Both In X and ln|x| differentiate to 1/x, but ln|x| has the advantage of being
defined for all x ^ 0, while In x is defined only for x > 0.
If we reverse the formula tan x = sec^x, we have

(7) j sec^xdx = tan x + C.

This is not as “basic” as (1)—(6), but we’ll take what we can get. Similarly,

(8) csc^xdx = — cotx + C

86 • 3/The Derivative Part I

(9) J sec X tan xdx = sec x 4- C

(10) j CSC X cot xdx = —CSC X 4- C

(11) 1 , ^ ■= dx = sin^'x 4- C
J Vl - x^

(12) 1 —^—5 dx = tan'^x 4- C.

J 1 -f x^
We do not yet have antiderivatives for In x, the basic trigonometric
functions other than cos x and sin x, or the inverse trig functions, because
there is no well-known derivative formula whose answer is any of these
functions.

Example 1
f c,
jx^ dx = — + C.

Example 2 j dt = j t~^ dt = + C =

Selecting a particular antiderivative Consider the function f such that

f'{x) = and f{2) = 3. To find / we must select from all parallel curves
with slope x^, the particular one through the point (2,3). (Just as a line is
determined by a point and a slope number, a curve, more generally, is
determined by a point and a slope function.)
If y' = then y = \x* + C. To find C, set x = 2, y = 3 to obtain
3 = 44- C, C = -1. Therefore /(x) = \x'^ - 1.

Antiderivatives of the elementary functions We would like to follow the

same strategy for antidifferentiation that we used for differentiation, that
is, find antiderivatives for all the basic functions and then use combination
rules to find antiderivatives for all the elementary functions.
It’s easy to find rules for constant multiples and sums. For example,
J6 cos xdx — 6 sin x 4- C because sin x = 6 cos x. Similarly,
/(x^ 4- cos x)dx = \x‘^ + sin X 4- C because 4- sin x 4- C) = x^ 4-
cos X. In general.

(13)

and

(14)

For example, / (2x^ 4- 3x — 4)c6c = fx® 4- fx^ — 4x 4- C.

But there are no other easy rules. We are collecting information about
antidifferentiation by reversing differentiation formulas, and a reversed
 3.8 Antidifferentiation • 87

formula is often not of the same character as the original. The reverse of
the basic derivative formula tan x = sec^x becomes an antiderivative
formula for the nonbasic function sec^x. Similarly, the reverse of the prod¬
uct rule {fg)' = fg' + f'g is /(/g' + f'g)dx = fg, which is no longer a
product rule.
Since we are missing some of the basic antiderivative formulas and
combination rules, we are thwarted, at least temporarily, in the effort to
antidifferentiate all the elementary functions. It will turn out that there
simply are no product, quotient, or composition rules and, in fact, the
antiderivatives of some elementary functions don’t have nice formulas at
all. All of Chapter 7 will be devoted to overcoming these difficulties. In the
meantime, the scope of (1)—(12) can be widened sufficiently so that even
before Chapter 7, some significant applications can be discussed.

Extending known antiderivative formulas If we know an anti-

derivative for /(x), we can also find an antiderivative for/(ox -I- b). For
example, consider / cos(7rx -I- 7) dx. We might guess that the answer is
sin(7rx -I- 7) -I- C, but differentiate back to see that this is not quite right,
since, by the chain rule, D, sin(7rx + 7) = cos(7rx + 7) • tt. We don’t want
the extra factor tt, so we refine our guess to

(cos vx + 7) dx — — sin(77x -I- 7) -I- C.

This is correct because

if F{x) is an antiderivative of f{x) then

In other words, if x is replaced by ax + b in (1)-(12), anti¬

differentiate “as usual” but insert the extra factor 1 /a.

Example 3

Example 4
I e’‘'^ dx = 2^*^^ + C.

Example 5

+ C.
2(4 - x)
88 • 3/The Derivative Part I

Warning 1. The answer to Example 6 is not ln(4 x)^ because the deriva¬

tive of ln(4 - x)' is ]_ 3 times 3(4 - x)' • -1 by the chain rule.

...
2. Any antidifferentiation problem can be checked by differentiating
the answer. (The catch is that you must be able to differentiate correctly to
catch mistakes in the antidifferentiation.)'
3. Within the context of this section, the only functions/(x) which you
are prepared to antidifferentiate are those in (1)-(12), along with their
constant multiples, sums and variations of the form/(ax + b) where a and
b are constants.
Example 7 Assume x > 0 so that (6) can be used instead of (6'), and

find j ^ dx.
First solution
■j — rfx = -7 f — dx = — In
4x 4 J X 4
X + C.

Second solution: J— = In 4x + C (by (15)).

We seem to have two different answers, 5 In x + C and \ In 4x + C. But

^ In 4x + C
4

= — (In 4 + In x) -f C = — In x + — In 4 + C = ^ In X + D.
4 4 4 4

The arbitrary constant C plus the particular constant | In 4 is another

arbitrary constant D. Therefore the two solutions do agree.

An application of antidifferentiation and an introduction to parametric

equations Suppose that a gun has a muzzle velocity of 60 feet per second,
and is fired from a 40 foot hill at an angle of 30° with the horizontal. What
is the path of the bullet? Where does it land? For how long is it in flight?
How high does it get?
Establish a coordinate system so that the gun is at the point (0,40)
(Fig. 2). Physicists do the problem in two parts, worrying separately about
the x-coordinate x(/) and the y-coordinate y(0 of the bullet at time t. They
separate the muzzle velocity into a horizontal speed and a vertical speed as
follows. The muzzle velocity 60 together with the 30° angle is represented
by an arrow 60 units long at angle 30° with the horizontal. By trigonometry,
the horizontal arrow in Fig. 2 has length 30V3, and the vertical arrow

FI6.X
 3.8 Antidifferentiation • 89

has length 30. Physicists conclude that the bullet can be considered to
have horizontal speed SOVS feet per second and vertical speed 30 feet
per second.
Let’s continue with the vertical part of the problem. Let t = 0 be the
time at which the bullet is initially fired (any other choice would be all right,
too). Since the bullet is fired at time 0 from the point (0,40), we have
y (^) ~ 40. Also, the bullet is initially moving upward with vertical speed 30,
soy'(O) = 30. Furthermore, from basic physics, the gravitational field of
the earth causes any vertical velocity to decrease by 32 feet/second per
second, so

y"ii) = -32 for all t.

Now, work backwards to findy'(0 and theny(0. We havey'(0 = -32t + C.

To determine C, use y'(0) = 30, and set ^ = 0, y' = 30 to set 30 =
—32 • 0 + C, C = 30. Therefore,

(16) y'(0 =-32t + 30.

Antidifferentiate again to get y{t) = -W + 30^ + K. To determine K,

use y(0) = 40, and set t = 0, y = 40 to get 40 = -16 • 0 + 30 • 0 + A:
K = 40. Thus,

(17) y(t) = -16^2 + 30t + 40.

Consider the horizontal part of the problem. By Newton’s laws of

motion, an object will maintain its initial horizontal velocity (until the ver¬
tical component of velocity causes a crash), so

x'{t) — 30V3 for all t.

Therefore x{t) = 30V3^ + Q. Since x(0) = 0 we have 0 = 30Vs • 0 + Q

Q = 0. Thus

(18) x(t) = 30V3t.

Now we can answer all of the questions about the bullet. It lands when

y — 0, so set y =0 in (17) and solve for t to get t =

or 2.775 approximately. Ignore the negative solution, since the experiment

starts at time t — 0. Thus the bullet lands about 2.775 seconds after being
fired. From (18), if t = 2.775 then x = 144 approximately. Therefore the
bullet travels about 144 feet horizontally before landing (Fig. 3).

r/6.3
90 • 3/The Derivative Part I

To find its maximum height, note that the bullet has positive velocity
as it rises, negative velocity as it Tails, and reaches a peak at the instant its
velocity is 0. From (16), y' = 0 when t = 15/16, and, from (17), at this
moment y = 54 approximately. So the bullet rises to a maximum height of
about 54 feet.
In general, a curve in the plane may be described with one equation in
X and y, or by a pair of equations, such as (17) and (18), which give x and
y in terms of a third variable, t in this case. The two equations x — x(/),
y = are called parametric equations, and t is called a parameter. If (18) is
solved for t and substituted into (17), we have

^ ^ ^ ^^(soVs) ^
a nonparametric description of the bullet’s path. Equation (19) is of the
form y — ax^ bx + c, and therefore the path is a parabola.

Problems for Section 3.8

1. Find

(a) J 3 sin xdx (g) J

(b) J^ sin 3xdx (h) J^ Vx" dx
(c) J[" u'^du 0) J1—^ dx
Vx

'
J
(d) \ sec - tan - dx
TT TT
(j) J[x®dx

(e) J (k)J

(f) ^|'x“' dx f 7*

2. Find/(x) iff'{x) = sin x + x^ and/(O) = 10.

3. Find all functions/(x) such that/'"(x) = 5.
4. A particle traveling on a number line has velocity 7 — at time t. If it is at
position 4 at time 3, where is it at time 6?
5. Find y if y' = 2x + 3 and y = -2 when x = 1.

6. We know that | — dx = In x + C. Does -J— dx equal In sin x + C?

J X J sm X
7. We know that / cos xdx = sin x + C. (a) Does / cos^xdx equal sin\ + C?
(b) Does / cos 2xdx equal sin 2x + C? (c) Does /3 cos xdx equal 3 sin x + C?
(d) Does J cos x^dx equal sin x^ + C?
8. A stone is thrown up from a point 24 feet above the ground with an initial
velocity of 40 feet per second. Assume that the only force acting on the stone is the
force due to gravity which gives the stone a constant acceleration of -32 feet/
second per second. How high will the stone rise and when will it hit the ground?
In Problems 9-35, find an antiderivative for the function, if possible within the
context of this section.

11. Vx" + 5

1 12. -
10 . 2x + 5
X
 3.8 Antidifferentiation • 91

13. X
5x 24. sin -
6
1
14. oc 2 TTX
2 + X 25. cos -
3
1
15.
+ 3
16. 7 cos TTX
27. 3e-^
17. COS
28.
x^ + 6x
18.
5 29. x^ + X +

19. sec X
30.
5 31. 77
20.
(3x + 6)^ 32. (3x + 4)^

21. 33. 4
X®
2 X®
22. 34 —
1 + x^ 2

2 35
23. 2x®
1 — x^

In Problems 36-59, perform the indicated antidifferentiation, if possible within

the context of this section.

f 1
36. 1 —J <ix 48. J e ^dx
J 5x®

37. 1 —^ 49. j In xdx

J Vt
38. j 3x^dx 50.
J X

39. 1 —J dx 51.
3x® i
40. I — <ix 52. f ^ dx
/ X 1 3 + 4x

41. 1 ^-7 tlx

/ 2 - 3x®
53. 1 . dx
1 sm X

42. [(2 - 3x^)dx 54. [ 4e^’‘dx

43. 11 -J 55. j" V3 — X dx

J' (2 - 3x)"
[ 5t + 3 ,
44. J1 (x^ + 5)dx 56. ^
1 2
f 5x* + 3
45. J dx 57. J
1 2 ^

46. J sin 3udu 58. Jf ^

5x^ + 3

47. 1 sin^x dx 59. J (2x + 3)^ dx

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 3

1. Let/(0 be the number of gallons of water that has spurted through a hole
in the dike during the t hours since the leak started. For example if/(3) = 100 then
100 gallons flowed in during the first 3 hours of the leak.

(a) What does the derivative/'(0 represent? If/'(3) = 20 and/"(3) = - fare

the residents of the flood plain happy or unhappy?
(b) What value(s) of/'(0 is the flood plain rooting for?

In Problems 2-36, differentiate the function.

2. sin(2x + 37r) 22. (8 - xT

3. X sin X /2x + 3^“*
23.
4. tan“*x^

1 24. V2x + 5
5.
2 —X 2
25
6. ln(2 - x) 3 + 2x
v;
26. g
7. -
X 4 - 2x
27.
7
4^ X
28.
9. 2x + 3
10. -e" . 1
29. X sm —
11. tan 3x X

e_
12. - 30.
X X

13. x"(2 - 3x)’ (x + 2)

31.
14. X sin“‘x
,^ 2 + sin 4x
5

16. 3xe* sec x 33. cos®2x

cos X 34. 3 sin
17
6 1
35.
18. 4" 7x" + 2x - 5
19. x^ 2x + 3
20. e® * 36.
5x - 4
21. (8 - x)®

37. A car particle’s positions on a number line at time < is — 2t* + 1. Find
the particle’s position, speed, velocity and direction of motion at time t = 2. Is it
speeding up or slowing down at time t = 2, and by how much?
38. Sketch a possible graph of/ if/'(x) is positive in the intervals (-00,3) and
(5, oo), negative in the interval (3,5) and zero at x = 3,5; and/"(x) is negative for x
in (-00,4), zero at x = 4 and positive for x in (4,oo).
39. If/'(x) = X® - 2x and the graph contains the point (2, -2), find/(x).
40. If/(0 = + 3<^ + 1 is the position of a particle at time t, sketch a picture
of its motion, indicating its direction, when it speeds up, and when it slows down.
41. Find sin sin sin sin sin-'-sin sin 2x, where the composition contains
825 sine functions.
 Chapter 3 Review Problems • 93

42. Let y sx® + \x.^ (a) Show that y is an increasing function of x. (b) Sup¬
pose X increases and has just reached i At this instant isy increasing faster or slower
than X?
43. Use derivatives to see if the graph of really has the concavity indicated in
Fig. 2 of Section 1.5.
44. Find dy/dx (a) xy + 3xy^ = 62 — x (b) sin x -I- sin v = 6
45. Find

, , ^ 5x -I- 2
(e) D,(x -I- e’^)

d(x® In x)
(b) (f) d{te‘)/dt
dx
9v
(c) Z),(ln tf‘ (g)
V3x+4
d\Sx — 6|
(d) (h)
dx

46. Findy' andy".

(a) y = 3x sin x (c) y = x'* cos x^

(b) y = 11 - In x| (d) y = 5*

47. Find the 19th and 20th derivatives of 1/V2 + 5x .

48. Show that the lines tangent to the graph of xy = 1 in the first quadrant form
triangles all of which have the same area (Fig. 1 shows two such triangles).

49. The product rule states that (fg)' = fg' + f'g. Differentiate again to get a
product rule for (fg)", and again for (fg)'" and again for {fg)'"'. Look at the pattern
and invent a product rule for (/g)'”\ the nth derivative offg.
50. Suppose that a one-dimensional object placed on a slide (number line) is
projected onto a screen (another number line) so that the point x on the slide
projects to the point x^ on the screen. If a 2-foot object AB is placed with A at
X - -2 and 5 at x = -4 (Fig. 2) then its image is magnified (to 12 feet), distorted
(the magnification is “uneven” — for example, the right half of the object has a
5-foot image while the left half has a 7-foot image), and reversed (A is to the right
of B but the image of A is to the left of the image of B).
Consider a projector which sends x to /(x), where / is an arbitrary function
instead of x^ in particular. What type of derivative (positive? negative? large? small?
etc.) is to be expected when the image is (a) reversed (a') unreversed (b) magnified
(b') reduced (c) distorted (c') undistorted.
94 • 3/The Derivative Part I

0 ■ 16

/)
B

FIO.X
Do Problems 51-62 if possible within the context of this section.

51. j 57. J sin® — TTxdx

52. 58. J
53. 1 -; dx 59. 1\^dt
1 (4x - 2)® J 3 - r
r
54. 1 (4x + 2) dx 60. Jf' V3 1-
j
,
/
dt

55. le^’‘dx 61. Jj" V1 + 2x dx

56. 1 sin —TTxdx j" Vl + 2x*‘^ dx

“•j

63. Find (a) (b) ix^dx (c) Dx^ (d) I — dx.

J X J X
4/THE DERIVATIVE
/
PART II

4.1 Relative Maxima and Minima

It is useful to be able to locate the peaks and valleys, called relative

extrema, on the graph of a function/. They help in making an accurate
sketch, and can also be used to find the overall highest and lowest values of
/, called absolute extrema, for such purposes as maximizing profit and
minimizing cost. This section shows how to find relative extrema and later
sections continue the applications to graphs and absolute extrema.

Definition of relative extrema A function/ has a relative maximum at Xq if

/(xo) ^ f{x) for all x near Xq. Similarly, / has a relative minimum at xq if
/(xo) ^ f{x) for all x near Xq. Figure 1 shows relative maxima at X2 and X4,
and relative minima at X3 and X5.

Critical numbers Consider the graph of the function in Fig. 1. At the

relative extrema where a slope exists (at X2, X3 and X4), that slope is 0. For
example, the relative maximum at x = X2 occurs when the function in¬
creases and then decreases. The slope changes from positive to negative,
and is 0 at the maximum point. In general, iff is differentiable andf has a rela¬
tive extreme value at xq then f’(xo) = 0. Equivalently, if f'(xo) is a nonzero
number then f cannot have a relative extreme value at Xq.
On the other hand, if f'(xo) = 0 then a relative extreme value may (see
X2,X3,X4) but need not (see Xi) occur.

Similarly, if f is not differentiable at a point then a relative extreme value may

(see the cusp at X5) but need not (see the cusp at Xe and the jump at xy) exist.
If f'(xo) = 0 or f'(xo) does not exist then Xq is called a critical number. The
preceding discussion shows that the list of critical numbers includes all the

95
96 • 4/The Derivative Part II

relative maxima, all the relative minima, and possible nonextrema as well.
In other words, critical numbers do not necessarily produce maxima or minima, but
they are the only candidates. In Fig. I, through x^ are critical numbers, but
the function does not have a relative extreme value at Xi, Xe or x^.
There are two standard methods for classifying critical numbers.
V

First derivative test Let/ be continuous. To identify a critical number Xq

as a relative maximum, relative minimum or neither, examine the sign of
the first derivative to the left and right of Xq. If the derivative changes from
positive to negative, so that f increases and then decreases, / has a relative
maximum at Xq (see X4 in Fig. 1). If the derivative changes from negative to
positive then / has a relative minimum at Xq (see X3 in Fig. 1). Otherwise, /
has neither.

Example 1 Let/(x) = 4x® - 5x^ - 40x^. Find the relative extrema of/
and sketch the graph.
Solution: Solve/'(x) = 0 to find some critical numbers.

20x'‘ - 20x^ - x
120 2 = 0

20x2(x2 — X — 6) = 0
x2(x — 3) (x + 2) = 0

X = 0,3, —2.

The function is differentiable everywhere, so there are no critical

numbers other than 0, 3 and —2.
Determine the sign of/'(x) in the intervals between the critical num¬
bers by testing one value from each interval, as described in Section 1.6.

Interval Sign of/' Behavior of / Relative Extrema

(-°°,-2) positive increases

rel max at x = —2
(-2,0) negative decreases
no extremum at x = 0 (but the
graph is instantaneously hori¬
zontal as it falls through x = 0)
(0,3) negative decreases
rel min at x = 3
(3,00) positive increases

Finally, we find the y-coordinates corresponding to the critical num¬

bers, namely, /(-2) = 112, /(O) = 0 and /(3) = -513, and use them to
plot the graph in Fig. 2.
\

Second derivative test This test is applicable to the type of critical point
at which/'(xq) = 0. In this case, if/"(xo) < 0 then in addition to zero slope
we visualize downward concavity at x = Xq (see X4 in Fig. 1) and expect a
relative maximum. If/"(xo) > 0 then in addition to zero slope we picture
upward concavity at x = xq (see X3 in Fig. 1) and expect a relative minimum.
In general we have the following conclusions.

(1) If /'(xo) == 0 and f"{xo) < 0 then / has a relative maximum at Xq.

(2) If /'(xo) = 0 and /"(xq) > 0 then / has a relative minimum at Xq.
 4.1 Relative Maxima and Minima • 97

(3) If/'(xo) = 0 and f"{xo) = 0 then no conclusion can be drawn. As

problems will demonstrate, it is possible for there to be a relative maxi¬
mum, or a relative minimum, or neither at Xq. Another method must be
used in this case, such as the first derivative test.

With the second derivative test, a decision about a critical number Xq is

made by examining f" only at Xq; with the first derivative test, the deci¬
sion is made by examining/' to the left and right of Xq. The second derivative
test is perhaps more elegant; on the other hand, the first derivative test
never fails to produce a conclusion, whereas the second derivative test is
inconclusive in case (3).

Example 2 Find the relative extrema in Example 1, using the second

derivative test this time.
Solution: Again find the critical numbers x = 0,3, — 2. We have/"(x) =
80x^ - 60x2 _ 240x, so/"(-2) = -400,/"(0) = 0 and/"(3) = 900. There¬
fore/ has a relative maximum at x = -2 and a relative minimum at x = 3.
The second derivative test is inconclusive for x = 0. We must resort to the
first derivative test for the intervals (-2,0) and (0,3) as in Example 1 to
show that / does not have a relative extremum at x = 0.

Problems for Section 4.1

1. Use (i) the first derivative test and (ii) the second derivative test to locate
relative maxima and minima.

(a) f{x) = x^ — 3x2 — 24x (d) —

X
(b) x^ — x^ (e) X In X
(c) X® -I- X

2. Locate relative maxima and minima, if possible, with the given information.

(a) /'(2) - 0,/'(x) < 0 for 1.9 < x < 2, (e) /'(2) - 0,/"(2) - 6
/'(x) > 0 for 2 < X < 2.001 (f) /'(2) - 0,/"(2) - 0
(b) /'(2) = 0 (g)/'(6)<0,/'(7) = 0,
(c) /"(2) = 0 /'(8) > 0
(d) /'(2) = 3
98 • 4/The Derivative Part II

3. Suppose / has a relative minimum at xo and a relative maximum at Xi. Is it

necessarily true that/(xo) </(xi)? *
4. Usethefunctionsx®,x^and-x^ to show that when/'(xo) = Oand/"(xo) = 0,
there may be a relative maximum, a relative minimum or neither at Xo, thus veri¬
fying part (3) of the second derivative test.
5. Sketch the graph of a function / so that /'(3) =/'(4) — 0 and /'(x) > 0
otherwise.

4.2 Absolute Maxima and Minima

If/(x) is the profit when a factory hires x workers then, instead of puny
relative maximum values, we want to find the maximum, often referred to
as the absolute maximum. This section shows how to find the (absolute)
extrema for a function /(x). Furthermore, the extrema are usually to be
found for x restricted to a particular interval; in the factory example we
must have x ^ 0 since the number of workers can’t be negative, and (say)
X < 500 by Fire Department safety regulations.

FIG. I

To see extrema graphically, consider Fig. 1, showing a function de¬

fined on the interval [-3,5]. Its highest value is 8, when x = 5, and its
lowest value is 2, when x = 4. The function has a relative maximum at
X = 3, but the maximum is at x = 5. The function has a relative minimum
at X = 4, and the minimum also occurs here. As another example, the
function in Fig. 2, defined on (0, oo), has no maximum value because/(x) can
be made as large as we like by letting x approach 0 from the right. In this
case, we will adopt the convention that the maximum is oo when x = O-F.
Similarly, the function has na minimum because/(x) gets closer and closer
to 6 without reaching it. As a convenient shorthand in this case (albeit an
Fie.x abuse of terminology) we will say that the minimum is 6 when x = oo.f

Finding maxima and minima The extrema of a function occur either at

the end of the graph (see the maximum at x = 5 in Fig. 1), or at one of the
relative extrema (see the minimum at x = 4 in Fig. 1), or at an infinite

tMore precisely, 6 is called the infimum of / rather than the minimum because / never
reaches 6. Similarly, a “maximum that is not attained,” such as it/2 for the arctangent function,
is called a supremum.
 4.2 Absolute Maxima and Minima • 99

discontinuity (see the maximum at x = 0+ in Fig. 2). To locate the maxi¬

mum and the minimum, first find the following candidates.

(A) Critical values of / Find critical numbers by solving f'{x) = 0,

and by finding places where the derivative does not exist, a less likely
source. For each critical number Xq, find/(xq), called a critical value of/. This
list contains all the relative maxima and relative minima, and possibly some
values of / with no particular max/min significance. It is not necessary to
decide which critical value of / serves which purpose. Include them all in
the candidate list without classifying them.

(B) End values of / If a function / is defined for a < x b then

the end values of/ are f{a) and f{b). If/ is defined on [a, oo) then the end
values are/(a) and /(oo), that is, lim^.,„/(x).

(C) Infinite values of / In practice, / may become infinite at the

ends where x ^ oo or x —> -oo (overlapping with candidates from (B)), or
at a place where a denominator is 0.

The largest of the candidates from (A)—(C) is the maximum value of/
and the smallest is the minimum value. (Candidates from (C) are immediate
winners.)

Example 1 Find the maximum value of /(x) = x^ + 4x^ - 6x^ - 8 for

0 < X < 1.
Solution: We have f'{x) = 4x^ + 12x^ — 12x. Find the critical num-

bers by solving/'(x) = 0 to get 4x(x^ + 3x - 3) = 0, x = 0,-=-.

But |(-3 - V^) is negative, and hence not in [0,1], so ignore it. Count
|(-3 + V2T) since it is about .79 and is in [0,1].
The candidates are/(0) = -8 which is both a critical value of / and an
end value, the critical value/(f[—3 + V^]) which is approximately/(.79),
or -9.4, and the end value/(I) = -9. The largest of these, -8, is the
maximum.

Warning The preceding example asked for the maximum value of /,

so the answer is —8, not x = 0. If the problem had asked where f has
its maximum, then the answer would be x = 0. Make your answer fit
the question.

Example 2 We don’t always have to rely on calculus to produce maxima

4 . .
and minima. Consider /(x) = By inspection, the largest value of /

is 4, when x = 0; any other value of x would increase the denominator and

therefore decrease/(x). The smallest value of / is 0 when x = ±oo, since
this maximizes the denominator and therefore minimizes/.

Example 3 Let/(x) = —-. Find the maximum and minimum values

of/(x) on (a) (—°o, °o) and (b) [6, oo).

Solution: (a) The function has an infinite discontinuity at x = 4 since

X
/(4-) = lim 00 and f(4+) = lim -- — 00
*-►4- 4 — X 0+ x^4+ 4 — X
100 • 4/The Derivative Part II

There is no need to search for other candidates. We say that the maximum
is 00 and the minimum is -oo.
(b) Since 4 is not in [6, oo), we ignore the infinite discontinuity now.
There are no critical numbers since, by the quotient rule,

ru ^ _ (4 - x) - x(-l) ^ 4
^ ~ M4 - (4 - xf

which is never 0. The only candidates are the end values /(6) — —3 and
/(oo). By the highest power rule (Section 2.3),'

/(oo) = lim — = lim — = lim(-1) = -1.

Therefore, the minimum value of / is —3 (when x = 6) and its maximum

is — 1 (when x = oo).

Example 4 In (1) of Section 1.1 we found that the energy E used by a

pigeon flying on the route APB (Fig. 3 of Section 1.1) is

E{x) = 60V36 + + 40(10 - x) for 0 < x < 10.

We are now ready to finish the problem and find the value of x that
minimizes E.
Solve E'{x) = 0 to find critical numbers.

6 Ox
- 40 = 0
V36 + x'
6 Ox
= 40
V36 + x^
3x = 2V36 + x^
9x^ = 4(36 + x^) (square both sides)

5x2 = 4 • 3g

2
4 • 36
X
5

2 • 6
X (approximately).
V5

Therefore, the only critical value of E is £ (12/V5) which is approximately

£(5.4), or 670. The end values are£(0) = 760 and £(10) = 700 (approxi¬
mately). The smallest of the three candidates is 670. Therefore, in Fig. 3 of
Section 1.1, the best the pigeon can do is to fly across the water to a point
P about 5.4 miles from C and then fly the remaining 4.6 miles to town
along the beach.

Example 5 Find the point on the graph of y = Vx which is nearest the

point (2,0).
Solution: A typical point on the curve is (x, Vx) (Fig. 3 on next page). By
the distance formula, the distance from this point to (2,0), that is, the func¬
tion to be minimized, is d (x) = V(x-2)2 -I- x for x > 0. As a shortcut, to find
a value of x that minimizes (maximizes) an entire square root, it is sufficient to find
 4.2 Absolute Maxima and Minima • 101

a value of x that minimizes (maximizes) the expression under the square root sign;
that is, VR{x) is smallest (largest) when /?(x) is smallest (largest). Therefore
we can work with R{x) = (x — 2)^ + x, 3. slight advantage, since R{x) is
simpler than (i(x). We have i?'(;c) = 2(x - 2) + 1, which is 0 when x = 3/2.
Therefore, the candidates are the critical number x = | and the ends where
X = 0, X = 00. The closest point must be chosen from (0,0), (|,V|) and
points far out to the right on the curve. Clearly, points far out to the right
make the distance approach oo so we will not find a minimum from that
source. The distance from (0,0) to (2,0) is 2. The distance from (|, V^) to
(2,0) is V;j + I = V|, which is less than 2. Consequently the closest point is
(f,v|).
Example 6 A tin can is to be manufactured with volume T (T is a fixed
constant throughout the problem). To save money, the manufacturer wants
to minimize the amount of material, that is, minimize the surface area A.
What dimensions should the can have?
Solution: The relevant geometry formulas for a circular cylinder with
radius r and height h are

(1) T = TTr^h

(2) lateral surface area = inrh

(3) top circular surface area = bottom circular surface area = Trr^.

From (2) and (3), the function A to be minimized is given by

(4) A = 27Trh + 27rrl

Before using any calculus, we can see that if r is very large and h very small
(Fig. 4), but still satisfying (1) as required, then A will be huge because of
the top and bottom pieces. On the other hand, if r is very small and h very
large (Fig. 5), then A will be huge because of the lateral surface area, since

V 2V
lateral surface area = 2Trrh — 27rr • —^ = —,
nr r

which blows up as r ^ 0+. Thus, extreme shapes require large A, and a tin
can in between will use the least material. In other words, if A is considered
as a function of r for r > 0, then A has a maximum value of <» at the ends
where r = 0, <» and the minimum will occur at a critical number within the
interval (0, oo).
102 • 4/The Derivative Part II

Although A depends on both r and h, we can eliminate h by solving (1)

for h and substituting in (4) to obtain

A - 27rr • + 27rr^ = --H 27rr^

Then ^ '
2V
A'{r) =-r + 47rr.
r"

Solve A'{r) = 0 to obtain

The corresponding value of h can be found by using h — V/ttt . Better still,

for a more attractive answer, go back to = T/27r in (5) and replace V by
irr^h to obtain h = 2r. Therefore, if the volume is fixed, the tin can with
minimum surface area has a height which is twice its radius.
As another method, leave A in terms of r and h, and consider that h is
a function of r defined implicitly by (1) (alternatively, r may be considered
a function of h). Differentiate with respect to r in (4) to obtain A' =
27rh + 2'TTrh' + 47rr-, and set A' = 0 to get

(6) A + r/i' + 2r = 0.

Differentiate implicitly with respect to r in (1) to obtain 0 = irr^h' + 2Trrh,

h' = -2A/r. Substituting this into (6) gives h + r ■ {-t) + 2r = 0, or
h = 2r as in the first method.

Example 7 Points A and B are a and b feet from a wall, respectively

(Fig. 6). How can we leave A and bounce off the wall to B so as to minimize
the total distance from A to the wall to B?
Solution: The total distance is very large if the ricochet point P is either
far above A or far below B. We expect that somewhere on the wall between
A and B is a point at which the distance is a minimum.
Let c be the fixed distance and x the variable distance indicated in
Fig. 6, and let f{x) be the distance APB to be minimized. Then

ia/AUL

b —^ •¥

FI6,6
 4.2 Absolute Maxima and Minima • 103

f{x) — AP -\- PB — + V(c — for 0 c.

Hence

■ Vic xf +
-

We switch from the variable x to the angles 0, and to simplify the algebra.
The derivative is 0 if cos d\ — cos $2 which, for acute angles, means
di = 02. Thus the only candidate is the point at which Oi = $2, and hence
the condition for minimum distance is simply that 6i = $2.
By a law of physics (Fermat’s principle), if light is reflected off a surface
from A to B, the total time, hence distance, is minimized. Therefore light
travels so that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

Example 8 Two corridors of widths 8 and 27 meet at right angles. What

is the longest steel girder that can slide around the corner without getting
stuck?
Solution: Consider all line segments of the type shown in Fig. 7. As the
girder is maneuvered most efficiently around the corner, at each instant it
hugs the corner as these segments do. If the girder is longer than any of the
segments, it will not fit (we assume the thickness of the girder is negligible).
Equivalently, if the girder is longer than the smallest segment, it will get stuck; we
have therefore turned the problem into a minimization. The longest girder
that will survive has the same length as the shortest segment.
Let 6 be the angle in Fig. 8 and let L be the length of the indicated
segment AC. Then

L{d) — AB + BC — —- H-- = 8 CSC 0 + 27 sec 6,

sm 6 cos 6
where 0° < 0 < 90°.

Figure 7 shows that values of 0 near 0° and 90° correspond to very long
segments, so the minimum length will occur at a critical angle in between.
We have

T'(0) = -8 CSC 0 cot 0 + 27 sec 0 tan 0.

104 • 4/The Derivative Part II

Solve L'{d) = 0 to find the critical angles:

27 sec d tan 0 = 8 esc 6 cot 6

tan 6 = —.
D

An approximate value of 6 can be found from tables or a calculator, but the

problem asks for the minimum L, and not the value of d that produces it.
To compute L efficiently, use the right triangle of Fig. 9 with legs labeled
so that tan d = 2/3. Then the hypotenuse is VTS and

minimum L = 8 esc 0 + 27 sec 0 = 8 • + 27 • = ISVIS.

Thus the longest girder that can be carried through has length ISVlS.

Problems for Section 4.2

(If you have difficulty setting up verbal problems, you are not unique. Many
students find the computational aspects of extremal problems fairly routine but
(understandably) don’t know how to begin problems such as Example 8.)
1. Find the maximum and minimum values of f{x) on the indicated intervals.

(a) fix) = x^ + x^ - 5x - 5 (i) (-=o,°°) (h) [0,2] (iii) [-1,0]

(b) /(x) = - (i) [-2,2] (ii) [0,2] (iii) (-oo,0]

X

W [0’^] (ii) [2,5]

(d) f{x) = x^ + x^ — X + 3, [0,4]

2. Suppose fix) is always negative. Find the largest and smallest values of
/ on [3,4].
3. Without using any calculus at all, find the largest and smallest values of
V2 + x^ for X in (-°°, °o).
4. A charter aircraft has 350 seats and will not fly unless at least 200 of those
seats are filled. When there are 200 passengers, a ticket costs $300, but each ticket
is reduced by $1 for every passenger over 200. What number of passengers yields
the largest total revenue? smallest total revenue?
5. A builder with 200 feet of wire wants to fence off a rectangular garden using
an existing 100-foot stone wall as part of the boundary (Fig. 10). Flow should it be
done to get maximum area? minimum area?

pr WALL V

A'-'B
FIS.10
 4.3 L’Hopital’s Rule and Orders of Magnitude • 105

6. A rectangular house is built on the corner of a right triangular lot with

legs 100 and 150 (Fig. 11). What dimensions for the house will produce maximum
floor space?

FI6.il
7. A farmer has calves which weight 100 pounds each and are gaining weight
at the rate of 1.2 pounds per day. If she sells them now she can realize a profit of
12 cents per pound. But since the price of cattle feed is rising, her profit per pound
is falling by 1/40 of a cent per day. If she sells right now she gets the higher profit
per pound but is selling skinny cows. If she waits to sell fat cows she makes less per
pound. When should she sell?
8. Let/(x) = —x^ — 5x^ — 13x + 4; find the maximum and minimum slope
on the graph of f for 0 < x < 1.
9.
At midnight, car B is 100 miles due south of car A. Then A moves east at
15 mph and B moves north at 20 mph. At what time are they closest together?
10. Given the ellipse 4x^ + 9y^ = 36 and the point Q — (1,0), find the points on
the ellipse nearest and furthest from Q.
11. Of all the rectangles inscribed in a semicircle with fixed radius r, which one
has maximum area? minimum area?
12. A truck is to travel at constant speed s for 600 miles down a highway where
the maximum speed allowed is 80 mph and the minimum speed is 30 mph. When
the speed is s, the gas and oil cost (5 + cents per mile, so the slower the truck
the less the transport company pays for gas and oil. The truck driver’s salary is $3.60
per hour (use 360 cents per hour so that all money is measured in cents). Thus, the
faster the truck the less time it takes and the less the company must pay the driver.
Find the most economical speed and least economical speed for the trip.
13. A wire 16 feet long is cut into two pieces, one of which is bent to form a
square and the other to form a circle. How should the wire be cut so as to maximize
the total area of square plus circle?
14. Suppose you wish to use the least amount of fencing to fence off a rectan¬
gular garden with fixed area A. What is the best you can do?
15. A motel with 100 rooms sells out each night at a price of $50 per room. For
each $2 increase in price it is anticipated that an additional room will be vacant.
What price should be charged in order to maximize income?

4.3 L’Hopital’s Rule and Orders of Magnitude

Section 2.3 identified a group of indeterminate limit forms, and we are

now prepared to evaluate indeterminate limits, beginning in this section
with quotients.
Consider

— 3x — 18
(1) hm
x-*3 — 9
106 • 4/The Derivative Part II

which is of the indeterminate form 0/0. We will find the limit by working
with the graphs of the numerator and denominator separately, and then
extract a method for problems of this form in general. Each graph crosses
the x-axis at x = 3 (which is why the problem is of the form 0/0). The graph
of the numerator has slope 24 as it crosses, because the derivative of the
numerator is 3x^ ■“ 3, whichvis 24 when x- = 3. The graph of the denomi¬
nator has slope 6 when it crosses, because the derivative of the denominator
is 2x, which is 6 when x = 3 (Fig. 1 on next page). The limit in (1) depends
on the ratio of the heights near x = 3 (at x = 3 we have the meaningless
ratio 0/0). The two functions start “even” on the x-axis, the “starting line,
at position x = 3, but the graph of the numerator is rising above the x-axis
4 times as steeply as the graph of the denominator. Thus, near x = 3, the
graph of the numerator is about 4 times as high above the x-axis as the
graph of the denominator. It follows that the ratio of their heights near
X = 3 is near 4, and the limit in (1) is 4. The number 4 came from the

computation 24/6 which in turn came from examining the quotient

numerator derivative 3x^ — 3
denominator derivative 2x

at X = 3. This suggests that if lim;,..^ is of the indeterminate form 0/0,

^(x)
fix)
it can be found by switching to lim^^^o frT- This result holds not only for
® g (x)
0/0, but can be shown (with a different argument) to hold for the other
indeterminate quotients as well. The following rule contains the details.

fix)
L’Hopital’s rule Suppose lim is one of the indeterminate forms
gix)
00 — 00

0 ’ 00 — 00

fix)
Switch to lim
g'ix)'
If the new limit is L, oo or —oo then the original limit is L, oo or —°o,
respectively.
If the new limit does not exist because/'(x)/g'(x) oscillates badly
then we have no information about the original quotient (which does not
necessarily oscillate also); L’Hopital’s rule does not help in this situation.
If the new limit is still an indeterminate quotient, L’Hopital’s rule
may be used again.
The rule is also valid for limit problems in which x —» a-l-,x ^ a — ,
X —» 00 and X ^ —oo.

3x^ -I- 6x^ — 5

Example 1 Find limj.^,ac which is of the indeterminate
2x^ 4- 5x^ — 3x ’
form oo/oo.
Solution: In this particular problem two methods are available, the
highest power rule from Section 2.3 and L’Hopital’s rule. With the first
method
3x® -I- 6x^ — 5 3x^
lim lim
2x^ -I- 5x^ — 3x X^oo 2x“ 2 ■
 4.3 L’Hopital’s Rule and Orders of Magnitude • 107

F16.

With the second method,

+ 6x^-5 °° 9x^ + 12x °° 18x + 12

(2) lim — = hm —-
2x^ + 5x^ — 3x — = lim —-
°° x--” + lOx °° X.OO I2x + 10
00

00
x-»“> 12 2

As L Hopital s rule is applied repeatedly in this example, the lower powers

differentiate away first, showing that the highest powers dominate as
X ^ 00, in agreement with the highest power rule.

Example 2

/g\ ,. Sin X 0 cos X.

(3) hm — — = hm —-—(L Hopital’s rule) = 1

The result in (3) shows that if an angle d is small, and is measured in radians
(so that the derivative of sin 6 is cos d) then sin d and d are about the same
size since their ratio is near 1. This is important in physics and engineering
where many calculations may be simplified by replacing sin 0 by 0 for
small 6.

Warning L Hopital’s rule applies only to indeterminate quotients.

It should not be used (nor is it necessary) for limits of the form 2/oo
(the answer is immediately 0) or 3/0- (the anwer is -oo) or 6/2 (the answer
is 3) and so on.

Example 3 By L’Hopital’s rule.

r X^ 00 2x 00 2 2
hm — = —
00
= hm
— = hm — = — = 0
^ o*"
€ x-*'x> € ^

The result indicates that while both x^ and e’‘ grow unboundedly large as
X 00, grows faster.

tWe should not equate the original limit with the new limit at line (2) until after we have
determined that the latter limit is either a number L, or oo or — oo. However, it is customary to
anticipate the situation and write the solution in the more compact form indicated.
tAs part of the proof in Section 3.3 that D sin x = cos x, we used geometry to show that
lim,*o(sin x)/x = 1. Since L’Hopital’s method is so much simpler than the geometric proof, you
may wonder why we used geometry in the first place. We needed the limit in order to derive
D sin X = cos x. But before the derivative formula is available we cannot do the differentiation
necessary to apply L Hopital’s rule. Thus we resorted to the geometric argument. The use of
L Hopital’s rule in Example 2 must be regarded as a check on previous work, rather than as
an independent derivation.
108 4/The Derivative Part II

Example 4

= — = lim -V (L’Hopital’s rule) = Urn x (algebra) = oo.

In X °° *•*“ 1/^
Therefore, while both x and In x grow unboundedly large as x oo, x
grows faster. ' ''

Order of magnitude Suppose/(x) and g{x) both approach oo as x ^ oo so

that lim,.o= — is of the form oo/oo. If the limit is =o then/(x) is said to be of

g{x) .
a higher order of magnitude than g-(x); that is,/ grows faster than g. If the liinit
is 0 then/(x) has a lower order of magnitude than g’(x). If the limit is a positive
number L then/(x) and g-(x) have the same order of magnitude.
Examples 3 and 4 show that is of a higher order of magnitude than
x^, and X is of a higher order of magnitude than In x. Similarly it can be
shown that for any positive r, grows faster than the power function x ,
and x’' grows faster than In x. (When r is negative, x doesn t grow at all
as ^ 00.)
X
The pecking order below in (4) contains some well-known functions
which approach oo as x —> and lists them in increasing order of mag¬
nitude, from slower to faster.

(4) In X, (In x)/ (In x)/ • • •, Vx, x, x^'/ x/ x^ • • •, e\

Examples 3 and 4 illustrate how the order of the functions in (4) is justified.
Functions which remain bounded as x such as sin x, tan ^x or constant
functions, may be considered to have a lower order of magnitude than
any of the functions in (4). Many indeterminate limit problems of the form
oo/oo can be handled by inspection of the ordering in (4). For example,
lim;,.=„ eVx'^ is of the indeterminate form oo/co; the function e’^ is of a higher
order of magnitude than x^ and the answer is oo.
Note that the list in (4) is not intended to be, and indeed can never be
made, complete. There are functions slower than In x, faster than e\ in
between and x, and so on.
The concept of order of magnitude is useful in many applications.
Suppose fix) is the running time of a computer program which solves a
problem of “size” x. Programs involving a “graph with x vertices” might
require a running time of x^ seconds, or x^ seconds (worse), or e’‘ seconds
(much worse, for large x), depending on the type of problem. If /(x) is a
power function, then the problem is said to run in polynomial time and is
called tractable; if /(x) = e\ the problem is said to require exponential time
and is called intractable. Tractability depends on the order of magnitude of
fix), and computer scientists draw the line between power functions and e\
A major branch of computer science is devoted to determining whether a
program runs in polynomial or exponential time. If it takes exponential
time to find the “best” solution (such as the sales route with a minimum
amount of driving time) then we often must settle for a less than optimal
solution (a sales route with slightly more than the minimum driving time)
that can be found in polynomial time.

Order of magnitude of a constant multiple Consider 4x^ versus x^. We

have lim^^oo Ax'^/x'^ = lim^t-® 4 = 4. Since the limit is a positive number, not
0 or 00, 4x^ and x^ have the same order of magnitude, even though one is
 4.3 L Hopital’s Rule and Orders of Magnitude • 109

4 times the other. In general,/(x) and cf{x) have the same order ofmamitude
for any positive constant c.

Highest order of magnitude rule We can extend the highest power rule
rom Section 2.3: the proofs involve similar factoring arguments which we
omit. As X 00, a sum of functions on the list in (4) has the same limit as
the term with the highest order of magnitude and, in fact, the sum has the
same order of magnitude as that term. For example, e"^ — x^ has the same
order of magnitude as e'^’‘ and

lim(^^* — x^) = 00 — 00 = lijji = 00

As X 00, a quotient involving functions on the list in (4) has the same
limit as

term with highest order of magnitude in the numerator

term with highest order of magnitude in the denominator

and the final answer depends on which of the remaining terms has higher
order of magnitude. For example.

3 - g- — 00
lim -= lim = —lim — 00
x^ + 2x

since has a higher order of magnitude than xl

Warning The highest power rule is only valid for problems where
^ The highest order of magnitude rule is even more restrictive. It
applies only when x oo since the increasing orders of magnitude in (4)
hold only in that case.

Problems for Section 4.3

X® — 5x + 4
1. Find lim as (a) X 1 (b) X ^ 0 (c) x —> <».
x^ - 3x + 2
2. Find

(a) lim -- (f) lim

In X 1 +
(b, lin, 12^^
*,2 X — 2 (g) X-
•irn
0+ ^
e
, In 2x
(c) lim — (h) hm
*-*■0+ X *->0+ ox
X* + X* In 2x
(d) lim (i) lim
e" 3x
sin X
(e) lim
x-o cos X — 1

3. Use L’Hopital’s rule to verify that (Inx)^’ has a lower order of magnitude
than X.
Sin 3tXf
4. Both (a) lim*,o - and (b) lim*,o- are of the form 0/0 and can be
2x X
done using L’Hopital’s rule. But they can also be cleverly done using the fact
Sin X
(Example 2) that lim*,o-= 1. Do them both ways.
X
 5. What is wrong with the following double application of L Hopital s rule?
4x'^ -2x -2‘ 8x 2 8 4
lim —--- = lim . . = •'!" “T ^ T
A I 3x ^ — 4x 1 x*i 6x — 4 x^i b
6. For each pair of functions, decide which has a higher order of magnitude.
(a) 3^',4<’" (b) (c)ln3x,ln4x rc •
7. The graph of (sin x)/x can be drawn using the procedure of Secticm 1.3 tor
fix) sin X where/(x) = 1/x. The tricky part is handling the graph near x = 0 when
sin X approaches 0 and the envelope 1/x blows up. Sketch the entire graph.

4.4 Indeterminate Products, Differences and

Exponential Forms

The preceding section discussed indeterminate quotients. We conclude

the discussion of indeterminate limits in this section with methods for the
remaining forms.

The forms 0 X oo and 0 x -<» L’Hopital’s rule applies only to in¬

determinate quotients. To do an indeterminate product, use algebra or a
substitution to transform the product into a quotient to which L Hopital s
rule does apply. For example, consider limx.o+ x In x which is of the form
0 X -00. Use algebra to change the numerator x to a denominator of 1/x
to get
In X — =0
(1) lim X In X = 0 X —oc = hm

1 /x
(2) = lim ——T, (use L’Hopital’s rule on the quotient)
^ .t.()+ -1/x

(3) = lim(-x) (by algebra) = 0.

.If -»() T

In general, for indeterminate products, try flipping one factor (preferably the
simpler one) and putting it in the denominator to obtain an indeterminate quotient.
Then continue with L’Hopital’s rule.
As a second method in this example, let m = 1/x. Then x - \/u and
as X —0+ we have u so

lim X In X = lim = lim (law of logarithms)

X-.0+ U U

which is of the form -oc/oc. Since u has a higher order of magnitude than
In u, the answer is 0. In general, as a second method for indeterminate products,
try letting u be the reciprocal of one of the factors, preferably the simpler one.
The function x In x is defined only for x > 0, but this limit problem
shows that for all practical proposes x In x is 0 when x = 0, and the graph
can be considered to begin at the origin. In applied areas where the limit
occurs frequently, the result is abbreviated by writing 0 In 0 = 0.

Warning 1. Don’t use L’Hopital’s rule indiscriminately. It applies only to

indeterminate quotients and not to other indeterminate forms, and not to
nonindeterminate problems, which can always be done directly.
2. Simplify algebraically whenever possible. If (2) is left unsimplified it
is of the indeterminate form 00/-00, but canceling produces (3) which is not
indeterminate and gives the immediate answer 0.
 4.4 Indeterminate Products, Differences and Exponential Forms • 111

The forms oo — oo and (—00) — (~o°) L’Hopital’s rule applies only to in¬
determinate quotients, so other methods must be used for indeterminate
differences. We will describe two possibilities.
If X 00, a limit involving functions from the pecking order in (4) of

Section 4.3 may be found using the highest order of magnitude rule. For
example, lim,cH'oo(x — In x) is of the form 00 — 00; the answer is 00 since x has
a higher order of magnitude than In x.
If a problem involves the difference of two fractions, they can be
combined algebraically into a single quotient, to which L’Hopital’s rule may

be applied, if necessary. For example, consider lim*,o(“-^). If x 0-,

\x x'^/
the limit is of the form (-00) - 00, so the left-hand limit is -<». But the
right-hand limit is of the indeterminate form 0° — 0°. In either case, we can
use algebra to combine the fractions and obtain

X — 1 -1
lim lim — 00 .
X--0 x^ 0+
The forms (0+)“, 1“ and 00® We will illustrate with an example how to
use logarithms to change exponential problems into products. Consider
lim*^cc(l + which is of the indeterminate form 1°°. Let y = (1 -I- ^)*.
Take In on both sides, and use \n a'’ = b In a, to obtain In y = x ln(l + v)-
Then

lim In y = lim x Inl 1 ooxlnl=oox0.

To turn the indeterminate product into a quotient, one method is to let

u = 1/x. Then x = 1/m, and as x 00 we have u 0+, so

ln(l + .06m)
lim In y = lim
X-*” u-»0+ M 0

= lim--- (apply L’Hopital’s rule to the quotient)

u-*0+ 1

= .06.

If In y approaches .06 then y itself approaches e'^^. So as a final answer,

(4) lim(l + —)* =

In general, */lim/(x) is an indeterminate exponential form, lety = /(x)

and compute In y, which will no longer involve exponents. Find lim In y, and if that
answer is L, then the answer to the original problem is e’^.

Warning In the preceding problem, the answer is e not .06. Don’t

forget this last step.

An application to compound interest Suppose an amount A (dollars) is

deposited in a bank which pays 6% annual interest compounded three times
a year. The bank divides the 6% figure into three 2% increments, and after
four months pays 2% on amount A. Thus the four month balance is
A + .02A = A(1 + .02) = 1.02A. In other words, the balance has been
multiplied by 1.02. After eight months, the depositor receives 2% interest
112 4/The Derivative Part II

on amount 1.02A, so the money is again multiplied by 1.02. Similarly, after

twelve months, the bank pays a final 2% which again multiplies the balance
by 1.02. Therefore after one year, amount A, compounded at 6% three
times a year, accumulates to (1.02)^T, that is, to (1 + More generally,
if the bank pays r% interest compounded x times a year, then A grows
to A(1 + at the end of the year. If the bank generously compounds
your money not just x times a year but “continually” then A grows to
lim*.,oo A(1 + if. As a generalization of (4) we have

(5) lim( 1 + -) =
*•♦00 \ X/

so A grows toAe’^. For example, $1 compounded continually at 6% will grow

to e'^ dollars in a year, or approximately $1,062, compared with $1.06
obtained with simple interest.

A formula for the number e We defined e in Section 3.3, but otherwise

have given no indication of how to compute e to any desired number of
decimal places. If r is set equal to 1 in (5), we have

.=Um(l+iy.

(In banking circles, this means that $1 compounded continually at 100%

interest grows to $c after a year.) The accompanying computer program
prints out values of (1 + for larger and larger x, and therefore the values
are approaching e. But if we pick out a value far down on the list and call
it “approximately e”, we have no way of knowing how close this is to e. (For
example, is the approximation accurate in the first three decimal places, or
would even these places change as we continue computing?) An approxi¬
mation with an error estimate would be much more useful, and we’ll have
such an estimate for e in Section 8.9

0020 PRINT “X”, “(1 + 1/X)^X”

0030 FOR N = 2000 TO 8000 STEP 1000
0040 PRINT N, (14- 1/N)"N
0050 NEXT N

*RUN
X (1 + 1/X)--X
2000 2.7176026
3000 2.7178289
4000 2.7179421
5000 2.7180101
6000 ' 2.7180553
7000 2.7180877
8000 2.718112

END AT 0050

Problems for Section 4.4

1. Find lim xe~’‘ as (a) x —> oo (b) x 0 (c) x —* —<».

2. Find lim(x^ - In x) as (a) x —> 1 (b) x —» 0+ (c) x —> 00.

3. Find lim(x - e’‘) as (a) x ^ (b) x —» -<».

 4.5 Drawing Graphs of Functions • 113

4. Sketch the graph of near x = 0 after finding limits as x 0+ and

x^O-.
5. Find

(a) lim(tan x) (In x) (f) lim(l + x) l/x

><■*0+ X-0 +

(b) lim e"" In x (g) limx"

x-»0+

(c) lim x^ sin — (h) lim x(e''* - 1)

(d) lim X (i) lim(x - 2)"'

x-»2 +
X-*a>

(e) lim X 1/x (j) lim(^’' + 4x) 2/x

x-*0+
x-»0+

4.5 Drawing Graphs of Functions

In this section we’ll list some of the aids already discussed for sketching
graphs, and add new ones involving the derivative. For any particular
function you may find some, but not necessarily all, items on the list useful
in producing a graph.
1. Ends If/ is defined on (-oo, oo), find lim*.„o/fx) and lim*._»/(x) to
determine the ends of the graph. If/ is defined only on (a, b] for instance,
find f{b) and lim,(..a+ f{x) to determine the ends.
2. Gaps If/ is defined around but not at x = Xo (in practice, because
of a zero in a denominator), find lim*^.*g/(x), or if necessary find the right-
hand and left-hand limits separately, to discover the nature of the gap.
3. Relative extrema Find the critical numbers and classify them as rela¬
tive maxima, relative minima or neither, using the first or second derivative
test. This identifies the rise and fall of the graph. Furthermore, find the
values of y corresponding to the critical numbers so that a few significant
points can be plotted accurately.
4. Concavity Determine the sign off", with the method of Section 1.6,
and use it to decide where / is concave up (/" positive) and concave down
(/" negative). Often, approximately correct concavity is created auto¬
matically as you employ other graphing aids, so you may decide that using
/" to determine precise concavity is not worth it.
5. Familiar graphs If the new graph is related to a familiar graph then
you have a head start, as the following examples illustrate.
The graph ofy = 2 + (x — 3)^ is the parabola y = x^ translated to the
right by 3 and up by 2 (Section 1.7).
The graphs ofy = a sin(6x + c) andy = a sin fe(x + c) are sinusoidal.
Each has amplitude a and period 'i'n/b, and the translation is best identified
by plotting a few points (Section 1.3).
The graph of y = /(x) sin x is drawn by changing the heights on the
sine curve so that it fits within the envelope y = ±/(x) (Section 1.3).
The graph of y = a + has the shape of an exponential curve. It is
located on the axes by plotting a point and finding limits as x ±°o
(Section 2.2).
6 9
Example 1 Sketch the graph of /(x) = 1-1—^.

Solution: Find lim;t.,a,/(x) =1— 0-l-0=l and lim;,^_„/(x) =

1 — 0 -I- 0 = 1, which indicates that the line y = 1 is an asymptote at each
end of the graph.
114 • 4/The Derivative Part II

The function is not defined at x = 0, so consider the limit as

X 0. It is an advantage to let m = 1/x so that the problem becomes
lim(l - 6u + 9u^) as M CO (if X ^ 0+) or u ^ (if x ^ 0-). By the
highest power rule, 9u^ dominates in each case and the limit isTherefore
lim*^,o/(x) = CO, and the graph approaches the positive y-axis asymptotically
from each side. (Intuitively, ^the term 9/x^ is so large as x —> 0 that it
dominates/(x).)

To find relative extrema, first find / W ~ ^ ~ derivative is 0

when 6x® = 18x^ x = 3. The derivative doesn’t exist when x = 0, but

neither does f; we have already found that / blows up at x = 0. The
following table displays the pertinent information about the sign of the
derivative and the behavior of /.

Interval Sign of/' Graph of/

(-CO, 0) positive rises

(0,3) negative falls
(3, CO) positive rises

Therefore, / has a relative minimum at x =3. (Alternatively, f"{x) —

12 54
-r H—-so /'"(3) is positive. Therefore, by the second derivative test, /
X X
has a relative minimum at x = 3.) When x = 3, we have y = 0 so the
relative minimum occurs at the point (3,0).

So far we have the curve in Fig. 1, with the concavity tentatively sug¬
gested by the rise, fall, and asymptotic behavior of/. In this example, we’ll
check the concavity with the second derivative which has already been
computed above. It is discontinuous at x = 0, and is 0 when — 12x + 54 =
0, X = 4f. We collect the relevant information about the sign of/" and the
behavior of/.

Interval Sign of/" Graph of/

(—,0) positive concave up

(0,4|) positive concave up
(4i°°) negative concave down
 4.5 Drawing Graphs of Functions -115

This confirms the concavity in Fig. 1. Since/(4|) = i the point of inflection

at A is (4ii).

^ Example 2 Sketch the graph of y = ln(x^ + 8).

Solution: It is not always necessary to use all of the five aids described.
If / is a variation of a familiar function g (the logarithm in this case), it may
be possible to sketch the graph of f quickly by plotting a few points and
using known properties of g.
The function / is defined only ifa:^ + 8>0, x>-2. Then, as x in¬
creases, + 8 increases, and in turn, so does ln(x^ + 8). Thus the graph
always rises. For the right end, lim„.„ ln(:!c® + 8) = In oo = oo. For the left
end, lim,j,(_2)+ ln(x^ + 8) = In 0+ = —oo. Therefore, the usual asymptotic
behavior of the logarithm function at x = 0 now takes place at x = —2.
Also, dm graph crosses the x-axis, not at x = 1, but when + 8 = 1,
X =
For large x, the highest power rule suggests that/(x) behaves like In x^
which is 3 In x. Therefore, far out to the right, the graph off is approxi¬
mately 3 times the height of the graph of In x. A rough sketch is given
in Fig. 2.

ovi to THb
Ri6fJr

F16X

Problems for Section 4.5

In Problems 1-22, sketch the graph of the function/(x).

1. —x^ + 4x -h 5 10 .
2. x^ -H 2x® 11. xg"
3/2
3. x®'^ 12. x"e-"
4. x^'* 13. X In X
5. x'*-t-x^ + 5x^ 14. X — In X
6. 2e -3x

8. xV2 — X 16. e sin X

cos X 17. - 4
9.
X 18. 3 cos(|7rx -t- Itt)
116 • 4/The Derivative Part

4
19.
22. \ +
20. e "'
1
21. X H-
X

23. (a) Sketch the graph of^-. (b) Use part (a) to help sketch the graph
111 ^
In X
of
X

4.6 Related Rates

Suppose two (or more) quantities are related to one another. If one
quantity is changing instantaneously with time, we can use differential
calculus to determine how the other changes.

Example 1 Two cars travel west and north on perpendicular highways as

indicated in Fig. 1. The problem is to decide if the cars are separating or
getting closer. (Picture an elastic string between the two cars. Is the string
getting shorter or longer?)
We do not have enough information t'o solve the problem at this stage.
The westbound car is trying to close the gap while the northbound car
is trying to increase it. What actually happens will be determined by
the speeds of the cars, and also (although this is less obvious) by their
distances from the intersection of the roads. Thus we continue stating the
problem by asking if the cars are separating or getting closer at the particular
instant when the westbound car is traveling at 25 mph, the northbound car
is traveling at 10 mph, and they are respectively 5 miles and 12 miles from
the intersection.
Now let’s set up the problem so that we can use derivatives.
Step 1 Identif^y the functions involved.
In our problem, with t standing for time, one of the functions is the
distance n{t) from the northbound car to the intersection (Fig. 1). (The
10 mph is a specific value of dn/dt and the 12 miles is a value of n.) Similarly,
the other functions needed are w{t), the distance from the westbound car
to the intersection, and s{t), the distance between the two cars.
Step 2 Find a general connection among the functions.
In our problem, + w'^ by the Pythagorean theorem. More pre¬
cisely, 5^(/) = w^(/) + w^{t) since s, n and w are functions of t.
Step 3 Differentiate with respect to t on both sides of the equation
from Step 2 to get a general connection among the derivatives of the func¬
tions involved.
In our problem

^ ds ^ dn ^ dw
(1) 2s— = 2n— + 2w—.
dt dt dt

Note that the derivative of s^ with respect to 5 is 25, but the derivative
of 5^(0 with respect to / is 25 • ds/dt by the chain rule. Don’t forget the factor
ds/dt, and similarly the factors dn/dt and dw/dt, in (1).
Step 4 Substitute the specific data for the particular instant of interest.
In our problem, the instant occurs when w — 5 and n = 12, so 5 = 13
by the Pythagorean theorem. Also dn/dt — 10 {positive because when the
 4.6 Related Rates • 117

car moves north at 10 mph the distance n is increasing) and dw/dt = —25
{negative because when the car moves west at 25 mph, the distance w is
decreasing). Substitute these values into (1) and solve for ds/dt to obtain

dn dw
, n— + w—
(2) _ dt dt _{\2){\Q) + {b){-2b) _ 5
dt s 13 13’

Therefore, at this moment, the distance s is decreasing, so the cars are

getting closer by 5/13 miles per hour.
Note from (2) that the change in the gap between the cars depends not
only, as expected, on their speeds and directions (because the formula for
dsjdt involves the velocities dn/dt and dw/dt) but also on their distances to
the intersection (because the formula contains n and w). For example,
suppose the westbound and northbound cars travel at 25 mph and 10 mph
again, but this time are respectively 2 miles and 6 miles from the inter¬
section, so that w = 2, n = 6, s = V40. Then ds/dt in (2) \s> positive, namely
10/V40, and the cars are moving further apart at this instant.

Warning Be careful about signs when assigning values to derivatives. Sup¬

pose a bucket is being hauled up a well at 2 ft/sec. If x (t) is the distance from
the bucket to the top of the well, and y{t) is the distance from the bucket to
the bottom of the well, then x is decreasing by 2 ft/sec, while y is increasing
by 2 ft/sec. Thus dx/dt = -2 and dy/dt = 2.

Example 2 A TV camera 10 meters across from the finish line is turning

to stay trained on a runner heading toward the line (Fig. 2). When the
runner is 9 meters from the finish line, the camera is turning at. 1 radians
per second. How fast is the runner going at this moment?

Solution:

Step 1 Let t stand for time. Let d{t) be the angle indicated in Fig. 2
and let s{t) be the distance from the runner to the finish line.
Step 2 The general connection between the functions is 5 = 10 tan 6,
or more precisely s{t) = 10 tan d{t).
Steps Differentiate with respect to ^ to obtain sec^d{dd/dt).
118 • 4/The Derivative Part II

Step 4 At the moment of interest, dd/dt - -. 1 {negative because 6 is

decreasing) and 5=9. Therefore the hypotenuse of the triangle is Vl81 and
sec 6 — Vm/\0. Thus

The negative sign is well deserved as an indication that s is decreasing.

Since the problem asked only for the speed of the runner, the answer is
1.81 meters per second.

Problems for Section 4.6

(As with the section on maximum/minimum problems, this section contains verbal
problems that students sometimes find difficult to set up.)
1. A snowball is melting at the rate of 10 cubic feet per minute. At what rate
is the radius changing when the snowball is 2 feet in radius?
2. At a fixed instant of time, the base of a rectangle is 6, its height is 8, the base
is growing by 4 ft/sec, and the height is shrinking by 3 ft/sec. How fast is the area
of the rectangle changing at this instant?
3. A baseball diamond is 90 feet square. A runner runs from first base to
second base at 25 ft/sec. How fast is he moving away from home plate when he is
30 feet from first base?
4. Water flows at 8 cubic feet per minute into a cylinder with radius 4. How fast
is the water level rising?
5. An equilateral triangle is inscribed in a circle. Suppose the radius of the
circle increases at 3 ft/sec. How fast is the area of the triangle increasing when the
radius is 4?
6. A light 5 miles offshore revolves at 1 revolution per minute, that is, at 277
radians per minute (Fig. 3). When the light is directed toward the beach, the spot
of light moves up the beach as the source revolves. How fast is the spot moving when
it is 12 miles from the foot A of the source?

7. A cone with height 20 and radius 5 is filled with a hose which pumps in water
at the rate of 3 cubic meters per minute. When the water level is 2 meters, how fast
is the level rising?
8. As you walk away from a light source at a constant speed of 3 ft/sec, your
shadow gets longer (Fig. 4). The shadow’s feet move at 3 ft/sec and it follows
that the head of the shadow must move faster than 3 ft/sec to account for the
lengthening. How fast does the head move if you are 6 feet tall and the source is
15 feet high?
 4,6 Related Rates • 119

9. Consider a cone with radius 6 and height 12 (centimeters).

(a) If water is leaking out at the rate of 10 cubic centimeters per minute,
how fast is the water level dropping at the moment when the level is
3 centimeters?
(b) Suppose water leaks from the cone. When the water level is 6 centimeters,
it is observed to be dropping at the rate of 2 centimeters per minute. How
fast is the leak at this instant?
(c) Suppose the cone is not leaking, but the water is evaporating at a rate equal
to the square root of the exposed circular area of the cone of water. How
fast is the water level dropping when the level is 2 centimeters?

10. A stone is dropped into a lake, causing circular ripples whose radii increase
by 2 m/sec. How fast is the disturbed area growing when the outer ripple has
radius 5?
11. Consider the region between two concentric circles, a washer, where the
inner radius increases by 4 m/sec and the outer radius increases at 2 m/sec. Is the
area of the region increasing or decreasing, and by how much, at the moment the
two radii are 5 meters and 9 meters?
12. Let triangle ABC have a right angle at C. Point A moves away from C at
6 m/sec while point B moves toward C at 4 m/sec. At the instant when AC = 12,
BC = 10, is the area increasing or decreasing, and by how much?
13. A sphere is coated with a thick layer of ice. The ice is melting at a rate
proportional to its surface area. Show that the thickness of the ice is decreasing at
a constant rate.
14. A fish is being reeled in at a rate of 2 m/sec (that is, the fishing line is being
shortened by 2 m/sec) by a person sitting 30 meters above the water (Fig. 5). How
fast is the fish moving through the water when the line is 50 meters? when the line
is only 31 meters?

Dock
120 • 4/The Derivative Part II

15. If resistors Ri and R2 are connected in parallel, then the total resistance i?
of the network is given by l/R = l/R\ + If is increasing by 2 ohms/min,
and R2 decreases by 3 ohms/min, is R increasing or decreasing when /?i = 10,
R2 = 20 and by how much?

4.7 Newton’s Method

Newton’s method uses calculus to try to solve equations of the form

= 0. (Note that any equation can be written in this form by transferring
all terms to one side of the equation.) First we 11 demonstrate the geometric
idea behind the method.
Solving/(x) = 0 is equivalent to finding where the graph of the func¬
tion/ crosses the x-axis. Begin by guessing the root, and call the first guess
xi (Fig. 1). Draw the tangent line to the graph of/ at the point (xi,/(xi)). Let
X be the x-coordinate of the point where the tangent line crosses the x-axis.
2

Now start again with X . Draw the line tangent to the graph of/ at the point
2

(X ,/(X )) and let X be the x-coordinate of the point where the tangent line
2 2 3

crosses the x-axis. In Fig. 1, the numbers Xi,X ,X , • • • approach the root; in
2 3

Fig. 2, xi, X , X , • • • do not approach the root (a change in concavity near the
2 3

root is dangerous). However, more often than not, the situation in Fig. 1
prevails and Newton’s method does work. It is certainly worth a try, espe¬
cially if a computer or calculator is available to do most of the work.

Fl(b. X
 4.7 Newton’s Method • 121

Now let’s translate the geometry into a computational procedure. The

line through the point (xi,/(xi)) and tangent to the graph of / must have
slope/ (xi). By the point—slope formula, the equation of the tangent line
is y ~/(^i) =/'(xi)(x - xi). Set y = 0 and solve for x to find that the
fix )
line crosses the x-axis when x = Xi — , ^ . This value of x is taken to
j (^i)
be X . In general, each new value of x is generated from the preceding
2

one as follows:

(1) new X = last x - or, equivalently, x„+, = x„ -

To see the method in operation, consider the computer program in (2)

for solving/(x) = — lOx^ + 22x + 6 = 0. When the program is run, it
requests (with a question mark) a first guess at a root. After receiving the
guess, it calculates successive values of x from (1), along with the corre¬
sponding values of/(x). When two successive values of x differ by less than
.00005, line 60 instructs the program to stop. If the values of/(x) approach
0, then the values of x are approaching a root, and the last value of x can
be taken to approximate the root.
To choose a first guess, note that /(-I) < 0,/(2) > 0. Since / is con¬
tinuous, the graph of / must cross the x-axis between x = -1 and x = 2.
Therefore, we began by running the program with the guess x = 2.
0010 INPUT X
0020 DEF FNF(X)=X*X*X-10*X*X+22*X+6
0030 DEF FND(X)=3*X*X-20*X+22
0040 PRINT “X”, “F(X)”
0050 LET Y=X-FNF(X)/FND(X)
0055 PRINT Y, FNF(Y)
0060 IF ABS(X-Y)<.00005 THEN GO TO 0080
0065 LET X=Y
0070 GO TO 0050
(2) 0080 END

*RUN
? 2
X F(X)
5 -9
2 18
5 -9
2 18
5 -9
2 18

STOP AT 0055
The printout shows values off which do not approach 0, so the values of
X do not approach a root. The first tangent line at x = 2 leads to x = 5, but

the second tangent line leads back to x = 2, the third tangent line is the
same as the first and leads back to x = 5, and so on. We had to hit the escape
button and stop the program manually, or it would have run forever,
producing useless and repetitive results.
We ran the program again, this time with first guess x = 1. The print¬
out shows values of/(x) approaching 0. (The computer notation E —15
122 • 4/The Derivative Part II

indicates a factor of IQ-*'. Thus the last value of/, -2.6645353E-15, is

-2.6645353 • 10“'^ a very small number.)
=t=RUN
? 1
X F(X)
- 2.8 -155.952
-1.2638298 -39.795585
-.49953532 -7.6097842
-.26709965 -.60866996
-.24501119 -5.2591762E-03
-.24481698 -4.0487743E-07
-.24481697 -2.6645353E-15

END AT 0080
Therefore x = -.24481697 is an approximate root, but we do not know
how many accurate decimal places we have. (One way to determine ac¬
curacy is to increase x until /(x) changes from negative to positive. For
example, /(-.24481690) = .000002, so there must be a root between
-.24481697 and -.24481690, and the decimal places -.2448169 are
correct.) Since the last two entries in the x column agree through 7 digits
it is common practice to use the first 6 rounded digits, namely -.244817.
This does not guarantee six place accuracy but merely provides a con¬
venient stopping place for the procedure.

Problems for Section 4.7

Use Newton’s method and continue until two successive approximations agree
to the indicated number of decimal places. Then check the accuracy by searching
for a sign change in f{x) as above.
1. Find VM by solving x^ = 39 for the positive value of x. Use x = 6 as the
initial guess and stop after agreement in two decimal places.
2. Find the cube root of 173; at least 3 decimal places.
3. Solve e'‘ = 3 - x^; 3 decimal places. Begin by sketching the graphs of e’‘ and
3 - x^ on the same set of axes. Examine their intersections to determine the number
and approximate values of solutions.
4. Find a solution of tan x = x (if possible) in interval (0,7r/2) and then again
in (77/2,37r/2); 3 decimal places.

4.8 Differentials
As a by-product of the derivative of/(x), which measures the rate of
change of /(x) with respect to x, we will develop the differential of/(x) to
describe the effect on/(x) of a small change in x. The immediate results may
not seem exciting, but in Section 5.3 the result in (T) below will be used to
explain the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, in Section 6.1 the shell
volume formulas developed here will be used to find moments of inertia of
spheres and cylinders, and in Chapter 7, the new differential notation of
this section will be used throughout.

Approximating a change in y Suppose y =/(x), and we start with a

particular value of x and change it slightly by Ax so that there is a corre¬
sponding change Ay iny. The precise connection between Ax, Ay and/' is
given by
 4.8 Differentials • 123

fix) = lim
A*-o ax
If the limit is removed so that we are no longer entitled to claim equality,
we have Ay approximately equal tof'{x) Ax; i.e., Ay ~ /'(x) Ax. The symbols
c6c and dy, called differentiab, are defined as follows: dx = Ax, dy = f'{x) dx.
With this notation we have
dx
(1) change Ay in y ~ f'{x)'^.
' dy '
In other words, dx is simply Ax, a change in x. The corresponding change Ay in
y is approximated by f{x)dx, denoted by dy.
To see the geometric interpretation of approximating the change in y
/ {x)dx, consider the graph ofy = f(x). If the value of x is changed by
dx, then the corresponding change in y is the change in the height on the
graph of/ (Fig. 1). On the other hand, consider the tangent line at the point
(x,/(x)); its slope is /'(x). As x changes by dx,

change in y on the tangent line

change dx in * “ >
SO

change in y on the tangent line = f'{x)dx.

V)

. I
Therefore, f'{x)dx is the change in the height of the tangent line (Fig. 1).
We call f'{x)dx the linear approximation to the change iny; it approximates
the rise or fall of the graph of f by the rise or fall of the tangent line. The
error in the approximation is the difference between the height of the
tangent line and the height of the graph of / and approaches 0 as dx
approaches 0. In fact, it can be shown that the error approaches 0 faster
than dx.
The symbols Ax and dx both represent a change in x.t Mathematicians
use the notation Ay for the change in y, and use dy for f'{x)dx which
tThe symbol dx in the antiderivative notation Sf{x)dx is another story. It is not a small
change in x; rather, it indicates that the antidifferentiation is to be done with respect to the
variable x.
124 • 4/The Derivative Part II

approximates the change iny (see (1)). In applied fields, and in this text, the
distinction betweenf'{x)clx and the change iny is often blurred, and both
are referred to as dy, i.e., we often take the liberty of claiming that

dy =f’{x)dx = change iny when x changes by dx.

(1')
V V

Example 1 Lety = As usual, we write ^ - 3x^ to mean that the deriv¬

ative of y is 3x1 The differential version is dy = Sx^dx, interpreted to

mean that if x changes by dx there is a corresponding change in y given
approximately by 3x^dx.

Example 2 We have disin x) = cos xdx; that is, the differential of sin x is
cos xdx. If X changes by dx then sin x changes by approximately cos xdx.

Warning Don’t omit the dx and write d{sm x) = cos x when you really
mean either r/(sin x) = cos xdx, D sin x = cos x or d{sin.x)/dx — cos x.

Example 3 Find the linear approximation to the change in x^ when x

changes from 2 to 1.999.
Solution: We have/(x) = x^ so/'(x) = Sx'*. When x changes from the
value 2 by dx = -.001, the linear approximation to the change in x^ is
f'{2)dx, which is (80) (—.001) or —.08.

Sum, product and quotient rules for differentials Let u and v be func¬
tions of X. Analogous to the rules for derivatives, we have

(2) sum rule d{u + v) = d{u) + d{v)

(3) product rule d{uv) = ud(v) + vd{u)

, J u\ vd{u) - ud{v)
(4) quotient rule d\—J =-^-

(5) constant multiple rule d{cu) = cd{u), where c is a constant.

x2 \
Example 4 Find d
2x + 3/

First solution (directly): As in Examples 1 and 2, we simply find/'(x) dx.

Thus
/ x^ \ 2x(2x -I- 3) — x^ • 2 j (A ■ t t 1 ^
d\- = —-dx (derivative quotient rule)
V2x + 3/ (2x + 3)2 ^
2x2 ^0^

Second solution (differential quotient rule): By (5),

/ x2 \ _ (2x + 3)rf(x2) - xU{2x + 3)

'^\2x + 3/ (2x + 3)2

(2x + 3) • 2xc?x — x2 • 2dx

(2x + 3)2

_ 2x^dx + 6xdx
~ (2x + 3)2 ■
 4.8 Differentials • 125

Volume of a spherical shell Consider a hollow rubber ball with inner

radius r and thickness dr (Fig. 2). The problem is to find a formula for the
volume of this spherical shell, in other words, the volume of the rubber in
the ball and not the volume of the air it holds. We can get an exact but ugly
formula, and then an approximate but simpler one.

FI&.2
To find a precise formula, think of the volume of the rubber material
as the difference between the overall sphere of radius r + dr and the
inner sphere of air with radius r. The volume of a sphere of radius r is
V = |7rr^, so

shell volume = outer sphere — inner sphere

(6) ^y “y
= Airr^ dr + 4TTr{drY + ^iridrY.
3

To find an approximate formula, think of the volume of the rubber

material as the change in the volume V of the inner sphere when its
radius r is increased by dr. If the change is referred to as dV and we use
dV = V'{r)dr then we have the (approximate) shell volume formula

(7) dV = Arrr^dr.

Note that the difference between (6) and (7) is 4TTr{drf + |7r(rfr)^ which is
very small if dr is small. When the shell formulas of this section are used in
Section 6.1, it will be in situations where dr 0, which justifies the use of
(7) as the volume formula of the spherical shell.

Area of a circular shell The circular shell (washer) of Fig. 3 has inner
radius r and thickness dr. We want a formula for its area, comparable to (7).
The inner circle has area A = rrr^ and the area of the shell is the change in
A when r increases by dr. If the change in A is called dA, and we use
dA = A'{r)dr, we have the shell area formula

(8) dA = 2'TTrdr.
126 • 4/The Derivative Part

FI 6.^
Volume of a cylindrical shell Consider a piece of glass tubing with inner
radius r, thickness dr, and height h (Fig. 4). We want a nice formula for the
volume of the cylindrical shell, that is, the volume of the glass material
alone, and not the air inside. The inner cylinder has volume V - Trr\ and
the shell volume is the change in V when r changes by dr and h stays
fixed. If the change in V is called dV, and we use dV = V'(r)dr, where h is
regarded as a constant in the differentiation process, then we have the shell
FlO.^f volume formula

(9) dV = 27rrhdr.

The notation dy/dx When dx and dy are used to represent small changes
in X andy in the notation of (1'), the symbol dy/dx has two meanings. It can
represent the actual fraction

small chanere in -y
(10) -^
small change in x

or it can mean the derivative of y with respect to x, that is,/'(x). More

precisely, the fraction approaches the derivative as rfx —> 0. Until now, it has
been illegal to consider the derivative symbol dy/dx as a fraction, except as
a mnemonic device. Now it is acceptable to think of dy/dx as the fraction in
(10). Many practitioners take the convenient liberty of sliding back and
forth between the fraction and derivative interpretations of dy/dx (under
the baleful glare of the mathematician). We will give an illustration.
Suppose a researcher is interested in the connection between stimulus
(what is actually done to a pei:son) and sensation (what the person feels). If
salt is put in food, is the salt actually tasted? Suppose x is the number of
milligrams of salt injected into a doughnut, and T is the salty taste reported
by the doughnut eater on a taste scale where 0 indicates no salt taste and
higher values indicate a very salty taste. How does x affect T? In particular,
if X is increased by a small amount dx — A, does T go up by a correspond¬
ingly small amount dT = . 1 ? Experimenters have found that the answer is
no; a change in x does not necessarily produce a change in T of similar, or
even proportional, size; that is, dT is notkdx. Rather, if the doughnut is not
very salty to begin with then a small change in the amount x of salt produces
a large change in the perception T. If the doughnut is very salty, then the
 4.8 Differentials • 127

same small change in x goes virtually unnoticed so that T is practically

unchanged. A similar phenomenon occurs in weightlifting. If you are lift¬
ing 10 pounds, you will notice an extra half pound, but if you are lifting
1000 pounds, you will barely feel an extra half pound. The experimenter’s

hypothesis for the connection between dx and dT is dT = where A is a

fixed constant depending on the particular stimulus; this hypothesizes that

the larger the value of x (that is, the saltier the doughnut), the less the effect
of dx on T. The hypothesis may be written as dT/dx = k/x, and switching
from the fraction interpretation of dT/dx to the derivative interpretation
we have T'{x) = k/x. Antidifferentiate to get T = A In x + C. Therefore,
one hypothesis proposes a logarithmic connection between stimulus x
and sensation T.

Problems for Section 4.8

1. Find the differential.

(a) d(V7) (d)

(b) d(cosx) (e) ti(sinx®)

(c) d(x® sin x) (f) d{5)

2. Find dy y = 2x® + 3.
3. Find df if/(x) = x + 3.
4. Use linear approximations to make the following estimates, (a) Estimate the
change in x® + x^ as x changes from 3 to 2.9999. (b) Estimate the change in
when X changes from 16 to 16.1.
5. Use the methods which produced the shell formulas in (7)—(9) to find
(a) the area dA of the equilateral triangular shell (Fig. 5) with “radius” r and
thickness dr, and (b) the volume dV of the conical shell (Fig. 6) with height A,
radius r and “thickness” dr (that is, the volume of the sugar wafer and not of the ice
cream inside).

F)6. 6
128 4/The Derivative Part II

4.9 Separable Differential Equations

Differential equations constitute a vast topic, an entire branch of

mathematics, and this section is only a bare introduction. We will use simple
calculus to solve one type of differential equation.
To see how differential equations arise, consider a 10-liter punch bowl,
initially filled with cider, being drunk at the rate of 2 liters per minute. As
the punch is drunk, the bowl is simultaneously refilled, but with whiskey,
not cider. Initially, there is no whiskey in the bowl, but gradually the whis¬
key content increases, until at “time °o”, the bowl is entirely filled with
whiskey. The problem is to find a function to give the number of liters
of whiskey in the bowl at time t.
So far, the only known value of w is ri»(0) = 0. But we have information
about the rate of change of w, that is, about the net liters of whiskey
coming into the bowl per minute:

w'{t) = IN - OUT
= whiskey poured in per minute — whiskey drunk per minute.

The whiskey is poured in at the constant rate of 2 liters/min, so IN = 2, but

the OUT rate is harder. The punch is drunk at the rate of 2 liters/min, but ,
since the whiskey content of the punch varies from minute to minute, the
OUT rate for whiskey is not 2 liters/minute; instead it is 2 times the fraction
of the bowl which is whiskey at the moment under consideration. That
fraction is
liters of whiskey in bowl at time t
10
that is, ^w{t) where w{t) is the unknown function. Therefore w'{t) =
2 - 2 • ^w{t). So instead of finding w{t) immediately, we have

(1) w'{t) = 2 -

called a differential equation.

In an algebraic equation, such asx^ — x^ = 2x + 3, the unknown is a
number, frequently named x, although any letter can be used. In a differential
equation, such asy" + 2xy = xy', the unknown is a function, usually named
y(x) and abbreviated y. In (1), the unknown is the function w{t). An alge¬
braic equation involves powers of x, while a differential equation involves
derivatives of the function y. Some differential equations can be easily
solved. A solution toy' = 3x^ isy = x^, and the complete solution is the set
of all functions of the form y = + C. This is an easy differential equation
because y' is given explicitly.' The differential equation y ' = 2 — |y (a re¬
statement of (1) with w{t) replaced by y) is harder. It may look as if y' is
given, but since the right side involves y, the equation only reveals a con¬
nection between y and y', and the solution is not obtained by anti¬
differentiating the right-hand side with respect to x. We will develop a
procedure for “separating the variables” (if possible) before anti¬
differentiating, and then return to (1).
To illustrate the method, we will consider the differential equation

(2)
 4.9 Separable Differential Equations • 129

Rewrite the equation as

(3) ' y^ix)y'ix) = X,

and antidifferentiate on both sides with respect to x to obtain

(4) j y^(x)y'(x)dx = jxdx.

To compute the left-hand side, note that the derivative of with respect to
Xis y^yso we have

(5) = JX^ + C.

An arbitrary constant is inserted on one side only, as explained below. The

procedure in (2)—(5) is usually written in a second notation, which might be
considered an abuse of language, but which is easier to use and produces
the same result. In this second notation, we have

dy _ X
(2')
dx y^

(3') y^dy = xdx (multiply hy y^dx on both sides)

(4')

(5')

In future examples, we’ll follow standard procedure and use the second
notation.
So far, the function y has been found implicitly in (S'). The explicit
solution is

(6) y = + 3C or, equivalently, y = -\^ — x^ + D.

More generally, if it is possible to separate the variables so that the differential

equation has the form

(expression in x) dx = (expression in y) dy ,

(as in (3') for example), then the equation is called separable, and is solved by
antidifferentiating on both sides. (Only first order equations, that is, equations
involving))' but noty",)'", • • •, may be separated.) The process usually leads
to an implicit description of y. If it is feasible to solve for y explicitly, we do
so, but otherwise we settle for an implicit version.

The algebra of arbitrary constants The algebraic rules for combining

arbitrary constants are quite enjoyable. If A and B are arbitrary constants
then so are A + B, 3A, A — B, AB, etc., and may be named renamed Ci, C , 2

C , C4, etc. In ( ), 3C became D because 3C and D are equally arbitrary.

3 6

Similarly, in (5'), we did not write^y^ + K = + C, because C — would

combine to one constant anyway.

Warning 1. Don’t turn C + x or Cx into D. A constant cannot swallow a

variable. The curves of the form y = Ax^ form a family of parabolas, con-
130 • 4/The Derivative Part II

taining ^ = 3x^, y — —5x^ and so on, but if Ax^ is incorrectly combined to

K, then the family becomes y = K, which is a set of horizontal lines.
2. Don’t wait until the end of the problem to insert an arbitrary con¬
stant. At line (5'), don’t write y = and then add the ne¬
glected constant to get the wrong answer y = + C. The constant
must be inserted at the antidifferentiation step, not later.

Nonseparable example If y' = x -I- y so that dy = {x + y) dx, there is no

way to continue and separate the variables. If both sides are divided by
X + y, then x turns up on the same side as dy. The method of this section
simply doesn’t apply.

Antiderivatives for 1/x The usual rule is /(l/x)</x = In x + C, but it is

also true that

(7) j — dx = In Kx,

since \n Kx - \n K -I- In x = C -t- In x. The version in (7) is often more

useful. It will also be convenient to ignore absolute value signs and use In x
and In Kx instead of ln|x| and \n\Kx\. In physical applications of differential
equations, it is likely that variables and arbitrary constants will be positive,
and even if they are not, it is fortunately the case that omitting the absolute
values in intermediate steps usually leads to the same final solution as
including them. In general, it is often easier to relax our standards in
solving a differential equation (such as omitting absolute values in (7)) and,
if in doubt, substitute the proposed solution into the equation. If the equa¬
tion is satisfied then the proposed solution must be correct.

Example 1 We will continue the punch bowl problem by solving (1).

dw
= dt (multiply by dt and divide by 2 — Izi; to separate
2 —-w the variables)
5

— 5 In J^^2 —= t (antidifferentiate)

In X^2 —(divide by —5)

A:1 2 - = e-‘'^ (take exp on both sides)

2 ——w = Ae (Let \/K he named A)

5

(8) ti; = 10 — Be~^^ (Let 5A be named B).

Equation (8) describes many solutions and is called the general solution. In
this problem we want the particular solution satisfying the condition
«;(0) = 0 (the punch bowl contains no whiskey at time 0). Substitute t = 0,
 4.9 Separable Differential Equations • 131

w = Q 0 ~ ~ B = 10. Therefore, the final solution is ly =

10 - 10^Note that, as expected, the steady state solution is w{°o) = 10;
after a long time, the punch is essentially all whiskey.
/

Exponential growth and decay If you have ever waited for a cup of hot
coffee to cool down, you have probably noticed that liquids do not cool at
a constant rate. If the net temperature of a particular liquid (that is, degrees
above room temperature) is 150° at time t = 0, and the liquid is cooling at
that instant by 50° per minute, then it does not continue to cool at 50° per
minute. Rather, by experimentation and physical law, when its temperature
has decreased to 99°, it will be cooling at only 33° per minute; for this
particular liquid, the cooling rate is 1/3 of the net temperature. The prob¬
lem is to find a formula fory(0, the net temperature of the liquid at time t.
Since the cooling rate for this liquid is 1/3 its net temperature,
y ~ ~3y- The negative sign is designed to makey' negative since the liquid’s
temperature is decreasing. Then

dy _ 1
It ~

(9)

Ini^y = - jt

Ky = e-^^

(10) y = Ce-^\

(Instead of line (9) we could just as well have used ydy = -dt, or-^dy = dt,
etc. All ultimately lead toy = Ce~^^.)
To determine the particular solution satisfying the initial condition
y = 150 when t - 0, substitute in (10) to get 150 = Ce^, C = 150. There¬
fore the final solution is y = 150e“"'l The graph of the solution is an
exponential curve with y (0) = 150andy(oo) = 0 (Fig. 1). Theoretically, the
liquid never reaches room temperature (that is, zero net temperature), but
approaches room temperature as i oo. For example, to find how long it

FI6. I
132 • 4/The Derivative Part II

takes for the liquid to cool from 150“ to 3° (net temperature), setji - 3 and
solve for t to get ^ = e'", -|i = In = -In 50,1 = 3 In 50, or approxi-
mately 11.7 minutes.
Net temperature is not the only quantity that changes in such a way that
the rate of change is proportional to “how much is there. If a particular cell
has a mass of 99 milligrams apd is growing at 33 milligrams per minute,
then it does not continue to grow at 33 mg/min. Instead, when the cell
grows to 150 mg, it will be growing faster, namely, at the rate of 50 mg/min.
In general, the rate of growth of a cell is proportional to its mass (until the
cell reaches a certain size and the rate of growth satisfies a different law,
since cells do not grow arbitrarily large). Radioactive decay is another ex¬
ample; the rate of decay of material is proportional to the amount of
material. Similarly, population growth is proportional to the size of the
population. In general, the net temperature, population size, cell mass and
amount of a radioactive substance at time t all satisfy a differential equation
of the form y' — by. The value of the constant b (which was 1/3 in the
liquid cooling example above) depends on the particular liquid, population,
cell or substance; it is positive if the quantity is growing and negative if it is
decaying. The solution is of the formy = C^*‘. This type of growth or decay
is called exponential.

Orthogonal trajectories An orthogonal trajectory for a family (collection) of

curves is a curve which intersects each member of the family at right angles.
The equation + y^ = K, K > 0, describes a family of circles (for ex¬
ample, K = 9 corresponds to the circle with radius 3 and center at the
origin). The orthogonal trajectories for the family are lines through the
origin (Fig. 2). The lines and circles constitute a pair of orthogonal families.
The physical significance of the orthogonal trajectories depends on the
 4.9 Separable Differential Equations • 133

FI6.5
purpose of the original family. If the given curves are isotherms, that is,
curves of constant temperature, then the orthogonal trajectories are heat
flow lines (Section 11.6).
Consider the family of ellipses

(11) x^ + ^y^^K, (Fig. 3).

The orthogonal trajectories are not geometrically obvious, but they can be
found using differential equations.
Step 1 Find a differential equation for the given family. In (11), treat
y as a function of x and differentiate implicitly to get 2x + Syy' = 0. There¬
fore the family has the differential equation

X
(12)
4y'

At every point (x,y) on an ellipse in the family, the slope is —xjAy. For
example, at point P in Fig. 3, x is negative and large, y is positive and small,
—xjAy is a large positive number, and correspondingly the slope on the
ellipse at P is a large positive number.
Step 1 goes backwards from the family of curves in (11), usually con¬
sidered to be the “solution”, to the differential equation in (12), usually
regarded as the “problem.”
Step 2 Find a differential equation for the orthogonal family. Perpen¬
dicular curves have slopes which are negative reciprocals, so the orthogonal
family has the differential equation y' = 4y/x. In other words, at every
point (x,y) on an orthogonal trajectory, the slope is 4y/x.
Step 3 Solve the differential equation from Step 2 to obtain the or¬
thogonal family.

dy _ 4y
dx X

y X
In Xy = 4 In X = In x^

Ky - x^

y = Ax^.

Thus the orthogonal trajectories are the curves of the formy = Ax^ (Fig. 3).
134 4/The Derivative Part II

Alternatively, differential notation may be used. In Step 1, take differ¬

entials on both sides of (11) to obtain 2xdx + %ydy = 0, the differential
equation for the family of ellipses. In Step 2, switch io2xdy — 8ydx =0 for
the orthogonal family. The solution then continues as before in Step 3.

Problems for Section 4.9

1. Solve

{a) y' - -X secy (d)

(b) dx + x^ydy = 0 (e) x^dy = e^dx

5x + 3
(c) x^ +
dx
== 0 (f) r -
y
2. Find the particular solution satisfying the given condition.

(a) y' ^ xy,y{l) = 3 (c) y'e^/x = 3, )i(0) = 2

(b) yy' + 5x ^ 3,))(2) = 4 (d) y' = y“ cos x, y(0) = 2

3. (a) Solve xy' = 2y and sketch the family of solutions, (b) Find the particu¬
lar solution in the family through the point (2,3).
4. Find the orthogonal trajectories for the given family and sketch both families
(a) x" + 2y" = C (b) y - (c) 2x" - y^ = K.
5. Suppose a substance decays at a rate equal to 1/10 the amount of the
substance, (a) Find a general solution for the amount y(<) at time t. (b) Findy(<)
if the initial amount is 75 grams, (c) Find the half-life of the substance, that is, the
length of time it takes for the substance to decay to half its original amount, and
verify that the answer is independent of the initial amount.
6. Suppose the rate of growth of a cell is equal to | its mass. Find the mass of
the cell at time 3 if its initial mass is 2.
7. The velocity v{t) of a falling object with mass m satisfies the differential
equation mv' — mg - cv, where g and c in addition to m are constants. (The equa¬
tion is derived from physical principles. The object experiences a downward force
mg, due to gravity, and a retarding force cv proportional to its velocity, due to air
resistance. Their sum, that is, the total force, is mv' since force equals mass times
acceleration.) Find v{t) if the initial velocity is 0, and then find the steady state
velocity v(oo).

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 4

1. If P is the pressure of a gas, V its volume and T its temperature, then

PV — KT where A is a positive constant depending on the particular gas. Suppose
at a fixed instant of time, T = 20, F = 10, P is decreasing by 2 pressure units per
second and T is increasing by 3 temperature units per second. Is V increasing or
decreasing at this moment, and by how much?
In In X
2. Find lim —-as (a) x —> (b) x ^ 1 + .
In X
3. Sketch the graph of xe~’‘.
4. Of all pairs of numbers whose sum is 10, which pair has the maximum
product?
5. Find d{xe^’‘).
6. Which of each pair has a higher order of magnitude? (a) In x. In x^
(b)
 Chapter 4 Review Problems • 135

7. At one instant, the edge of a cube is 3 meters and is growing by 2 m/sec.

How fast is the volume growing at this moment?
8. Sketch the graph, (a) 3 sin 2(x - tt/2>) (b) 2 +
9. Find (a) lim,,o-H e’‘ In x: (b) lim*,o+
10. Show that of all rectangles with a given diagonal, the square has the
largest area.
2x:
11. Sketch the graph of y = ~ ^ ^.

12. Find the relative extrema of each function three ways: with the first
derivative test, with the second derivative test and with no derivatives at all.
(a) sin^x (b) (x + 2)^ + 1.
13. Lety be a function of t. Solve t^y' = y with the condition that the steady state
solution is y =2, i.e., if r = oo then y = 2.
14. A gardener with 100 feet of wire wants to fence in a rectangular plot and
further fence it into four smaller rectangles (not necessarily of equal width), as
indicated in Fig. 1. How should it be done so as to maximize the total area.

Afe. I
15. Find the maximum and minimum values of x In x + (1 — x) ln(l - x).
16. Let /(x) = X* - 2x^ + 3x - 4. (a) Show that / is an increasing function,
(b) Use part (a) to show that the equation/(x) = 0 has exactly one root, (c) Choose
a reasonable initial value of x for Newton’s method, (d) Continue with Newton’s
method until successive approximations agree in 3 decimal places and check the
accuracy of those places.
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5/THE INTEGRAL PART

5.1 Preview

This section considers two problems to introduce the idea behind

integral calculus.

Averages If your grades are 70%, 80% and 95% then your averaere erade
. 70 + 80 + 95
IS ^-or 81.7%. Carrying this a step further, suppose the 70%
was earned in an exam which covered three weeks of work, the 80% exam
grade covered four weeks of work, and the 95% covered six weeks of
material (Fig. 1). For an appropriate average, each grade is weighted by the
corresponding number of weeks:

• u. j (70) (3) + (80) (4) + (95) (6)

weighted average =-—-= 84.6% .
13
Note that we divide by 13, the sum of the weights, that is, the length of the
school term, rather than by 3, the number of grades.

3 ij weehCS 3

FIG. I
For the most general situation, let/be a function defined on an interval
[a,b]. The problem is to compute an average value for/. To simulate the
situation in Fig. 1, begin by dividing [a,b] into many subintervals, say 100
of them (Fig. 2). The subintervals do not have to be of the same length, but
they should all be small. Let dx\ denote the length of the first subinterval,
let dx2 be the length of the second subinterval, and so on. Pick a number in

^Frj) M3

137
 *

138 5/The Integral Part I

each subinterval; let Xi be the number chosen from the first subinterval, X2
the number chosen from the second subinterval, and so on. Pretend that/
is constant in each subinterval, and in particular has the value/(xi) through¬
out the first subinterval, the value/(X2) throughout the secorid subinterval,
and so on. With this pretense we may find an average value in Fig. 2 as we
did in Fig. 1: v v
f{x\)dx\ + f{x^dx2 -!-••• + /~(xioo) </xioo
average value of/ = dx, + dx, + ■ ■ ■ + dxm
(approximately).

The length of each subinterval is used as a weight, and the sum of the
weights <i)ci ■+•••• + 100 in the denominator is the length b - a oi the

interval itself.
We use some abbreviations to avoid writing subscripts and long sums.
First of all, the sum
fix^dxi + f{x2)dx2 + ••• + fixm) dxioQ

is abbreviated
100
^f{xi)dx,.
i=l

The letter 2 is called a summation symbol. If we take the liberty of allowing

an unsubscripted dx to stand for the length of a typical subinterval, and an
unsubscripted x to stand for the number chosen in that subinterval (Fig. 3),
we can further abbreviate the sum by 'Lf{x)dx. Thus we write

'Lf{x)dx
average / = (approximately).
b — a

This isn’t the precise average value of/ because it pretends that/ is constant
in each subinterval. If the subintervals are very small, which forces them to
become more numerous, then (a continuous) / doesn’t have much oppor¬
tunity to change within a subinterval, and the pretense is not far from the
truth. Therefore to get closer to the precise average, use 100 small sub¬
intervals, then repeat with 200 even smaller subintervals, and continue in
this fashion. In general.

, 'Lf{x)dx
(1) average value 01 / = lim —;-.
dx-o b — a

We don’t intend to find any averages yet because computing '2f{x)dx is too
tedious to do directly. Much of this chapter is designed to bypass direct
computation and obtain numerical answers easily.

h6.5
 5.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Integral • 139

Area under a curve Areas of rectangles are familiar, but consider the
region under the graph of the function/ between x = a and x = b (Fig. 4).
The problem is to find its area. Begin by dividing the interval \a, &] into
many small pieces. Let dx be the length of a typical subinterval, and let x be
a number in this subinterval. Build a thin rectangle with a base dx and
height/(x). (Figure 5 shows \a,b\ divided into four subintervals with four
corresponding rectangles.) The area of the typical rectangle \sf{x)dx. The
entire region can be filled with such rectangles, and therefore the area
under the graph is approximately the sum of rectangular areas, or 2/(x) dx.
The area is not necessarily 2/(x) dx precisely because the rectangles underlap
and overlap the original region. However, there will be less underlap and
overlap if the values of dx are small, so it appears sensible to claim that

(2) area under the graph of/ = lim X/W dx.

Although averages and areas seem to be very different concepts, the

new idea of limrfj^.,0 2/(x)^/x appears in both (1) and (2). Beginning in the
next section we will give the limit an official name, find ways to compute it,
and present many more applications.

5.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Integral

Definition of the integral Let/ be a function defined on the interval [a, 6].
Begin by dividing the interval into (say) 100 subintervals of lengths
dx],c6c2, • • •, cJxioo, and choosing numbers Xi,X2, • • • ,Xioo in the subintervals
(Fig. 1). Find
100

2/(x,)rfXj fix\)dx\ A/(X2) dx2 + •*• + /(Xjoo) <5?Xioo )

1=1

which we abbreviate by ^f(x)dx. Figure 2 shows the correspondingly ab¬

breviated picture. The sum is a weighted sum of 100 “representative” values

■ loo
a b
<- 5
- >-

too

F)6. I
140 • 5/The Integral Part I

<s/-)C

FI6.Z
of f, each value weighted by the length of the subinterval it represents.
Different people performing the computation might choose ditterent sub¬
intervals and different values within the subintervals, and their sums wi
not necessarily agree. However, suppose the process is repeated again and
again with smaller and smaller values of dx, which requires more and more
subintervals. It is likely that the resulting sums will be close to one particular
number eventually, that is, the sums will approach a limit. The limit is called
the integral of f on [a, b] and is denoted by jafix) dx.

That is, the integral is defined by

(1) j f{x)dx = lim X/W •

For a simplistic but useful viewpoint, we can ignore the limit and consider
Pj{x) dx as merely 2/(x) dx, found using many subintervals of [a, b]. In other
words, think of the integral as adding many representative values of f, each value
weighted by the length of the subinterval it represents._

The process of computing an integral is called integration. The integral

symbol / is an elongated S for “sum” (the same symbol was used in a
different context for antidifferentiation) and the symbols a and b attached
to it indicate the interval of integration. The numbers a and b are called the
limits of integration, and / is called the integrand. The sums of the form
S/(x) dx are called Riemann sums.

Example 1 To illustrate the definition we will try to find ^ dx. The

computer program in (2) finds some Riemann sums using n subintervals,

for n = 100, 300, 500, 700, 900 and 1100. For convenience in writing the
program we chose subintervals of equal length, and numbers xi,’",x„
at the left ends of the subintervals. For example, in its third run, with
n = 500, the computer divides [1,2] into 500 subintervals of length

b- a _2 - I
dx = = .002 (Fig. 3)
n ~ 500

and chooses Xi = 1,X2 = 1.002,Xs — 1.004, ••• ,X5oo — 1.998. Then the
computer evaluates the Riemann sum

/•>'

>-

dx-.ooz.
FI6.3
 5.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Integral • 141

1
^ dx = (.002) + (.002)
(1)^ (1.002)2
1 1
+ 2 (.002) + • + ;(.002)
(1.004) (1.998)'
to get .500751.

10 DEF FNF (X)= 1/(X*X)

20 A=1
30 B=2
35 PRINT “N”, “RIEMANN SUM”
40 FOR N = 100 TO 1200 STEP 200
50 D = (B-A)/N
60 L= FNF(A)
70 FOR I = 1 TO N-1
80 L = L + FNF(A + I*D)
90 NEXT I
100 L = L*D
(2) 130 PRINT N,L
140 NEXT N
150 END
READY.
RNH

N RIEMANN SUM
100 .503765
300 .501252
500 .500751
700 .500536
900 .500417
1100 .500341

This printout suggests that the Riemann sums approach a limit. It can be
shown that for still larger values of n and smaller values of dx, the Riemann
sums continue to approach a limit, even if the subintervals are not of the
same length, and no matter how Xi, • • • ,x„ are chosen in the subintervals.
Although the computer program alone is not sufficient to determine
1
the limit (that is, the integral), it suggests that — dx might be .5. In
J1 X

Section 5.3 we will bypass this attempt at direct computation and find the
integral easily.

Integrals and average values As one of the applications of the integral, (1)
of the preceding section showed that

(3) average value of / in [a,b\

Think of the numerator as a weighted sum of “grades” and the denomi¬

nator as the sum of the weights.
142 • 5/The Integral Part I

Integrals and area The preceding section indicated a relation between the
area under the graph of a function / and Paf{x) dx. We’ll examine this more
carefully now. It will seem as if there are several different connections
between integrals and areas, but they will be summarized into one general
conclusion in (8).
V V

Case 1 The graph of / lies above the x-axis.

Figure 4 shows the area under the graph, and a typical rectangle with
aivea. f{x)dx. The integral adds the terms f{x)dx and takes a limit as dx
approaches 0, so fif{x)dx adds an increasing number of thinning rect¬
angles. The limit process is considered to alleviate the underlap and overlap
and, therefore,

(4) area between the graph of / and the interval \a, b] on the x-axis

— \f{x)dx.

Case 2 The graph of / lies below the x-axis.

Figure 5 shows the region between the x-axis and the graph of /. The
area is positive {all areas are positive), but the terms f{x)dx are negative
because /(x) is negative. Hence the area of the indicated rectangle is
—f{x)dx, not f{x)dx. The integral adds the terms/(x)c6c so the integral is a
negative number, and

FI6.5
 5.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Integral • 143

(5) area between the graph of / and the interval [a, bl on the x-axis

or, equivalently,

- -(area between the graph of/ and the interval [a,b'\ on the x-axis).

Case 3 The graph of / crosses the x-axis.

Figure 6 shows the area between the graph and the x-axis, while Fig. 7
shows six subintervals of [a, b} with corresponding rectangles. Then

^f{x)dx = f{xi)dxi -I- f{x2)dx2 + f{x3)dx3 + f{x4)dx4

+ f{x^)dx^ + /(X6)rfx6

= -I- A2 — As — Ai + + Af,
(because/(xs) and/(x4) are negative)

= I — II + III (approximately).

F16.7
On passing to the limit, we have

dx = area I — area II + area III (exactly).

(7)

In all cases, remember that areas are positive but integrals can be
negative if more area is captured below the x-axis than above the ?c-axis. The
single rule covering all cases is

(8) dx = area above the x-axis — area below the x*axis .

Example 2 Suppose the problem is to compute the area of the shaded

region in Fig. 6. The answer is not ja f{x)dx since the integral is
I - II + III and we want I + II + III. Instead, find the points c and d
where the graph of / crosses the x-axis. Then

I + II + III = Jf{x)dx - jfix) dx + J/(x) dx.

Warning Area II in Fig. 6 is not negative (areas are never negative). It is

the integral fi fix) dx that is negative, not the area.

Examples The graph of sin x on the interval [0,27r] (Fig. 8 of

Section 1.3) determines as much area above the x-axis as below, so by (8),
/o’^ sin X (ix = 0.

Some properties of the integral The graph of/ + g is found by building

the graph of g on top of the graph of / (Section 1.7), so the area deter¬
mined by the graph of / + g is the sum of the areas determined by the
graphs of / and g. Therefore

(9) -t- g(x)]c?x = j fix) dx -I-

The graph of 6/(x) is 6 times as tall as the graph of/. Therefore the area
captured is 6 times as large, and /a6/(x)<Zx = 6/a fix)dx. In general.

(10) where A is a constant.

Finally, if o < b < c, then the area between a and b plus the area
between b and c equals the area between a and c, so

(11) dx + f/w dx
Dummy variables Although we don’t have the techniques to compute its
value yet, jlx^dx is a number, without the variable x appearing anywhere in
the answer. We can just as well write flt^dt, flz^dz or fla^da. The letter x
(or t, or z or a) is called a dummy variable because it is entirely arbitrary. If
/ox^<ix were 4, then flb^db would also be 4. In general, fifix)dx =
Pafit)dt = Pafiu)du, and so on. (Equivalently, the horizontal axis may be
named an x-axis or a f-axis or a w-axis.)
 5.2 Definition and Some Applications of the Integral • 145

Mathematical models How do we know that /f/(x)c6c computes the area

in Fig. 4 exactly^ We don’t! There is a philosophical point involved here.
Most non-mathematicians agree that area is a measure of how spacious a
region is, but do not give a precise definition of area. They believe that the
integral can be used to compute area because they visualize adding many
rectangular areas, with the limit process wiping out overlap and underlap.
Most mathematicians on the other hand define the area in Fig. 4 to be
Paf{x)dx. In a sense, this just begs the question because it is still up to the
non-mathematician to decide whether the definition really captures physi¬
cal spaciousness.
In general, mathematics is used to make models. The integral f{x)dx
is the mathematical model for the area in Fig. 4, just as |/'(x)| is the model
for the speed of a car traveling to position/(x) at time x. It can never be
proved that the mathematical model completely mirrors the physical idea,
and neither can the connection be defined into existence. It is ultimately the
responsibility of those who work with physical concepts to decide whether
they approve of the mathematical models offered them. The models in
this text (for area, volume, slope, speed, average value, tangent line and
so on) have endured for centuries. Their “exactness” cannot be proved.
The best we can do is demonstrate their reasonableness and cite their
wide acceptance.

Problems for Section 5.2

1. Use areas to compute the integral.

(a) j
J-1
6dx (b) f
J-i
xdx (c) f
J-2
x^dx

2. Use integrals to express the area between the graph of y = In x and the
x-axis for

(a) 1 < X 5 (b) < 1 (c) < X < 7

3 ~ '

3. Decide which is the larger of each pair of integrals.

p n n n ro
(a) I x^dx, I x^dx (b) I x^dx, I x^dx (c) j x^dx,
Jq -^-1 -^0 *^-1 -^-1

4. Decide if the integral is positive, negative or zero.

rS7r/2

(a) cos xdx (b) cos^xdx

■'0 f
•'0
5. True or false?

(a) If /(x) < 0 for all x in [a,b] then f{x)dx < 0.

(b) If faf{x)dx < 0 then/(x) < 0 for all x in {a,b\.
(c) If/(x) g'(x) for x in [a,b] then f{x)dx ^ Pag{x)dx.

6. (a) Use area to show that /o” sin^xdx = Jo” cos^xdx. (b) Use part (a) and
the identity sin^x + cos^x = 1 to show that /o” sin^xdx = tt.
7. LetAi = faf{x)dx.

(a) Consider area and translation to decide which of the following is equal
to A,: - PaX%f{x)dx, As = fall fix + S)dx, = fttlf(x - 3)dx.
(b) Let As = p2 fi2x)dx. Use area and expansion/contraction to find the con¬
nection between Ai and As.
146 • 5/The Integral Part

8. UPa^x^dx = 10, find (a) PAt^dt (b) dx.

9. Express with an integral the area of a circle of radious R (begin with a
semicircle and then double).

5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of. Calculus

So far, we have no general method for evaluating an arbitrary integral

Paf{x)dx. The Fundamental Theorem will provide a nice way to compute
the integral, provided that / can be antidifferentiated. The theorem says
that to find f{x) dx, first find an antiderivative F of/. Then evaluate F at
X = b and at x — a, and subtract F {a) from F{b). The result is the value of
the integral. We will first state the theorem formally, do some examples, and
then discuss informally why the method works.

Fundamental Theorem Iff is continuous on [a, b] and F is an antiderivative

off then

(1) dx = F{b) - F{a).

For example, the function In x is an antiderivative of 1/x, so

r2

I-
Jl X
dx = In 2 — In 1 = In 2 — 0 = In 2

The computation F{b) — F{a) is often denoted by /'(x)]*; the symbol \i

declares the intention of substituting b and a, and subtracting.

Example 1 We expect Joxdx to be the area in Fig. 1, namely | • 3 • 3 =

9/2; indeed.

1 ^ 9 9
I 0
xdx —
^

Using a different antiderivative Suppose we use fx^ + 7 as an anti-

derivative of X in Example 1, instead of fx^. Then we find that

= (i-* = (I +
' = (1-+ 7) - (0 + 7)

Notice that the 7 eventually canceled out. Any antiderivative of x is accept¬

able, and all produce the same final value for the integral. Thus, we might
as well use the simplest possible antiderivative, ^x^.

Example 2 Example 1 of the preceding section used Riemann sums for

/i 1/x^dx to estimate that the integral is near .5. An antiderivative of 1/x^
is -1/x, so by the Fundamental Theorem,

I1 X'"
dx = —^
X
 5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus • 147

Example 3 Find | — dx.

J-3 X

1
Solution: I dx = ln|x| j-f = In 2 — In 3 = In |. Note that while
•' -3 X

In X is an antiderivative for 1/x if x > 0, it is useless in a situation in which

X < 0. To integrate 1/x on [—3, —2], use the antiderivative ln|x|.

The integral of a constant function Consider J* 6 dx. The integral com¬

putes the area of a rectangle with base b - a and height 6 (Fig. 2) so the
integral is 6{b - a). As another approach, f^ddx = 6x|a = 6^> - 6a =
6(b — a). In general, if A is a constant then

(2)

/\
6
/
a b

The integral of the zero function If f(x) = 0, then the area between the
graph of/ and the x-axis is 0, since the graph offis the x-axis. Thus

As another approach, every Riemann sum ff(x)dx is 0 because each value

of/ is 0, so the integral must be 0. As still another approach, any constant
function C is an antiderivative of the zero function, so ftOdx = C|t Since
the constant function C remains C no matter what value, a or b, is substi¬
tuted for tbe absent x, the integral is C — C, or 0.

Informal proof of the Fundamental Theorem Since F is an antiderivative

off, we may rewrite (1) as

(T) \F'{x)dx = F{b) - F{a).

We wish to show why (T) holds. To evaluate the integral, divide [a,b] into
many subintervals. Figure 3 shows a typical subinterval with length dx,
containing point x, where we assume dx —» 0. Then, by definition,

(4) [ F'(x)dx =^F'(x)dx.

•'a

From (T) of Section 4.8, each F'(x) dx is the change dF in the function F as
 tc gy ^x
Fc^han/(5£$ gy dh Cyiji^x
H-1- H-1-
a
^^
4x

p(6.3
X changes by dx. Therefore

(5) '^F'{x)dx ^'ZdF.

But the sum, 2 dF, of all the changes in T as x changes little by little from
o to 6 is the total change F{b) — F{a) (Fig. 3 again); that is,

(6) 'ZdF = F{b) - F{a).

Therefore, by (4)—(6), jiF'{x)dx = F{b) — F{a), as desired.

Example 4 Find the average value of x^ on the interval [0,3].

Solution:
3
x'^
\ x^ dx —
. Jo 4 0 27
average « - ^ ^ ^
4

Example 5 Find the area indicated in Fig. 4.

First solution: The curve crosses the x-axis at VS. The region is below
the x-axis, so
Vs
area = = -(V3 - 3V3) = 2V3.
0
 5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus • 149

FIG. 5
Second solution: Turn Fig. 4 sideways to get Fig. 5, and consider the
vertical axis to be the x-axis and the horizontal axis to be the y-axis. From
this point of view, the region is above the horizontal axis, between y = — 3
and y = 0, and under the graph of the function x = Vy + 3 . (The lower,
irrelevant, portion of the parabola is x = — Vy + 3 .) Thus

area = [ Vy + 3 dy = ^{y + 3)^^" = - 0 = |-3V3 = 2V3.

The interval of integration is still named [—3,0] even though the y-axis is
drawn so thaty increases from right to left, and we use as usual, not /o
(In fact if you view Fig. 5 from behind the page, the horizontal axis is still
the y-axis, but now y increases in the usual manner from left to right.)

The integral of a function with several formulas Suppose

x^ if X 3
/(x) = |2x + 3 if3<x<7
17 — X if X ^ 7.

To find say Pq f(x)dx, use (11) of the preceding section:

^10 ^3 ^10

I f{x)dx = \ x^ dx I (2x + 3)</x + I (17 — x)dx

■'0 •'0 •'s ■'7

X
+ (x^ + 3x)
J , ■ J

= 9 + 52 + 25.5

= 86.5.

Example 6 Find f^2^^^dx.

Solution: Since

for X ^ 0
M =
for X < 0.
150 • 5/The Integral Part I

we have

f
J-2
e^^dx = •'-2
i e ^ dx + { e’‘ dx
-^0

= —e +
-2

= —1+^^ + ^^— 1

= —2 + + e^.

Definite versus indeHnite integrals S»p far the symbol f has been used in
two ways. First, faf(x)dx is an integral, defined as the limit of the Riemann
sums 1,f{x)dx. In this context, dx stands for the length of a typical sub¬
interval of \_(i,b\. Second, ^f{x)dx is the collection of all antiderivatives
of/(x). In this context, the symbol dx is an instruction to antidifferentiate
with respect to the variable x. The symbol f is used in ft/(x) dx because it
signifies summation. The same symbol is used for antidifferentiation be¬
cause one of the methods of computing an integral (using the Fundamental
Theorem) begins with antidifferentiation.
Frequently, both J*/(x)cJx and ff(x)dx are referred to as integrals; in ^
particular, faf(x)dx is called a definite integral and J/(x)c6c an indefinite
integral. We will usually continue to call the former an integral and the latter
an antiderivative. No matter which terminology you encounter, it will
always be true, for example, that fSx^dx = x^ + C while fl^x^dx = 19.

Problems for Section 5.3

In Problems 1-21, evaluate the integral.

f2
1. (6x^ — 3x + 2) dx 12. 1 4dx
J-2
n r7r/4
2. (3 - t)dt 13. sec^x dx
1 Jo
n
3. (3x® - 2x^)dx
•^0 14. f^dx
r-rr/a J2
4. I sin 2xdx r ,
■'tt/S 15. (x" + 2fdx
■>-1
5.
/'tH*
JQ 1 “I" X
16.
n/2 J2 4
6. sin TTX dx
^0 f' /x + 3\’

7. C-dx
X
17.
J-, ( 5 )
18.
8. f^dx f 3x
J-5
J2 6x"
r 1
9. j sy/x dx 19.
J~3
5 cos —TTxdx
2
rg
20. r 1
10.
I
'VlO — X dx
i (2x - 9)^

r 1 f'
11.
J3 2x + 1
dx 21. 1 e^^'dx
Jo
 5.4 Numerical Integration • 151

22. Find the area of the triangle with vertices A = (0,0), B (4,2), C = (6,0)

the average value of sin x on [0, tt].

(a) j x^dx and (b) j x *dx.

re 5 if 2 X < 3
J f(x)dx where f{x) - 0 if 3 < X < 4.
X® if X > 4
rio
26.

27. Find the areas indicated in (a) Fig. 6 (b) Fig. 7.

5.4 Numerical Integration

The evaluation of f(x) dx using T (6) — F{a) seems very simple, but it
is often very difficult, and sometimes impossible, to find an (elementary)
antiderivative F. In such a case, it may be possible to approximate the
integral, a procedure called numerical integration. A variety of numerical
integration routines exist, each involving much arithmetic, preferably to be
done on a calculator or a computer. In fact, some calculators have a button
labeled “numerical integration.” In order to program the calculator in the
first place, a background in numerical analysis is required. This section is
a brief introduction.
 One way to estimate /a/(x) dx is to use a specific Riemann sum 2/(^) dx,
instead of the limit of the Riemann sums. In other words, we can estimate
the area under a curve using a sum of areas of rectangles such as those
in Fig. 1. (This was actually done by the computer program in (2) of
Section 5.2.) The error in the approximation arises from the underlap
and overlap created when a ^horizontal line is used as a substitute top
instead of the graph of / itself. Frequently, a large number of very thin
rectangles is required to force the error down to a reasonable size. There
are other numerical methods which require fe>ver subintervals and are said
to converge more rapidly. Figure 2 shows chords serving as tops, creating
trapezoids. The sum of the areas of the trapezoids is an approximation
to Ja/(x)^^x; it is expected to converge faster than a sum of rectangles
because the trapezoids seem to fit with less underlap and overlap than
the rectangles.

*5

FI6,?
There is yet another top that usually fits even better than a chord.
Figure 3 shows 8 subdivisions of [a,b], of the same width. The parabola
determined by the points Po,Pi,P2 on the graph of / can serve as a top for
the first two subintervals, creating area I. Similarly, we use the parabola
 5.4 Numerical Integration • 153

determined by Pi,Pz,Pi on the graph of / as a top for the next two sub¬
intervals, forming area II, and so on. The sum of the areas I, II, III and IV
approximates the area under the graph of f{x), and thus is an approxi¬
mation to Paf{x) dx. The approximation using parabolas is viewed by many
as the best numerical method within the context of elementary calculus, so
we will continue with Fig. 3 and develop the formula for the sum of the
areas I, II, III and IV.
As a first step we will derive the formula

(1) area = 4-A(Fo + 72 + 4Fi)

o

for the area of the parabola-topped region with the three “heights” Fq, F,, F2,
and two “bases” of length h shown in Fig. 4. The second step will apply the
formula to the regions I, II, III and IV in Fig. 3. To derive (I), insert axes
in Fig. 4 in a convenient manner; one possibility is shown in Fig. 5. The
parabola has an equation of the form y = Ax^ + Bx + C, so the area in
Fig. 5 is

I (Ax^ + Bx + C) dx = —Ax^ -I- —Bx^ + Cx

J-h 3 2

= ^Ah^ + 2Ch
6

^2) = ^h{2Ah'^ + QC).

P|6,^

The points P — (—A, Fq), Q ~ (0>Fi), R = {h,Y2) lie on the parabola, and
substituting these coordinates into the equation of the parabola gives

(3) Ah^ - Bh + C = Yo, C = Fi, Ah^ + Bh + C = Y2.

From (3), Fq + F2 = 2Ah^ + 2C and Fi = C, so the factor 2Ah^ + 6C in (2)

is Fo + F2 + 4Fi, and (1) follows.
Now apply (1) to I, II, III and IV in Fig. 3. Since the interval [a,b] is
divided into 8 equal subdivisions, h = {b ~ a)/8 and
 I + II + III + IV = ^h{yo + y2 + ^yi) + + >’4 +

+ -jhiyi +>+ 43 5 )) + + 3’8 + 437)

= + 4^1 + 2^2 + 43)3 + 23)4 + 43)5

o

+ 2ye + 43)7 + 38).

More generally, using n subintervals where n is even,

(4) jf{x)dx ~ —h(yo + 431 + 232 + 433 + 234

+ • • • + 23„-2 + 43„-i + y„)

where
, b — a
h =
n

3o = fixo) = f (a)
(5) 31 = fixi) = f{a + h)

32 = f{x2) = /(« + 2A)

33 = fixn) = f{a + 3h)

and so on. The approximation in (4) is known as Simpson’s rule.
As an example, we will use Simpson’s rule with 6 subintervals to ap¬
proximate Poe’"^ dx. We have

f{x) = a = 0, b — 1, h —
n
Then,
Xo = 0 3o = fixo) = 1
1
3i =/(xi) = 1.0281672

2
32 =/(x2) = 1.1175191

3
X3 = — 33 =/(x3) = 1.2840254
6

4
Xi = — . 34 =f{xi) = 1.5596235
6

5
X5 = — 35 =/(x5) = 2.0025962
6

Xe = 1 y^=fix6) = 2.7182818

and

— h{yQ + 431 + 232 + 433 + 234 + 435 + 35) = 1.4628735.

Therefore, pQe’‘^ dx is approximately 1.4628735.

 5.5 Nonintegrable Functions • 155

It is not easy to find an error estimate for Simpson’s rule, that is, to
decide how many accurate decimal places the approximation contains. The
following procedure is often used instead. To find an approximation to
four decimal places, use Simpson’s method repeatedly, doubling the value
of n each time, obtaining successive approximations S2, S4, Ss.Sie, S32 ,• • •.
When two successive approximations agree to five decimal places, choose
the first four rounded places as the approximation. The accuracy of the
four decimal places is not guaranteed, but experience shows that if approxi¬
mations converge rapidly, then when two successive approximations are
near each other, they are also near the limit. Therefore, computer users
who adopt this rule of thumb have reason to hope for four place accuracy.

Problems for Section 5.4

1. Approximate the integral using Simpson’s rule with the given number of
subintervals.

P 1
(a) J[vi+x'*(ix, n=4 (c) J
0 1 1 +
fi
(b)J1 ln(l + x^)dx, n = 6 (d) J = 6
0 0

2. Approximate
r —I dx using Simpson’s rule with n = 4, and compare with
X
the exact answer

5.5 Nonintegrable Functions

So far we have ignored the possibility that a function might not have
an integral, and concentrated on the methods that will compute the integral
if it exists. This section will display two nonintegrable functions to give
more insight into the definition of the integral.

Example 1 To understand our first nonintegrable function you must

know the difference between rational and irrational numbers, and how
they are distributed on a line. The rational numbers are the decimals
that either stop or eventually repeat, such as 2.5, 0.33333..., 3.14,
4.78626767676767_All other decimals are called irrational. For ex¬
ample, 2.123456789101112131415161718192021222324... (which has a
pattern but doesn’t repeat) is irrational; so are tt, V2 and e. On the number
line, the rationals and irrationals are so thoroughly interspersed that there
are no solid intervals of rationals and no solid intervals of irrationals; in any
interval there are both rationals and irrationals. We can demonstrate this
with the interval (4.2,4.3). The rational number 4.25 is in the interval, and
so is the irrational number 4.25678910111213141516171819— Thus the
interval is neither entirely rational nor entirely irrational.
Now we are ready to define a nonintegrable function. Let

if X is rational
(1) fix) =
if X is irrational.

Consider two people trying to compute Jf f{x)dx. Each divides [2,5]

into many small subintervals (as in Fig. 1 of Section 5.2). Each picks values
156 • 5/The Integral Part I

of X in the subintervals, but she chooses rationals and he chooses irrationals.

Her f{xi),f{x2),- ” are all 0, so her Riemann sum 2 f{x)dx is 0. His/(xi),
/(xa), • • • are all 1, so his Riemann sum is 2 dx, which is 3, the length of the
interval. They repeat the process with smaller subintervals, but if she keeps
picking rationals and he keeps picking irrationals, they again get
'Zf(x)dx = 0 and 2 f{x)dx — 3, respectively. Since their Riemann sums
continue to disagree drastically, lim*,o 2/(x)c6c does not exist, and the
function is not integrable on [2,5], or on any other interval for that matter.
It is the extreme discontinuity of the function in (1) that causes it to be
nonintegrable. In fact, the function is discontinuous everywhere. If we try
to draw the graph of/, you will see this. We can plot many points on the
graph, for instance, (2,0), (2.6,0), (4.1,0), {e, 1), (tt, 1), and so on. All points
of the graph are either at height 0 or height 1. But no part of the graph is
a solid line at height 1 or at height 0 because no interval on the x-axis is
solidly rational or solidly irrational. So no portion of the graph can be
drawn without lifting the pencil from the paper (and the complete graph is
humanly impossible to draw).

Example 2 Let/(x) = 1/V^. Consider two people trying to find /o fix) dx

by computing '2f{x)dx. Suppose they begin by dividing [0,1] into 100
subintervals of equal length, so that each dx is 1/100 (Fig. 1). Then they
must choose values of x in the subintervals. If their Riemann sums disagree,
and continue to disagree as more and more subintervals of smaller size are
used, then / is not integrable on [0,1]. The greatest opportunity for dis¬
agreement comes from the first subinterval, where / varies enormously.
The product f{x)dx corresponding to the first subinterval is of the form
“large x small” and its value depends on “how large” and “how small.”
Suppose he picks X = 1/100 at the right end of the first subinterval and she
picks X = 1/100^ near the left end. Then

while

FIG.
 5.6 Improper Integrals • 157

If they use 10,000 subintervals and he picks x = 1/10,000 at the right end
of the first subinterval while she picks x = 1/10,000^ near the left end, then

while

Their values o{f{xi)dxi grow more unlike (hers becomes large, his becomes
small) as dx —> 0. This predicts that their entire Riemann sums will also grow
more unlike (in fact it can be shown that hers will approach and his will
approach 2), indicating that/ is not integrable on [0,1].
It is the infinite discontinuity of the function 1/Vx atx = 0 that causes
it to be nonintegrable. The next section will define a new integral to handle
unbounded functions.

5.6 Improper Integrals

The definition of Paf{x)dx involves dividing [a,b\ into many small

subintervals, and finding Riemann sums 2/(x)(ix. The definition does not
apply to intervals of the form [o, °o), (—“, 6] and (—o°) because it isn’t
possible to divide infinite intervals into a finite number of small subintervals.
Furthermore, with this definition of fif{x)dx, it can be shown that func¬
tions with infinite discontinuities are not integrable; one of the difficulties
that can arise is illustrated in Example 2 of the preceding section. New
integrals, called improper integrals, will be defined to cover the cases of
infinite intervals and infinite functions.

Integrating on intervals of the form [a, «>) and (— », 6] As an illustration,

we define

In other words, to integrate on integrate from x = I to x — b and

then let b approach <». Therefore

— dx = lim( In x ) = lim(ln 6 — In 1) 00 — 0 = .

We interpret this geometrically to mean that the area of the unbounded

region in Fig. 1 is infinite. As a convenient shorthand, we write

f 1
— rfx = In X =ln°o — lnl='» — 0 = °o.
(1)
Jj X

In general.
158 5/The Integral Part I

FI6.I

In abbreviated notation, if F is an antiderivative for / then

00 r* b

(2) 1 f(x)dx = F{x) and 1 f{x)dx — F{x)

^a a —00 — 00

Convergence versus divergence Evaluating an improper integral will

always involve computing an ordinary integral and a limit. If the limit is
finite, then the improper integral is said to be convergent. If the limit is or
—00, or if no value at all, either finite or infinite, can be assigned to the limit,
the integral diverges. For example, the integral in (1) is divergent; in particu¬
lar, it diverges to oo.

Example 1 j
J-ooX
\dx = — —
X ~2^-oo“2^ 2 ~ '

-I The integral converges to f and the unbounded region in Fig. 2 is consid¬

ered to have area 5.
The unbounded regions in Figs. 1 and 2 look similar, but the former
F16.Z has finite area and the latter has infinite area. The function x^ has a higher
order of magnitude than x, the graph of 1/x^ approaches the x-axis faster
than the graph of 1/x, and the region in Fig. 2 narrows down fast enough
to have a finite area.

Integrating on the interval (-00, 00) The usual definition is

(3) f f{x)dx = lim [ f{x)dx.

This is the first appearance of a limit involving two independent variables,

a and b in this case. When we say that the limit in (3) is L we mean that we
can force fa f(x) dx to be as close as we like to L for all b sufficiently high and
all a sufficiently low.
In abbreviated notation, if F is an antiderivative for/, then

(4)
 5.6 Improper Integrals • 159

provided that the right-hand side is not of the form <» — oo. If it is of the
form 00 — 00 we assign no value at all (an instance of divergence).
For example,

1
dx = tan' = 77.
1 +
As an example of (4) which results in the form oo — oo^ consider

00 ,

No specific value can be assigned since as a -oo and b ^ the value of

- \b^ - depends on how fast a and b move. Therefore the integral
is simply called divergent.

Integrating functions which hlow up at the end of the interval of

integration The function \/x^ blows up at x; = 0. To integrate on an
interval such as [0,1] we define

1 r' 1
—^dx= lim —^dx.
Jq X a^0+ Ja X

Then
1
= — 1 -I- -- = — 1 -I- 00 = 00 .
0+ 0+
In general, let F be an antiderivative of /.

Iff blows up at X = a then f{x)dx = Fix) .

a a+

(5) fb
b-

Iff blows up at X = b then fix)dx = Fix) .

^a a

Example 2 The function \/x/x has an infinite discontinuity at x = 0;

Example 2 in the preceding section showed that it is not integrable on [0,1]
using the definition of the integral from Section 5.2. But reconsidered as an
improper integral.

f
•'n
—dx = 2Vx'
Vx 0+
= 2

f 1
Examples Find dx.

Solution: The integral is improper because the integrand blows up at

X = 3. Then
rS
1 1
dx = =-1=00—1=00

I2 (3 — x)^ 2 0+
Note that when the blowup is located at 3, and 3 is the upper limit of
integration, it is treated as 3— in the calculation. If 3 were the lower limit of
integration, it would be treated as 3+ in the calculation.
160 • 5/The Integral Part I

Warning Whenever a limit of the form 1/0 arises in the computation, look
closely to see if it is 1/0+ or 1/0—.

Integrating functions which blow up within the interval of integration

Suppose / blows up at c between a and b. If F is an antiderivative of/, we
define f{x)dx by

c— b
r* r~ r*
(6) ff(x)dx = f{x)dx + 1 f{x)dx = F{x) + F(x) .

Ja ■'a •'c+ a c+

As before, if (6) results in the form — °o, no finite or infinite value is

assigned (an instance of divergence).
For example, the function 1/x^ blows up at x = 0, inside the interval
[-1,3], so
0- _i 3

£3 ^
dx “-
3x^ -1 3x’ 0+
+

111-1 11,
-= 00 -1- 00 = 00
0- 3 81 0+ 3 81
The improper integral diverges to <x>.

Warning It is not correct to write [ , and, in general, if

-\dx ==
3x^ -1
/ blows up inside [a, b], it is not correct to write /«/(^) dx = F{x) You must
use (6) instead.

C 1
Example 4 Find J ^dx.

Solution: The integrand blows up at x = 5, inside the interval [4,7]. So

-1 1 = zl J_ zl-Zl
+
h ix — 5)^
I4 (x 2(x — 5)^ 4 2(x - 5)2 5+ 0+ 2 8 0+
This results in the form — <» + 00 so the integral diverges

Problems for Section 5.6

9 dx
■f?
•'3 X •'2 "'5^4 — X
roo j

10 . P-!- dx
X^J-2
f-T dx 11.
f” 1
- dx
J-OC X* Jo X

dx 12. I sin X:dx

•f-
J-1 X Jo
dx 13. I e-<^<dx
•/-
Jo X J —00

rir/2
P- dx 14. I tan xdx given F{x) = — In cos x
J-2 X^ •'0

r— 1 + x^
+ tan *x

n
I 2e*^dx
J —ao
16
Jo
\n xdx given F(x) = x In x — x
 Chapter 5 Review Problems • 161

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 5

1.

(a) j x^dx r 1 ^
(g) j cos—xax
•^-1
f 1 n
(b) 1 6 (h) 3dx
X •'4

(c) (i) e ^’‘^dx

J] X •^-1
1“ (2x + 5f
(d) j (x^ + 3) dx (j)

(e) f VSx + 4 dx (k) fx^dx

Jo 2 - X
ri7
f"
(f) e-^dx (1) 1 dx
Jo J 1!^
2. Let f{x) be the function in Fig. 1. Find Jof{x)dx (a) using areas and
(b) using the Fundamental Theorem.

3. Use Simpson’s rule to approximate dx using 6 subintervals.

4. Let I = jr*|/(x)|dx and II = |/* f{x)dx\. Which is larger, I or II?
5. Find the average value of 1/x on the interval
6. Find the area in Fig. 2.

7. Odd and even functions were defined in Problem 8 of Section 1.2. (a) If/
is odd, find /I3 f{x)dx. (b) If / is even, compare /is f{x)dx and fo/(x)dx.
 « ,<?3TVvH^
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6/THE INTEGRAL PART II
/

6.1 Further Applications of the Integral

Section 5.2 included applications to area and average values. This sec¬
tion continues with integral models for many more physical concepts, and
the problems will ask you to construct your own models in new situations.
It is time-consuming material because the examples and problems are quite
varied. On the other hand, it is precisely the wide scope of the applications
that makes the material so important. After a while, you will get a feeling
for the type of problem that leads to an integral, namely, one that is solved
with a sum of the form 'Zf (x) dx.

Example 1 The volume formula “base x height” applies to a cylinder

and a box, but not to a cone, pyramid or sphere. To understand why not,
consider the full implications of the “base” in the formula. It does not mean
the bottom of the solid; instead it refers to the constant cross-sectional area
(Fig. 1). The formula really says

(1) volume = cross-sectional area x height,

provided that the solid has constant cross-sectional area.

Consider a cone with radius R and height h. Geometry books declare

its volume to be ^rrR'^h, and the problem is to derive this volume formula
using calculus. Formula (1) does not apply directly because the cone does
not have constant cross sections. To get around this difficulty, divide the
cone into thin slabs. With the number line in Fig. 2, a typical slab is located
around position x and has thickness dx. The significance of the slab is that
its cross-sectional area is almost constant. The lower part has smaller radius
than the upper part, but the slab is so thin that we take its radius throughout

163
 R&.Z
to be the radius at position x. By similar triangles,

slab radius _ R
X h

Rx
slab radius = —.
h

(RxV
Thus the slab has cross-sectional area j arid height dx, so, by (1),

fRxV
volume dV of the slab = •

This is only the approximate volume of the slab, but the approximation
improves as dx 0. We want to add the volumes dV to find the total
volume of the cone, and use thinner slabs (i.e., let dx 0) to remove the
error in the approximation. The integral will do both of these things. We
integrate from 0 to A because the slabs begin at x = 0 and end at x = A.
Thus

Rx
=fA T
ttR' ^ ttR^x^
cone volume dx = \ x' dx = —— = ^TTR^h,
n

the desired formula.

Example 2 A flag pole painting company charges customers by the

formula

cost in dollars = h^l (Fig. 3)

where A is the height (in meters) of the flagpole above the street and I is the
length of the pole. If the pole in Fig. 3 is 4 meters above the ground and
2 meters long, then the paint job costs $32.t

tThe units on hH are (meters)®, so to make the units on each side of the formula agree,
it is understood that the right-hand side contains the factor 1 dollar/(meter)®. It is common
in physics for formulas to contain constants in this manner for the purpose of making the
units match.
 6.1 Further Applications of the Integral • 165

^-
^--K-
(■-->
>

D □
t

□
k
□ □ 0

FI 6.3

^4- Jtffx

xo -- 0

Now consider the cost of painting the pole in Fig. 4. Its length is
10 meters, but the formula h^l can’t be used directly because the pole is not
at one fixed height above the ground. To get around this, divide the pole
into pieces. With the number line in Fig. 4(a), a typical piece has length dx
and is small enough to be considered (almost) all at height x. Use the
formula h^l to find that the cost of painting the small piece, called (/cost to
emphasize its smallness, is x^dx. Then use the integral to add the (/costs
and obtain
^30 ^30

(2) total cost = (/cost = x^dx.

-'20 •'20

(The integration process includes not only a summation but also a limit as
dx approaches 0, which removes the error caused by the “almost.”) The
interval of integration is [20,30] because that’s where the flagpole is located.
If you incorrectly integrate from 0 to 30, then you are paying to have a
white stripe painted down the front of the house.
30
19,000 A

If we compute the integral we get the final answer —

20

However, (2) is considered to be final enough in this section since the

emphasis here is on setting up the integral that solves the problem, that is,
on finding the model.
166 • 6/The Integral Part II V

The number line does not have to be labeled as in Fig. 4(a). Another
labeling is shown in Fig. 4(b). In this case, the small piece of flagpole has
height x + 20 and length dx, so rfcost = (x + 20)^ dx and the total cost is
/o°(x + 20)^ dx. The integral looks different from (2), but its value is the
same, namely 19,000/3.
V

Example 3 If a plane region has constant density, then its total mass is
given by

(3) mass = density x area.

For example, if a region has area 6 square meters and density 7 kilograms
per square meter then its total mass is 42 kilograms.
Consider a rectangular plate with dimensions 2 by 3. Suppose that
instead of being constant, the density at a point in the plate is equal to the
distance from the point to the shorter side. The problem is to find the total
mass of the plate.
Divide the rectangular region into strips parallel to the shorter side.
Figure 5 shows a typical strip located around position x on the indicated
number line, with thickness dx. The significance of the strip is that all its
points are approximately distance x from the shorter side, so the density
in the strip may be considered constant, at the value x. The area dA of the
strip is 2 dx and, by (3), its mass dm is 2xdx. Therefore, total mass = SI dm =
fo 2x dx.

The general pattern for applying integrals After three applications in

this section, perhaps you already sense the pattern. There will be a formula
(base X height from geometry, hH from our imagination, density X area
from physics) that applies in a simple situation {constant cross sections,
heights, densities) to compute a total thing” (volume, cost, mass). In a more
complicated situtation (non constant cross sections, heights, densities) the
formula cannot be used directly. However, if a physical entity (the cone, the
flagpole, the rectangular plate) is divided into pieces, it may be possible to
apply the formula to the pieces and compute “d thing” {dV, dcost, dmass).
The integral is then used to add the dthings and find a total.
The comment on mathematical models in Section 5.2 still applies. We
are not proving that the integral actually computes the total; the integral is
just the best mathematical model presently available.
 6.1 Further Applications of the Integral • 167

Warning By the physical nature of the particular problems in this section,

the simple factor dx should be contained in the expression for thing; it
should not be missing, nor should it appear in a form such as (dx)^ or \/dx.
For example, thing may be x^dx, but should not be or x\dx)\ orx^/dx.
The integral is defined to add only terms of the form/(x) dx. A sum of terms
of the form or x^{dx)^ or x^jdx is not an integral, and in particular cannot
be computed with F(b) - F{a).

Example 4 The charges of a moving company depend on the weight of

your household goods and on the distance they must be shipped. Suppose

(4) cost = weight x distance,

where cost is measured in dollars, weight in pounds and distance in feet. If

an object weighing 6 pounds is moved 5 feet, the company charges $30
(and physicists say that 30 foot pounds of work has been done).
Suppose a cylindrical tank with radius 5 and height 20 is half filled with
a liquid weighing 2 pounds per cubic foot. Find the cost of pumping the
liquid out, that is, of hiring movers to lift the liquid up to the top of the tank,
at which point it spills out.
Solution: Formula (4) doesn’t apply directly because different layers of
liquid must move different distances; the top layer moves 10 feet but the
bottom layer must move 20 feet. Divide the liquid into slabs; a typical slab
is shown in Fig. 6, with thickness dx and located around position x on the
number line. The significance of the slab is that all of it must be moved up
20 — X feet. The slab has radius 5 and height dx, so its volume dV is 257rc?x.
Then

(/weight = 2 pounds/cubic foot x 2577(/x cubic feet = bQrrdx pounds,

and, by (4),

(/cost = 5077(/x X (20 — x) = 5077(20 — x)dx.

Integrate on the interval [0,10], since that is the extent of the liquid.

FI&.6
168 6/The Integral Part II

to obtain
^10 ^10 /

total cost = I r/cost = I

■'n
507r(20 — x)dx — 50^20^
'

= 750077.

If a different number line is used, say with 0 at the top of the cylinder and
20 at the bottom, the integral may look different, but the final answer must
be 750077.

Example 5 Merry-go-round riders all pay the same price and can sit any¬
where they like. This is a comparatively unusual policy because most events
have different prices for different seats; seats on the 50-yard line at a
football game cost more than seats on the 10-yard line. Obviously, some
merry-go-round seats are better than others. Seats right next to the center
pole give a terrible ride; the best horses, the most sweeping rides, and the
gold ring are all on the outside. The price of a ticket should reflect this and
depend on the distance to the pole. Furthermore, the price of a ticket
should depend on the mass of the rider (airlines don’t measure passengers
but they do take the amount of luggage into consideration). Suppose the
price charged for a seat on the merry-go-round is given by

(5) price = md^

where m is the mass of the customer and d is the distance from the seat to
the center pole. (In physics, md^ is the moment of inertia of a rotating object.)
Consider a solid cylinder with radius R, height h and density 8 mass
units per unit volume, revolving around its axis as a center pole (Fig. 7).
Find the price of the ride.
Solution: Formula (5) doesn’t apply directly because different parts of
the cylinder are at different distances from the center pole. Dividing the
 6.1 Further Applications of the Integral • 169

cylinder into slabs, one of which is shown in Fig. 7, doesn’t help because the
same difficulty persists — different parts of the slab are at different dis¬
tances from the center pole. Instead, divide the solid cylinder into cylindri¬
cal shells. Each shell is like a tin can, and the solid cylinder is composed of
nested tin cans; Fig. 8 shows one of the shells with thickness dx, located
around position x on the number line. The advantage of the shell is that all
its points may be considered at distance x from the pole. The formula
dV = 2TTrhdr for the volume of a cylindrical shell with radius r, height h
and thickness dr was derived in (9) of Section 4.8. The shell in Fig. 8 has
radius x, height h and thickness dx, so dV = 2TTxhdx and

dmass = density x volume = 27Txh8dx.

By (5), when the shell is revolved,

(iprice = 2TTxh8dx • x^ = 2‘TTX^h8dx.

Therefore
■R

total price
[
-'n
R

= —nh 8R‘^.

Note that the shell area and volume formulas from Section 4.8 are only
approximations. But we anticipated that they would be used in integral
problems, such as this one, where the thickness dr (or in this case, dx)
approaches 0 as the integral adds. Section 4.8 claimed that under those
circumstances, the error in the approximation is squeezed out.

hl6. 8
 170 • 6/The Integral Part II

Example 6 Let’s try a reverse example for practice. Usually we conclude

that /a/(x) dx is a total. Suppose we begin with the “answer”: let Jlf{x) dx be
the total number of gallons of oil that has flowed out of the spigot at the end
of the Alaska pipeline between hour 3 and 7. Go backwards and decide
what was divided into pieces, what dx stands for, and what a term of
the iormf{x)dx represents physically. In general, what does the function
f{x) represent?
Solution: The time interval [3,7] was partitioned. A typical dx stands
for a small amount of time, such as 1/10 of an hour. Since the integral adds
terms of the form f{x) dx to produce total gallons, one such term represents
gallons; in particular, one term of the iormf{x)dx is the (small) number of
gallons, more appropriately called gallons, that has flowed out during the
dx hours around time x. Since the units of f{x)dx are gallons, and those of
dx are hours,/(x) itself must stand for gallons/hour, the rate of flow. If
/(4.5) = 6, then at time 4.5, the oil is flowing instantaneously at the rate of
6 gallons per hour.
Note that in general, the integral of a “rate” (e.g., gallons per hour)
produces a “total.”
Warning In the preceding example, a term of the form fix) dx represents
the (/gallons of oil flowing out during a time interval of duration dx hours
around time x, not oil flowing out at time x. It is impossible for a positive
amount of oil to pour out at an instant. Furthermore, if /(4.5) = 6 then it
is not the case that 6 gallons flow out at time 4.5; rather, at this instant, the
flow is 6 gallons per hour.

Problems for Section 6.1

(The aim of the section was to demonstrate how to produce integral models for
physical situations. In the solutions we usually set up the integrals and then stop
without computing their values.)
1. If an 8-centimeter wire has a constant density of 9 grams per centimeter
then its total mass is 72 grams. Suppose that instead of being constant, the density
at a point along the wire is the cube of its distance to the left end. For example, at
the middle of the wire the density is 64 grams/cm, and at the right end the density
is 512 grams/cm. Find the total mass of the wire.
2. If travelers go at R miles per hour for T hours, then the total distance
traveled is RT miles. Suppose the speed on a trip is not constant, but is miles per
hour at time t. For example, the speed at time 3 is 9 miles per hour, the speed at time
3.1 is 9.61 miles per hour, and so on. Find the total distance traveled between times 3
and 5.
cr^

3. Suppose that the cost of painting a ceiling of height h and area A is .Olh^A.
For example, the cost of painting the ceiling in Fig. 9 is .01(36) (35) or $12.60.
Find the cost of painting the wall in Fig. 9 (which is not at a constant height h above
the floor).
4. Use slabs to derive the formula for the volume of a sphere of radius R.
5. The price of land depends on its area (the more area, the more expensive)
and on its distance from the railroad tracks (the closer to the tracks, the less ex¬
pensive). Suppose the cost of a plot of land is area x distance to tracks. Find the cost
of the plot of land in Fig. 10.
6. Suppose a conical tank with radius 5 and height 20 is filled with a liquid
weighing 2 pounds per cubic foot. Continue from Example 4 to find the cost of
pumping the liquid out.
 6.1 Further Applications of the Integral • 171

r/6.10

7. Suppose the right triangular region in Fig. 11 with density S mass units per
unit area revolves around the indicated pole. Continue from Example 5 to find its
moment of inertia.
8. If the specific heat of an object of unit mass is constant, then the heat needed
to raise its temperature is given by

heat = (specific heat) x (desired increase in temperature).

For example, if the object has specific heat 2 and its temperature is to be raised from
72° to 78° then 12 calories of heat are needed. Suppose that the specific heat of the
object is not constant, but is the cube of the object’s temperature. Thus, the object
becomes harder and harder to heat as its temperature increases. Find the heat
needed to raise its temperature from 54° to 61°.
9. Suppose (x) dx is the total number of words typed by a secretary between
minute 2 and minute 14.

(a) What does dx stand for in the physical situation?

(b) What does a term of the form f(x)dx represent?
(c) What does the function f represent? If/(3.2) = 25, what is the secretarial
interpretation?

10. Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed as follows. (First find the
volume of the slab obtained by revolving a strip, and then add the slab volumes.)

(a) Revolve the region bounded by y = x^ and the x-axis, 0 < x 2, around
the x-axis (Fig. 12).
(b) Revolve the region bounded by y = x^ and the y-axis, 0 y < 4, around
the y-axis.

F|6.
172 • 6/The Integral Part II

11. Suppose a pyramid has a square base with side a, and the top vertex of the
pyramid is height h above the center of the square. Find its volume.
12. Let P be a fixed point on an infinitely long wire. Suppose that the charge
density at any point on the wire is e~'‘ charge units per foot, where d is the distance
from the point to P. Find the total charge on the wire with an integral, and compute
the integral to obtain a numerical answer.
13. Find the total mass of a circular region of radius 6 if the density (mass units
per unit area) at a point in the region is the square of the distance from the point
to the center of the circle. (Divide the region into circular shells, i.e., washers.)
14. Suppose a solid sphere of radius R and density S mass units per unit volume
revolves around a diameter as a pole. Continue from Example 5 to find its moment
of inertia.
15. Suppose flg{x)dx is the cost in dollars of building the Alaska pipeline be¬
tween milemarker 3 and milemarker 7.

(a) What does dx represent in the physical situation?

(b) What does a term of the form g{x)dx stand for?
(c) What does the function g represent? If g(4) = 17,000, what is the physical
interpretation?
16. The kinetic energy of an object with mass m grams and speed v centimeters
per second is ^mv^. Suppose a rod with length 10 centimeters and density 3 grams
per centimeter rotates around one fixed end (like the hand of a clock) at one
revolution per second. The formula does not apply directly because different
portions of the rod are moving at different speeds (the fixed end isn’t moving at
all and the outer tip is moving fastest). Find the kinetic energy of the rod by using
an integral.
17. The area of a circle with radius R is ttR If a sector has angle 6 (measured
/ in radians) then its area is a fraction of the circle’s area, namely the fraction
/
d/2TT, so
d 1
area of sector = -— ttR^ = —dR^.
2tt 2
Suppose that we start at point C to draw a sector with angle 7r/4 and center at
Q (Fig. 13) but the “radius” R varies with the angle d so that R = cos 6. Find the
area of the “sector” CQB.
18. Find the total mass of a solid cylinder with radius R and height h if its density
(mass per unit volume) at a point is equal to (a) the distance from the point to the
axis of the cylinder (b) the distance from the point to the base of the cylinder.
FIG.I5 19. A machine earns 225 — dollars per year when it is t years old. (a) Find the
useful lifetime of the machine, (b) Find the total amount of money it earns during
its lifetime.
20. The weight w of an object depends on its mass m and on its height h above

the (flat) earth. Suppose w = ^ . (The further away from the earth, the lighter

the object.) If the mass density of the solid box in Fig. 14 is 8 mass units per unit of
volume, find its total weight.
21. If a plot of land of area A is'at distance d from an irrigation pump, then the
cost of irrigating the plot is Ad^ dollars. Find the cost of irrigating a circular field
of radius R if the pump is located at the center of the field.
22. The flat roof of a one-story house acts as a solar collector which radiates heat
down to the rooms below. Suppose that the heat collected in a region of volume V
at distance d below a collector is V/{d -t- 1). Find the total heat collected in a room
whose ceiling has height 12 and whose floor has dimensions 9 by 10.
23. When water with volume V lands after falling distance d, then a splash of size
Vd occurs. For example, if water of volume 6 is poured onto the floor from a height
of 7 then the total splash is 42.
 6.2 The Centroid of a Solid Hemisphere • 173

FI6.I4-

FI&.I5
Suppose a cylindrical glass with radius 3 and height 5 is set under a faucet so
that the distance from the top of the glass to the faucet is 4. Water drips into the glass
until it is full. The falling water creates a splash, but the formula Vd can’t be used
directly since different slabs of water in the full glass fell through different heights
(the lowest slab fell through distance 9 while the top slab fell through distance 4).
Express the total splash with an integral.
24. Consider a unit positive charge fixed at point A. Like charges repel so if a
second unit positive charge moves toward A, effort is required, and the effort
increases as it nears A. Suppose that when the moving charge is d feet from A, the
effort required to advance a foot toward A is l/d^; i.e., it takes 1/d^ effort units per
foot. Find the total effort required for the charge to advance (a) from distance 5 to
distance 2 from A (b) from distance 5 to point A itself.
25. Snow starts falling at time t = 0, and then falls at the rate of R{t) flakes/
hour at time t. (a) How much snow will accumulate by time 10? (b) Some of the
flakes melt after they land, and don’t live to see time 10. Suppose that only 1/4 of
newly landed flakes still exist 3 hours later, only 1/5 still exist 4 hours later and, in
general, of F newly fallen flakes, only F/{x + 1) flakes will last x more hours. How
much snow accumulates by time t — 10?
26. If current flows for distance L through a wire with cross-sectional area A,
then the resistance R that it encounters is L/A. Suppose a sphere with radius 10 has
a hole of radius 1 at its center, and current flows radially out of the hole through
the solid sphere. The formula L/A doesn’t apply directly because the current
encounters spherical “cross sections” (Fig. 15) with increasing area rather than
constant area A; e.g., visualize the current flowing away from the center of an onion
through layers of onion shells. Use spherical shells to find an integral formula
for R.

6.2 The Centroid of a Solid Hemisphere

This section consists of just one substantial application of integration,

primarily of interest to those who will take physics courses.
If an object has constant density, then its balance point is called its
centroid. For example, to picture the centroid of a wire (Fig. 1) imagine the
174 • 6/The Integral Part II

PI6.1
wire lying in a plane which is weightless except for the wire. The point at
which the plane balances is the centroid of the wire. Note that the centroid
does not necessarily lie on the wire itself. One application of centroids is
in the analysis of the behavior of an object in a gravitational force field,
where the solid may be replaced by a point mass at its centroid. For some
objects, the centroid is obvious. The centroid of a solid sphere is its center;
the centroid of a rectangular region is the point of intersection of its
diagonals. In this section we will find the centroid of a solid hemisphere of
radius R, illustrating a method that may be used for other (symmetric)
objects as well.

X
/\
)V1| POINT W

HI6. X

We need some balancing principles first. Experiments have shown that

if masses and m2 dangle from a rod at positions Xj and X2 (Fig. 2) then the
rod will balance at the point x where Wi(x — Xi) = m2{x2 — x). This is the
well-known seesaw principle, which says that the heavier child should move
forward on the seesaw to balance with a lighter partner. Solve the equation
to obtain

MiX — miX] = W2X2 — W2X

x{m\ + m2) = m\X\ -h 7712X2

TTtjXi -I- 7712X2

X =-.
mi + m2
The terms ttijXi and 7772X2 are called the moments {with respect to the origin) of the
masses mi and m2 respectively. In other words, moment - mass X coordinate.
More generally, if n masses mi,--- ,m„ hang from positions Xi, • • • ,x„ then

- niiXi + •••-!- m„x„ total moment

(1) x=---.
777i -f- • • • 4- 7?7„ total mass

Now consider a solid hemisphere with radius R and constant density 8

mass units per unit volume. By geometric considerations, the centroid must
 6.2 The Centroid of a Solid Hemisphere * 175

lie on the axis of symmetry (Fig. 3). To decide where on the axis, divide the
hemisphere into slabs. Figure 3 shows a typical slab with thickness dx lo¬
cated around position x on the number line AB. By the Pythagorean the¬
orem, the slab radius is — x^. The (cylindrical) slab has height dx, so

volume dV = base x height = ttCVR^ - x'^fdx = tt{R^ - x^)dx

and

rfmass = 8dV = SviR^ - x^)dx.

To simulate the situation in Fig. 2, picture each slab as a mass hanging from
the axis of symmetry. Figure 4 shows the mass corresponding to the slab in
Fig. 3. For this slab,

(i moment = xr/mass = Stt(R^x — x^)dx.

To find the total moment of all the slabs for the numerator of the formula
in (1), add r/moments and let dx approach 0 to improve the simula¬
tion. Thus

\^\(o. ^
176 • 6/The Integral Part II

total moment = moment = S7r (R^x — x^) dx

Jo •'o
^ 1
= SttI = -^8ttR\
0 4

One way to find the total mass is to compute fo dmass = Jo 5 tt{R^ — x ) dx.
Better still, since a sphere with radius R has volume ^ttR^, the hemisphere
has volume jttR^ and its total mass is jSttR^. Therefore

total moment
X --
total mass

The centroid lies on axis AB, three-eighths of the way from A to B. Note
that the density 8 does not appear in the answer. As long as the density is
constant, its actual value is irrelevant for the location of the centroid.

6.3 Area and Arc Length

Section 6.1 constructed integral models for a variety of (sometimes

fictional) physical concepts. This section is concerned with the standard
models for the area between two curves, and arc length on a curve.
We will continue the policy of not evaluating integrals if antiderivatives
are not readily available for the integrands. In such cases, numerical inte¬
gration can be used, if desired, or you can return to the integrals later, after
learning more antidifferentiation techniques in Chapter 7.

Area between two curves So far, integrals have been used to find the area
of a region bounded by the x-axis, vertical lines and the graph of a function
f{x) (see Figs. 4, 5 and 6 in Section 5.2). Integration can also be used to find
the area bounded by vertical lines and two curves, an upper function u(x)
and a lower function l(x) (Fig. 1). To find the area, divide the region into
vertical strips. Figure 1 shows a typical strip located around position x on
the x-axis, with thickness dx. The strip has a curved top and bottom, but it
is almost a rectangle with base dx and height u{x) — l{x). In Figs. 2 and 3,
one or both of u{x) and /(x) is negative, but u{x) — l{x) is positive and in each
case is the height of the strip. Therefore the area dA of the strip is
(m(x) — l{x))dx. Thus,/or the region between x = a and x = b, bounded by an

(K
4i+

FI6.Z
 6.3 Area and Arc Length • 177

upper curve u{x) and a lower curve l{x),

The formula holds whether the region is above (Fig. 1), below (Fig. 2) or
straddling (Fig. 3) the x-axis.

Example 1 Find the area of the region bounded by the parabola

y ^ b - x^ and the line through the points (1,4) and (-3,-4) on the
parabola.
Solution: The line has slope 2, so by the point-slope formula its equa¬
tion is y — 4 = 2(x — l),ory =2x -I- 2. Figure 4 shows that the region has
the parabola as its upper boundary, the line as its lower boundary, and lies
between x = -3 and x = 1. Therefore u{x) = 5 - x^, l{x) = 2x -I- 2, and

area — x^ - (2x + (-x^ - 2x + 3)rfx

FI6.‘t 1
X „ „
—— x^ + 3x
-3 3 ■

Arc length To find the arc length 5 on a curve between points P and Q
(Fig. 5), divide the curve into pieces. A typical piece with length ds is ap¬
proximately the hypotenuse of a right triangle whose legs we label dx and
dy. Then ds^ = dx^ + dy^ and

(2) ds — S/dx^ + dy'^.

The total length of the curve is the sum of the small lengths ds, so,
symbolically,
^point Q

(3) s = ds.
point P

The details will depend on the algebraic description of the curve, as the
next two examples will show.

F)6.5

Example 2 Consider the arc length on the curve y = x^ between the

points (-1,-1) and (2,8). Before using the integral in (3) we will express
ds in terms of one variable. Ify = x® and dy is a change iny then dy = 3x^dx
(Section 4.8, (T))- Therefore

ds = 'Vdx^ + dy'^ = S/dx^ + {3x^ dxY = Vl + 9x'‘ dx.

178 • 6/The Integral Part II

so

s Vl + 9x^ dx.

Example 3 Suppose a circle of radius a,'with a spot of paint on it, rolls

along a line. The spot traces out a periodic curve called a cycloid (Fig. 6), and
the problem is to find the arc length of one arch.

-—^

FI6>. 6

We’ll begin by finding an algebraic description of the cycloid. Insert

axes so that the circle rolls down the x-axis and the spot of paint begins at
the origin. The x and y coordinates of a point on the cycloid are more easily
described in terms of the angle of revolution 6 (Fig. 7) than in terms of each
other, so we will derive parametric equations for the cycloid instead of a
single equation in x and y.

Figure 7 shows a typical point P = (x,y) on the cycloid with corre¬

sponding angle 9. Then x = AC - PQ. Furthermore, the length of segment
AC is equal to the length of arc PC (visualize the arc PC matching segment
AC point for point as the circle rolls). So

X = PC -P^

= ad — PQ (by the arc length formula 5 = r9 in (5) of Section 1.3)

= ad — a sin d (by trigonometry in right triangle PDQ) .

Also, y = DC — DQ = a — a cos d. Therefore the cycloid has parametric

equations

(4) X = ad — a sin d, y = a — a cos d,

where a is the radius of the rolling circle and d is the parameter. The cycloid
is periodic, and the first period begins with 0 = 0, x = 0 and concludes with
d = 277, X = 2770 (the circumference of the circle).
 6.3 Area and Arc Length • 179

To find the length of the first arch using the integral in (3), first express
ds in terms of one variable, 6 in this case. We have

dx = x'{d)dd — {a — a cos d)dd and dy = y'{d)dd = a sin Odd.

0
Then (2) becomes

ds = V(a — a cos 6)^dd^ + sin^ddd^

= Va^~-^"2fl^~cos~0~T~a^~co?0~T~a^~sin^ dd

= V2a^ — 2a^ cos 6 dd (since cos^0 + sin^0 = 1)

and
^2-77

=I ■^9=0
V2a^ — 2fl^ cos 6 dd

2a j yj-^ dd (by algebra)

. I ( ... 1 1 — cos 0\t

= 2a sin —ddd I by the identity sin^—0 =
•'0 ^ \ 2
2'rr
2a\ —2 cos d
0

= 8a.
h
The cycloid has some surprising physical properties (too hard to prove
in this course). If a frictionless slide is to be built so that children can slide
down under the force of gravity from an arbitrary point A to an arbitrary
point B, then one built in the shape of a half an arch of a reflected cycloid
will produce the least time for the trip (Fig. 8). Furthermore, if several
children slide down the reflected arch from different points, they all arrive
at the lowest point at the same time.

Credibility of the integral models As this chapter has shown, to compute

a total size (volume, area, arc length) we divide the object into pieces and
find dsize {dV, dA, ds) of a piece. The formulas we use for dV, dA and ds are
not exact. In Figs. 1-3, dA is only approximately [u{x) — l{x)]dx since each
strip is only approximately rectangular. In Fig. 5, ds is only approximately
Vdx^ + dy^ and furthermore in Example 2, the length dy is only approxi¬
mately Sx^dx. However, when the integral adds dV’s, dA’s or ds's, we believe
(not prove, but merely believe) that the value of the integral deserves to be
called the exact value of the total volume V, total area A and total arc
length 5. The integral not only adds, but also takes a limit as dx approaches
0, and we count on the limit process to wipe out the approximation error.

tit is not true in general that taking square roots on both sides of the identity produces

1 /1 — cos 6
(=*=) = yj-^-,

because the right-hand side of (*) is positive while the left-hand side may be negative. But it
is true when 6 is in the interval [O.Stt], the interval of integration, since in that case, sin j6
is positive.
(As further reassurance, whenever a previous formula for size exists, it
agrees with the integral. Problem 4 will show that the integral formula for
arc length does produce the standard formula for the distance between
two points.)
Not every approximation for dsize can be integrated to achieve a rea¬
sonable total. In the next section we will have to be careful to avoid a bad
model for surface area.

Problems for Section 6.3

1. Find the area of the region with the indicated boundaries.

(a) y = x^,y = 3x
(b) y = x^, X = y^
(c) xy = 8, line AB where A = (—2, —4) and B = (— 1, —8)
(d) y = — 4x + 3, the x-axis

2. Find the area of the region in (a) Fig. 9 (b) Fig. 10.

3. Express with an integral the arc length along the indicated curve.

(a) y = e’‘ between (0,1) and {l,e) (c) xy = 1 between (1,1) and (2,|)
(b) X = y® between (0,0) and (64,4) (d) x = 2^ + 1, y = between the
points (3, 1) and (9,16)

4. Use an integral to find the distance between the points A = (xi,y,) and
B = (X2,y2).
 6.4 The Surface Area of a Cone and a Sphere • 181

6.4 The Surface Area of a Cone and a Sphere

This section will continue the geometric applications of the integral by

deriving the surface area formulas for a cone and a sphere. (Its omission
will not affect your understanding of any other section of the book.)
A cylinder with height h and radius r may be cut open and unrolled to
form a rectangle with one dimension h and the other dimension equal to
the perimeter 27rr of the circular end of the cylinder. Therefore the (lat¬
eral) surface area (not including top and bottom) of the cylinder is 2'nrh. To
find the surface area of noncylinders, we need a formula dS for the (lateral)
surface area of an almost-cy\mdr\cd\ slab. Figure 1(a) shows a typical slab
with height dx and “radius” r. It is not precisely cylindrical since the radius
varies; in fact Fig. 1(a) deliberately exaggerates the variation in radius to
show an accordion-like ridge of length ds. In Example 1 of Section 6.1 we
ignored the varying radius and selected the volume formula dV = 2'nr^ dx
(Fig. 1(b)). If we were to continue to ignore the varying radius, we would
choose dS to be 2TTrdx. But with this dS, ft dS produces values which do not
match results from geometry. (If a surface is cut open and unit squares
drawn on it, the number of squares does not agree with the integral.) The
variation of the radius which we successfully ignored in finding dV cannot
be ignored in finding dS. (A wrinkled elephant has about the same volume as, but
much more surface area than, an unwrinkled elephant.) To find an appropriate
formula for dS, imagine the accordion (Fig. 1(a)) pulled open to form a
genuine cylinder with height ds, not dx (Fig. 1(c)). Then, by the standard
formula for the surface area of a cylinder, the newly created cylinder, hence
the original almost-cylinder, has surface area

(1) dS = 2Trrds.

We are now ready to use (1) on cones and spheres.

Surface area of a cone Consider a cone with radius R, height h and slant
height s. To find its (lateral) surface area, begin by dividing the cone into
slabs. Figure 2 shows a typical slab with thickness dx around position x on
the indicated number line. To use (1), we need the slab radius and ds. By

(f)
182 • 6/The Integral Part II

similar triangles,
slab radius
X h ’

so
Rx
slab radius = —.
h

Again by similar triangles,

ds s
dx h

so

Then, by (1),
2'n-Rs
xdx

and
2TrRs 27tRs x^ ^
S = xdx ttRs .
h 2 0
 6.5 Integrals with a Variable Upper Limit • 183

Surface area of a sphere Consider a sphere with radius R. To find its

surface area, divide the sphere into slabs. It will be convenient to locate slabs
(shown in cross section in Figs. 3 and 4) using a central angle 6 rather than
position along a horizontal line. For the typical slab in Fig. 3,ds = Rdd by
(5) of Section 1.3, and the slab radius is R sin 6 by trigonometry. There¬
fore, by (1),

dS = 2ttR ?,m 6 ' Rdd = 2ttR^ sin ddO.

The sphere is packed with slabs whose corresponding values of 6 range

from 0 to 77 (Fig. 4) so

S = = 2ttR^ I sin Odd = 277R^(-cos d) 47rR^.

6.5 Integrals with a Variable Upper Limit

This section describes a new way of creating functions, and discusses

applications, computation and derivatives of the new functions.

Introductory example Suppose a particle starts at time 4 and travels with

speed 2x feet per second at time x. The problem is to find the distance
traveled by time 7, and then more generally, the cumulative distance traveled
by time x, denoted by j(x).
Divide the time interval [4, 7] into subintervals, with a typical sub¬
interval containing time x and of duration dx seconds. The distance ds
traveled during the dx seconds is 2xdx (since distance = speed X time),
and the total distance traveled by time 7 is Pi2xdx = x'^\\ = 33.
More generally.

(1) cumulative distance ^(x:) traveled up to time x

I
= I 2xdx — x^ — ^2
x' - 16,

In order to distinguish the independent variable x of the function 5 (x) from

the dummy variable of integration, we usually choose a letter other than x
for the dummy variable and rewrite (1) as
184 6/The Integral Part II

= = - 16
(1')

Integrals with a variable upper limit The function 5 (x) in (1 ) is given by

an integral with an upper limit of integration x. More generally, for a given
function / and fixed number q, fa f{t)dt is a function of the upper limit of
integration, and we may define a new function I{x) by

(2) I{x) = ^.

For example, 7(4) is the number ft f{t)dt. The integral in (2) can also be
written as fl f{u) du, flf{r) dr and so on. However, most books avoid writing
I{x) = flf{x)dx so that the independent variable of the function I{x) is not
confused with the dummy variable in the integral, and the student is not
tempted to write 7(4) = ft /(4) d4, which is meaningless.
The introductory example illustrates one application of the functions
in (2). They are used to represent a cumulative total such as the distance
traveled until time x, the mass of a rod up to position x, or your income up
to age X. The particular lower limit used depends on the time, position or
age at which you choose to begin the accumulation.
Some functions of the form (2) are especially useful in mathematics
and science:
2 /
Erf X = e~‘^dt (the error function)
Vtt •'0

(3) Ei X = — dt (the exponential-integral function)

Ji t

Si X = dt (the sine-integral function).

Jo t

The integral in (T) is defined only for x >4 since an integral is defined
only on an interval of the form [o,/>] where b > a. On the other hand, the
function s{x) is 0 when x = 4 since no distance has yet accumulated. This
suggests the definition

With this definition, the function in (2) is defined for x > a, and I {a) = 0.

Computing I{x) If /(/) has a readily available antiderivative, then an

explicit formula for 7(x) may be found using the Fundamental Theorem.
For example.

(5) if 7(x) = f dt then 7(x) = t = x^ — 1;

J\

(6) if J{x) = ^ 3t^dt then J{x) = t = x^ - 8.

Note that 7(x) and J{x) differ by only a constant since they begin the same
accumulation process but from different starting places, that is, with differ¬
ent lower limits. In particular they differ by the constant/f 3/^ = 7.
 6.5 Integrals with a Variable Upper Limit • 185

f SP.APH ^"(0 £
r >■
/1 \
/ 1 \
\
g/ I I
I
1'^
A

h/(S - 1

If the graph of/ is simple, it may be possible to find a formula for I{x)
using cumulative area. Suppose f{t) is the function shown in Fig. 1, and
= hf{t)dt. Consider a value of x between 0 and 2 (see point 5). Since
AB = X, we have GB = 2x by similar triangles. So

1 2
I{x) = area of triangle ABG X • 2x = X
2
For a value of x larger than 2 (see point D),

/(x) = area of triangle ACF + area of rectangle CDEF

= — • 2 • 4 + 4(x - 2)

= 4x — 4.

Therefore

if 0 < X < 2
if X > 2 .

On the other hand, it is more difficult to evaluate the functions in (3).

It can be shown in advanced courses that it is not possible to find anti-

derivatives for e ‘, — and —-— using the basic functions listed in

t V

Section 1.1; so Erf, Ei and Si cannot be simplified as in (5) and (6). However,
tables of values for Erf, Ei and Si can be produced by numerical integration.

For example. Si tt = fo —— dt, and its value may be approximated with a

L

numerical integration routine such as Simpson’s rule.

As still another method of evaluating an integral with a variable upper
limit, given a fixed number a, an electric network can be designed so that
if voltage/(/ is fed in at time t, the network will produce, on an oscilloscope,
the graph of the function I{x) = f{t)dt.

The derivative of J(x) When functions of the form /(x) arise, we want to
be able to find their derivatives.
Consider the functions /(x) and /(x) defined in (5) and (6). From their
explicit formulas we can see that /'(x) and J'{x) are both 3x^ the integrand
used in the original formulation ofI{x) and J(x). This is not a coincidence. It can
be shown in general that if /(x) = flf{t)dt then 7 '(x) = /(x) at all points where
f is continuous. In other words, if a continuous function f is integrated with a
variable upper limit x, and then the integral is differentiated with respect to x, the
original function f is obtained. This result is called the Second Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus. For example,

sin X ,
(7) Dx Six =-.t
X

. sin X sin t . , • j j
(Note that the derivative of Si x is-, not - since the independent
X I

variable of the function Si x is named x, not t.)

To see why the Second Fundamental Theorem holds, first consider the
introductory example. If /(x) is the speed of a particle at time x and
then 7(x) is the cumulative mileage traveled by time x (the
odometer reading). Therefore /'(x) is the rate of change of mileage with
respect to time, which is the speed of the particle.
To understand the Second Fundamental Theorem from a geometric
point of view, let x increase by dx and consider the corresponding change
dl in/(x). Since/(x) is the cumulative area under the graph of/. Fig. 2 shows
that I increases by approximately a rectangular area with base dx and height
/(x), so dl = f{x)dx (approximately). Equivalently

change dl
(8) = fix),
change dx

or, /'(x) = fix).

FI6.Z
Backward limits of integration So far it makes no sense to write
“backward” limits such as fy
f{x) dx, where the upper limit of integration is
smaller than the lower limit. The solution of a physical problem (averages,
area, arc length and so on) never involves backward limits. However, there
is a situation in which backward limits do arise in a natural way. The
function /(x) = J* f{t) dt is defined only for x > a. If I{x) is the cumulative
distance traveled by an object starting at time a, then the integral continues
to have physical meaning only for x ^ a. But in more theoretical circum¬
stances, it may be useful to define /(x) for x < a, for example to have Erf x
and Si x defined for x < 0 and Eix defined for x < 1.
In one sense, the definition of ft fix) dx, where a < b, can be anything
we like. But it is desirable that the integral with backward limits retain the
same properties as the original integral. It can be shown that, for a < b, if
we define

tAs already mentioned, it can be shown that (sin x)/x does not have an elementary
antiderivative, that is, an antiderivative expressed in terms of the basic functions. But (7) shows
that Si * is an antiderivative for (sin x)/x. Therefore Si x is a non elementary function. Similarly,
Ei X and Erf x are nonelementary.
 6.5 Integrals with a Variable Upper Limit • 187

(9)

then properties (9)—(11) of Section 5.2 still hold, and so do both funda¬
mental theorems. For example, with the definition in (9),

j 3x^dx = — j 3x^ dx = -8 + 1 = -7

But more directly, we can use the Fundamental Theorem with the back¬
ward limits and get the same answer:

f
Jo
3x^ dx = x^ = 1 - 8 = -7

Unfortunately, the relationship between integrals and area is different

with backward limits of integration. If a < b then
r'
f{x)dx = area above the x-axis — area below the x-axis,
Jn

SO

x)dx — — \ fix) dx = area below — area above.

If /(x) = /l f{t)dt where the graph of f is given in Fig. 1, then 7(0) =

f2fit)dt which is —(area of triangle ACF), or —4.

Problems for Section 6.5

1. Find an explicit formula for /(x) if I{x) - (t + b)dt.

-'2

2. A wire beginning at A and extending infinitely in one direction has charge

density charge units per foot at a point x feet from A. (a) Find the total charge
in the wire, (b) Find a formula for the cumulative charge in the first x feet of
the wire.
3. Suppose it begins raining at 3 P.M., and x hours later it is raining at the rate
of X® inches per hour. For example, at 3:30 P.M. it is raining at the rate of 1/8 inch
per hour, (a) Find the total rainfall by 5 P.M. (b) Find the cumulative rainfall after
X hours.
4. Figure 3 gives the graph of/(x). If/(x) = Jof{t)dt, find an explicit formula
for /(x) for X ^ 0.
5. Let /(x) = /l fit)dt where the graph of/ is shown in Fig. 4. Sketch a rough
graph of /(x).
1 if 0 — X — 1
6. Let /(x) = and let /(x) = /o fit)dt.
1
if X > 1
C X

(a) Find I if).

(b) Find 7(2).
(c) Find 7(x), in general, for x ^ 0.

7. Let7(x) = f\\n tdt and/(x) = JI/2 In tdt. (a) Which is the larger of 7(7) and
7(7)? (b) How do the graphs of 7(x) and Jix) compare with one another?
188 6/The Integral Part II

F'5.3

d (Erf x) d (Ei x) d\Ei x)

8. Find (a) (b) (c)
dx dx dx^
9. If I{x) = sin dt, find /'(x) and I"(x).
10. Where does Si x have relative maxima and minima?
sin t
11. (harder) Let dt. (Note that the upper limit is x®, not x.)
t
Find f'{x).
Si X
12. Find lim^^o
X

13. Evaluate the integral (which has backward limits).

(a)

(b)

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 6

1. A colony of bacteria grows at the rate of f{t) cubic centimeters per day at
day t. By how much will it grow between days 3 and 7?
 Chapter 6 Review Problems • 189

2. Refer to Example 5 in Section 6.1 and find the moment of inertia of a solid
cone with radius R, height h and density S mass units per unit volume, which
revolves around its axis of symmetry.
3. An empty scale submerged in water will register a weight due to the water
pressing on it. The larger the scale and the greater the depth, the higher the scale
reading. Suppose that the empty scale reading is depth x scale area (Fig. 1), so that
a scale of area 6 submerged at depth 4 reads 24 pounds. If a scale lies on its side
(Fig. 2) there is still a reading since water presses as hard sideways as downward, but
Fie. the simple formula no longer applies since the depth is not constant. Find the scale
reading in Fig. 2.

Fi6.;(
.
4 Find the area of the region bounded by the graph of y = sin ttx and the
segment AS where A = (§,—1) and S = (2,0).
5. Consider the region bounded by the lines X +y = 12, y = 2x and the x-axis.
Find its area using (a) plane geometry (b) calculus.
6. A farmer purchases a 2-year-old sheep which produces 100 - t pounds of
wool per year at age t. (a) Find the total amount of wool it produces for the farmer
by age 4. (b) Find the cumulative amount of wool produced for the farmer by
age t.
7. Let /(x) = f(t)dt. Find an explicit formula for I(x) if (a) /(x) = 2x + 3
f3x^ for X — 7
(b) /(x) = ] (c) fix) has the graph in Fig. 3.
L5 tor X > 7

8. If/(x) = Jte‘^dt, find/'(x) and/"(x).

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• 4
7/ANTIDIFFERENTIATION

7.1 Introduction

Antidifferentiation has many applications, such as finding the path

of a bullet (Section 3.8), evaluating integrals (Section 5.3) and solving
differential equations (Section 4.9). We began finding antiderivatives in
Section 3.8 but were limited to a few standard types of problems. This
chapter covers some techniques of antidifferentiation, also called in¬
definite integration, or simply integration, so that additional functions can
be handled.
Let’s compare antidifferentiation with differentiation to see what we
are up against. Each operation begins with a function, probably arising
from a physical problem. If the function is elementary, then differentiation
is easy and mechanical. Using the derivatives of the basic functions and the
rules for combinations (sums, products, quotients, compositions), we can
differentiate any elementary function, no matter how complicated. Fur¬
thermore, the derivative is another elementary function. The situation for
antidifferentiation is very different. First of all, an elementary function
might not have an elementary antiderivative. Even if there is an elementary
antiderivative, there is no mechanical rule for finding it. There are no
product, quotient and chain rules for antiderivatives. The best we can offer
so far are the sum and constant-multiple rules (Section 3.8):

(1)

(2) where c is a fixed constant.

In the absence of sufficient combination rules, it is common practice to

consult tables of antiderivatives. However, tables can’t contain every func¬
tion because there are infinitely many functions. If a function is not in the
tables we try to “reduce” it to one that is in the tables. (This is not a first
encounter with incomplete tables. Trigonometry tables only go up to 90°.
To find sin 91°, the reduction rule sin 91° = sin 89° is used.) If we learn
from the tables that our function has no elementary antiderivative, we quit,
with the justification that this course concentrates on elementary functions.
If we cannot find our function (reduced or unreduced) in the tables, we are
forced to quit again, although it is possible that a larger set of tables or
extended reduction techniques would help. (An entire book of tables is
usually available in the library.)

191
 Our tables do not contain the following very simple antiderivative
formulas which should be in your mental tables:

r x’+‘
(3) x’'dx =-- + C for r -1
J r + 1

(4) \ — dx = ln|x| + C
J X

(5) j e’‘dx = + C

(6) j sin xdx = —cos x + C

(7) j cos xdx = sin x + C.

Much of this chapter is concerned with procedures for reducing func¬

tions not listed in the tables to listed functions. (One of the difficulties here
is that there is no precise rule for deciding how to reduce or even if a
reduction is possible.) We will also show how some of the formulas in the
tables were derived. (In retrospect, each antidifferentiation formula in the
table can be checked by differentiating the answer.)

7.2 Substitution

Substitution is a very effective method for reducing a function not

listed in the tables to one that is listed. The method involves reversing the
chain rule. As with all antidifferentiation methods, you will have to practice
to become accustomed to it.
By the chain rule, D, sin — 2x cos so J 2x cos x^dx = sin x^ + C.
But how can we obtain the antiderivative formula without seeing the deriva¬
tive problem first? To go backwards and find f 2x cos x^dx, use the device
of letting u = x^, du = 2xdx. Substitute this into the integral to get

j 2x cos x^dx = J cos udu = sin u + C

= sin x^ + C (replace u by x^).

We’ll continue to illustrate the technique with some more examples.

Example 1 To find
(2x" +' I;
dx (which is not in the tables), let u =

2x* + 7, du = Sx^dx. Replace (2x‘‘ + 7)^ by and replace x^dx by I du

to obtain

I f du \ u ^ ^ 1
/ (2x" + ly dx
= 81^=8-+'^ = - 8(2x" + 7)
+ C.

Example 2 To find / cos^x sin xdx, let u = cos x, du = —sin xdx. Then
replace cos^x by and replace sin xdx by —du to get
 7.2 Substitution • 193

J cos^x sin xdx = — u^du = ■u^ + C = —

3
cos^x + C,

Choosing a good substitution Unfortunately there is no set rule for de¬

ciding when or what to substitute. One useful tactic is to search the inte¬
grand for an expression whose derivative is a factor in the integrand, and
let u be that expression. In Example 1, the expression is 2x^ + 7; its deriva¬
tive x^ (give or take an 8) is a factor. In Example 2, the expression is cos x;
its derivative sin x (give or take a negative sign) is a factor. It is also possible
for more than one substitution to work or for no substitution to help.

Example 3 From Section 3.8, we have je^’‘dx = + C, by inspection.

The extra factor 5 is inserted to counteract the factor 3 produced by the
chain rule when we differentiate back. The problem can also be done by
substitution. Let u = 3x, du = 3dx. Then j dx = jfe“du = +
C — + C. The extra factor j is automatically inserted by the substitu¬
tion process.

Warning Don’t forget to substitute for dx. In the preceding example, dx

must be replaced by jdu. The substitution process will give wrong answers
if dx is ignored, lost or incorrectly replaced by just du.

Example 4 Find / x^ cos x^dx.

Solution: Try the tables first, but without success. Then try substituting
u = x^, du = Sx^dx to get

jx^ cos x^ dx = j X cos u

du
3x^
(replace x^ by u, dx by du/Sx^)

1
= -^ I x^ cos udu (cancel x^)

4/ u cos udu (replace x^ by u)

1
= -^(cos u + u sin u) + C (formula 49)

= 4-(cos x^ + x^ sin x^) + C.

3

Remember that every antidifferentiation problem can be checked by differ¬

entiating the answer. In this case, you can check to see that the derivative
of ^(cos x^ + x^ sin x^) is x^ cos x^.

Warning Don’t forget to substitute at the end of a problem to get a final

answer in terms of the original variable.

Example 5 Formula 13 in the tables is

xdx
/ Vo + bx
dx
U
The formula can be derived in the first place with the substitution u —
a -\- bx and also with u = Va + bx. In the latter case, it is algebraically
easier to write x in terms of u and find dx in terms of du rather than du in

terms of dx. We have = a + bx, so x = - , dx = —udu. Therefore

xdx
— udu
Va + bx b

(algebra)

= - 3a) + C
OO

9 ^_

= —a + bx {a + bx — 3a) + C
^b

=-^-(bx — 2a) Va + 6x + C.
ob

Warning The tables list the formula

(1) \ u sin udu = sin u — u cos u + C.

Therefore it is also true that f x sin xdx = sin x — x cos x + C since all we
did was change every occurrence of the dummy variable u to x. Similarly,
it is also true that J t sin tdt = sin t — t cos t + C and so on. However

(2) i ^ NOT sin ^ cos + C

because not all occurrences of m in (1) have been changed to x/2; in particu¬
lar the occurrence of u in the symbol du did not become x/2. Instead, to do
the integral in (2), let m = x/2. Then du = \dx and

I X .
- sm - dx
X ,
= 2 u sin udu = 2(sin u — u cos u) + C

= 2 + C.

Furthermore, despite (1),

(3) x^ sin x^ dx is NOT sin x^ — x^ cos x^ + C ,

because not every occurrence of u in (1) has been replaced by x^. In an

attempt to apply (1) to the integral in (3), let u — x^. But then du = 2xdx,

Jx^ sin x^ dx = j u sm u
du
2x I u sin u
du 1
2 / Vi7 sin u du
and it turns out that (1) doesn’t apply at all.
 7.3 Pre-Table Algebra I • 195

Problems for Section 7.2

1
1. I xe'‘ dx 12. (2 -
dx

1
2 . j+ 7 dx 13. I cos( — d — \ ] dd

3. j 'V'3 + 5x dx 14. I:xe ’‘dx

‘•M
J VTT
V3 + 7x
dx >. j
15. I cos'x
cos^x sin x<
X tic

5. j tan'^x sec^xdx 16. J e-’‘dx

6. 17. / X sin 3xdx

(X + 1)^
I
7. I
I sec 0 tan d
_ ^de
V1 -I- 2 sec 0
18. / sin^TTXt/x

8. dx 19. 3x sin xdx

X In X

9. J X® sin x^tic 20. x" cos 3xtic

10. J (1 + SxY dx 21. I ln(2x -I- 3) tic

11. I --— dx
J 2 — 3x
22.
dx
cos X

23. We know that dx = arctan x. Is the following antidifferentiation

1 + x^
correct:

1
dx — dx = arctan V3 x + C ?
1 + 3x2 J J ^

24. Find if possible at this stage (a) j tan^^Sxdx (b) j tan^'x^tic.

25. Derive formula 31 for j tan x dx using substitution on | -dx.

Sin
cos X
X

26. Derive formula 33 for / sec x dx by multiplying numerator and denominator

by sec x + tan x and using substitution.
27. Derive formula 39 for / sin^xtix using the trigonometric identity
sin^x = 1(1 — cos 2x).

7.3 Pre-Table Algebra I

If the function to be antidifferentiated is not listed in the tables, some¬

times it may be reduced to a listed function by algebra. This section and the
next offer algebraic suggestions.

Example 1 Consider I . ^ dx. Formula 23 in the tables lists

■> V6x‘ + 3

/ Vfl^ + u‘
du which matches the given problem, except for the 6. Thus

we try to eliminate the 6. One possibility is to factor it out to obtain

196 • 7/Antidifferentiation S

/ Vex^ + 3 ^ VepTl) Ve f Vx^T|

Then use formula 23 with = f to get

(1) [ ^ - dx = —7^ ln(x + a/+ T ) + C•

^ ^ J V6x^ + 3 V6 V V 2 /
Another possibility is to write 6x^ as (VGx)^ and then let u = Vbx,
du = \/6dx. With this substitution,

1 du
J 1
Vbx^ + 3
dx
-f V(V6x)^ + 3 dx =
Vu^ + 3 Ve
ln(w + Vm^ + 3) + C (formula 23)
Ve

(2) —7^ ln(V6x + VGx“ + 3) + C .t

Ve

Warning Don’t forget to substitute for dx in carrying out the substitution.

Example 2 / V3x^ + 4x — 8 dx isn’t in a small set of tables which con¬

centrates on forms involving and ± rather than on forms
involving Ax'^ Bx + C. In this case, use the algebraic process called
completing the square. First factor out the leading coefficient to get

3x^ + 4x — 8 = 3^x^ + —X —.

Then take half the coefficient of x, square it to obtain |, and add and
subtract that value within the parentheses:

3x^ + 4x — 8
9

Thus

+ 4x — 8 c6c V3

Now let M = X + |, (/m = dx to get

tNote that at first glance the two methods do not seem to produce the same answers in
(1) and (2). But (2) may be rewritten as

In Vel X+ -ylx^ + — + C (by factoring)

Ve
1 1 1
In Ve + —p- Inix + it ) ^ (since In afc = In a + In b)
vf Ve
1
Inl jc + A+ -^ I + call In Ve + C a new constant K

which matches (1).

 7.3 Pre-Table Algebra I • 197

2 28 ,
I Vs? + 4x - 8 = Vs I u —— du

VSm 28
U + - + C

(formula 28)

- Vs
VI
2
hVs 2V 28
In + c
-y

jQ Sx“
Example 3 Improper fractions, such as and , :, are those
^ ^ + X + 2 x^ - 7
where the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree
3x
of the denominator. Proper fractions, such as ^-, are those where the
X + 1
degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. The
improper kind are rarely listed in antiderivative tables. To find an anti-
derivative for an improper fraction that is not listed, begin with long division.

Consider f ——r. We have

x^ X 2

lAi I *_/

+ X + 2j?
x^ + x^ + 2x'
— x^ — 2x"
_ ^4 _ ^3
2x^
— X® + 2x^
Y* ^ ““ V' ^ 9 Y’
4^ 4^ cAx

Sx^ + 2x
Sx^ + Sx + 6
—X — 6.

So
—X — 6
(3) = X' - X + S +
x^ + X + 2 x^ + X + 2 ’
_J
-V-^ ^-V-^
improper polynomial proper
fraction fraction
This illustrates that an improper fraction can be written as the sum of
a polynomial and a proper fraction, each of which is easier to anti¬
differentiate than the original improper fraction. For the polynomial in (S)
we have

(4) I (x^ — x^ — X + ?>)dx = “7^^ —+ Sx + C.

J 4 S 2

To antidifferentiate the proper fraction in (S), first separate it into the sum

X 6
(5)
x^ + x + 2 x^ + x + 2
Then, for the first term in (5), we have
V 1 , \ { dx
dx = --ln|x^ + )C + 2| + yJ T2
-I + X + 2
(formula 2)

= “Y Injx^ + X + 2| + tan'
' + c
V7
(formula lb).

For the second term in (5), use formula lb to get

I ujx -12
xx. 2x + 1
0) = "VT + C

Finally, combine (4), (6) and (7) for the final answer

11 2x + 1
I x^ + X + 2
X® , x^ x^ x^ , „
dx =-t“T + 3x-tan
V7
-
V7
1
—— ln|x^ + X + 2| + C.

Problems for Section 7.3

dx
.j X V2x + x^ dx
V2 + 6x - x^

‘■I
r X three ways (long division, tables,
dx dx
Vx + 2x^ J 2x + 6 substitution)
1
dx dx
-•/ V3x" - 5
^ + 2x
1. dx
J X + 4

7.4 Pre-Table Algebra II: Partial Fraction Decomposition

The preceding section advised dividing out improper fractions because

they are rarely listed in tables. But tables often oxmX. proper fractions as well,
when the degree of the denominator is greater than 2. Partial fraction
decomposition is an algebraic technique that helps in this case.
The addition of fractions is a familiar idea from algebra. By finding a
least common denominator we have

2x 7 ' _ 2x(2x — 9) + 7(x^ + 6)

x^ + 6 2x — 9 (x^ + 6) (2x — 9)
(1)
_ llx^ - 18x + 42
“ 2x^ - 9x2 + i2x - 54'

However, if the aim is to antidifferentiate the expression on the left in (1),

it is silly to change to the rightmost fraction. The pieces on the left are
easier to handle than the single fraction on the right. In fact, the point is to
11x2 _ j,g^ _). ^2 2x 7
learn how to decompose j-—5-—-— back to -- + ---. In
^ 2x^ - 9x2 + i2x - 54 x2 + 6 2x - 9
 7.4 Pre-Table Algebra II; Partial Fraction Decomposition • 199

general, we want to decompose a proper fraction which is not in the tables into a
sum of partial fractions which are either in the tables (formulas 1—4) or which
may be antidifferentiated by substitution or inspection. The decomposition is
accomplished in several steps, and it works only tov proper fractions. We will
describe the general steps, and cover the details in the examples. (The proof
of the method is beyond the scope of the course.)

Step 1 Factor the denominator as far as possible, which means into linear
factors and nonfactorable (also called irreducible) quadratics. A quadratic
is taken to be nonfactorable only if its two linear factors involve nonreal
numbers. For example - 3 does factor, namely into {x - VS) {x + VS),
but X + 4, which equals (x — 2i) {x + 2i), is considered nonfactorable.
Quadratics can sometimes be factored by trial and error, but the following
general rule is available:

If b^ — 4ac < 0 then ax^ + bx + c doesn’t factor.

(2) If62-4ac >0then

ax^ + bx + c=a(x- - *0^'^

There is no easy rule for factoring polynomials of higher degree but they
can all be factored into linear and nonfactorable quadratics.

Step 2 The nature of the decomposition depends on the factors in the

denominator.
If a linear factor such as 2x + 3 appears in the denominator then a
fraction of the form A /{2x + 3) appears as one of the partial fractions in
the decomposition.
If a repeated linear factor such as {2x + 3)^ appears in the denominator
then

A B C
2x + 3^ (2x + 3)2 ^ {2x +

appears in the decomposition.

If a nonfactorable quadratic such asx^ + x + 10 appears in the denomi-
Ax 4 B
nator then —j—-appears in the decomposition.
X T X I A V/

If a repeated nonfactorable quadratic such as (x^ + x + 10)^ appears in

the denominator then

Ax + B ^ Cx + D Ex 4 F Gx 4 H
X^ + X + 10 (x^ + X + 10)2 ^^2 ^ ^j^2 ^ ^ jq^4

appears in the decomposition.

Step 3 Determine A,B,C, - • • in the decomposition by the methods to be

shown in the examples.
Decomposition is a useful algebraic tool which has applications in addi¬
tion to antidifferentiation. It will be used in Section 8.7 to find a power
series for a quotient of polynomials, and it occurs in the theory of Laplace
Transforms, encountered in advanced engineering mathematics. In each
instance it is easier to work separately with the partial fractions than with
their sum.

_ _ 2x^ + 3x — '1
Example 1 Decompose ^ ^ ^ and then antidifferentiate.

Solution: The decomposition has the form

2x^ + 3x — 1 _ A ^ B ^ C
(x + 3) (x + 2) (x - 1) X + 3 , X + 2 X - 1

Before trying to determine A, B and C, simplify by multiplying both sides

by (x + 3)(x + 2)(x - 1) to obtain
(3) 2x^ + 3x - 1 A(x + 2)(x - 1) + 5(x + 3)(x - 1)
+ C (x + 3) (x + 2).

Equation (3) is supposed to be true for all x, so we are allowed to substitute

an arbitrary value of x. Use the “good” values —3, —2,1 to facilitate the
algebra.

If X = —3 then 8 = 4A, A = 2.

1
If X = -2 then I = -3B, B - - — .

If X = I then 4 = I2C, C — —.
3

Using good values of x in this manner produces A,5, C immediately. (They

are good because they make two of the factors on the right-hand side of (3)
become 0.) Using other values of x will produce three equations in the three
unknowns A,B,C. The equations can be solved for A,B,C, but this proce¬
dure is unnecessarily complicated. Stay with the good values of x as long as
they last.
The result is

2x^ -I- 3x — 1 1/3 1/3

+
(x-l-3)(x-l-2)(x — 1) x-l-3 x + 2 X — 1

Finally, each term in the decomposition may be antidifferentiated by in¬

spection to obtain ,

I 2x^ -I- 3x — 1
(x + 3) (x 4- 2) (x — 1)
dx = 2 ln|x -t- 3] —— ln|x + 2|
3

4—— ln|x ~ 11 4- X.
3

Example 2 J (3, + 3) _ 2)^

Solution: The fraction is proper, but not in the tables. The decom¬
position has the form

x^ + 2x + 6 A B C
(2x + 3) (x - 2)2 ~ 2x + 3 ^ X - 2 ^ (x - 2)^'

Multiply both sides by (2x 4- 3) (x — 2)^ to simplify:

 7.4 Pre-Table Algebra II; Partial Fraction Decomposition • 201

(4) + 2x + Q = Aix - 2f + Bix - 2){2x + 3) + C(2x + 3).

If X = 2 then 14 = 7C, C = 2.

3 21 4Q
/
If X = - — then = —A, A = 3/7 .
2 4 4

Although the good values of x are exhausted, there are still several
ways to find B easily. One possibility is to use any other value of x. For
example, if X = 0 then 6 = 44 — 65 + 3C. Since we already have A and C,
^ ~ 6(4A + 3C — 6) = f. Another possibility is to equate coefficients. Each
side of (4) is a polynomial, and since they agree for all values of x, it can be
shown that they must be the same polynomial. The polynomial on the left
leads with an x^ term whose coefficient is 1. When the right-hand side is
multiplied out and rearranged, its x^ term is (A + 25)xl Equate the two
coefficients of x^ to obtain 1 = A + 25, 5 = 5(1 - A) = f. Instead of
using the coefficients of x^ we can also use the coefficients of x. On the
left side the coefficient is 2 and on the right-hand side, after simplifica¬
tion, the coefficient is -4A - 5 + 2C. Thus 2 = -4A - 5 + 2C, 5 =-
-4A + 2C - 2 = f.
Therefore

x^ + 2x + 6 _ 3/7 2/7 , 2
(2x + 3) (x - 2)2 “ 2x + 3 ^ X - 2 ^ (x - 2)^'

Each term on the right can be antidifferentiated by inspection or with a

simple substitution to give

x2 -I- 2x + 6 3 2
r/x = — ln|2x + 3| + — ln|x — 2| + K.
(2x + 3) (x - 2)^

17 1 a f j f 3x2 + 2x - 2
Example 3 Emd ;--—5-— dx.
^ J (X - l)(x2 + X + 1)
Solution: Eirst see if the denominator factors further. Since x2 + x + 1
is nonfactorable {b^ — Aac < 0), we can proceed to the decomposition
which is of the form

3x2 + 2x - 2 _ A 5x + C
(x — 1) (x2 + X + 1) X — 1 x2 + X + 1 '

Then

(5) 3x2 + 2x - 2 = A(x2 + X + 1) + (5x + C)(x - 1).

Ifx = 1 (the only good x) then 3 = 3A,A = 1. The preceding example

illustrated two ways to find the remaining letters if there are not enough
good values of x. We prefer not to solve a system of equations to find 5 and
C, and from this point of view, equating coefficients is usually better than
using other values of x. The constant term on the left side of (5) is —2. When
the right side is multiplied out and simplified, its constant term is A — C.
Therefore —2=A — C, C = A + 2 = 3. The coefficient of x 2 on the left
side is 3. The coefficient of x2 on the right side is A +5. Therefore
3=A + 5,5 = 3—A = 2. Thus the decomposition is

3x2 + 2x ~ 2 2 ^ 2x + 3
(x — 1) (x2 + X + 1) X — 1 x2 + X + 1
and
+ 2x - 2 dx
dx = + 2 dx
(x - l)(x^ + X + 1) X — 1 + X + 1

dx
+ 3
X^ + X + 1

The first integral on the right may be done by inspection or with t e

substitution m = x - 1. Use formula 2 and then lb on the second integral,
and use lb for the third integral. Thus

3x2 + 2x - 2
dx
(x - l)(x" + JC + 1) ^
= ln|x - 1| + ln|x^ + X + 1] - tan '
V3

6 2x + 1 ,
+ tan ‘-7^ + K
V3 V3

-1
2x + 1
= ln|x - ll + ln|x2 + X + Ij + tan + K.
V3 V3

Warning 1. The factor x^ — 5 in a denominator is factorable and

the decomposition does not contain ^2 _ ^ • Iristead, factor into

(x - Vs) (x + Vs) and put —_ ^ ^ ^ in decomposition.

2. A numerator of the form Bx + C goes on top of a non factorable

quadratic only. A factor such as (x - 3)2 in the denominator is a repeated
linear factor, not a nonfactorable quadratic, and the decomposition con¬

tains ^ , NOT + ff^^2 • Similarly, the factor x2 in

a denominator is a repeated linear factor, and the decomposition contains

A B
-— 1
X X
3. The decomposition technique in this section does not work for
improper fractions. Use long division on improper fractions first, and then
decompose further, if necessary.

Problems for Section 7.4

.
1 Describe the form of the decomposition without actually computing the
values of A,fi,C, • • •

2x* + 3 4x'
(a) xfx + l)(2x + 3) (b)
(x2 + 2x - 2)(x2 - 2x + 2)

2. Decompose into partial fractions

12 1 ox 2x + 3
(a) x2 - 3 (c) (d)
2x2 _ 5^ _ 12 (x^ + l)(x - 2) (X - 2)2

3
3. Find dx (a) by decomposing and (b) directly from the
(2 — x) (x + 1)
tables. Confirm that the two answers agree.
 7.5 Integration by Parts • 203

2x + 3 8x
j dx
4. Find (a)
X" — 4x +4
5. Derive formula 11.
X
dx
1
(b) dx (c)
■{2x - 3)' /p
.2
6. Find

T ln|x + 4|.
I X'

+ 5x + 4
dx and aim for the answer x + i Inlx + l| -

7.5 Integration by Parts

The substitution method in Section 7.2 is a reversal of the chain rule

for derivatives. The idea behind integration by parts is to reverse the de¬
rivative product rule. SinceD^uv = uv' + vu' we have the integration for¬
mula f (uv + vu )dx = uv. But problems don’t usually originate in the
form J {uv + vu')dx, so we continue on to a more useful version of the
integration formula. Write itasjuv'dx = uv — J vu' dx, and then to make
it easier to apply, use the notation dv = v' dx,du = u' dx to get

(1)

This formula can be used to trade one problem (namely, f u dv) for another
(namely, which may or may not help depending on how good a
trader you are. To apply (1), a factor in the integrand must be called u. The
rest of the integrand including the “factor” dx is labeled dv. Success of the
method, called integration by parts, then depends on being able to find v
from dv (this in itself is antidifferentiation) and on being able to find / v du.

Example 1 We’ll show how the tables arrived at the formula for
/ X sin X dx. We must think of x sin xdx ?lsu dv. One possibility is to let u = x,
dv ~ sinx(ix. Then du = dx and v = —cos x. (Finding v after choosing
dv is a small antidifferentiation problem buried in the overall anti¬
differentiation problem.) Then, by (1),

\ X sin xdx = -x cos x -f cos xdx = -x cos x -f sin x + K.

The trade was a good one since the new integral, / cos x dx, was easy to do.
Another possibility (which proves to be a false start) is to let u = sin x,
dv = xdx. Then du = cos xdx, v = |x^ and, by (1),

sin X dx cos X dx.

This is correct but not useful since the new integral looks harder than the
original.

Example 2 Derive the formula in the tables for f cos x dx.

Solution: Let u — e’‘, dv = cos xdx (it would do just as well to begin
with u = cos X and dv - e’^dx). Then du = e’^ dx, y = sin x and

jcos xdx = e'‘ sin x — Jsin xdx.

The new integral is Just as bad as the original, but surprisingly if we work
on the new one we’ll succeed. Let u = e’‘,dv = sin xdx. (Using u = sin x,
dv = e’^dx at this stage leads nowhere.) Then du = e'^dx, v = —cos x and
204 • 7/Antidifferentiation

c* sin
J e’‘ cos xdx = c* sin x ~
X - —cos X + j ce’‘ cos xdxj
X + xdx]..

On the right-hand side: is is the

the original
original ir
integral which seems circular,
involving Jc’^cos
But collect the terms involving je'‘cosxdx to get 2/c*cosx(/x -
e’‘ sin X + c* cos x. Thus the final answer is

e’^ cos xdx = — {e’' sin x

Icos -I- cos x) + C.

Problems for Section 7.5

1. Derive the formulas given in the tables for

3. Problem 26 in Section 7.2 derived the formula for f sec xdx. Use it to find
the formula for / sec*xi/x. . , r 2 -^2 . • . rnM
4. Suppose Q(x) is an antiderivative for ^ . Find fxe dx in terms of Q(x).

7.6 Recursion Formulas

Some antiderivative formulas, said to be recursive, can be applied re¬

peatedly within a problem to help get a final answer. We will illustrate how
they are used and how they are derived.

Example of a recursion formula Suppose we want to find Jx’ sin xdx.

The tables in this book do not help, and even larger tables will probably not
contain this specific integral. However many tables will list the following
pertinent formula:

(1) Ix" sin xdx = -x" cos x -f nx"“' sin x - n(n - l)|x"'^ sin xdx.

Use (1) with n = 7 to obtain

Then use (1) again with w = 5 to get

And again with n = 3 to get

x’ sin xdx = -x’ cos x + 7x® sin x -f 42x^ cos x - 210x'* sin x

-I- 840 —x^ cos X + 3x^ sin X — 6 x sin xdx

 7.6 Recursion Formulas • 205

Finally use formula 48 in the tables to finish the job and compute
fx sin xdx. The final answer is

J x’ sin xdx = {-x’’ + 42x® - 840x^ + 5040x) cos x

+ (7x® - 210x' + 2520x2 - 5040) sin x + C.

Many of the formulas collected in tables are recursion formulas like (1),
and are usually found by integration by parts. To derive (1), let w = x",
dv = sin xdx. Then du = nx"~^ dx, v = —cos x and

(2) x" sin xdx = —x" cos x + n I x"“' cos xdx.

We don’t stop here because (2) is not recursive; that is, it can’t be used over
and over again. If it is used on /x’ sin xdx, we obtain the new integral
/x® cos xdx to which (2) no longer applies. So we integrate by parts again.
Let u = x" dv = cos xdx. Then du = (n — l)x"~^dx, v = sin x and

/ x" sin xdx = —x” cos x + n .n-l

Sin X — (n — 1) Jx" 2 sin xdx

which simplifies to the recursion formula in (1). Typically, a recursion

formula lowers an exponent in the integrand. The formula in (1) happens
to bring an exponent down by 2. Look at formula 3 in the tables to see an
instance where an exponent (called r) is lowered by 1.

The recursion formulas for f sin’"x cos"x dx Products of powers of sines

and cosines occur frequently, and the tables contain four recursion formu¬
las for them. Formula 52a brings the sine exponent down by 2 and leaves
the cosine exponent alone. Formula 52b brings the cosine exponent down
by 2 and leaves the sine exponent alone. Similarly, formulas 52c and 52d
leave one exponent unchanged and raise the other exponent by 2; they are
used if an exponent is negative to begin with. For example.

sin^x cos® X 3 C .2
j sin^x cos^xdx = — —I" sin X cos^x dx
o J
(by formula 52a with wi = 4, n = 4)

sin®x cos®x sin X cos®x If ,

-7^-^ T" cos xdx
8 b b J
(by formula 52a with w = 2, w = 4)

sin®x cos®x
— sin X cos®x
8 lb

_|_ -
1 sin X cos®x
■.. +
3 f COS 2.1
X dx
16 L 4 4 J
(by formula 52b with m = 0, n == 4)

sin®x cos®x 1 sm X cos 5X +1

• ^ -
— — — sin X cos x
16 64
3
-I- [x + sin X cos x] + C
128
(by formula 52b or 40).
 J
The special case of sin^x cos"xdx where m and/or n is a positive odd
integer One way to find / sin'^'^x cos xdx is to use formula 52a fifty times
to bring the sine exponent down to 0, and finish by doing / cos xdx. But it
is much easier to substitute u = sin x, du = cos x dx to obtain
101
u sm^»‘x
J sin^^^x cos xdx = [ du —
101
+ c =
101
+ c

As another example, consider

(3) j cos^^x sin^x dx .

One possibility is to use formula 52b forty-nine times to bring the cosine
exponent down to 0, use formula 52a once to bring the sine exponent down
to 1, and finish by finding / sin xdx. But it is easier to use formula 52a once
to obtain
sin^x cos^^x 2
/ cos^^x sin^xrfx = —
101
- -f-

101
cos^^x sin X dx.

and then substitute u = cos x, du = —sin xdx to get

I cos^^x sin^xc/x = —
101 101
i -98
u du

Sin 2 x: cos 99x

•
2 u^^
+ C
101 101 99
2 99
Sin
•
X cos X 2
(4) cos®\ + C.
101 (101) (99)

Another approach to (3) is to use the identity cos^x -I- sin^x = 1 and write

sin^x = sin^x sin x = (1 — cos^x) sin x.

Then

j cos^^x sin^x dx = j cos®®x (1 — cos^x) sin x dx

j (cos®®x — cos'^°x) sin xdx

and the problem may be completed with the substitution u = cos x,

du = —sin xdx to obtain

(5)
f cos^^x ■ ^ I
Qfi sm^xdx cos®\ cos'°^x
—-——I-—j-H K.
J ^ yy lu1
In general, suppose at least one of the exponents, say n, is a positive
odd integer. Instead of using the recursion formulas to lower both m and
n, it is faster to use 52b or tbe identity sin^x + cos^x = 1 to reduce the
J
problem to sin^x cos x dx, and then finish with the substitution u sin x, =
du — cos xdx.

Problems for Section 7.6

.
1 Derive a recursion formula for Jx’^e'^dx.
2. Derive recursion formula 53 by writing tan"x as tan^x tan”“^x and using the
identity tan^x = sec^x — 1.
 7.7 Trigonometric Substitution • 207

3. Derive a recursion formula for / (In xYdx and then use it to find / (In xf dx.
4. Use formula 52 to derive a recursion formula for / sin'"x cos^xdx which
brings m and n each down by 2.
5. Explain why formula 4 is not recursive.
6. Find

(a) 1 sin X cos X dx (b) ^j" sin X cos'^xdx (0 J sec^xdxf

(d) 1
r
tan^xdx (e)
f cos X
. „ dx
' sm X
f sin^x
(f)J1
cos X
dx ,
(g) ^ sin\ cos^xdx (try it without tables for practice) J
(h) [" siVSxcix

7. Show that the answers in (4) and (5) agree.

7.7 Trigonometric Substitution

A collection of integrals in the tables (and similar integrals not listed)

can be found using a substitution of a special type called trigonometric
substitution. We will illustrate the method by deriving formula 26 for

—-F=====- dx. The expression can be labeled as the hypote-

nuse of the right triangle in Fig. 1. The triangle will be the basis for the
substitution. Let u be one of the acute angles in the triangle (it doesn’t
matter which angle you choose.) All the relations between x and u that are
needed for the substitution will be read directly from the triangle. There
are many relations available:

tan M = —, cos u = sm u =
a Va^ + x^ Va" + x^

The second relation can be used to replace Vo’ + x^ by an expression

involving u alone, namely by o/cos u. But we also have to replace dx and x
and for this purpose, the first relation, which is simplest, is most useful. It
yields x = a tan u, dx — a sec^u du. (So far, our substitutions have usually
expressed u in terms of x, and du in terms of dx. In trigonometric substi¬
tutions it is more convenient to express x in terms of u, and dx in terms
of du.) Then

dx = -a sec'udu = CSC udu

xVo^ + x^ a
o tan u
cos u
1
(1) =-Injcsc u -I- cot m| -I- C (formula 34).

To express the integral in terms of x, read directly from the triangle that

_ hypotenuse _ VV~T~V adjacent a

CSC u and cot u
opposite X opposite X

Substitute these expressions into (1) to obtain the final answer

1 + x^ a
dx =-In + — + C.
xVa^ + x' X
208 • 7/Antidifferentiation

In general, trigonometric substitution applies to integrands containing the expres¬

sions a' + x' (use Fig. 1), a^ - (use Fig. 2) and x^ - a^ (use Fig. 3). In each
case, u can be either of the acute angles in the triangle. If the antidifferentiation
is part of an overall physical problem, it is very likely that the triangle wi
already be part of the setup, as the following example illustrates.

Example 1 A destroyer detects an enemy battleship 8 km due west

(Fig. 4). The destroyer’s orders are to follow the battleship, always move
toward it, but maintain the 8 km distance between them. The problem is to
find the path of the destroyer if the battleship moves north.

F/6. 3

FI6.F

For convenience draw axes so that initially the battleship is at the origin
and the destroyer is at the point (8,0). Let the unknown path be named
y = fix). Since the destroyer always moves towards the battleship, it is
characteristic of the destroyer’s path that at any point, the line from the
destroyer D to the battleship B is tangent to the destroyer’s path. Figure 4
shows a typical point (x,/(x)) on the unknown path. To find the unknown
function/(x), read from the picture that fix), the slope of line BD, is
negative, and in particular is —V64 — x^/x. Therefore, to find fix) we need

dx.

The integral can be found with formula 21, but we’ll practice with tri¬
gonometric substitution (which was used to derive formula 21 in the first
place). The problem already contains a suggestive right triangle; let it be
one of its acute angles. From the triangle, tan u = V64 — x^/x so the entire
integrand becomes tan u. We also have cos m = x/8, so x = 8 cos it,
dx = —8 sin udu. Therefore,

J tan It • — 8 sin udu =

We can continue with formula 52c in the tables, or with the identity
sin^it + cos^it = 1 as follows:
 7.8 Choosing a Method • 209

— COS^M
du
COS U

(by algebra)
J Vcos u cos u/

= 8 J (sec u — cos u) du

= 8 ln(sec u + tan m) — 8 sin u + C

(by formula 33).

(The absolute values in formula 33 may be omitted because sec u and tan u
are positive in this problem.) To finish the substitution and express the
answer in terms of x, read sec u, tan u and sin u from the triangle to get

„ , , 8 V64 - 5
(2) 8 Inl— H-) — V64 — + C.
.X X

The function f{x) must have the form of (2). To determine C, note that the
point (8,0) is on the graph, that is,/(8) = 0. Thus if x is set equal to 8 in (2),
the result must be 0. So 0 = 8 In 1 — 0 + C. Therefore C = 0 and the path
_ ^ , (8 + V64 - /—-,
is y — 8 ml---1 — V64 — X (an example of a curve called

a tractrix).

Problems for Section 7.7

1. Derive the formulas in the tables for

dx
(a)
/ (b) j Va^ — x^ dx (c) j Va^ + dx
Vx^ -

V3 - x"
2 dx

dx
■h

■I
dx
(7 + x^)"

■I dx
(a" + x")
2\3/2

7.8 Choosing a Method

So far, the chapter has dealt with one method at a time. A list of
miscellaneous problems is more forbidding, especially since there is no
definite set of rules for deciding which method to use. If you have access
to a large set of tables, they will be a great comfort. If a function is not listed
in the tables, we have a few suggestions.

Incomplete list of imperfect strategies (a) Complete the square if the

problem involves ax^ + bx + c but the only similar formula in the tables
does not contain the term x.
210 • 7/Antidifferentiation

(b) Substitute if there is an expression in the integrand whose ^^^iva-

tive is also a factor in the integrand. Substitutions might (unpredictably)
work in other situations too.
(c) Use long division on improper fractions.
(d) Decompose proper fractions if they aren’t in the tables.
(e) Use integration by pafts to get recursion formulas. Integration by
parts may also work when other methods don t seem to apply.
(f) If a problem involving ± or - a^s not in the tables, try
trigonometric substitution.

The perfect strategy The reason that we, the authors, can find anti-
derivatives is that we have already done so many. Almost any reasonable
problem, suitable for a calculus course, is either one we have seen before or
similar to one we have seen before. We don’t have a secret weapon or inborn
ability or a strict set of rules. Our real strategy is second sight, and it comes
from practice.

Problems for Section 7.8

Outline a method for finding each antiderivative.

X
 7.8 Choosing a Method • 211

1
29. I --- dx 52. dx
J 2x + I X® - 2

30. / X sin x^dx 53. / xe’^dx

31. j sec^xdx 54.

sin^x
cos X
dx

1
32.. Jx^
f x^ sin xdx 55. dx
V2x" - 5

■Iw4-
33. I —j===dx
V2 + 3x'
56. I 8 tan(3 — 2x)dx

34. e^’^dx 57. IV3 - X dx

J'
f X
35. I —-- dx
J
2x + 3
58. I I 2 —^x^ dx

1
36. sin bxdx 59. dx
e" +

37. J rV2 - r" 60. I tan X cos‘*xdx

f cos^x ,
38. —^ c6c 61. J V4 — 2x^ (ix
J sin X

39. / sin\ 6?x 62. j Vx^ — X + 3 dx

40. 12 dx dx
■ J + X + 1

41. I 5 sec 2xdx

‘J 7 ln(4x + 5)dx
64.

r 2x H+ 3
dx 65. I dd
J X

43.. j si
sin 3x cos 2xdx 66,

I . 2x
44. I sin — dx 67. JxV3x2 - 1 dx
77

45. I cos 2x sin 2xdx 68. / sin\ dx

46
■I 1
5x — 2
dx 69. cos®x sin^xdx

(x + 3) (x — 2) , sin 2x ,
47. dx 70. I -::r’ dx
X — 1 ’•/-cos 2x

48. x®Vx^ + 7 dx 71. |(1 + e’^fdx

, sin X ,
49. I -^ dx
cos X
72. j sin®xdx

50. X sin \dx 73.

V6x — x‘^ dx

, sin 2x
51.
I xe* dx 74. I -i^dx
9 — cos 2x
212 • 7/Antidifferentiation

X
75. J (x^ - 5)(1 - x)
81. 1X® sin xdx

f sin X ,
J
76. f x(2 + Sxfdx 82. -o dx
1 (2 + cos x)^

J
77. [ ^2=^ sin 2)xdx 83. 1 cos^xdx

78. Jr' 2x2X++X 4— 1 dx 84. 1 cos^xdx

79. J1" (In xfdx 85. cos^x sin xdx

80. ta.n^3xdx

7.9 Combining Techniques of Antidifferentiation with the

Fundamental Theorem

By the Fundamental Theorem of Section 5.3, to find the (definite)

integral J* f{x) dx, we first try to find the antiderivative (indefinite integral)
F{x) = J f{x)dx, and then compute F{b) - F{a). This can be done in two
separate steps, or to save time and paper, the two steps can be combined as
shown in this section.

Combining substitution and the Fundamental Theorem Consider

Jlx^ cos x^dx. We’ll begin by finding an antiderivative for the integrand as
a first step, apply the Fundamental Theorem in a second step, and then see
how to merge the two. To antidifferentiate, substitute

(1) u = x^, du = Sx^ dx.

Then

I x^ cos x^ dx =4"o JI
J
cos udu =
O
sin u + C =—
D
sin x* + C.

Any antiderivative may be used in applying the Fundamental Theorem;

with the antiderivative -I sin X®, we have

1
I2
x^ cos x^ dx =—
3
sin x^
^
2
1 .
= — (sin 27 — sin 8).
3

To accomplish this in one step, use the substitution in (1) to express the
integrand in terms of u, and write the limits of integration in terms o/m. If x = 2
then M = 8; if X = 3 then u — 27. Thus
r3 Y 1 27 J
(2) x^ cos x^dx = — cos udu = — sm u = — (sin 27 — sin 8).
^2 3 ^8 3 8 3

Switching to u limits produces the same answer as before, but in less space.
Note the difference between a substitution in J f{x)dx versus ^if{x)dx.
For the former, we must eventually change back from m to x so that the final
antiderivative is expressed as a function of x. But in (2), the new integral
cos udu computes to be a number, and there is no “changing back” to
be done.
7.9 Combining Techniques of Antidifferentiation with the Fundamental Theorem • 213

Example 1 Find —- dx.

Jy 5 - ‘2.x
Solution: Letw — 5 — 2x,du — —2dx. Ifx = 7 then m = —9; ifx —>• co
then u —oo. Therefore

(3) f— — = — du = Injul
Jy 5- 2x 2 J-Q u 2 -9

1 . 1 , ^
= - Ylnoo + Yln9 = -00.

Note that after the substitution, the lower limit u — —9 is larger than
the upper limit u = —oo, that is, the limits are backwards. This causes no
difficulty. Simply continue with T(^) — F{a), which still holds even for back¬
ward limits.

Warning When substituting in a (definite) integral, the limits of integra¬

tion must be changed to new u limits. In (3), it is not correct to write
r°° 1 f°° r°° 1 Cl
--dx = -^ — du or --- dx = -i — du. The original x
Jy 5 - 2x ^Jy u Jy 5 - 2x J U ®
limits cannot be retained, nor can they be dropped in the middle of a
problem (even if you intend to restore them later).

Example 2 Without evaluating either integral, show that

r-3 r3

e’‘ sin(3 — x)dx = sin xdx.

'0 ■'0

Solution: Let u = 3 — x, du = —dx. If x = 0 then u = 3; if x =3 then

u = 0. Since m = 3 — x, we have x = 3 — Therefore

sin(3 — x)dx = — “ sin udu (substitution)

J(\ J%

= “ sin udu use /(x) dx = — dx

■'3

= sin xdx
■'0
(change the dummy variable from u to x).

The last step often bothers students. Remember that sin udu is a
number; the letter m is a dummy variable. We can write the integral as
sin tdt or sin a da or (as we did) sin xdx. All of these
stand for the same number.

Combining integration by parts with the Fundamental Theorem To find

f 0^^ X sec^x dx, let u = x, dv = sec^x dx. Then du - dx, v = tan x and
7r/4
j ^ 1 1 1
X sec'^x dx = X tan x — tan xdx = t + In cos x
Jq 0 Jo 4 ' ' 0

1
214 • 7/Antidifferentiation

The limits of integration do not change in the process. More generally, the
integration by parts rule for (definite) integrals, as opposed to anti-
derivatives (indefinite integrals) is

f udv — uv
-f n
vdu.

Problems for Section 7.9

1. For each integral, perform the indicated substitution, and then stop after
reaching an integral involving only u.

(a) sin®x dx, u —

•^2

(b) u = In X
/: sin(ln x) dx,
(c)
I dx, u is the angle indicated in Fig. 1

2. Evaluate the integral.

xf
P6. I (a) I x{3x^ - l)'°dx
•'2
(b) ( e“^ cosxdx
•'0
(c) (
■'1
-
X
dx

(d) f sin^x cos^xdx (e) f x'^e'‘^dx (f) j xVx^ + 4 dx

' trl'i '•'n

3. Show that the integrals are equal without evaluating them.

(a) I x"‘(l - x)"dx = f x"(l - xy"dx

•'0 •'0

no n
rso
(b) I (x + 20fdx - I :^dx
Jo •'9(
'20

(c) j \l sin —X dx = 2 I Vsin x dx

4. Given that -dx = k, find

PX In In xdx in terms of k.
Jo In X Jg

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 7

f X
1. Find —5-dx
J x^ + 1
(a) directly from the tables (b) by ordinary substitution
(c) with a trigonometric substitution (d) by integration by parts

2. Find 1 --dx
J (x + 2) (x - 4)
(a) using substitution and formula 9
(b) by completing the square and using formula 18
(c) directly from the tables
(d) by partial fractions
 Chapter 7 Review Problems • 215

3. Indicate a method.

(a) e^’^sinxdx (h) f—^ dx

J X +
+ 3
1 X + 3
(b) dx (i) j dx
3x + 4 X

1 23c + 1
(c) dx (j) I dx
V2 - X + 6
X
(d) (k) c?x
I (1 + 2xY 2xY / VSx + 4
1
(e) I tan^Sx dx (l) ■ c?x
V2x^ + X
1
(f) I e-^’^dx (m) dx
x^(l + x)
1 1
(g) I (n) dx
x^ + X + 2

4. Find J sin 3x sin 5xdx

(a) directly from the tables

(b) with the identity sin x sin y = |[cos(x — y) — cos(x + y)]
(c) with integration by parts
C tt/S /"tt/S

5. If 6“ sec^xdx = Q, find e* tan xdx in terms of Q.

-'0

6. Find j x(2 + x^fdx.

■'0
7. Find

(a) j sin X dx (f) j sin^x cos^xdx

(b) j sin^xdx (g) \ \dx

J X

(c) j sin^x dx (h) I — dx

J X

(d) j sin X cos xdx (i) [

J Vx

(e) sin^x cos xdx

Eii «*if i#o

i.-'T' t'«- ..ftA

*}
'‘w 4” HR \f i1 V

aXT
n!'
♦
. , ^.- i- r 1 I
fir ~ - -r. ^
r « ^4f V
,««
t

■’5^ '77;?: '*’# I, »

, * i.
1 ,
4 „
-A

'J’ >'» ai-i

..-JWv- ■ ' - ■
. ''i
^ * 1) •

A
f
■ rr ^ 4-
V .C%- 4, 'I'' I >

■"lU.Iv uv:
= V,V* ■ (V ' t, l> V
• .'
• -.<■ W.4 ^^
'■
iK.'i ;«< auH> ?j;y^f*t *':

> tfl .'‘Mu:* ’ ^

.-.(i y S'-: '

►<ii7\
>i\'‘ - irf/l T t
■ V.1
;. . ■ ■' '.*
-■•' f -5^4^ T rti , ^ »*.j .'isji <un '. ■^‘
\.
■ A
•^7^ i ‘t*' ^ i>

4- ih -".■...t\4Mt'-\ ir »»
h
n>
If ,»} 1
1—
^4fin ^ T/ ▼
aj .• ' 1^ ‘c^

J.- ^■^4r
inf.'
/

8.1 Introduction

In precalculus mathematics, addition can only be done with finitely

many numbers. Addition of this type is very concrete: 3 + 4 = 7 because
a pile of 3 apples merged with a pile of 4 apples becomes a pile of 7 apples.
Addition of infinitely many numbers is physically impossible in the apple
sense, but this chapter presents a sensible mathematical definition and its
consequences. The first application is in the next section, and the main
applications are in Sections 8.6 and 8.7.

Series and their sums The symbol O] + ^2 + ^^3 + • • • is called a series with
terms ay, a^, a^,-” • The series is also written as a„. Frequently we will use
2 as an abbreviation. The partial sums of the series are

51 — fli

52 ~ ay + ^2

(1) 53 = fli + fl2 "f <^3

If the partial sums approach a number S, that is, if

(2) lim Sn = S ,

we call S the sum of the series, and write 2 = S. In this case the series is
called convergent; in particular, it converges to S. The definition of the sum of
a series says to start adding and see where the subtotals are heading.
If the partial sums do not approach a number, the series is divergent.
There are three types of divergence. If the partial sums approach 00, we say
that the series diverges to 0°, and write 2 = °°. Similarly, if the partial sums
approach —0°, the series diverges to —0°, and 2a„ = —°°. If the partial sums
oscillate so vigorously that they approach neither a limit, nor «=, nor — °o, we
simply say that the series diverges.

Example 1 The series 1 — 2+1 — 3+1—4+1 — 5 + -'‘ diverges to

—00, since the partial sums are 1, — 1,0, —3, —2, —6, —5, —10, • • • which ap¬
proach —°o. In other words, 1—2 + 1 — 3+ 1—4 + 1—5 + -‘- = —00.

Example 2 Consider X
sums are

217
218 • 8/Series

I' 1 1 »■ 7

-1 1 l + -l = i^
^4 - 2 + 4 ^ 8 16 16

Since lim„.oo S„ = 1. the series has sum 1, that is, the series converges to 1,
and we write (I)”
= 1- (If you eat half a pie, then half of the remaining
half-portion, then half of the still remaining quarter-portion, and so on, you
are on your way to eating the entire pie.)

Warning If the sum of a series is 5, it is not necessarily true that 5 is ever

reached as term after term is added in. In the preceding example, if we start
adding • • • we will never reach 1. But the subtotals are getting closer
and closer to 1, so the definition calls 1 the sum.

Example 3 Consider the series

(3) 2 - 2 + 2 - 2 + 2 - 2 + •••.

The partial sums are 5i = 2, S2 = 0, ^3 = 2, ^4 = 0, • • •. They do not have a

limit as n —> 00, so the series does not have a sum; it diverges.
This example often disturbs students. Some would like the answer to
be either 2 or -2 depending on whether the “last” term is odd or even
numbered. But there is no last term; they just keep coming. Some would
like the answer to be 0 because they visualize the series grouped into pairs
and turned into
(4) (2 - 2) + (2 - 2) + (2 - 2) + • • • = 0 0 + 0 + 0 + • • •.

Some would like the answer to be 2 because they group the terms into

(5) 2 (-2 + 2) + (-2 + 2 ) -f- • • • = 2 + 0 + 0 0 + • • •.

It is true that the series in (4) converges to 0 because the partial sums are
all 0, and the series in (5) converges to 2 because the partial sums are all 2.
But they are not the same as the original divergent series in (3), whose
partial sums oscillate between 0 and 2.
Grouping a string of 10 numbers has no effect on their sum. But this
example illustrates that grouping the terms of a series may produce a new
series with a different sum.

Factoring a series For a sum of two numbers we have the factoring prin¬
ciple cx + cy = c(x + y). Similarly, it can easily be shown that

(6) coi ca2 + ca^ + cai + • • ■ = c{ai + a^ + a^ + a^ + • • •),

or equivalently, 2ca„ = c2a„ (we assume c 9^ 0). The equation in (6)

 8.1 Introduction • 219

is intended to mean that either the series coi + ca2 + ca^ + • • • and
ai + 02 + as + • • • both converge, in which case the first sum is c times the
second, or both diverge.
/ For example.

^,1 1 1 1

= T ■ I = T.

Term by term addition of two convergent series It is not hard to show

that if Sa„ converges to A and S b^ converges to B, then 2 (a„ + b„) con¬
verges to A + 5. In abbreviated form, 2(a„ + = Ea„ +
We offer a numerical illustration although the principle is more useful
for theory than for computation. Since Example 2 showed that

1 1 1 1
+ — + — -l- — -)-
= 1,
2 4 8 16

and the next section (Problem 2) will show that

J___l_ J_1_
4 16 ^ 64 256 ^ 5 ’

we may add termwise to obtain

3 3 9 15 6
— + — -|- — H-+ • • • — —.
4 16 64 256 5

Dropping initial terms It can easily be shown that if the first three terms
of 2„=i a„ are dropped, then the new series a„ and the original series
will both converge or both diverge. In other words, chopping off the begin¬
ning of a series doesn’t change convergence or divergence. Of course,
dropping terms will change the sum of a convergent series.
Dropping terms is useful if a series doesn’t begin to exhibit a pattern
until say the 100th term. In that case, it is convenient to drop the first
99 terms when the series is tested for divergence versus convergence.
For example, the series 6 + 100 -l-2 + 3+ | + 5 + ^ + ^+ -- - con¬
verges because if the first four terms are dropped, the remainder is the
convergent series in Example 2. In particular, the sum of the remaining
terms is 1, so the sum of the original series is 6 + 100 + 2 + 3 + 1, or 112.

Problems for Section 8.1

1. Write the first three terms of the series.

1
(a) li-iT: (b) 2
2n -I- 1

2. Decide if the series converges or diverges.

, 11111
(a) 1-2 + 3- 4 + 5- 6 +
(b)y+2+Y+2'+2 +
3. Find the terms and the sum of the series given the following partial sums,

(a) S„ = n (b) 5„ = 1 for all n

220 • 8/Series

4. Find the sum of the series 2 (-Tt) slowly writing out some
\n n + 1/
partial sums until you see the pattern.
5. There is no term-by-term addition principle for two divergent series; that is,
their term-by-term sum is unpredictable. Prove this by finding two divergent series
whose term-by-term sum also diverges, and two^other divergent series whose term-
by-term sum converges.
6. If Sfln has partial sums S„ then 5ioo “ Sgg — flwhat?

8.2 Geometric Series

One particular type of series, called geometric, occurs often in applica¬

tions, and is easy to sum.

Definition of a geometric series A series of the form

a + ar + ar^ + ar^ + ar* + • • •, a 0,

is called a geometric series with ratio r. The series is also denoted by

Each term of a geometric series is obtained from the preceding term by
multiplying by r.
For example, 5 + 15 + 45 + 135 + ••• is geometric with a = 5, r = 3.

Geometric series test Not only is there a simple criterion for convergence,
but if the series converges, the sum can easily be found. We will show:

(A) Ifr>:lorr<—1 then X diverges.

n=0
00

(B) If — 1 < r < 1 then X converges to --

n=0 1 ~

To illustrate why (A) holds, we’ll look at some series with r > 1 or
r ^ — 1. For example, the series 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + -- - has r = 1 and di¬
verges to 00; the series 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + -- - has r = 2 and diverges to oo.
The series 1 — 2 + 4 — 8 + -- - has r = — 2 and diverges because the
partial sums oscillate wildly.
To prove (B) we will find a formula for the partial sums S„ and examine
the limit as n —> oo. We have

(1) Sn = a + ar + ar^ + or® + ••• + ar"“^

Multiply by r to obtain

(2) rS„ = ar + ar^ + ar^ + • • • + ar-"“* + ar".

Subtract (2) from (1) to get

(1 — r)S„ = a — ar".

Finally, divide by 1 - r, assuming r A 1, to get

a — ar"
s
1 — r
 8.2 Geometric Series • 221

If w —> 00 and —1 < r < 1, then r" —» 0. Therefore

hm S„ = hm —- = -- for -1 < r < 1,

n-*“> n-»“ 1 — T 1 — T

and the series converges to a/(l — r).

For example, the series ^ — l + converges since
r = —1/5, which is strictly between —1 and 1. The sum S is given by

In other words, 2”=o 3(—1)" = |.

Application Consider a game in which players A and B take turns tossing

one die, with A going first. The winner of the game is the first player to
throw a 4. We want to find the probability that A wins.
Player A wins if A throws a 4 immediately or the results are

(3) non-4 for A, non-4 for B, 4 for A

or

(4) non-4 for A, non-4 for B, non-4 for A, non-4 for B, 4 for A
and so on.

Note that the probability of a non-4 on any toss is f and the probability
of a 4 is 1. Therefore the probability that A throws a 4 immediately is
To find the probability of (3), consider that in five-sixths of the games, A
begins by throwing a non-4; then in five-sixths of those games, B continues
by tossing a non-4; and in one-sixth of those games A follows with a 4.
Therefore the probability of (3) is the product! x I x g, that is (!)^!. Simi¬
larly, the probability of (4) is (!)^!. Therefore the probability that A wins
is g + ;! (t)^ + i (§)'* + ^ (I)® + • • •. The series is geometric with a = ! and
r = (!)^ and its sum is fl/(l — r), or n- So the probability that A wins is

Problems for Section 8.2

Decide if the series converges or diverges. If a series converges, find its sum.

1 1 1 1 1 /2\’ l/2\' 1 /2\*

1. —1 -l- — — — -l--—
6 36 216 '•Tati's) ■^4(3') ^4(3)
« 1 1 1 I . 7. .1 + .01 + .001 + .0001 +
4 16 64 256
3 9 27 81
8. X (sin 0)^" for a fixed 6

4. 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + 9. S 2n+l
n=0 ^

" 1
5- 25:
n=3
8.3 Convergence Tests for Positive Series I

It is important to be able to decide if a given series converges or

diverges, and if it converges, we want the sum. We were extraordinarily
successful with geometric series, but we will not be so lucky otherwise. This
section begins to collect tests for convergence versus divergence. No test
supplies an absolute criterion, a condition that is both necessary and suf¬
ficient for convergence, and consequently more than one test may have to
be tried. Furthermore, even if a series is identified as convergent, it is
usually too difficult to find the sum. We often settle for an approximation
to the sum, obtained by adding some of the terms of the series.
The series that arise most frequently in applications either have all
positive terms or else terms that alternate in sign, so we concentrate on these
types in the next three sections.

Positive series A series with all positive terms is called a positive series. As
a by-product of studying positive series, we will be able to test series with all
negative terms as well, since in that case a factor of ~ 1 can be pulled out,
leaving a positive series. A series which has some negative terms, but be¬
comes positive after say aiooo, counts as a positive series, since the first 1000
terms can be dropped in testing for convergence versus divergence.
Since the partial sums of a positive series are increasing, a positive
series will either converge or else diverge to oo. The size of the terms of a
positive series 2 a„ determines whether the series converges or diverges. If
the series is to converge, the terms must approach 0 and furthermore, must
approach 0 rapidly enough. Otherwise, the subtotals will be dragged to ^ and the
series will diverge to oo. For example, if a„ approaches 3, rather than 0, then
eventually the series is adding terms near 3, such as

(1) 2.9 + 2.99 + 3.002 + •■•

and will diverge to <». As another example, consider the series

11 1111
— -I--)- — -j- — -f- — -j- —
(2)
2 2 4 4 4 4

two terms four terms

11111111,1 ,1,
'^8^8^8^8^8^8^8^816 16

eight terms sixteen terms

The series diverges because = !,•••,

82 = 2, - • ■, S14 = 3,---, and
Sn —^ The terms of the series do approach 0, but not rapidly enough. On
the other hand.

1111
(3) ~ -|-H--t- - -h
2 4 8 16

is geometric (r = 1/2) and converges. Its terms approach 0 rapidly enough.

Our general conclusions may be rephrased in the following four
statements.
 8.3 Convergence Tests for Positive Series I • 223

nth term test Let be a positive series.

(A) If a„ doesn’t approach 0 then diverges to (e.g., (1)).

(B) If converges then a„ 0.

(Part (B) follows from (A): Suppose S a„ converges. If a„ does not approach
0 then, by (A), diverges, contradicting the hypothesis. Thus a„ must
approach 0. In fact, (A) and (B) are logically equivalent, since (A) similarly
follows from (B).)

(C) If a„ ^ 0 then S o„ may converge (see (3)) or may diverge (see

(2)). Convergence of the series depends on whether approaches 0
rapidly enough. More testing will be necessary to decide.
(D) If 2 a„ diverges then a„ may or may not approach 0. Either
does not approach 0 at all (see (1)), or approaches 0 too slowly (see (2)).

72 *
Example 1 Consider ^ ^ . By the highest power rule (Section 2.3),

o—2“, o ~ 1/3, which is nonzero. Therefore the series diverges by the

n*«> 6n +2 o /
nth term test. In particular, it diverges to 00.

Warning Don’t confuse the limit 1/3 with the sum of the series. The terms
approach 1/3, but the sum of the terms is °o.

Example 2 Test 2 ^ 3 ^ ^ for convergence versus divergence.

71'^ Tl
Solution: By the highest power rule, lim ^-- = 0. But until we can
^ ^ ^ n-oo 4n^ + 6
decide if the terms approach 0 rapidly enough, the series can’t be categorized.
Additional procedures will be necessary before we can finish this example
(Section 8.4).

Warning The nth term test is only a test for divergence. When a„ does not
approach 0, the test concludes that the series diverges, but the test can never
be used to conclude that a series converges. The nth term test is a crude
weapon. It identifies the grossly divergent series, where does not
approach 0. But if a series passes the nth term test, that is, a„ 0, then
the only conclusion is that the series has a chance to converge ((3) does but
(2) doesn’t), and more refined tests must be applied.

Comparison test Suppose a positive series has terms that approach 0. One
of the ways to decide if the terms approach 0 rapidly enough is to compare
them as follows with the terms of a series already categorized.

Suppose 2 and 2 are positive series, and b„ for all n. If 2 K

converges, then 2 a„ converges. If 2 a„ diverges to oo, then 2 diverges
to °o. Thus, if the series with larger terms converges, then the series with smaller
terms converges also. If the series with smaller terms diverges to <», then the series
with larger terms also diverges to oo.
 The comparison test isn’t useful unless the terms of a given series
can be compared with those of a series already known to be convergent or
known to be divergent. Therefore our next task is to produce a collection of
known standard series, important in their own right and useful for com¬
parison purposes.

Standard series Section 4.3 listed some functions in increasing order of

magnitude. The following expanded version of that list, with x replaced by
n (representing a nonnegative integer) will be helpful.

(4) In n, (In n)^ (In n)^ • • •, Vn,

3/2 2 j] ,2M00",---,n!

The new entry in (4) is the function n!. Remember that n! is defined as the
product n(n - l)(n - 2)---1, so that, for example, 5! = 5x4x3x
2x1 = 120. As a special case, 1! and 0! are both defined to be 1. To see
that nl is indeed of a higher order of magnitude than 100", consider the
quotient 100"/n! say for n = 200:

lOO^o® _ /100 > 100 . 100\ /lOO • 100 • 100.ioo\

200! ~ \ 1-2.100 / \101 • 102 • 103 . 200/

We have written the result as the product of two factors, note that the
second factor is very small. As n we may continue to write 100"/n! as
the product of two factors, one remaining fixed and the other approaching
0. Therefore 100"/n! approaches 0, showing that n\ grows faster than 100".
Similarly, it may be shown that n\ has a higher order of magnitude than any
exponential function b”'.
Next, consider the reciprocals of the functions in (4):

_J_l_ 1 11111 1 1 _J_ J_

In n ’ (In nf ’ (In n)® ’ ’ ’ n ’ n^'^ ’ n^’ n^’ (1.5)"’2"’100"’ ’’n!’

The entries in (5) approach 0 as n —> °o, as opposed to (4) where the entries
approach oo. Section 4.3 discussed orders of magnitude for functions which
approach <». Similar ideas hold for functions approaching 0. If a„ and b„
both approach 0 as n —> <», their quotient takes on the indeterminate form
0/0, and its value depends on the particular and 6„. If a„/&„ ^ or
equivalently 6„/a„ ^ 0, we say that a„ approaches 0 more slowly than b„ and
has a higher order of magnitude than b„. If a„/bn —> L, where L is a positive
number, (not 0 or oo) then a„ and are said to have the same order of
magnitude. The orders of magnitude in (5) decrease reading from left to
right. Equivalently, the entries in (5) approach 0 more rapidly reading from left
to right.
Finally, consider the series in Table 1, corresponding to the terms in
(5). Some, such as 21/2", are geometric series. The series of the form
2 \/n^ are called p-series. For example, 21/n^= 1 + | + | + ^+---isa
p-series with p — 2.. The /^-series with p = I,

+ -!- + i + i +
2 3 4

is called the harmonic series. All the series in the table are given a chance to
converge by the nth term test, since their terms do approach 0 as n ^ oo.
When the terms approach 0 slowly, the series will diverge; when the terms
 8.3 Convergence Tests for Positive Series I • 225

Table 1 Standard Series

Diverge Converge

Y y ^ ... y 1 y 1 V 1 vl vlvl v*!

’ (1.5)”’^ 2”’’ nT
^ y '
---'' -y--->

^(Inn)^’ 2^,0</><l y\>P>l Sr", 0<r<l

p-series p-series geometric series

approach 0 rapidly, the series will converge. We will show at the end of the
?>ecX\on a p-series converges if p > \ and diverges if p < 1; in particular,
harmonic series diverges. Thus the dividing line in Table 1 comes after 2 l/n.
The series in the table to the left of the series 2 1 //* have terms which are
respectively larger than l/n so they too diverge, by comparison. Similarly,
the series to the right of the convergent /^-series where p > \ converge by
comparison with their neighbors on the left, since they have correspond-
ingly smaller terms. (Table 1 does not contain all series. In particular, there
are divergent series between 2 l/n and the dividing line, albeit not jf^-series,
and there are convergent series between the dividing line and the /^-series
withp > \. There is no “last” series before the line and no first series after
the line.)

For example, X^ = l+ :^ + :^ + :^+---is a/i-series with

p = and diverges.

Warning Don’t confuse a p-series such as

^ n' ‘ ^^ tIs + (p = 3, series converges)

with a geometric series such as

V 1 1,1,1 1 1
r = series converges
^3" ^ 3 ^ 9 ^ 27 ^ 81 " 3 ’

Example 3 Test 2—— 1 + + • • • for convergence versus

divergence.
Solution: The series is not a /^-series because the exponent n is not
fixed, and is not a geometric series because the base n is not fixed. However,
it can be successfully compared to either type. If w >2, the terms of 2 l/n”
are respectively less than those of the convergent p-series 21/n^ =
1 + i + 5 + ^+ that is l/n” < 1/n^ for n > 2. Therefore 2 l/n”
converges by the comparison test.

Subseries of a positive convergent series If 2 is a positive convergent

series, then every subseries also converges. In other words, if the original
terms produce a finite sum then any subcollection will also produce a finite sum. For
example, 1 + 5 + b + '^ + ^+ '“ converges since it consists of every
other term of the convergent p-series 2 1/n^.
226 • 8/Series V

FIG,I
Proof of the p-series principle We conclude the section with a proof that
a /^-series converges for p > \ and diverges for p ^ 1.
We’ll begin with the case oi p — 2, that is, with 2 1/w . The trick is to
assign geometric significance to the terms of the series using the graph of ^
l/x^ and the rectangles in Fig. 1. The first rectangle has base 1 and height
4, SO area Ai is 4. Similarly, = 9, A3 = lej stid so on. Therefore,

But the sum of the rectangular areas in Fig. 1 is less than the area under the
graph of 1/x^ for x ^ 1, so

(7)
fl .7
Ai + A2 + As + •••<— «^^ =-= 1 •
1 “ 1

' X X 1

Therefore, by (6) and (7), 2 1/n^ converges (to a sum which is less than 2). ,
The general proof for 2 1/w^, p > T is similar, but with the exponent
2 replaced by p.
Next, consider the case where p = 1. As a first attempt, see the graph
of 1/x in Fig. 2 which shows that
 8.3 Convergence Tests for Positive Series I • 227

FI6.3
, 1 1 1
1 H—“ H-H-+ 1 + + £2 ^£3 +
2 3 4

The area fii + + ••• is less than the total area under the graph of
\/x, X S: 1. The latter area is jx{\/x)dx = In x|]° = But this is useless
since it does not reveal if the smaller area + £2 + ^3 + • • • is finite or
infinite. As a second attempt, consult Fig. 3 to see that

, 1 1 1
1 H—H-H-+
2 3 4
X
— Cl + C2 + C3 + In X 00 ,
1
Therefore, the second attempt shows that 2 1/w diverges to 00.
Finally, the jf?-series with p < \ (which are to the left of 2 1/n in
Table 1) diverge by comparison with 2 1/n, since their terms are re¬
spectively larger.

Problems for Section 8.3

1. Suppose 2an is a positive series. Decide if the statement is true or false.

(a) If a„ —> 0 then 2 converges, (c) If 2 diverges then a„ does not
(b) If dn does not approach 0 then approach 0.
2a„ diverges. (d) If 2an converges then a„ -> 0.

2. What conclusion can you draw from the nth term test about the convergence
or divergence of the series?

<a) 2^

3. In Problems (a)-(q), decide if the series converges or diverges.

1111
(a)
' 9 + 27 + iT + V3 Vi V5

(b) 1 + -t + _L + _L + _L + (d)V3 + V4 + V5 + V6 + -- -
4 9 16 25
228 • 8/Series

3 3 3, 111,
(e) (1) ^ ■p ^ ■
5! 6! ^ 7!
1 1 1
(f)
1 _L -L + J- +
8 ^ 27 ^ 64 125
1 1 1 J_ J_ J_
(g) + + + (n) .
3V3 5V5 7V7 2e® ^ 3e* ^ 4e^
1111
(h) 5+6+-+y+-+-+ (o)

3^4 5 6^7...
(i)
4 5 6 7 8

(P) 8 ^ 88 ^ 888
(j) ^ 2"n!
1 1 1
- -j- - - +
(k) y — (q) 4! 6! 8!
^ n2”
4. Suppose S On is a positive convergent series. Decide, if possible, if each of the
following series converges or diverges.

(a) S — (b) E ^ (c) E nlun (d) E cos a

an n\

8.4 Convergence Tests for Positive Series II

This section continues with two more tests for positive series.

Limit comparison test We ll begin with a preliminary example to intro¬

duce the idea behind the test. You may prefer to skip directly to the test
itself (next page) which most students find plausible without proof. Con¬
sider the series S 1/(2tc + 3). Since 2 1/w diverges, it might appear that we
can test the given series by comparison. But 2n + 3 > n, so

1 J_
(1) 2n + 3 n

which is not a useful inequality; if the terms of a series are respectively

smaller than the terms of a divergent series, no conclusion can be drawn.
However, we can find another comparison by first finding a limit. We have

_ l/(2n + 3) ,. n 1
(2) lim-r-:- lim (by algebra) = — (highest power rule).
\/n 2n 4- 3 2

Numbers which approach 1/2 must eventually go above and remain

. „ l/(2w + 3) ^ ,
above .4, so eventually-r-;- > .4.
\/n
Thus, eventually,

1 ^
(3)
2n + 3 n

But the series 2.4/n is .42 1/n, which diverges (harmonic series). There¬
fore, 2 l/(2n + 3) diverges by comparison with 2 A/n.
Let’s summarize the results. Although the original comparison in (1)
did not help, the impulse to compare the given series with 2 1/w was sound,
 8.4 Convergence Tests for Positive Series II • 229

and in (3), we found a useful comparison with a multiple of S 1/w. The

procedure worked because the limit in (2) was a positive number rather
than 0 or oo. In essence, 2 l/(2w + 3) diverges because l/(2w + 3) and Xjn
have the same order of magnitude and 2 1/w diverges. In general, we have
the following limit comparison test.

Suppose that an and bn, both positive, have the same order of magnitude.
Then 2 a„ and 2 bn act alike in the sense that either both converge or both diverge.

Intuitively, the test claims that for positive series, if a„ and b„ have the
same order of magnitude, they are similar enough in size so that 2 a„ and
2 b„ behave alike. The preliminary example showed why this is the case for
2 l/2n + 3 and 2 1/n. We omit the more general proof.
To apply the limit comparison test to a positive series 2 try to find a standard
series 2 bn such that bn has the same order of magnitude as an. One way to do this is
to use the fact (whose uninteresting proof we omit) that if an is a fraction then
an has the same order of magnitude as the new fraction
term of highest order of magnitude in the numerator
term of highest order of magnitude in the denominator
For example, {n^ + ?i)/(4n^ + 6) has the same order of magnitude as
n^lAn^, or l/4w. Therefore

V ” + ” ...
^ . 3 , ^ acts like
4n + 6
Since the latter is the divergent harmonic series, the first series diverges
also.

Ratio test Series such as

(4)

are not standard series, nor can they be compared to standard series via the
limit comparison test. The ratio test is a general method for testing positive
series and is particularly useful for the series in (4). We’ll state the test first,
give examples, and then prove it.

Let an be a positive series. Consider lim —^.

(A) If the limit is less than 1 then 2 a„ converges.

(B) If the limit is either greater than I or is then 2 diverges.
(C) If the limit is 1 then no conclusion can be drawn. Try another test.

For example, consider 22"/^!. Then (2„ = T^jnX, an+\ = 2"'^V(’^ + 1)!
and

2""V(n + 1)! 2 n+1

(by algebra) -- (cancel).
an T/n\ (n + 1)! n + 1

Therefore,

lim^ = lim^—- 0.
n+oo dji Tl 1

Since the limit is less than 1, the series 2 2”'/n\ converges by the ratio test.
 As another example, we’ll test We have
3
fl (n + 1)^ T \ (n + \
2
n-»oo <Z„

Since the limit is less than 1, the given series converges by the ratio test.
♦ V

Proof of the ratio test i r • o'?

(A) We assume that lim„,oo a„+i/a„ is less than 1. Suppose the limi is.
If the ratios approach .97, eventually they must go below and remain below
.98. We’ll discard initial terms until we reach this eventuality, so that we rnay
consider that all the ratios a„+,/a„ under consideration are less than .98.
Then fl„+i < .98a„, and if we imagine multiplying our way from one term
of the series to the next, we have to multiply by something less than .
each time;
4- + (23 + (24 +
(5) (^2

multiply by less multiply by less multiply by less

than .98 than .98 than .98

The multiples in (5) may all be different, but each is less than .98. If we
multiply by precisely .98 each time we have
+ (.98)2fli + (.98)'(2i
(6) (2i + .98ai

multiply by .98 multiply by .98 multiply by .98

The series in (6) is a convergent geometric series (r - .98), and the terms
in (5) are respectively smaller than the terms in (6). Therefore, (5) con¬
verges by comparison.
The proof, in general, is handled in the same way with .97 replaced
by an arbitrary positive number r, r < 1, and .98 by a number between
r and 1.
(B) If a„+i/a„ approaches oo, or any number greater than I, then even¬
tually a„+i must be larger than (2„. Therefore the terms of 2 a„ increase and
cannot approach 0, and the series diverges by the wth term test. In fact,
any series in case (B) can more easily be identified as divergent by the nth
term test.
(C) We will produce both convergent and divergent series with
lim„.=o a„+i/(2„ = 1. Consider the harmonic series 21/n, which we know
diverges. We have
1
n + 1 n
lim hm--— lim = 1 .
n^oo a-n n-»-oo 1 n-»co n + 1
n

On the other hand, consider 2 l/n^ which we know converges. In this case,

lim
a„+i = lim = 1.
(2„ (n + 1)"

Since both convergent and divergent series can have ratio limits of 1, such
a limit does not help categorize a series.
 8.4 Convergence Tests for Positive Series II • 231

Choosing a test There is no decisive rule for selecting a convergence test.

The more problems you do, the more expert you will become, because
being an “expert” usually means that you have seen the problem, or a
similar problem, before. We have the following recommendations.

1) See if the series is standard or acts like a standard series.

2) Apply the nth term test. Examine a„ to see if it approaches 0 (incon¬
clusive) or does not approach 0 (series diverges).
These methods are accomplished by a quick inspection of the
series. If the inspection produces no immediate results, keep going.
3) Try the ratio test, especially if looks like it will cancel nicely
so that its limit is easy to find. The ratio test is usually more suc¬
cessful with ingredients such as w! or 5" than with sin n or In n.
In particular, it can be used to show that series such as those in
(4) converge.
4) Perhaps the comparison test can be used with your series and a
standard series.
5) As a last resort, you might try using integrals as in the proofs in
Section 8.3 that 2 1/n diverges and 21/ra^ converges. Or you
may be able to find a formula for the partial sums as we did for a
geometric series.

There are other tests for convergence that are not included in the
book, but more tests still give no guarantee of success. On the other hand,
you now have enough methods to test many, although not all, series. In fact,
it is quite possible for more than one method to work in a particular
problem.
So far, this chapter has been mainly concerned with distinguishing
convergent from divergent series. The results will be used in the important
applications beginning in Section 8.6.

Problems for Section 8.4

In Problems 1—35, decide if the series converges or diverges.

1
1. 9.
2n^ + n \4/
(2n)l
2. s 10.
(3n)l n!
1 In n
3. 11.
Vn ^ vT
1
4. s on— 1 12.
n
2
5 Y — 13. 2
^ 10 " n + 7
1 1 1
6. —+ -^7=^ + + 14 Y —
V2 V2 V2
1 15. .3 -f .03 + .003 -f .0003 -f
7. S
(n - 2r _ 1 1-3 1 • 3 • 5
16. — +-+--!-•••
3 3-6 3•6•9
8. 1_^_A_A
? 9 16 25
232 • 8/Series

99-1-1-H ■ • •
^^’ 1-2 2-3 3-4

(use integrals)

36. The harmonic series 1 + 5 + i + 5 + ' • • diverges to 00. (a) Show that the
two subseries created by using every other term of the harmonic series also
diverge, (b) Find a subseries that converges.
37. (a) Show that if E a„ converges then E nUn may converge or may diverge,
(b) Show that if E a„ converges by the ratio test then E na„ also converges.

8.5 Alternating Series

Let be positive. A series of the form

(1) X (“ = til - + ^3 ~ ^4 + •'■

n= 1

is called an alternating series. The partial sums of a positive series are in¬
creasing, so a positive series either converges or else diverges to 0°. But the
partial sums of an alternating series rise and fall since terms are alternately
added and subtracted; therefore an alternating series either converges,
diverges to diverges to —or diverges but not to or —For example,
the series
(2) 3 - 3 + 3 - 3 + 3 - 3 + •••

diverges (but not to or —°o) since the partial sums oscillate from 3 to 0;
the series
(3) 3-4 + 3- 5 + 3- 6 + 3- 7 + 3- 8 + -- -

diverges to —since the partial sums are 3, — 1,2, —3,0, —6, —3, —10, • • •
which approach —0°.
There are two major tests for alternating series. We have an nth term test
for divergence which is very similar to the nth term test for positive series.
 8.5 Alternating Series • 233

(In fact, an nth term test holds for arbitrary series, not necessarily positive
or alternating.) Also there is an alternating series test for convergence.

nth term test Consider the alternating series in (1).

(A) If doesn’t approach 0 then the series diverges. (The partial sums
oscillate but are not damped, and hence do not approach a
limit—see (2) and (3).)
(B) If the series converges then ^ 0.
(C) If does approach 0 then the alternating series may converge or
may diverge. More testing will be necessary to make a decision.
(D) If the series diverges then may or may not approach 0.

As before, the nth term test is only a test for divergence. When does not
approach 0, the test concludes that the series diverges, but the test can never
be used to conclude that a series converges. Again, it identifies the grossly
divergent series.

Alternating series test The alternating harmonic series

passes the nth term test, and as an introduction to the next test we
will show that the series converges. Furthermore, although we can’t find the
sum, we can do the next best thing by producing a bound on the error when
a partial sum is used to approximate the sum of the series. Then we will
state the alternating series test in general.
Consider the partial sums, plotted on a number line in Fig. 1. Begin
with 5i = 1. Move down ^ to plot 52; move up | to get Ss; move down \
to locate 54; and so on. As successive terms are added and subtracted, the
swing of oscillation of the partial sums is (consistently) decreasing because
each new term added or subtracted is less than the one before. Figure 1 suggests
that the partial sums oscillate their way to a limit 5 between 0
and 1. (Surprisingly, the formal proof requires quite sophisticated mathe¬
matics.) In other words, the series converges to a sum 5 between 0 and the
first term ai. Furthermore, note that S is above the sum 5, but the gap
5

between and 5 is less than I because subtracting ^ sends us below 5. In

other words, if Ss is used to approximate 5 then the approximation is an
overestimate and the error is less than f Similarly Sq is an underestimate
and the approximation error is less than f
The key to the argument above is that the terms ••• being
alternately added and subtracted do not merely approach 0 casually but
decrease (steadily) toward 0. If this is not the case, then the alternating series

I KPO/?
nh-1
 necessarily) divergent. As an example of the latter
may be (but is not
possibility, consider
1
(4) —+
100 1
3 - 1,000 4 10,000
+

The numbersapproach 0 but do not decrease

go up and down and up and down as they wend their way toward 0. Th
partial sums of the series in (4) do not oscillate with decreasing swing as m
fL 1 and the argument used to show that the alternating harmonic series
converges simply^does not apply to (4). As a matter of fact, the pos.uve
terms Lne in (4) amount to a harmonic series which diverges to ,
negative terms alone are a geometric series which converges to 1/9, an
it can be shown that the partial sums are dragged to oo by the positive terms.
Hence the series in (4) diverges to 00.
If a not only approaches 0 but decreases (that is, decreases steadily ),
meaning that each term is smaller than the preceding one, then we write
a„ i 0. As an example, for the alternating harmonic series do have
i 0 but for the series in (4) we have a„ 0 but not i 0. ^
terminology we are ready for the following general conclusions, called the
alternating series test.

Consider the allermlmgseries Suppose a. 1 0. Then the senes

converges to a sum, S between 0 and a\. i. u i
Furthermore, if the last term of a subtotal involves addition, then the subtotal
is greater than S; if the last term of a subtotal involves subtraction then the subtotal
is less than S. In either case if only the first n terms are used, then the error, the
difference between the subtotal S„ and the series sum S, is less than the first term
not considered. In other words, |S — S„| < a„+\.

The nth term test and the alternating series test are adequate to test
most alternating series as follows.
If an does not approach 0 then the alternating series diverges by the nth term test.
If an i 0 then the alternating series converges by the alternating series test. For
most alternating series, one of these two cases occurs.
It is unusual to have 0 and not also have a„ i 0 so that neither test
applies. For all practical purposes, i/o„ ^ 0 and there aren’t separate formulas for
aoMn and a^.,^nn as in (4), then it will also be true that o„ i 0. For example, if
= n^/2" then not only does o„ ^ 0 but also a„ i 0 eventually and
2(-l)""^‘nV2" converges by the alternating series test.

Example 1 Show that the series

S(-1)"^V«' = l- 5 + l- B+ ---
converges. Bound the error in using the sum of the first three terms to
approximate the sum of the series. Is the approximation an overestimate or
an underestimate?
Solution: Since l/n^ i 0, the series converges by the alternating series
test. The partial sum 1 - ? + ^ = |g is above the sum S since the last term,
was added. The error is less than the next term, In other words, is
within of the series sum.
 8.5 Alternating Series • 235

Warning 1. The alternating series test is just a test for convergence. When
a„ i 0, the test concludes that 2 (- converges. But if we do not have
(2„ i 0, the test does not conclude that the series diverges.
2. If a„ and both positive, have the same order of magnitude then
the limit comparison test states that the two positive series 2 a„ and 2 K act
alike. But the two alternating series 2(-l)"'^’a„ and 2(-l)"^’^„ do not nec¬
essarily act alike. It is possible for an alternating series to converge so
gingerly, because of a delicate balance of positive and negative terms, that
another alternating series with terms of the same order of magnitude may
behave differently. In other words, the limit comparison test does not apply
to alternating series.

Absolute convergence Another way to test the alternating series

(5) fli — 02 + ^3 - ^4 + fls ~ 06 + • • •, where o„ > 0,

is to remove the alternating signs and test the positive series

(6) a\ + 02 O3 -l- O4 -f O5 Oe + • • *.
We will prove that if (6) converges then (5) also converges. For the proof,
consider the two new series

(7) 0]+ 0 +03-I- 0 +05+ 0 +07+ 0 -!-•••

and

(8) 0 -I-02+ 0 +04-!' 0 -l- 06 + 0 + 08 + '’’.

The terms in (7) and (8) are positive (and zero), and in each case are
respectively less than or equal to the terms of (6). Since (6) converges by
hypothesis, the series in (7) and (8) converge by the comparison test. If (8)
is multiplied by —1, it still converges, by the factoring rule in Section 8.1,
and the sum of (7) and —(8) converges by the term by term addition rule
in that section. But (7) — (8) is (5), so (5) converges.
More generally, a similar proof can show that for any series (with any
pattern of signs),

(9) if 2 |a„| converges then ^ a„ converges.

If 2 |o„| converges then the original series 2 a„ is called absolutely convergent,

so (9) shows that absolute convergence implies convergence.
For example, 1 + + neither alternating
nor positive. It converges by (9) since the series of its absolute values is a
convergent geometric series. As another example, consider 2 ( — 1)"^’/^^- It
converges by the alternating series test since 1/n^ [ 0. Alternatively, its
series of absolute values is a convergent jf?-series, p = 2, so the original series
converges by (9).

Conditional convergence If 2|a„| diverges it is still possible for 2a„ to

converge. In this case, 2a„ is called conditionally convergent. The alternating
harmonic series is conditionally convergent, since it converges but the series
of its absolute values, i.e., the harmonic series, diverges.
So far we have been concerned with distinguishing convergent from
divergent series. Now we have three categories since every convergent series
236 • 8/Series

(S|a^|plVER6£5) (2|c\^|C0f^VER6FS)
FIG. A

2o„ can be further categorized as either absolutely convergent (2 |a„| con¬

verges) or conditionally convergent (2 lo„l diverges). Divergent senes can¬
not be subcategorized in this manner; if 2an diverges then, by (9), 2 lo„|
cannot converge. Figure 2 shows the three possibilities for a series:
divergent, conditionally convergent, absolutely convergent.
Conditionally convergent and absolutely convergent series both
do converge, but absolute convergence is more desirable for several rea¬
sons, one of which we will mention here. It can be shown that if the terms
of an absolutely convergent series are rearranged, that is, added m a differ¬
ent order, then the new series still converges to the same sum as before. On
the other hand, if 2a„ is conditionally convergent then, given any number,
the series can be rearranged to converge to that number. Furthermore, the
series can be rearranged to diverge to oo, and rearranged to diverge to -°o.t

tWe will illustrate with the conditionally convergent alternating harmonic series
+ ...^ which converges to a sum between 0 and 1. We will rearrange the series
to converge to 37. First note that the subseries of positive terms 1 + j 1 + • • • diverges to oo
and the subseries of negative terms i i-diverges to -oo (Problem 36a,
Section 8.4). Then begin the rearrangement of the alternating harmonic series by adding
positive terms until the subtotal goes over 37. (How do we know that the subtotal will ever get
that large? The positive subseries diverges to oo, so surely if enough positive terms are added,
the subtotal passes 37.) Then add negative terms until the subtotal goes below 37. (How do we
know that the subtotal can be brought down below 37? Because the negative terms add to —oo.)
Then add positive terms to bring the subtotal back over 37, add negative terms to bring the
subtotal back below 37, and so on. The partial sums oscillate around 37 and the overall swing
of oscillation is approaching 0 becaus'e a„ —» 0. It can be shown in fact that the rearrangement
converges to 37. The alternating harmonic series can also be rearranged to diverge to oo. First
add positive terms until the subtotal is larger than 1, possible because the positive terms
themselves add to oo. Then feed in one negative term to avoid being accused of leaving out the
negatives. Then add positive terms until the subtotal is larger than 2, followed by one more
negative term, and so on. This produces a rearrangement, since all terms are eventually used,
although each partial sum contains many more positive than negative terms. Furthermore, the
partial sums approach oo, so the rearrangement diverges to oo. Similarly, the series can be
rearranged to diverge to —oo. On the other hand, the absolutely convergent geometric series
2”=o(“l)" 3 every rearrangement converges to f; if a rearrangement has 1,000
positive terms followed by one negative term, followed by 1,000,000 positive terms followed
by one negative term, and so on, the rearrangement still converges to j.
 8.5 Alternating Series • 237

Problems for Section 8.5

1. Show that 1 — + • • • converges, and estimate the error

if the sum is approximated by S24. Is the approximation an overestimate or an

underestimate?
2. Show that the series converges and approximate the sum so that the error
is at most .001. Is your estimate over or under?

3. True or false?

(a) If we do not have i 0 then S(—diverges.

(b) If we do not have ^ 0 then 2(-l)"'^'a„ diverges.

4. Test the series for divergence versus convergence.

(a) S(-ir'^ (b)E(-ir'4 (c)2(-ir'- ^

n! n n In
2n
(d) E(-ir^ (e) .1 - .01 + .001-
+ 4

(f, +
^ 2 3 4 5 ^^^3 4^5

5. True or False?

(a) If is a convergent positive series then converges also.

(b) If S(—is a convergent alternating series then converges also.

6. Table 1 in Section 8.3 lists some standard positive series, some convergent
and some divergent. Consider all the corresponding alternating series, namely.

In n nl

(a) Test them for convergence versus divergence, (b) Of the convergent series in
part (a), test for conditional versus absolute convergence.
7. Test for conditional convergence versus absolute convergence versus
divergence.

(a) S(-ir-r^ (b)

1 + n n + o
8. What conclusions can be drawn about S a„ if

(a) 2|a„| diverges (b) S|a„| converges

9. What conclusions can be drawn about 2 \an\ if

(a) '2 an diverges (b) 2 an converges?

10. Test the series for convergence versus divergence using the alternating
series test, and then again using the series of absolute values.

(a) E(-ir'4
n! Vn

11. Decide, if possible, whether the series converges absolutely or conditionally,

(a) a convergent geometric series (b) a convergent p-series
238 • 8/Series

8.6 Power Series Functions

Polynomials such as + fex + c are familiar elementary functions.

The generalization of a polynomial is a series of the form

(1) ao + ciiX + + • • ’.
called a power series. For example, 5 + 6x + 7x^ + 8x^ + 9x^ + ••• ^ a
power series. A power series is a function of x, often nonelementary. e
rest of the chapter discusses power series and their applications.

Application Power series may be used to create new functions when the
elementary functions are inadequate. It can be shown that the differen¬
tial equation
(2) xy" 4- y = 0

cannot be satisfied by an elementary function. Thus it is necessary to invent

a new function to solve the equation. Consider the power series

y = ao + aix + 02^^ + ^3^^ -t- • • •.

We will determine the coefficients so that y satisfies (2). We have

(3) y' z= + 2a2X + Sagx^ + 4aiX^ +

y" = 2a2 + 3 • 2a3X + 4 • Sa^x^ + 5 • 4a5X^ + • • •.
Substitute y and y" into (2) to obtain
x(2o2 + 3 • 2a3X + 4 • Sa^x^ + 5 • 4a5X^ + ■■•) + ao + a^x + agx^
+ flsx^ + • • • = 0.

Collect terms to get

(4) ao + (2fl2 + a{)x + (3 • 2a3 + a2)x^ + (4 • 3a4 + 03)^^ + • • • = 0.

(We write 4 • 3 instead of 12, and 3 • 2 instead of 6, because we want to

discover patterns, and the combined form conceals patterns.) Now choose
ao, fli, 02, • • • so that (2) holds. We can do this by forcing all coefficients on the
left side of (4) to be 0. Therefore, let ao = 0. Then let 2a2 + ai = 0, which
doesn’t determine either ai or a2 but can be written as a2 = ~2'^i- Then
choose 3 • 2a3 + a2 = 0 so that

1
CI2 2 _
~ 3'2~ 3*2 3‘2’2

Continue with 4 • 3a4 + as =' 0 so that

as 3 • 2 • 2 _ ai
~ ^ ^ 2 ~~ 4-3 ~ 4*3*3'2*2
ai
The pattern is now established. We have a^ = 5.4.4.3.3.2-2

in general.

n+1
ai
a„ = (-1)
n!(n — 1)!
 8.6 Power Series Functions • 239

Coefficient isn’t determined, so we conclude that for every value of Oj,

n+1 ai
)> = S (-1)
n= 1 n!(n — 1)!

is a solution to (2). The factor Ui serves as an arbitrary constant. Equiva¬

lently, the power series function

(5) 1
y = X ——X 2
+ --, 1 V.3 —
X +
2 3 • 2 • 2 4 • 3 • 3 • 2 • 2'

and all multiples of it, are solutions to the differential equation in (2).

Interval of convergence The domain of a power series function is the set

of all X for which the series converges. For example, if g(x) = 7 + x -I-
2x^ + 3x^ -f 4x‘* -!-••• then g'(O) = 7-l-0-l-0-l-0-t-'-- = 7 but there is
5^(1) t*6c^use the series 7 +1 + 2 + 3-I-4 + ••• diverges. If we’re going
to work with power series functions we must be able to decide when the
power series converges. The preceding sections were designed in part to
provide that capability.
In general, a power series 2a„x" converges absolutely (hence con¬
verges) for X in an interval (-r, r) centered about 0, and diverges for x > r
and X < — r. (Anything may happen for x = ±r.) The series is said to have
radius of convergence r and interval of convergence (-r,r) (see Fig. 1). This
includes the possibility that a power series may converge only for x = 0,
in which case it has radius of convergence 0, or may converge absolutely for
all X, in which case it has radius of convergence oo and interval of con¬
vergence (—°o, °°). The value of r depends on the particular power series.
To illustrate the validity of these claims, and to actually find the interval
of convergence of any given power series, we will use a version of the ratio
test extended to include series that are not necessarily positive.

? Ae^’0L{/r£ cats}J^lZ6£KJC£r ?

OF

F|6. I
Ratio test Given a series not necessarily positive, consider

lim
n-»oo

(a) If the limit is less than 1, then 2 b„ converges absolutely (and there¬
fore converges).
(b) If the limit is greater than 1, or is °o, then diverges.
(c) If the limit is 1, we have no conclusion.

To prove (a), note that if the limit is less than 1 then 2 |^„| converges by
the ratio test iovpositive series (Section 8.4). Therefore the original series is
absolutely convergent.
To prove (b), note that if |&„+i|/|ft„l approaches a number larger than 1
then eventually |6„+i| > |fe„|. Therefore the terms |6„| are increasing and
240 • 8/Series

hence do not approach 0. Therefore K does not approach 0 either, and so

diverges by the nth term test.
1 \" 1
x”. To find
Finding the interval of convergence Consider 2 2l n + I

the interval of convergence, compute

1 \ n+ 1
n+1
X
|x"'^Herm| ~2 n + I 1 ^ 1 I I
lim V--r = IV.
x"term n^co n + 2
-J] X

Since n —> while x is fixed, the limit is 2|^|. By the ratio test, the series
converges absolutely if llxj <1, |xl<2, —2<x<2; and diverges if
-Ixl > 1 that is X > 2 or X < -2. Therefore there is an interval of con-
1 .
vergence, namely (-2,2). (If x = 2 then the series is 2 (-1)"^ ’^hich

converges by the alternating series test. If x = ~2 then the series is the

divergent harmonic series. Thus the series converges at the right end of the
interval of convergence and diverges at the left end.)
As another example, consider

the power series in (5) that solved the differential equation xy" + y =0.
We have

|x"'^*term| X I"-'* n!(n - 1)!

(6) (n + l)!n! ||X
n
|x"terml

Note that
(n - 1)! (n - l)(n - 2) (w - 3) • • • 1 __1_
(n + 1)! (n + l)w(n — l)(n — 2)'--l (n + l)n

so (6) cancels to

(n + l)n ’

For any fixed x, the limit is 0 as n ^ oo. Therefore the limit is less than 1 for
any x, and the series converges for all x. The interval of convergence is
(—00,00) and the radius of convergence is oo.
In practice, the interval of convergence of a power series is the set of x for which
Iv”"''hpriTi
lim IS less than 1.
n-.-o |x"term|

Problems for Section 8.6

For each power series, find the interval of convergence.

1. S(-l)"(n + l)x” 2. 3. Sn!x” 4. E ^

on n!
5. X — + X® — x^ + — 6. 2^x* + 2‘*x^ + 2^x^ + • • •
 8.7 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions I • 241

,3 , 273C® , Six'*
7. 6x H-1--h
2 3 4

8.7 Power Series Representations for Elementary

Functions I

The solution to the differential equation in (2) of Section 8.6 illustrated

why it is useful to invent new functions using power series. But it is useful
to have power series expansions for old functions as well. Polynomials
are pleasant functions, and representing an old function as an “infinite
polynomial can make that function easier to handle. In this section and the
next we will find power series expansions for some elementary functions.

A power series for 1/(1 — x) The power series 1 + x + +

X + • • • is a geometric series with a = \ and r — x. Therefore it converges
for — 1 < X < 1, that is, its interval of convergence is (—1,1), and the sum
is 1/(1 — x). Thus

(1)

and we have a power series expansion for 1/(1 - x). The function 1/(1 - x)
exists for all x 9^ 1 but its expansion is valid only for -1 < x < 1. The series
has a smaller domain than the function 1/(1 — x), but when the series and
the function are both defined, they agree.

Binomial series There is an entire class of familiar elementary functions

whose power series expansions we can guess. Recall (Appendix A4) that

(1 + x)^ = (1 + x)(l + x)(l + x)(l + x)(l + x)

5 • 4 5 • 4 • 3 5 • 4 • 3 • 2
= 1 + 5x + x^ + -X® +
2! 3! i]-^
5 • 4 • 3 • 2 • 1
+
5! '

(2) — 1 + 5x + lOx^ + lOx^ + 5x^ + x^.

Functions such as (1 + x)~® and (1 + x)^^^ cannot be similarly written as

polynomials because the exponents -5 and 1/2 are not positive integers.
However, we might suspect that these functions can be written as ir^inite
polynomials, in the same pattern exhibited by the polynomial expansion for
(1 + x)^ In other words, we guess that the function (1 + x)’ has the power
series expansion

1 + ^x + ~ + gig -!)(?- 2) x^ +
(3)
2! 3!

for X in the interval of convergence of the series. We omit the proof that
confirms the guess.
 s
242 • 8/Series

For example,
1/2
Vl + X = (1 + x)

-k X* +
= 1 +J>= + 2! 3!

1 • 3 1 • 3 • 5 4
X — +
2*3! 2H\

We still must find the interval of convergence in (3). If ^ is a posi¬

tive integer then (3) collapses to a polynomial (as in (2) where q = 5)
and “converges” for all x. If q is not a positive integer, the inter¬
val of convergence can be found with the ratio test. We have

q{q - !)•••(? - [n -
nth term =

and
qjq - I)--{q - [n - 1]) (? -
(n + l)st term =
(n -h 1)1

So
|(n + l)st term] _ \q - n|
|nth term] n -k 1

The limit as n ^ 0° is jxj; solve |x| < 1 to get the interval of convergence
(-1,1). Thus

</(? ~ 1)^.2 + ?(? - 1)(? ~ 2)^.3

{I + xY = 1 + qx +
(4) 2! 3!
for — 1 < X < 1

The series in (4) is called the binomial series.

Application We will show why it may be useful to approximate a function

by the first few terms of its series expansion.
An inverse square law states that if two unit positive charges are dis¬
tance r apart, then each is repelled by a force F = 1/r^; if a unit positive
charge and a unit negative charge are distance r apart, then they are
attracted by a force F = 1/r^. Now suppose that one negative charge and
two positive charges are situated as shown in Fig. 1, where d is much smaller
than r. The problem is to find the total force on charge C.

r
--_

Total fo^cg

FI6,1
 8.7 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions I • 243

Since C is repelled by B and attracted by A, we have

(5) total force on C = -5 — 7-

(r + dy

This is an accurate description of the force on C, but it is difficult to tell

from (5) just how the force varies with d and r. So we continue by rewriting
the second fraction in (5). Factor to get

1
(r + dy

Since d is less than r, d/r is in the interval (—1,1), so we may expand

[1 + {d/r)]~^ in a binomial series by setting q = —2, x = djr \o obtain

1 ^ J_ (-2)(-3)/^y
1 + (-2)
(r + dy 2! Vr/
+
3! Vr,
If d is much less than r, as intended in Fig. 1, then {djry, {d/ry, • - • are so
small that

1
-^^1 — 2— + negligible terms
(r + dy

— 2— (approximately).

Thus, back in (5), we have (approximately)

total force on C = -5
r

Therefore, the force on C may be succinctly (albeit approximately) de¬

scribed as directly proportional to d and inversely proportional to rV

Making replacements in an old series to find a new series So far we have

expansions for 1/(1 — x) and (1 -I- x)^. We continue the problem of finding
expansions for functions by showing how new series may be obtained from
existing series.
Suppose we want an expansion for the function 1/(1 + 2x). Rewrite

the function as---so that it resembles the left-hand side of (1). Then
1 - (-2x)
replace x by — 2x in (1) to obtain

--= 1 + (-2x) + {-2xy + i-2xy + (-2x)^ + •••

1 - (-2x)

for — 1 < —2x < 1.

To solve the inequality, divide each member by —2 to get | > x > — |

(multiplying or dividing by a negative number reverses an inequality),
which may be written as -f < x <5. Thus we have an expansion for the
function 1/(1 + 2x) and its interval of convergence, namely.
244 • 8/Series

1 1 1
(6) -= I - 2x + - Sx^ + 16x^ - ... for - Y ^ 2 ■
1 ”i” 2 X
As you can see, the replacement method involves solving an inequality
to obtain the new interval of convergence. Table 1 lists some inequalities
and their solutions, typical of those that occur most frequently.

Table 1

Inequality ‘ Solution

2 2
-r < —X < r, -r < < r -jr <x <—r

3 3 nj 4: ^ "^1 4
-r < —x” < r, -r < - —x" < r
4 4

As another example of replacement, we will find an expansion for

1/(3 - x^). First do some factoring:

1 111

Then replace x by ^x^ in (1) to obtain

(7) for -1 < < 1 .

6

Some students are bothered by the inequality in (7) because the left-hand
part, —1 < Ix^, is vacuous (it is always true that ^x^ is greater than — 1).
Nevertheless it is not wrong. The inequality may be rewritten simply as
i-c' < 1, and its solution, as indicated by the second line in the table, is
—Vs < X < Vs. Therefore the final answer is

1 1
* + —x' + —x' + —X* +
3^"' S'* 3^
for — Vs < X < Vs.
Adding and multiplying old series to find new series Suppose/(x) has a
power series expansion with interval of convergence (—r-i,ri), and g(x) has
an expansion with interval of convergence (—r2,r2). It can be shown that if
the two series are multiplied like polynomials, then the product series is
an expansion for /(x)g‘(x). Similarly, if the two series are added like poly¬
nomials, the sum series is an expansion for/(x) -I- g'(x). Furthermore, the
intervals of convergence of the product and sum series are at least the
smaller of the two intervals (—ri,ri) and (—r2,r2), and, for all practical
purposes, are the smaller of (—ri,ri) and (—r2,r2).

As an example, suppose we want an expansion for ^-)'|l + 2 )'

 8.7 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions I • 245

From (1) and (6) we have expansions for —— and —— on (-1,1) and
1 — X 1 + 2x
respectively. The smaller of the intervals is (—|,f). Therefore,
1 1 1
(1 - x) {I + 2x) I - xl + 2x

= {I + X + x^ + x^ + x^ + -■■) {I - 2x + 4x^ - 8x^ + 16x" - • • •)

for X in ( —) •
2 2
’

As with polynomials, multiply each term in the first parentheses by each

term in the second parentheses, and collect terms to get

(1 — x) (1 + 2x) ~ ^ ^ ~ + x^ — 8x^ + 4x^ — 2x^

+ + 16x^ — — 2x^ + x^ + ---

= 1 — x + 8x^ — 5x^ + llx'^ — 21x^ + •••

for X in •

For another approach to the same problem, use partial fraction decom¬
position (Section 7.4) to get

1 1
1 3 3
(8)
(1 — x) (1 + 2x) 1 — X 1 + 2x'

Y
3
To find a series for multiply on both sides of (1) by 1/3, and keep tbe
1 — X

interval of convergence (— 1,1). Similarly, to find a series for ^ -j. 2 ’

tiply on both sides of (6) by 2/3, and keep the interval of convergence
(—1/2,1/2). The smaller of the two intervals is (—1/2,1/2), so (8) becomes

= —(1 + X + x^ + x^ + • • •)
(1 - x) (1 + 2x) 3

r 1 1
+ —(1 — 2x + 4x^ — 8x^ -!-•••)
3 for - Y<^ < Y

= 1 — X + 3x^ — 5x® + llx^ — 21x^ +

r 1 1
for “Y < ^ < Y

In this example, the second method is better. No pattern seems to be

revealed by the first method, whereas the second method easily predicts any
term in the series; e.g., the coefficient of x‘®^ is f + |(—2)'^^.
Differentiating and antidifferentiating old series to find new series
Suppose/(x) has a power series expansion with interval of convergence
{-r,r). It can be shown that if the series is differentiated like a polynomial,
the new series is an expansion for f'{x) (we already anticipated this in (3) of
Section 8.6); and if the series is antidifferentiated like a polynomial, and the
arbitrary constant of integration appropriately evaluated, the new series
represents any desired antiderivative of/(x). Furthermore, it can be shown
that both the differentiated and antidifferentiated series have the same
interval of convergence as the original.
As an illustration, suppose we want an expansion for 1/(1 — x)l We can
get it by squaring the series for 1/(1 — x), and also by using the binomial
series with q = —2 and x replaced by —x. For a third method, use the fact
that 1/(1 — x)^ is the derivative of 1/(1 — x). Differentiate on both sides of
(1), and keep the interval of convergence, to get

(9) 7—= 1 + 2x + 3x^ + 4x® + 5x^ + • • • for x in (-1,1).

(1 - x)"

As another example, suppose we want to expand ln(l + x). First find

an expansion for 1/(1 + x) by replacing x by —x in (1) to get

—^— = 1 + (—x) + (—x)^ + (—x)^ + (—x)^ + ••• for — 1 < —X < 1

1 + X

= 1 — X + x^ — x^ + x"* — • • • for — 1 < X < 1 .

Then antidifferentiate to get

2 3 4 5
• \ A* lA/ i\ Af ^ ^ _

ln(l +x) = C + x —^ + 1;-T + T— ■■■ for — 1 < X < 1 .

2 3 4 5

To determine C, substitute a value of x for which both sides can be

computed. The best value to use is x = 0, in which case we have
ln(l +0) = C + 0 + 0 + 0 + -- -,0 = C. Therefore,

..2 ..3 4 5
iz-.s Ai Af A/
(10) for — 1 < X < 1.

Summary of procedures for tinding the new interval of convergence If

a new series is obtained from a known series by differentiation, anti¬
differentiation, multiplication by a constant, or, more generally, multi¬
plication by a polynomial, keep the original interval of convergence.
If a new series is obtained from two known series by addition or multi¬
plication, keep the smaller of the two original intervals.
If a new series is obtained from a known series by replacement, make
the same replacement in the inequality describing the original interval, and
solve for x to find the new interval. (If the known series converges for all
X, then after any replacement, the new series also converges for all x.)

Application We can use the binomial series to estimate - dx

Jo (1 +
so that the error is less than .0001.
First, use (4) with q = —3/2 and x replaced by x^ to get
 8.7 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions I • 247

1
(1 +

for — 1 < < 1

= 1 _ _j(,2 _|.
3 • 5 3 • 5 • 7 , 3 ■ 5 • 7 • 9
-x° X —
2 2' 2! 2^-3! 2^ • 4!
for — 1 < X < 1.

Since the interval of integration [0,1/4] is inside the interval of convergence

(-1,1), it can be shown that we may integrate term by term to obtain
^1/4 1/4 1/4 1/4
1 _ _3 ^ 3 • 5 X
2\3/2
dx = X +
Jn ((1 + x^) 2 3 0 21 J
1/4
I • 5 • 7 x’^
(11)
2^ • 3! y
The series in (11) is not a power series and does not have an interval of
convergence. It is a convergent series of numbers whose sum is the integral
on the left-hand side. Continuing, we have
.1/4 j

77-, = .25 - .0078125 + .0003662 - .0000191 + •••.

■'0 (1 + X )

By the alternating series test, if we stop adding after two terms, the error
is less than .0003662, not enough of a guarantee. But we use the sum of the
first three terms, .2425537, as the approximation (an overestimate), then
the error is less than .0000191, which is less than .0001, as desired.

Problems for Section 8.7

1. Find a power series for each function, and find the interval of convergence
of the series.

1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
1 — X (1 + x)= 3x (3 -l- x)®
1i
(f) (g) (h) ln(2 + x)
(1 - x) (1 - 3x) X — 2
2. Find an expansion for Vl — 3x^ and the interval of convergence. Find the
term containing x®"* to illustrate the pattern, and then express the series in sum¬
mation notation.
^31 Find an expansion and its interval of convergence for 1/(1 — x^) by

(a) using the binomial series (b) using the series for 1/(1 — x)
(c) multiplying series (d) adding series (e) using long division

4. Rederive (9) by (a) using the binomial series (b) multiplying series.
5. (a) Find a series for tan“‘x and find the interval of convergence,
(b) Approximate tan^’x^cix so that the error is less than .0001. Do you have an
underestimate or an overestimate?
6. What function has the expansion x -l-2x^-l-3x® + 4x^-t----? (Consider
how the series is related to the series in (1).)
248 8/Series

X^ X X
7. Let/(x) — X + 2,2 3 • 2^ 4 • 2*

(a) Write the series in summation notation.

(b) Find an expansion for f'(x).
(c) Identify/'(x) and/(x) (they are familiar elementary functions).
(a) Write Vl9 as Vl6 +'3 = 4Vl + ^ and use the binomial series with
8.
g = X = -k to approximate VlQ so that the error is less than .01. (b) What is
wrong with writing 19 as 1 + 18 and using the binomial series with ^ 2>
X = 18?

8.8 Power Series Representations for Elementary

Functions II (Maclaurin Series)

We continue with the task of finding series expansions for functions.

The preceding section showed that if a connection can be found between
f(x) and a function (or functions) with a known expansion, then the con¬
nection can be exploited to find an expansion, along with its interval of
convergence, fory^(x). But sometimes too much cleverness is required to
find such a connection, and sometimes there simply is no connection. It isn’t
possible to use the preceding section to find an expansion for sin x, since
sin X is not related to 1/(1 — x) or (1 + x)’, our functions with known
expansions. This section considers a second method for finding an expan¬
sion for a function, based on an explicit formula for the coefficients.

The Maclaurin series for a function Suppose

f(x) = ao + OiX + CiX^ + a^x^ + a4x‘*

Set X =0 to obtain Oo = /(O). a formula for the coefficient oq- Differentiate

to get

f'(x) = fli + 2^2^ + SajX^ + 4a4X^ -!-•••

and substitute x = 0 to obtain ai = f'(0), a formula for ai. Differentiate

again to get

f"(x) = 2a2 + 3 • 203X + 4 • 3a4X^ + 5 • 4a5X* + • • •,

f'm
and substitute x = 0 to obtain/"(O) = 2a2. or tt2 — —^—. We’ll continue

until we are sure of the pattern. Differentiating again, we have

/"'(x) = 3 • 2% + 4 • 3 • 204X -I- 5 • 4 • Sa^x^ + • • •.

f"'(0) f (0)
Let X = 0 to get /'"(O) = 3 • 2^3, or • Similarly, 04 = ^,2 ’

and, in general.

/<") (0)
(1)

(Remember that 0! = 1, 1! = 1 and/^"' means the nth derivative of /.)

We have shown that given a function/(x), there are two possibilities.
Either / has no power series expansion of the form Sa„x", or
8.8 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions II (Maclaurin Series) • 249

(2)

0
Certain functions fall into the “no series” category because they and/or their
derivatives blow up at x = 0. In that case, the coefficients in (2) can’t even
be computed, so the series doesn’t exist. Some functions of this type are In x,
y/x and 1/x. Otherwise, every function occurring in practice (provided it does not
blow up or have derivatives which blow up at x = Oj has the expansion in (2), called
the Maclaurin series for f. In this case, the expansion holds on the interval of
convergence of the series, which can be found by the ratio test. (There are
functions fix), rarely encountered, whose Maclaurin coefficients exist but
whose Maclaurin series regrettably converge to something other than/(x).
However, such functions will play no role in this book.)
If a series is found for f using a method from the preceding section, or
using several methods from that section, the answer(s) will inevitably be the
Maclaurin series for /; no other series is possible. Regardless of how it is
obtained, the coefficient is given by (1). All series found in the preceding
section are Maclaurin series although they were not computed directly
from (2).
We’ll use (2) to find a power series for sin x. We have

fix) = sin X /(O) = 0

fix) cos X— /'(O) = 1
fix) = —sin X /"(O) = 0
/"'(x) = —cos X /'"(O) = -1
f^'^\x) — sin X /'">(0) = 0
f^^\x) — cos X f^^\<d) = 1

Thus the Maclaurin series in (2) is

^3 y"^

To find the interval of convergence, consider

|x27i+iterm| (2n - 1)! |x|^

|x^"“‘term| (2n + 1)! |x2"-'| (2n + l)2w

For any fixed x, the limit as w ^ oo is 0. So the series converges for all x, and

(3)

As a corollary, we can differentiate (3) to find a series for cos x. Note that
the derivative of a term such as x^/b\ is 5x‘‘/5!, or x^/4!. Thus

(4)
250 • 8/Series

We can also use (2) to find a series for Iff (x) = then any derivative
is again, and/^"’(0) = 1. Therefore the Maclaurin series for is
I + + x72! + xV3! + ^V4! + •••• The ratio test will show that the
series has interval of convergence so

(5)

Using (2) to find a series for f{x) works well if the nth derivatives of/
are easy to compute, as with sin x and e*. It would not be easy with func¬
tions such as VI + x2 and x/(l - x)(l - 3x), whose derivatives become
increasingly messy; the methods of the preceding section are preferable
in such cases. Note that when (2) is used (as for sin x), the interval of
convergence must be found with the ratio test. When a series is found
using a known series for a related function (as for cos x, related to sin x),
the interval of convergence is found easily from the interval for the
known series.

Maclaurin polynomials The discussion in Example 2 of Section 4.3

showed that for x near 0, sin x is approximately the same size as x. The
power series for sin x goes many steps further and shows that we can get
a better approximation using the polynomial x - x^/3!, a still better ap¬
proximation using X — x^/3! + x^/5!, and so on. In general, the partial
sums of the Maclaurin series in (2) are called Maclaurin polynomials. We will
show graphically how/ is approximated by its Maclaurin polynomials. Con¬
sider the graph of / versus the graph of its Maclaurin polynomial of
degree 1, that is, / versus

/'(O)
(6) 1!
X .

Equation (6) is a line, and a line does not usually approximate a curve very
well. But (6) is special; it is the line tangent to the graph of / at the point
(0,/(0)) (Fig. 1). To confirm this, note that the tangent line has slope/'(O),
and so, using the point-slope form y = mx + b, the tangent line has equa¬
tion y = /'(0)x + /(O), which is (6).

FIG. 1
8.8 Power Series Representations for Elementary Functions II (Maclaurin Series) • 251

Consider

(7)
_ m. /'(o)
+ f"i0)
2! ‘
/

the Maclaurin polynomial of degree 2. Its graph is a parabola (Fig. 2) which

passes through the point (0,/(0)), and hugs the graph of/ more closely than

the tangent line in Fig. 1. Similarly, the graph of

(8)
m , no) , no) ,
> = “oT TT*
passes through the point (0,/(0)) and does still a better job of staying close
to the graph of / (Fig. 3).

In general, graphs of successive Maclaurin polynomials provide better

and better approximations to the graph of /. At first (that is, after adding
only a few terms of the Maclaurin series for/), the polynomials approxi¬
mate the graph of / nicely only if x is near 0. After a while (that is, after
adding many terms), the polynomials approximate / nicely even if x is far
from 0, near the end of the interval of convergence.
If the sum of just a few terms of a series produces a good approxi¬
mation to the sum of the series, the convergence is said to he fast; if many
terms must be added before the approximation error becomes small, the
convergence is slow. The graphs of the Maclaurin polynomials in Figs. 1-3
illustrate that the power series expansion for/(x) converges more rapidly
if X is near 0 and more slowly if x is far from 0.
Application Suppose we want to approximate sin 1° so that the error is
less than 10"’. Switching to radian measure so that we may use (3), we have

. , . TT 77 _
sin 1 180 180 3!Vl80/ 5! V180/

Since the series alternates, and the third term is the first one less than 10

we take approximation. Only two terms were

needed for the approximation; the series in (3) converges rapidly to sin x
when X = tt/ISO since tt/ISO is very close to 0.

Problems for Section 8.8

1. We found the series expansion for (1 + x)’ in the preceding section by

guessing. Find it again by using the Maclaurin series.
2. We found series for 1/(1 - x) and ln(l + x) in the preceding section ((1) and
(10)). Find them again using the Maclaurin series formula.
3. Find a series expansion for the function, and the interval of convergence of
the series, by using the Maclaurin series and then again by using established series.

4. Write the series for sin x and cos x using the notation E„=o®nX".
5. Find a series expansion and the interval of convergence.

(a) cos 3x (b) X* sin x (c) e'**

6. Find a series expansion for sin^x using sin^x =1(1“ cos 2x).
7. Suppose/(O) = 1, g(0) = 0,/'(x) = g{x) and g'{x) = f{x). Find a series for
/(x) and find its interval of convergence.
8. Use the series for sin x to confirm that sin(-x) = —sin x.
9. Differentiate the series for e’‘ to see what happens. (In a sense, nothing
should happen since the derivative of e’‘ is e* again.)
10. Use the series for sin x to estimate sin 1 (radian) so that the error is less than
.0001. Do you have an overestimate or an underestimate?
11. Estimate the integral using the given error bound. Do you have an over¬
estimate or an underestimate?
n/3 1
(a) f« * dx, error < .1 (b) dx, error < .01
•'O Jo (1 + xr
12. Use series to find the limit, which is of the indeterminate form 0/0.

ln(l + x^) sm X
(a) lim (b) lim
1 — cos X X-O X

13. Use the power series for e’‘ to find the sum of the standard convergent series
r-ol/n!.

8.9 The Taylor Remainder Formula and an Estimate for

the Number e

If we set X = 1 in the power series for g* (see (5) of the preceding

section), we have
 8.9 The Taylor Remainder Formula and an Estimate for the Number e • 253

, 1 1 1 1
(1) « = l + l+ TT7 + 7r7 + -7T +
2! 3! 4!

We can approximate e by partial sums of the series, but since the series does
/
not alternate we do not have an error bound. The aim of this section is to
introduce an error bound for the Maclaurin series for /(x) in general, and
then use it in the special case of
Suppose X is fixed and f{x) is approximated by the beginning of its
Maclaurin series, that is, by a Maclaurin polynomial, say of degree 8:

A'(0) , /'"(O) ,
+
0! 8!

If the series alternates, then the first term omitted supplies an error bound.'
But whether or not the series alternates, the error in the approximation

may be bounded as follows. Consider all possible values of X' for

9!
m between 0 and x, and find the maximum of the values. Taylor’s remainder
formula states that the error, in absolute value, is less than or equal to that
maximum.
In general, the error (in absolute value) in approximating f(x) by its Maclaurin
polynomial of degree n is less than or equal to the maximum value of

(2)
(n + I)!""

for m between 0 and x. We omit the proof.

Returning to the problem of approximating e, we will obtain a first
estimate using areas, and then use it, along with power series, to find a
sharper estimate.
In Fig. 1, the shaded region has area Jf (1/x) cfoc = In 2 — In 1 = In 2.
The rectangular region ABCD within the shaded region has area 1/2,
so In 2 > 1/2. Therefore In 4 = In 2^ = 2 In 2 > 1. But \n e = \, so
In 4 > In e. Since In x is an increasing function, we have 4 > g. Similarly,
since In e = 1 and In 1 = 0, we have e > \. Thus, a first estimate of e is
1 < ^ < 4.
Now let’s return to (1). Suppose the first five terms are added to obtain
the approximation

(3)

To estimate the error, consider (2) with/(x) = e*, x = 1, n = 4 (since we

added through the x^ term in the series for ^*), and 0 ^ ^ 1. Then
(x) = and

5! 5! ■

Since 1 < e < 4, the maximum occurs when m = I, and that maxi¬
mum is less than 4/5! or 1/30. Therefore the error in the approximation
in (3) is less than 1/30. Furthermore, when the expansion in (1) stops
somewhere, all the terms omitted are positive, so the approximation in (3)
is an underestimate. Thus,
254 ' 8/Series

2.708 < e < 2.708 + ^ < 2.742.

oU

In a similar fashion, by adding more terms, it can be shown that

2.718281 < ^ < 2.718282.

8.10 Power Series in Powers of * — 6 (Taylor Series)

Certain basic functions such as In x, Vx and 1/x cannot be expressed

in the form 2a„x" because they and/or their derivatives blow up at x = 0
(Section 8.8). Also, other functions have power series which converge too
slowly if X is far from 0. We attempt to overcome these difficulties by
considering power series of the form
00

(1) 2 dnix - by = flo + ai(x - b) + a^ix - bf + a^ix - bf + • • •.

n=0

We call (1) di power series about b. The power series we have considered so far
are the special case where b = 0. In this section we will show how a function
/(x) can be expanded about b with a generalization of the Maclaurin series
formula, or, better still, using known series about 0.
In Section 8.8 we showed that if/ has an expansion of the form 2 fl„x",
then (0)/n!. A similar argument shows that if/ has an expansion of
the form 2a„(x - by, then a„ = f^”'’(b)/n\. This leads to the following gen¬
eralization of Maclaurin series.
Every function/(x) encountered in practice, which does not blow up or
have derivatives which blow up at x = b, has the expansion

called the Taylor series for f about b. The expansion holds on an interval of
convergence centered about b and found with the ratio test. The partial sums
of the Taylor series are called Taylor polynomials. Graphs of successive Taylor
polynomials are a line, a parabola, a cubic, and so on, tangent to the graph
of/(x) at the point {b,f{b))-, they supply better and better approximations to
the graph. The Taylor series converges more rapidly if x is near b, and more
slowly if X is far from b.
The Maclaurin series, with interval of convergence centered about 0,
and the Maclaurin polynomials, tangent to the graph of /(x) at the point
(0,/(0)), are the special case of Taylor polynomials when b = 0.
One method for expanding a given/(x) in powers of x — is to use (2)
directly, along with the ratio test to determine the interval of convergence.
Another method is to write /(x) as /([x - b] + b) and maneuver alge¬
braically, as illustrated in examples, until it is ultimately possible to make use
of a known series in powers of x, but with x replaced by x - b. With this
approach, the interval of convergence can be obtained from the interval for
the known series. No matter which method is used, the answer will agree
with (2); no other series in powers of x - b is possible.

Example 1 Find an expansion for cos x in powers of x - fir, and

find the interval of convergence.
 8.10 Power Series in Powers oi x-b (Taylor Series) • 255

Solution: For a first approach, use (2) with f{x) = cos x,b = {tt. Then
f'{x) = —sin X, f"{x) = —cos x, /'"(x) = sin x, (x) = cos x, • • •; and
— 0) = — 1, /"{{tt) = 0, /"'(f7r) = 1, = 0, and so on.
Therefore

= -(x - f7r) + ^(x - {nf - “ fTr)® + • • •.

To find the interval of convergence, use the ratio test. We have

|(x - |7T-)^"'^herm| (x - ^77)2"+' (2w - 1)!

|(x - 57r)^”“herm| (2n + 1)! (x —

(2w + l)2n'

The limit as n ^ is 0 so the series converges for all x.

As a second approach, write cos x = cos([x - f tt), and, for con¬
venience, let M = X — fTT. Then

cos X = cos[m + jtt ]

= cos u cos f TT — sin u sin
(by a trig identity. Section 1.3)

= —sin u (since cos = 0, sin jtt = 1)

for all u (using the series for sin u, Section 8.8).

Now replace m by x — to obtain the final answer

[x — fTr]® [x - IttP
(3) cos X = —[x — fTr] +
3! 5!
for all X — ^TT, that is, for all x.

Warning Consider an incorrect approach to the preceding example.

Begin with
2 4

(4) cos * = 1 - |y + ^ -

and replace x by x — to obtain

. , , , (x - , (x - Itt)^
COS(X — 2'^) =1--^
2! 4!

This is a series expansion in powers of x — Itt for the function cos(x — ^tt),
but it is not an expansion for cos x, as requested.
Application Suppose we want to estimate cos 80°, that is, cos(807r/180), so
that the error is less than .0001. We can set x = 807r/180 in any series for
cos X, say the series about 0 in (4) or the series about in (3). Since 80 is
nearer to 90° than to 0°, the convergence will be faster if we use the series
about ^TT. So using (3), we have

O 8077 1/8077 77\ ^ 1 1/8077 1 /8077 _

COS 80 — cos — 1
U80 2/ 3!^U80 ~ 2/
1 /SOtt 77
2

-~ JL18 -—f—Y
3!Vl8/
+ —f—Y
5!\18/
-—I—
7! Vl8
+

= .1745329 - .0008861 + .0000013 -

The series alternates, and the first term less than .0001 is the third term of
the series. Therefore we use two terms as the approximation and have
cos 80° = .1736468 (an underestimate) with error less than .0000013.

Example 2 Expand 1/(2 - x) in powers of x + 4; that is, expand

about —4.

Solution: Write the function as ^ -— and simplify by

2 - ([x + 4] - 4)
letting M = X + 4. Then

1 1 1
2-x 2-(m-4) 6 - u 6_^

Now use the expansion for 1/(1 — x) (Section 8.7, (1)) with x replaced by
m/6 to get

for — 1 < ^ < 1

6 6

J. X + 4
+ +
6
1 +
6 (=-F)’ +
X + 4
for — 1 < < 1
6

- ^ + 4) + ^ (x + 4)^ + ^ (x + 4)* + • • •

for —10 < X < 2.

Note that the interval of convergence is centered about —4.

Example 3 Expand In x in powers of x — 2, that is, about 2.

Solution: Write In x as ln([x — 2] + 2), and for convenience, let
u = X — 2. Then

In X = ln(M + 2) = In 2(1 + |m) (factor)

= In 2 + ln(l + ju) (using \n ab = In a + In b).

 Chapter 8 Review Problems • 257

Now use the established series for ln(l + x) (Section 8.7, Eq. (10)) with x
replaced by to get

In X = In 2 + 5M
~Y'

for — 1 < < 1

= In 2 +

X — 2
for -1 < —^ < 1

= In 2 + |(* - 2) - - 2)* + - 2)> -

for 0 < X < 4.

The term In 2 is the constant term in the series. Note that the interval of
convergence is centered about 2.

Warning Don’t combine numbers if by doing so you conceal the pattern.

In Example 3, the coefficients should be left as 22T2’ 2'^^ 4 ’

to indicate the pattern, rather than written as i, ‘ ‘ ’ which obscures

the pattern.

Problems for Section 8.10

(« - 4)"
1. Find the interval of convergence of 2
n3” ■
2. Consider expanding each function in powers of x — b. For which value(s) of
b is it impossible?

1
(a) (b) In X
(x “h 8)

3. Find the series expansion and its interval of convergence. For parts (a) and
(g), try both methods. Otherwise, use known series.

(a) In X in powers of x — 1 (f) Vx in powers of x — 9, and find the

coefficient of (x — 9)®*’

(b) sin X in powers of x — tt (g) -——^ in powers of x - 1,

(X + o)
and find the coefficient of (x — 1)*®
(c) e” in powers of x — 1 (h) cos 2x in powers of x +

(d) —-in powers of x + 1 (i) In 3x in powers of x — 2

(e) — in powers of x + 2 (j) -—— in powers of x + 4

1 + 2x ^

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 8

1. Test the series for convergence versus divergence.

 y
258 • 8/Series

6 "

(a) (h) S
(n - 1)!
. 3 4 5 6 ^
(b) S-
n
1 1 1 1 1
(c) + +
>1 >7 0 ^fiQ
7 78 789 7890 78901
1
(d) 2:-4 +
789012
+

1 • 3 • 5 1 • 3 • 5 • 7
(k) + +
^^^7 8 9 2-4-8 2-4-8-16
3n
(f) 2(-ir (1)
n + n
3n
(m) 1 — 3+1 — 3+1 — 3 + -'-
(g) S
n + n

2. Find the sum of the series (|)® + (i)’ + (1)® + ’'' •

3. Estimate the sum of 2^=0 (“ l)”(2”/n!) so that the error is less than .01. Do you
have an overestimate or an underestimate?
4. Decide if the series converges absolutely, converges conditionally, or
diverges.

5. Suppose S is a positive convergent series. Decide, if possible, if the given

series converges or diverges.

(a) (b) 'In^an

.
6 Suppose ^ ... converges. Decide, if possible, whether
fli + fl2 + fls + • • • also converges.

7. (a) Show that if and converge, then Ea„/>n does not necessarily
converge.
(b) Show that if E a„ and E bn are positive convergent series, then E also
converges.

8. Find the interval of convergence of x®/4^ + x®/4® + x^/4® + • • •.

9. Expand the function in powers of x, and find the interval of convergence.
1
(a) (c)
(1 + xf
1 1
(b) (d)
(x - 1)(1 - 2x) 1 + X®

10. Find the first three terms of the power series for x^e*, first using the Mac-
laurin series formula and then again using an established series.
11. Use power series to find lim*..o(l ~ cos x)/x^, which is of the indeterminate
form 0/0.
12. Find an expansion and its interval of convergence for (a) cos x in powers of
X — 577 (b) in powers of x — 8.
13. Approximate so that the error is less than .001. Is your estimate
over or under?
14. Find a series in powers of x for sin * x by antidifferentiating 1/Vl - x^.
9/VECTORS
/

9.1 Introduction

Certain quantities in physical applications of mathematics are repre¬

sented by arrows; we refer to the arrows as vectors. For example, a force is
represented by a vector (Fig. 1); the direction of the vector describes the
direction in which the force is applied, and the length (magnitude) of the
vector indicates its strength (in units such as pounds). The velocity of a car
is represented by a vector which points in the direction of motion, and
whose length indicates the speed of the car (Fig. 2). If an object moves from
point A to point B (Fig. 3), its displacement is depicted by a vector drawn
from A to B. In the context of vector mathematics, numbers are usually
referred to as scalars. We say that velocity, force, displacement and so on,
which are represented by arrows, are vector quantities, while speed, weight,
time, temperature, distance and so on, which are described by numbers, are
scalar quantities. We will use letters with overhead arrows, such as u and v,
to denote vectors. For a vector whose tail is point A and head is point B, as
in Fig. 3, we often use the notation A5.

vaooiry

O- Q1 vBcroR,

FI 6.x

Rectangular coordinate systems in 3-space We will draw vectors in space,

as well as in a plane, so we begin by establishing a 3-dimensional coordinate
system for reference. You are familiar with the use of a rectangular coordi¬
nate system to assign coordinates to a point in a plane. A similar coordinate

259
260 • 9/Vectors

system may be used in space; see Fig. 4 where the point (2,3, -5) is plotted
as an illustration. The plane determined by the x-axis and y-axis is called the
x,y plane; Fig. 4 also shows they,z plane and the x,z plane.
For a 2-dimensional coordinate system it is traditional to draw a hori¬
zontal x-axis and a vertical y-axis, but several different sets of axes are
commonly used in 3-space. Figures 5-7 show three more coordinate sys¬
tems. Each coordinate system in 3-space is called either right-handed or
left-handed according to the following criterion. Hold your right hand so
that your fingers curl from the positive x-axis toward the positive y-axis. If
your thumb points in the direction of the positive z-axis then the system is
right-handed (Figs. 4-6). Otherwise, the system is left-handed (Fig. 7). For
certain purposes (Section 9.4) right-handed systems are necessary, so we
use right-handed systems throughout the book.
In 2-space, the distance between the points (xi,yi) and (X2,y2) is

(*) V(x2 - xif + (y2 - yi)^

It may similarly be shown that the distance in 3-space between the points
(xi,yi,zi) and (x2,y2,Z2) is

V(x2 - xi)^ + (y2 - yi)^ + (z2 - zi)^

For example, if D = (3,4,7) and E = ( — 5,—2,5) then DE =

V64 + 36 + 4 = VT04.

Components of a vector A vector in 2-space has two components, indicat¬

ing the changes in x and y from tail to head. The vector u in Fig. 8a has
x-component —2 andy-component 3, and we writer = (—2,3). In 2-space,
the coordinates of a point and the components of a vector both measure
 9.1 Introduction • 261

over” and “up.” However, the coordinates of a point measure over and up
from the origin to the point, while the components of a vector measure over
and up from the tail to the head. Note that if the vector (xo,3)o) is drawn with
its tail at the origin then the coordinates of the head are the same as the
components of the vector (Fig. 8(b)).
A vector in 3-space has three components, indicating the changes in x,
y and z from tail to head. For vector AD in Fig. 9, to move from tail A to
head D we must go 4 in the negative x direction, 5 in the positive 3) direction
and 3 in the positive z direction. Thus AD = (—4,5,3).

Any vectors u and v with the same length and direction will have the
same components, and in that case we write u = v.\n Fig. 9, GB = FC =
(0,5, -3), AH = BC = GF = ED = (-4,0,0).
The vectors (0,0) and (0,0,0) are thought of as arrows with zero length
and arbitrary direction, and called zero vectors. Both are denoted by 0.
Suppose the tail of a vector is the point (6, — 1) and its head is the point
(2,4) (Fig. 10). Examine the changes in x and y from tail to head to see that
the vector has components (—4,5). In general

FI6.10
 vector components = head coordinates tail coordinates ,
(1)

which we abbreviate by writing

(2) vector AB - point B - point A .

For example, the vector'with tail at (3,5,1) and head at (2,1,5) has
components (2 — 3,1 — 5,5 — 1), or (-1,-4,4).

FIG.II
Suppose a vector u in 2-space has length r and angle of inclination 6
(Fig. 11). To find the components (x,y) of w, note that if the vector is drawn
starting at the origin then the head of the arrow has rectangular coordinates
x,y and polar coordinates r, 6 (Appendix A6). Since the two sets of coordi¬
nates are related by x = r cos 6, y = r sin 9, we have

(3) u = (r cos 6, r sin 9).

If a 2-dimensional vector has length 6 and angle of inclination 127°, then its
components are (6 cos 127°, 6 sin 127°).

n-dimensional vectors An arrow in space with a triple of components

iui,U2,Ui) is called a 3-dimensional vector. More generally, a 3-dimensional
vector is any phenomenon described with an ordered triple of numbers, such as
position in space, or a weather report which lists, in order, temperature,
humidity and windspeed. Similarly, an ordered string of seven numbers,
such as (4,8,6,2,0, -1,6) is said to be a 7-dimensional vector (or point). For
example, (0,0,0,0,0,0,0) is the 7-dimensional zero vector, or, alternatively,
the origin in 7-space. If an experiment involves reading five strategically
placed thermometers each day then a result can be recorded as a
5 -dimensional vector (Tj, Tg, T , T , T ). If a system of equations with four
3 4 5

unknowns has the solution Xi = 2, X = -4, X = 0, X == 2 then the

2 3 4

solution may be written as the 4-dimensional vector (2, -4,0,2). If n > 3

then the n-dimensional vector (wi, • • •, n„) cannot be pictured geometrically as
an arrow or a point, but (with the exception of the cross product in
Section 9.4) vector algebra will be the same whether the vector has 2, 3 or
100 components.

Problems for Section 9.1

1. Let P — (2,3, -7). Find the following distances.

(a) P to point Q - (1,5,2) (c) P to the x,y plane
(b) P to the origin (d) P to the y, z plane
 9.2 Vector Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication and Norms • 263

(e) P to the z-axis (g) point (x,y,z) to the x-axis

(f) P to the )i-axis (h) point (x,y,z) to the z-axis

2. In Fig. 9, find the components of AF, HE.

/ 3. Find the components of u if u points like the positive ))-axis and has length
2 in 2-space.
4. Find several vectors parallel to the line 2x + 3y + 4 0.
5. Find the components of AF if A = (2,7) and 5 = (-1,4).
6. If the vector (3,1,6) has tail (1,0,4), find the coordinates of its head.
7. Find the components of the 2-dimensional vector u with length 3 and angle
of inclination 120°.

9*2 Vector Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication

and Norms

In this section we will develop some vector algebra along with the
corresponding vector geometry.

#
JfjN/OCENr
(h kr/iRGET

mociTy/ VBLociry IX

vELoc/ry V

Vector addition Let the vector it in Fig. 1 be the muzzle velocity of a bullet
fired toward a target. Suppose further that the gun is fired from a car
moving with velocity v. Experiments show that the bullet does not head
I? toward the intended target; instead, the car velocity and muzzle velocity
combine (physicists call it “addition”) to produce the final bullet velocity
Hg.z shown in Fig. 1. In general, the sum of two vectors is defined by the paral¬
lelogram law of Fig. 2, or equivalently, the triangle law in Fig. 3 (the tri¬
angle is half the parallelogram). Figure 4 shows addition of parallel vectors,
and Fig. 5 shows a sum of three vectors.
To find the algebraic counterpart of the parallelogram law, we want the
components ofu + v given the components of u and v. Suppose u = (2,3)
and V = (5,1). Figure 6 shows u, v and m + 0; we can read the changes in x
and y from tail to head oiu + v to see that u + v = {1,4). Each component

FI6.3
264 • 9/Vectors

5 "

FI6. 6

of M + 0 is the sum of the corresponding components of m and v. In general,

if w = (Ml, • • •, M„) and v = (vi, then
(1) U + V = (Ui + Vi, U„ + v„) .

If M and V are vectors in 2-space or 3-space, then (1) accompanies the

geometric parallelogram rule. If u and v are higher dimensional, then (1)
serves as an abstract definition of vector addition.

The vector —u If m = (mi, • • •, m„) we define

(2) ( Ml,'"', Un) •

For example, if m = (4,2, — 1,3) then —u = (“4, —2,1, “■3).

If M is a vector in 2-space or 3-space then —m has the same length as u
but points in the opposite direction (Fig. 7).

Vector subtraction If m = (mi, • • •,m„) and v = (vi, • • • ,v„), we define

(3) M — M = (Mj — Ml, • • • , M„ — V„) .

For example, if m = (2, — 1) and v = (1,7) then u — v = (I, ~8).

If M and V are drawn as vectors with a common tail (Fig. 8a) then the
vector u - V can be drawn by reversing v and adding, that is, by finding
u + -V (Fig. 8b). The final result, the triangle law for vector subtraction, is
shown in Fig. 9: the head of m - m is the head of u, and the tail of m - m is
the head of v.
Note that to add two vectors geometrically, they can either be placed
with a common tail and added with the parallelogram law in Fig. 2, or can
be drawn head to tail and added with the triangle law in Fig. 3. But
to subtract two vectors geometrically, they should be placed with a common
tail so that the triangle rule of Fig. 9 can be applied. The parallelo-
 9.2 Vector Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication and Norms • 265

gram in Fig. 10 neatly displays the vectors u, v, u + v and w — 5 all in the

same diagram.

Properties of vector addition and subtraction As expected, the vector

operations behave like addition and subtraction of numbers.

(4) u -\- V = V + u

(5) {u + v) -\- w = u + {v + w)

(6) m+0 = 6+ m = m
(7) u H—u = 0

Scalar multiplication If m = {u\, • • ■ ,u^ and c is a scalar, we define

(8) cu = {cui, • • •, cmJ

and call the operation scalar multiplication. For example, if m = (2, —3) then
5m = (10, -15). If M is a vector in 2-space or 3-space then 2m and u have the
same direction, but 2m is twice as long. A car with velocity 2m is traveling in
the same direction as a car with velocity m, but with twice the speed. The
parallel vectors u and -|m have opposite directions, and is half as long as m. In
general, two vectors are parallel if one is a multiple of the other; they are parallel

FIG. with the same direction if the multiple is positive, and parallel with opposite
directions if the multiple is negative (Fig. 11).

Parallel lines In 3-space, two lines are either parallel, intersecting or skew.
The pyramid in Fig. 12 illustrates parallel lines BE and CD, intersecting
lines AB and AD, and skew lines AE and CD. We will consider coincident
lines as a special case of parallel lines; the lines BE and BA are parallel, and
furthermore are coincident.
Vectors may be used to detect parallel lines: the lines PQ and RS are
parallel if and only if the vectors PQ_ and RS are multiples of one another. For
examplcj^ let A = (1,2,3), B = (4,8, -J2. P = (6,1,3) and Q = (-4,0,2).
Then AB = B - A = (3,6, -4) and PQ = Q - P = {-10, -1, -1). The
vectors are not multiples of one another, so the lines are not parallel.
(Section 10.3 will give a method for distinguishing between the two remain¬
ing possibilities, skew versus intersecting, and show how to find the point of
intersection if it exists.)
In 2-space, both slopes and vectors may be used to detect parallel lines.
In fact we will show that the two techniques have much in common. Let’s
decide if the lines AB and CD are parallel, where A = (1,2), B - (3,5),
FIG.IZ 5-2
C = (21, —3) and D = (25,3). The slope of the line AB is --- or |, while
3 - 1
266 • 9/Vectors

2 _ _2
the slope of the line CD is ^^ ^ ^^e equal, the

lines are parallel. Alternatively, we have AB = (3 - 1,5 - 2) = (2,3) and

^ = (25 - 21,3-3) = (4,6). Since (2,3) and (4,6) are multiples of one
another, the lines are parallel. Both methods involve subtraction to find the
key numbers 3,2 and 6,4. But one method uses them to form quotients,
called slopes, and the other approach uses them to form ordered pairs, the
components of vectors. Deciding if the two quotients are equal is equivalent
to deciding if the two vectors are multiples of one another; the two methods
accomplish the same purpose, but in different notation. The slope of a line
AB is a convenient way of combining the two components of the vector AB
into one number, without losing information about the direction of the line.
Since there is no useful way of combining the three components of a
3-dimensional vector into one number, slopes are not defined in space.
Questions about parallelism, perpendicularity, angles and direction will be
answered in 3-space using vectors. In 2-space we may choose between
vectors and slopes.

Properties of scalar multiplication

(9) c{u v) = cu + cv (For example, 2(m -I- 5) = 2w + 2t5.)

(10) au -\- bu = {a + b)u (For example, 2m + 3m = 5m.)

(11) a{bu) = {ab)u (For example, 2(3m) = 6m.)

Properties (9)-(ll) are similar to familiar algebraic identities for scalars. We

omit the straightforward proofs.

Example 1 Precalculus algebra courses show that if A = (xi,yi) and

X\ -f yi + y2^
B = (x2,))2) then the midpoint of the segment AB is . In
2 ’ 2
A + B
vector notation, the midpoint is . We can use vectors to find the two

trisection points, C and D, of segment A5 (Fig. 13). We have AC = ^AB, so

2A B
C - A = 1(5 - A), and C =---. The midpoint formula computes an
3
average of the endpoints. The formula for the trisection point C takes
FI6.I3 a weighted average of the endpoints, with A weighted twice as much as B,
since C is the trisection point nearer to A. Similarly, AD = \AB and
A +
D = ---. If A = (2,3) and B = (—1,6) then the trisection point

2A + 5
nearest A is (1,4).

The norm of a vector If m = (mj, u^) then the x component of u changes

by Ml and the y component changes by from tail to head. Thus by the
Pythagorean theorem, the length of the vector is Vm? + u\. In general, if
M = (mi, • • • ,m„) we define the norm or magnitude of u by

(12) |m1| = Vmi + ••• + ul.

 9.2 Vector Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication and Norms • 267

If the vector u is 2-dimensional or 3-dimensional then ||ii|| is the length of

u. If a point has coordinates (mi, • • •, then the square root in (12) is the
distance from the point to the origin.
For example, if m = (2,3, -5) then ||m|| = V4 + 9 + 25 = VM. The
length of the vector u is and the distance from the point (2,3, —5) to
the origin is VM.

Properties of the norm It follows from the interpretation of ||{i|| as the

length of a vector that

(13) ||m|| > 0

and

(14) ||m|| = 0 if and only if m = 0.

We have already observed that the vectors 3m and —3m are each 3 times as
long as M. In the language of norms, ||3m|| = ||“3m|| = 3||m||, and in general,

(15) ||cm|| = |c|||m||.

Geometrically, (15) says that the length of the vector cu is the absolute value
of c times the length of u. Algebraically, (15) claims that the scalar c can be
extracted from inside the norm signs in the expression j|cM||, provided that
its absolute value is taken.

Example 2 Suppose a force f acts at point A due to a nearby disturbance.

Let f be the vector from the disturbance to A (Fig. 14). Describe the direc¬
/j ^

tion and magnitude of / if / = .

FlG.I't Solution: The denominator ||r|P is a positive scalar, so / has the same
direction as r. Thus the disturbance creates a repelling force at A. To find the
• . 1 . . . T
magnitude of /, use (15): since |p|p is a positive scalar, the length of is

ipp times the length of r. Therefore,

J_ ^_1_
fIP (distance from A to the disturbance)^ ’

Thus the magnitude of the repelling force is inversely proportional to the

square of the distance to the disturbance. (The electrical force felt by a
positive charge at point A due to a nearby positive charge is an example of
a repelling, inverse square force.)

Normalized vectors By (15), the norm of ^ is 5 times the norm of u.

U \ 'll
Similarly, the norm of ;77tt is nrir times the norm of m. Thus [7777 is a
||m|| ||m{| ||m||
unit vector, that is, has norm 1. Furthermore it has the same direction as u since

the scalar multiple ||-7|j is positive. The process of dividing u by ||m|| is

called normalizing the vector m. We will use the notation Mnormaiized so that
268 • 9/Vectors

( Wi Un\
(16) ^normalized -*
U /
u \ u

For example, if m — (4,5) then ||m1| — V^T and Wnormaiized /

(Fig. 15).
The normalized u will be a useful geometric tool because of its unit
NORMAL lie C> length.
F16.I5
Warning A norm is a scalar, but as the name implies, a normalized vector is
a vector. In other words, ||m1| is a scalar but ^normalized is a vector.

Finding a vector with a given direction and norm Suppose u has length
3 and the same direction as a given vector v. Then u = Sunormaiized since
tripling the unit vector ^normalized produces a vector with length 3, still point¬
ing like V. In general, if |lu|l = I and u has the same direction as a given vector
V, then

(17) u = Iv normalized

For example, if u has length 4 and the same direction as w = (1,3,2) then

J I 3 2 \ / 4 12 8 \
\vi4’Vii’vT4/’
Example 3 If you start at point A = (1,6) and walk 2 units toward point
B = (4,10), at what point do you stop? ^
Solution; Let the final destination be named C (Fig^l6). Then AC has
length 2 and the same direction as AB = (3,4), so AC = 2ABnormalized
(f,f). Therefore C - A = (t,f) and C = A + (f,f) = (t.t)-

FI6.I6

The vectors i,j, k In 2-space, the special vectors i and j are defined by
i = (1,0) and 7 = (0,1). Both are unit vectors, and if attached to the origin
they point along the coordinate axes (Fig^ 17). Every 2-dimensional vector
can be easily written in terms of i and 7. For example, (2,3) = 2(1,0) +
3(0,1) = 2i + 37 (Fig. 17). The notation u = U\i -I- u^j is often used in
place of M = {ui,U2). From now on, we will use both representations.
Similarly, in 3-space, i = (1,0,0),7 = (0,1,0) and k = (0,0,1) (Fig. 18).
The vector {ui,U2,uf} can be written as Uii + u^j + u^k. For example, if
u = 2i — 1 j + 3A and v = i + j A then u + v = Si — 6j + 5k, Su =
6i - 21] + 9k, lliill = V4 + 49 + 9 = V62.
 9.2 Vector Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication and Norms • 269

Warning If u has componerits 2 and 8, you may write u = (2, 8) or

u = 2t + 8J, but M is not {2i,8j).

P c
Problems for Section 9.2

1. Use the parallelogram in Fig. 19 to find

A B (a) (d) ^ ^
(b) - AD (e) AB + CD
(c) AB + CB

2. Let A = (2,4,6), 5 = (1,2,3), C = (5,5,5). Find point D sothatAfiCD is a

parallelogram.
3. Let A = (1,4,5), B = (2,8,1), C = (8,8,8), D = (6,0,16). Are the lines AB
and CD parallel?
4. Let A = (1,2,3), B = (4,8, -1), P = (6,y, z), Q = (-4,0,2). Find y and z so
that the lines PQ^ and AB are parallel.
5. Are the points A = (3,6, -\), B = (2,0,3), C = (-1,3, -4) collinear?
6. Of the nine points that divide the segment PQ into ten equal parts, find the
three nearest to P.
7. Figure 20 shows vectors u, v, w lying in the plane of the page. Find scalars a
and b so that w = au + bv.

8. A median vector of a triangle is a vector from a vertex to the midpoint of the

opposite side. Show that the sum of the three median vectors is 0 (Fig. 21).
B + C
Suggestions: For one method note that E = —-— since E is the midpoint of

segment BC. For another method note that A£ = AB + BE.

270 • 9/Vectors

9. Find ||m|1 if (a) m = (3, -1,5) (b) u = (tt, tt, tt, tt, tt).
10. Find the unit vector in the direction of (2, -6,8). ^
11. If 5 andil have opposite directions and 11511 = 5, express 5 as a multiple ofu.
12. Suppose that you walk on a line for 12 meters from point B = (1,2,6) to
point C, passing through the point A = (1,1,2) along the way. Find the coordinates
of C.
13. If M = (2,3,5), find the norm of 2175.
14. If 5 makes angle d with the positive x-axis in 2-space, find a unit vector in the
direction of u.
15. Suppose u has tail at point (4, 5, 6), is directed perpendicularly toward the
y-axis in 3-space, and has norm 3. Find its components.
16. Suppose the tail of u is at the point A (5,6,7), u points toward the origin,
and the length of 5 is 1 /(distance from A to the origin)^ Find the components of u.
17. If M — 2t 3y — k and V — i j -f find U 2u, HuH and Unormalized-
18. If llrll = r, find the norm of r*f.
19. Let 6 be the angle determined by u and v drawn with a common tail. Use
plane geometry to explain why u + v does not necessarily bisect angle 6, but

does bisect the angle.

I|w|| Fll

9.3 The Dot Product

We’ll begin by finding a formula for the angle between two vectors.
This leads to a new vector product and further applications.
If two vectors u and v are drawn with the same tail, they determine an
angle 6 (Fig. 1). If the vectors are parallel with the same direction, the angle
is 0°; if the vectors are parallel with opposite directions, the angle is 180°.
Otherwise, the angle is taken to be between 0° and 180°. We want to find the
FI6.I angle 6 in terms of the components of u and v. In Fig. 1, the vector u — v
completes a triangle with sides ||m1|, ||5|| and ||w — 5||. By the law of cosines
(Section 1.3),

(1) 115 - ujp = ||5|p + llulp - 2l|5l||lt5|l cos 0.

If 5 = {u\,U2,Ui) and v = (vi,'v2,V3) then (1) becomes

(ui — Vif -f (U2 — V2Y + (ws — V3Y = Ml + m| + M3 + + U3

- 2||m1111m|1 cos d.
This simplifies to MiMi + U2V2 + M3M3 = 11m||||m|| cos 6, so

MiMi + U2V2 + M3M3

cos e =--.
Il“l IMI
We single out the numerator of the cosine formula for special attention.
 9.3 The Dot Product • 271

The dot product If m - (mi, • • •, u„) and v - (wi, • • •, then the dot product
or inner product of u and v is defined by

(2) U'V = + • • • + UnVn.

For example, if u = 2? + 3; - 4k and v = 5i - Sl + 2k then u-v =

(2) (5) + (3) (-3) + (-4) (2) = 10 - 9 - 8 = -7.
With this definition, if 6 is the angle determined by the nonzero vectors
u and V drawn with the same tail, then

u V
(3) L(Ja U
u V

or, equivalently.

(4)

If il - 2i + 5k and v = -2i + 2] - Ik then cos 6 = which is

approximately -.959. Since the angle is always taken to be between 0° and

180°, an approximation for 6 is cos"*(-.959), or about 164°.
The sign of cos 6 determines whether 6 is acute or obtuse. This sign in
turn is determined by the sign of w • 0 since the denominator in (3) is always
positive. In particular,

(5) if w • 0 is positive then 0° < 0 < 90°

iiu ‘ V = 0 then 6 = 90°

if M • r) is negative then 90° < 0 < 180°.

As a corollary of (5), for nonzero vectors u and v,

u • V — 0 if and only if u and v are perpendicular.

More generally, M ‘v = 0 if and only if m = OortJ = 0 or wand 5 are nonzero

perpendicular vectors.

Example 1 LetA = (l,2,3),fi = (3,5,-l),C = (5,-1,0),Z) = (11,-1,3).

Are the lines AB and CD perpendicular?
Solution: We have A13 = (2,3, -4) and ^ = (6,0,3). Then AB • ^ =
12 + 0 - 12 = 0, so the vectors are perpendicular. Therefore the lines are
considered perpendicular although we cannot tell from the dot product
alone whether they are perpendicular and intersecting (such as a telephone
pole and the taut telephone wire) or perpendicular and skew (such as a
telephone pole and a railroad track).

Warning Note that for AB • ^ is not (12,0, -12); it is 12 plus 0 plus -12.
The dot product is a scalar.

Free vectors versus fixed points and lines Suppose A = (1,2) and
B = (5,0). Then the points A and B are fixed in the plane, line AB is fixed
in the plane, but the vector A5 = (4, -2) is said to he free in the sense that
an arrow with components 4 and -2 can be drawn starting at any point in
the plane. . , . i
Similarly, two vectors u and v can be drawn with a common tail to
display the angle they determine (Fig. 1), but the same vectors can also e
drawn apart. It makes sense to ask if two vectors are parallel or nonparallel,
perpendicular or nonperpendicular, but it makes no sense to refer to vec¬
tors as skew or as intersecting.

Properties of the dot product Several dot product rules are similar to
familiar algebraic identities for the multiplication of numbers;

6
( ) u ' V = V ■ u

(7) u ’ (v + w) = u ' V + u ' w,

{u+ v)‘ip+ q)=u-p + v-p + u'q + V'q

(8) M • 6 = 0 • w = 0.
We omit the proofs, which are straightforward.
If M = (Ml, • • •, M„) then M • M = Ml + • • • + M^ But this sum of squares is
also |1m|P, so

(9)

Still another property is

(10) (cm) • m = m • (cv) = c{u • v)

which states that a scalar multiplying one factor in a dot product may be
switched to the other factor or taken to multiply the dot product itself. For
the proof of (10), let u = (mi, • • •, u„) and v = (mi, • • •, v„). Then

c(m • m) = c(MiMi -I- • • • -f M„M„) — CMiMi • -t" CUnV„

(cm) • V = (cMi)Mi + ■■' + (cM„)m„ = CMiMi + • • • + CM„M„

M • (cm) = Mi(cMi) -!-•••+ M„(cmJ = CMiMi -f • • • + CU„V„ .

Therefore, (10) holds. Note that three kinds of multiplication appear in

(10), dot multiplication, scalar multiplication (in the products cm and cm) and
multiplication of two numbers (in the product c(m • m) since both c and u • v
are scalars).

Example 2 By (9), (7) and (6),

11m -I- m|P = (m -t- m) • (m -I- m) = u • u + 2u ’ V + V • V

= |1m|P -I- 2m • M + 1|m|P .

y * XI
Example 3 Show that u is perpendicular to m —‘

(Note that is the quotient of two scalars, so it too is a scalar,

multiplying the vector m.)

Solution: For the vectors to be perpendicular, their dot product must
be 0. We have
 9.3 The Dot Product • 273

V •u _ V • u.
u ' \v — it I = u - V — u ■u (by (7))
ml

V •u V • u
= u •V — {u ’ u) I by (10) with c taken to be

(cancel the scalars ||m|P and u • u,

= U 'V — V •u
by (9))

= 0 (by (6)).

Warning Don’t write meaningless combinations. For example, {u • v) w

is the sum of a scalar and a vector, which is impossible. Similarly, expressions
such as u^, uv and u/v make no sense.

The (scalar) component of u in a direction We’ll begin with an example

to introduce a new and important application of the dot product. Suppose
a boxer is vulnerable tojhe knockout force KO = (1,2,3). If a fist has the
direction of the vector A'O as it lands on his chin, and has Vl4 units of force
behind it, he will be knocked out. More units of force will also knock him
out, but not less. Suppose he is hit by the blow u = (1,4,2). There is suf¬
ficient strength, namely ||m|| = V^, in the blow but it isn’t in the ^ direc¬
tion. The problem is to decide whether he is knocked out. Think of u as the
sum of two vectors, a, parallel to KO, and b, perpendicular to KO (Fig. 2).
Physical experiments show that applying the force u is equivalent to simul¬
taneously applying a and b. Furthermore, the vector b is harmlessly tangent
to his chin and can be ignored. In other words, the blow that has effectively
been struck is a, and the possibility of a knockout depends on whether the
magnitude of o is at least VIT. This is a geometry problem. We want to find
the length of the projection of u onto the KO direction. (Figure 2 is drawn
with ||a|| > VT4, that is, with a longer than KO. The problem is to decide if
this is indeed the case.) In the right triangle in Fig. 3, the length of the

projection is labeled p. Then cos 6 = -f— so

INI
p = Hull cos e = llfllljjl^ (by (3))

u'KO ^ 15
(11)

Since p > Vh (barely), the force u does knock him out.

Let’s extract some general results from the example. By (11), if the
angle 6 between u and v is acute (as in Fig. 3) then the length p of the

projection of u onto the v direction is given by ^ • In the case where

6 is obtuse (Fig. 4) then, instead of (11),

u • V
p = ||m|| cos(7r — d) = —||m|| cos 6 [since cos(7r — 6) — —cos 0] =

(This is positive, as expected, since ii • i; is negative in this case.) We sum¬

marize as follows.
274 • 9/Vectors

The scalar is called the component of u in the direction

Pll
ofv If M and V are drawn with a common tail then this
(12) component may be thought of as the “signed projection ot
u onto a line througlx^. It is positive if the angle between u
and V is acute, negative if the angle is obtuse, and in either
case, its absolute value is the length of the projection.

Example 4 Let a = I - 3} and 5 = -51 + 2;. Find the component of u

in the direction of v and show its geometric significance m a sketc .

Solution: We have = ^. The negative sign indicates that u

makes an obtuse angle with 5. and the absolute value, ^, is the length of

the projection in Fig. 5.

Example 5 Figure 6 shows a rectangular box with edges 10,7 and 2. Find
the length of the projection of segment GF on the line CA (One way to
visualize the projection is to imagine the foot of the perpendicular from
to line AC, and the foot of the perpendicular from G to AC, which happens
to be C; the projection is the distance between the two feet.^ Fig. b the
projection of GF may also be visualized as the projection of CB.)
Solution: If ray DA is taken as the positive_x-axis, ray D£as^the positive
y-axis and ray DH as the positive z-axis then GF = (2,0,0), CA - (2, 10,0)
and
GF^A ^ 4
\\CA\\ “VTm'

Therefore the length of the projection is 4/VlM.

•r- , 1^ '
The vector component of u in a direction We have already identified -pjj-

as the (scalar) component of u in the direction of v. We now examine the

 9.3 The Dot Product • 275

vector obtained by projecting u onto v (Figs. 7 and 8); it is called the vector
component or projection of u in the direction of v.
The vector component in Fig. 7 has the same direction as v and its

length is the scalar component . Therefore, by (17) in Section 9.2, the

vector component is

u •V V
(13)

Lets see if (13) applies to Fig. 8 as well, where the angle between u and v is

obtuse. In this case, the scalar component -|p||- is negative. When it multi-

1- ^ •
P^es PH m (13), it has the effect of reversing direction as desired for Fig. 8

where the vector component has a direction opposite to v. Thus (13) is the
vector component in both Figs. 7 and 8. Simplifying (13) produces the
following conclusion.

The vector component of u in the direction of v may be

u ’ V^ . U ' V^
written as -j^v or, equivalently, as —-v. In other words,
(14) l|f|r V • V
the vector component is a multiple of v, and the multiple is
u •V
the scalar
V •V

For example, iiu — i — 3j and v = —5i + 2j then the vector compo¬

nent of u in the direction of v is

u •V^ -11 55^ 22^

rr^v = (-5? + 2i) (Fig. 9).
V •V 29 29^ 29^

Problems for Section 9.3

1. Decide if the angle between M = i + 2j — Slandv = bi + 6j + 5l is acute,

right or obtuse.
2. Find u • v if ||m|| = 5, ||v|| = 6 and u and v have opposite directions.
3. Find angle A in the triangle with vertices A = (1,4, —3), B = (2,1,6) and
C = (4,3,2).
276 • 9/Vectors

4. Lets = (u„<»,»,) and let fl., fc, «j be the angles between 5 and the positive
x-axis, 31-axis and z-axis, respectively.
(a) Find cos 0i, cos 02, cos 03 (called the direction cosines of «)
(b) Show that (cos 01, cos 02, cos 63) is the unit vector in the direction of m.

5. Let A = (2,3), B = (5,8), C = (-1,4), D = (4,1). Show that lines AB and

CD are perpendicular using (a) slopes (b) dot products. j eu
6. Suppose that you walk from point A = (2,4) to point B - (8,9) and en
make a left turn and walk 7 feet to point C. Use vectors to find the coordinates of

7. Find the acute angle determined by two lines with slopes 7/2 and 4.
8. Show that (u • u)v - {v • u)u is perpendicular to u.^
9. If IImII = 3, ||u|| - 2 and M • 5 - 5, find 11-6m||, u • 3u and Hu ujl-
10. Let u - (5,2,3, -4) and v = (-4,3, -1,4). Compute whichever of the fol
lowing are meaningful

(a) |u • u|

(b) ||u ' u| (f) (u • v)v

(c) llu'llu (g) {u'V)'V

11. Give (i) a geometric argument and then (ii) an algebraic argument for the
following.

(a) If u • u = 0 then ||u + u|l = Iju - u||.

(b) If Hull = Hull then u + u is perpendicular to u - u.

12. Ifu = 4i + 2; + 3^andu - -1 - 3; + A find (a) the component of u in the

direction of v and (b) the component of v in the direction of u.
13. In Fig. 6, find the length of the projection of segment FH on the line AG.
14. Suppose the component of u in the direction of v is 6.

(a) Find the component of u in the direction of 4u.

(b) Find the component of u in the direction of —v.
(c) Find the component of 4u in the direction of v.

15. If Hull = 6, Hull = 4 and the angle between u and u is 120°, find the component
of u in the direction of u.
16. The 100 meter dash is run on a track in the direction of the vector
t ^ I + 2]. The wind velocity lu is 2i + 2;; that is, the wind is blowing from the
southwest with windspeed Vo. The rules say that a legal wind speed, measured in
the direction of the dash, must not exceed 2. If the dash results in a world record,
will it be disqualified because of an illegal wind?
17. A spike being hammered into a mountain is represented by the vector
(2,3, —4). One more blow with magnitude at least 10 (in the direction of the spike)
will finish the job. Is the force (9,8, -1) enough?
18. Find the direction in which the component of u is maximum, and find that
maximum value.
19. If u = 2I + 3ji and q = 5t - 2j, find the vector component of u in the
direction of q.
20. In Fig. 10, which of^ and q has the larger component in the direction of u?

FI6,I0 9.4 The Cross Product

We will begin with a result from physics that introduces the cross
product, a new vector multiplication. Consider a unit positive electric
 9.4 The Cross Product • 277

charge in a magnetic field, which we simplistically view as a charged marble

near a bar magnet lying on a table. If the charge is stationary then it is not
affected by the magnet, but suppose the charge rolls along the table.
Figure 1 shows the velocity v of the charge; the magnet is represented by
a vector m directed from the south pole to the north pole; the length of m
indicates the strength of the magnet. Experiments show that the moving
charge feels a force f which points like the thumb of your right hand when
your fingers curl from v toward m. Furthermore, the strength of the force
depends on the speed of the charge, the strength of the magnet, and the
angle d between j) and m. In particular, ||/|| = ||^||||m|| sin 6. The force / is
denoted hy v X in and suggests the following definition.

The cross product Given 3-dimensional vectors u and v, the cross product
M X is a vector characterized geometrically by two properties.

(1) (direction of M X fi) The cross products X 5 is perpen¬

dicular to both u and v. In particular (Fig. 2) it points in the
direction of your thumb if the fingers of your right-hand curl
from u to V (right-hand rule). Equivalently, the cross products
points in the direction in which a screw advances if it is turned
from u to V.
(2) (length of m X 5) If 0 is the angle between u and v then
||m X £/|| = ||m|| Ill'll sin 0.

'h
pll^criON OF ^ xV
278 • 9/Vectors

The formula in (2) has a nice corollary. From trigonometry, the area o
a triangle is half the product of any two sides with the sine of the included
angle (Section 1.3, Eq. (19)), so the area of the triangle determined by m and
9. ic
V in Fig. 3 is i\\u IIt;II sin 6. Therefore |1m1| Ill'll sin 6 is twice the area ot the
triansrle. Thus
FI6J ||m X 511 is the area of the parallelogram determined by u
(3) and V (Fig. 3)._

The result in (3) shows that for nonzero u and v, \\u x 5|1 = 0 (equiva¬
lently M X 5 = 0) if and only if the parallelogram degenerates to zero area.
Therefore, for nonzero u and v.

u X V = 0 if and only if u and v are parallel.

As a special case,

the cross product of a vector with itself is 0.

More generally, u x 5 = 0 if and only if m = 0 or 5 = 6 or m and v are

nonzero parallel vectors.

Warning If you intend to write 5x5 = 0, make sure you write 6, not 0.
If you write ||m x 5l| = ||5|l||5ll sin d = parallelogram area, don’t omit the
norm signs around the vectors. Otherwise you will be writing meaning¬
less equations.

Properties of the cross product By (3), 5 x 5 and 5x5 must have the
same length, namely the area of the parallelogram determined by 5 and 5.
But by the right-hand rule they have opposite directions. Therefore

5x5= -(5 X 5).

By (2), or (3), 1|5 x 0|| and |l0 x 5|| are both 0. Therefore,

(5) 5x0 = 0x5 = 6.

We state another property without proof:

uX{v + w)— uXv-FuX-W

(6) (5 -H 5) X 5 = 5 X 5 -I- 5 X 5;
{u + v) X {p + q)'- u X p + u X q + V X p + V X. q.

This property is the familiar distributive law, but note that on the right side
of the vector identities in (6), the vectors in the cross product must appear
in the same order as they did on the left side. It is not correct to expand
5 X (5 + 5;) to 5 X 5 4- 5 X 5.
To discover another law, note that 5x5 and 5 x 25 have the same
direction by the right-hand rule; but 5 x 25 is twice as long because the
parallelogram determined by 5 and 25 has twice the area of the paral¬
lelogram determined by 5 and 5. Therefore 5 x 25 = 2(5 x t»). In general,
 9.4 The Cross Product • 279

U X (cv) = (cu) X V = c(u X v) .

As^an example,^consider (m + v) X (u - v). By (6) and (7), its expan¬

sion is u X u — u X V + V X u — V X^v. The cross product of a vector with
' itself is 0, so w X M and v X v are 0. Then, by (4), the remaining terms
combine rather than cancel, so (m + y) X (m — v) is 2(y X u) or, equiva¬
lently, -2(m X v).

The components of the cross product We would like to derive a formula

for the components of m X y in terms of the components of u and v. But first
we must deal with an unusual situation involving the type of rectangular
coordinate system used. Consider i X j in the right-handed system in Fig. 4
and^in the left-handed system in Fig. 5. In each case, ||I x j|| =
I *11IL/II 90 ~ 1> but by the right-hand rule, i X j points up in Fig. 4 and
down in Fig. 5. So (1,0,0) X (0,1,0) is either (0,0,1) or (0,0, -1) depending
on whether the vectors are plotted in a right-handed or left-handed system.
This illustrates that the components ofw X y depend on the type of coordi¬
nate system. By convention, only right-handed systems are used, and in this
case we will derive a unique formula for the components of m X y.

y-/ixi5

2-AX'5
Let u = Uii + M27 -f u^k and v = Vyi + v^j + v^k. By (6) and (7),

u X V = {u\i -f tigX + X (vii -f 1)2] -f v^k)

(8) = UiVi{i X i) -f- U2V2{j X j) UsVsik X k)

-f UiV2{i X j) + U2V\{j X i)
A- U\Vi{i Xk) + X i)
+ U2Vi{j X A) + U2,V2{k X j) .

The cross product of a vector with itself is 6, so i X i = j X ] = k X

k = 0. We have already seen that in a right-handed system, i X j = k.
Similarly,) X i = -k,k X i = ],i x k = -],] x k = t,k x ] = -i. There¬
fore (8) simplifies to

(9) u X V = {U2V3 - u^V2)i + {u^Vi - uiVs)j -f (yiy2 - U2Vi)k.

The formula in (9) looks formidable to memorize, but we will give some
simple routines for finding cross products easily. It is convenient to use the
280 • 9/Vectors

determinant notation
a b
ad - be
c d

to write (9) as

To apply (10), line up the components of m and v so that the components of

the first factor u appear in the first row as follows:

Ml M2 Ms

(11) Vi V2 Vs

Ignoring the first column in (11) leaves the configuration

• M2 Ms

• V2 Vs

whose determinant is the first component of m X u. Ignoring the second

column of (11) leaves
Ml ■ Ms
Ml • Ms

whose negated determinant produces the second component of m x u,

Finally, disregarding the third column in (11) leaves

Ml M2 •
Ml M2 •

whose determinant is the third component of m X m. The procedure just

described can also be carried out by writing

i i k
M X M = Ml M2 Ms

Ml M2 Ms

and expanding the determinant across the first row. This immediately
produces (10). (Appendix A5 contains a review of determinants.)
For example, if m = +j — and v = Si — 2j + 5k then

2 W -4 -* 2 1 -W
M X M =
A -2 . 5
i —
3 -I 5
j + 3 -2 A
= -Si - 22] - Ik.

Alternatively,
1 j k
CM

1 -4 -* 2 1
1

M X M = 2 1 -4 -j + k
-2 5 3 5 3 -2
3-2 5
-Si - 22] - Ik.
 9.4 The Cross Product • 281

Warning When the second column in (11) is ignored to compute the

second component of the cross product, a minus sign must also be inserted
Ml Ms
to obtain
■Oi ^^3

Example 1 Find a vector perpendicular to the plane determined by the

points A = (1,2,3), B = (4,5,6), C_= 0,3).
Solution: By (1), the vector AB X AC is perpendicular to both AB
and AC, and hence is perpendicular to the plane (Fig. 6). Therefore an
answer is

Afi X AC = (3,3,3) X (-3,-2,0) = (6,-9,3) = - 9; + 2>k.

F|6, 6 Another answer, with simpler components, is |(6i — 9j + 3l) or 2? —
k. (In fact we could have used | A5 in the original cross product instead
of A5.) Still another answer is — 2i + 3j — k. There are many vectors per¬
pendicular to the plane but, by geometry, all are multiples of one another.

The cross product of 2-dimensional vectors The vector operations in

earlier sections originated from geometric considerations, and were ex¬
tended algebraically to n-dimensional vectors in general. For example, ||m||
was inspired by the length of an arrow, and the 2-dimensional formula
Vmi -f mI generalized easily to Vmi + • • • -I- m^, independent of geometry.
Similarly, u + v,cu and u • v are defined for n-dimensional vectors and used
extensively in mathematics and applications (such as the theory of systems
of equations with n variables). The cross product was defined geometrically
in (1) and (2) for -dimensional vectors, and this is the first operation we
do not find profitable to extend to n-space. It remains a tool in 3-space only.
However, for the purpose of taking a cross product, a too-dimensional
vector such as (2,3), lying in the x,y plane, can be regarded as the three-
dimensional vector (2,3,0) lying in (or parallel to) the x,y plane in 3-space.

Example 2 Find the area of the triangle determined by the points

A = (2,3), 5 = (4,6), C = (-1,2). _
Solution: The triangle is determined by the vectors AB = (2,3) and
AC = (-3,-1). Then

A5 X AC = (2,3,0) X (-3, -1,0) = (0,0, 7),

and \\AB X AC|| = 7. Thus, the area of the triangle, half a parallelogram,
is |.

Problems for Section 9.4

1. The vectors in Fig. 7 lie in the plane of the page. The vector p, not shown,
points perpendicularly into the page. Find the directions of u x v,p x q and s x t.
282 • 9/Vectors

2. What can you conclude^about u and 5 if u X u 6 and u v 0.

a If iy = 3/ + 987? + 38^, find U x MnormaUzed-^ r -
0, shoi .ha. .he equation ax i = S has no ^
5. An expression of the form fi ■ e x » must mean » • (» x w) rather th

{u'V) X W.
(a) Explain why. (b) Find m • 5 x u. (c)^ Find u • v X v.

?; [f"t‘tc.lVand nlie on *e floor in Room 321 and the vectors? and j

lie on the floor in Room 432, find (u X u) x {p x.q).

9. M vectors ari^drawn with a common tail, show thatw X (u X ui) lies m the
plane determined by v and w.
10. Find M X 5 if

(a) w - (6, -1,2), V = (3,4,3) ^ ^ (c) u - (6, IJ, (3,4)

(b) u = -2i - ^] + 5k,v = i + j + (d) u- 5i j 2k, V t + 2j

11. Find ui X 5 and 5 X a, if u = (-F -2,-3) and w = (3 3, -2)

12. Let « ^ 3i + 2] - ^ and 5 = -U 5; + 2k. If 0 is the angle determined
by u and v, find cos 8 and sin 8 independently and then check to see t a

cos^0 + sin^0 ^ , -r -t c?
13. Let M = 2i - > + 3^ and 5 = 5i + 3; - 6ft.

(a) Find four nonparallel vectors perpendicular to u.

(b) Find a vector perpendicular to both u and v.

14. Find the area of the triangle determined by the points A = (0,2,-l),
B = (4,-4,2), C = (-1,-4,6).

9.5 The Scalar Triple Product

We have already seen that the area of the parallelogram determined by

u and V is IIm X u1|. Let’s go one dimension further and find the volume of
the parallelepiped determined by u, v and w (Fig. 1). The base mciicated m
Fig. 1 is a parallelogram whose area is p x u/||. The height is the length o^
the projection of u onto a line perpendicular to the base. The vector u x u;
has this perpendicular direction, so by (12) of Section 9.3, the height is the
absolute value of the component of u in the direction of u X w, that is, the
U' {v X w)
height is Note that both the numerator and denominator are
P X u;||
 9.5 The Scalar Triple Product • 283

numbers, and since the denominator is positive we may write the height as
|w • (£» X ti))|
Then

(1) volume - (base) (height) = ||i) x w\\'^= \u • {v X w)|

Ip X i^ii ''

If u, V, w are 3-dimensional vectors then

u • {v X w)

is called a scalar triple product. Without ambiguity we may omit the paren¬
theses and write the scalar triple product sls u ‘ v x w. (It cannot be misin¬
terpreted as (u-v) X w since the latter expression is the proposed cross
product of a scalar and a vector, which is meaningless.) As its name implies,
M • u X is a scalar. For example, if m = (1,2,1), v = (2,4,6) and
w = (1,3, -1) then u-v Xw = (1,2,1) • (-22,8,2) = -4.
If M = {u\,U2,Us), V = ivi,V2,Vs) and w = the configuration

Ml M2 Us
(2) V2 Vs
tCl W2 Ws

will help keep track of the arithmetic involved in computing u ' v X w. We

use the last two rows of (2) to find

V2 Vs V\ Vs
- X
f V - = (
9
V W2 Ws Wi Ws

and then dot with the first row to get

V2 Vs Vl Vs V\ Vi
(3) u •V X w = Ui — U2 + Us
W2 Ws Ws Ws Wi W2

But (3) may^also be viewed as the expansion (along the first row) of the
determinant of (2). Therefore,

Ml U2 Us

(3) U • V X w = Vl Vi Vs

Wi W2 Ws

The determinant formula is a compact expression for the scalar triple

product.
By (1), the absolute value of the scalar triple product is a volume; in
particular,

(w • y X icl is the volume of the parallelepiped determined

by u, V and w.

For example, if = 2* — ?>j + 5k,q= —6? + j - k and r = 2i + k then

2-3 5
p •q X r -6 1 -1 = -20,
2 0 1
so the volume of the parallelepiped determined by p, q and f is 20.
284 • 9/Vectors

The result in (4) shows that for nonzero u,v,w, \u ' v x w\ 0 (equiva¬
lently M 5 X = 0) if and only if the parallelepiped degenerates to zero
volume. Therefore, for nonzero u,v,w,

U ‘ V X w = 0 if and only if u, v, w are coplanar when drawn with

a common tail. ____

More generally, M • ^ Xw = 0 if and only if m — Oort) — 0 or it' 6 or it, 5, it'

are nonzero coplanar vectors. u ■
To conclude this section we investigate the effect of a switch m
the order of the factors in a scalar triple product. There are six possible
arrangements:
U ' V X W, W ' U X V, V ’ W X U

(5) V ' u X w, w • V X u, u - W X V .

All six have the same absolute value, namely, the volume of the paral¬
lelepiped determined by it, v and w. We will prove that the three in the first row
are equal, the three in the second row are equal, and the value from the first row u
the negative of the value from the second row. Before offering the proof we will
give a device for remembering which rearrangements have the same va ue
and which have opposite values. Picture the letters u,v,w as beads on a
bracelet. If a new order is produced by sliding the beads on the bracelet, the
new arrangement is called a cyclic permutation of the original. Figure 2 shows
that it' • it X 5 is a cyclic permutation oiu'vXw since it can be obtained by
sliding w around to the front. If a new arrangement is obtained by a cyclic
permutation of the letters, the value of the scalar triple product is unchanged^
Otherwise the value is negated. For example, ifit'px£'=—7 thenpj ^ ^
is also -7 since it can be obtained by cyclic permutation, while - ^ X it is
7 since it cannot be obtained from the original by cyclic permutation.
One proof of the rearrangement principle uses the fact that if two rows
of a determinant are interchanged, then the sign of the determinant
changes (Appendix A5). Compare the determinants for it • u x iy and its
cyclic permutation w • u x v'.

Ml M2 M3 Wi W2 M's

u • v X w = V\ V2 Vi , W ' u X V = Ml M2 Ms

Wx W2 w^ ^^1 V2 Vi

If rows I and 3 are interchanged in the first determinant, and then rows 2
and 3 interchanged, the result is the second determinant. Each interchange
of rows changes the sign, so two interchanges restore the original value.
Therefore the cyclic permutation has the same value as the original. On the
other hand, only one interchange of rows is required to go from the deter¬
minant for u • V X wto the determinant of any wowcyclic permutation. Thus
permuting woncyclically negates the scalar triple product.

Problems for Section 9.5

1. Find u • V x w if m = (1,2,3), 5 = (— 1,1,1), w = (0,3,4).

2. Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined hyu — i+k,v —
2j + ik, w = 3i — bk.
 9.6 The Velocity Vector • 285

3. Are the points A = (1,1,2), B = (2,3,5), C = (2,0,4), D = (2,-3,-1)

coplanar?
4. Figure 3 shows u,v,w. Is u • v X w positive, negative or zero?
5. Suppose u lies on the floor in Room 223, v lies on the floor in Room 224 and
w lies on a desk top in Room 347. Find u • v x w.
6. If ^ ^ X r = —5 find

(a) p-r X q (d) 3q • 4p X 5r

(h) r 'p X q (e) q-p X q
{c) q-rXp {{) q-r Xr

FIG.3 9.6 The Velocity Vector

(Appendix A6 is a prerequisite for this section.)

In Section 3.5 we found the velocity and acceleration of a particle
moving on a number line. In this section and the next we extend the topic
to motion in a plane and space. For convenience we measure distance in
meters and time in seconds throughout.

Equations of motion; the position vector An equation such as x = t'^ + 2t

describes the position x, at time t, of a particular particle on a number line.
Similarly, a pair of equations such as x = + 2t, y = 3t - describes the
position {x,y), at time t, of a particular particle moving in a plane. More
generally, position in 2-space at time t is described by a pair of parametric
equations of the form x = x{t), y = y{t), and position in 3-space at time t is
given by X = x{t), y = y{t), z = z(t).
For example, consider

(1) X = t, y = — 3.

The table in (2) lists some values of t with corresponding points. (Remem¬
ber that a negative time such as t = -3 simply means 3 seconds before the
fixed time designated as t = 0.)

time t position (x,y)

-3 (-3,6)
-2 (-2,1)
-1 (-1,-2)
0 (0,-3)
1 (1,-2)
2 (2,1)
3 (3,6)

If the points are plotted, and connected in a reasonable fashion, we have the
path in Fig. 1. Each point is labeled with its associated value of t; the timing
indicates that the particle travels from left to right along the path. Soon we
will use calculus to identify its speed and acceleration at any instant.
In addition to plotting points to produce the anonymous path in
Fig. 1, we can find a direct connection between x and y, a process called
eliminating the parameter. Since x = i, we can substitute x for t in the second
286 • 9/Vectors

FIG. I
equation in (1) to obtain y = - 2>. Therefore the curve in Fig. 1 is the
parabola)) = — 3. i ■ •
The vector drawn from the origin to the curve is called the position
vector r{t). For the path x = x{t), y = )(/), we have r{t) = xip)i + y{t)j- The
position vector for the path in (1) is r{t) = ti + {t^ — 3)j; if / — 3 then
r = 31 + 6j and the particle is at the point (3,6) (Fig. !)• ^
As another example, let r{t) = t^i + (/^ — 3)), that is, let x — / ,
y = _ 3 We can eliminate the parameter to obtain ) = - 3, so again
the particle travels on the parabola ) = x^ - 3. However, if we plot a few
points we see that it does not travel along the entire parabola (Fig. 2). It
moves from right to left during negative time until it reaches the point
(0, -3) and then turns around and goes back the way it came. (Even before
we plot individual points we can tell that the particle can t travel on the
entire parabola since the first coordinate, t^, is never negative.)
This latter example illustrates that if the parameter is eliminated from the
equations x = xif), y = yif) to obtain a single equation in x and y, then the particle
must travel along the graph of the single equation, hut does not necessarily traverse
the entire graph. It is necessary to plot a few points to capture the timing,
direction and extent of the motion. Similarly, suppose the parameter is elimi¬
nated from the equations x = x{t), y = y{t), z = z{t) to obtain a single equation in
X, y and z. The graph of the single equation is a surface in 3-space (Chapter 10 will

discuss this further), and the path of the particle is a curve lying on the surface.
There is no single method for eliminating the parameter. One possibility is
to try to solve one equation for t and substitute in the other. On the other
hand, in some instances it may not be desirable or practical to eliminate
the parameter.

Circular motion at constant speed Let

(3) X = 6 cos t, ) = 6 sin t,

or, equivalently, f{t) = (6 cos /, 6 sin /). A method for eliminating the pa¬
rameter is not obvious here. But we can take advantage of the identity
 9.6 The Velocity Vector • 287

cos^t + sin^i = 1 to get

(4) = 36 cos^t + 36 sin^r = 36(cos^r + sin^r) = 36.

Therefore the path lies along the circle = 36, with center at the
origin and radius 6. Another (better) way to identify the path is to compare
(3) with the equations x = r cos 6, y = r sin 6 which relate polar coordi¬
nates r, 6 with rectangular coordinates x,y (Appendix A6). The comparison
shows that any point {x,y) satisfying (3) has polar coordinate r = 6 and
consequently lies on a circle centered at the origin with radius 6. Further¬
more, the parameter t representing time is the polar coordinate angle 6. At
time i = 0 the particle is on the circle with 0 = 0; at time t = tt12 the
particle has moved to the point on the circle with 6 = Trf 2 (Fig. 3). In
general, the equations x = Tq cos t, y = Tq sin t describe counterclockwise motion
around the origin with radius r^, making one revolution every 2tt seconds.

F(6,3
Similarly, the path x = 2 cos 3^, y = 2 sin 3i is circular motion with
radius 2 but this time the angle 0 is 3^, not t. The particle still moves
counterclockwise but makes one revolution in 27r/3 seconds or, equiva¬
lently, makes three revolutions in 277 seconds.

Velocity and speed Suppose the equations of motion are x — x{t),y = y{t)
or, equivalently, the position vector is r{t) = x{t)i + y{t)i. Then x{t) may be
regarded as tbe horizontal position of the particle at time t, so x'{t) is its
horizontal velocity; similarly y'(^) is the vertical velocity. If a particle travels
horizontally atx'(0 meters per second and simultaneously travels vertically
aty'(^) meters per second (Fig. 4) then it is really traveling in the direction
of the vector x'{t)i + y'{t)i at the rate of

(5) V[x'(0P + [y'(0]^ meters per second.

 [j'
FEU

F16.^
If r(t) = x(t)'i + y(0j we define the velocity vector v by

v{t) = x'{t)i + y'{t)i

and refer to v as the derivative, fof f. If v is drawn with its tail on the
curve, it points in the instantaneous direction of motion (hence is tangent to
the path). Furthermore, by (5), the instantaneous speed of the particle at
time t is H^COll meters per second.__

We will illustrate the velocity vector and its norm, the speed, by re¬
turning to the equations of motion in (1) and the path in Fig. 1. Since x — t,
y = — 3, we have

vf) = x'iffi -I- y'{f)j = i + 2ti.

Equivalently,

r{t) ^ ti + {t^ - 2>)j, v{t) = r'{t) = i + 2tj .

Let’s examine a few specific instances. At time t = 2 we have f = 2i + 7 so

the particle is at the point (2,1). The velocity vector isv = i + 4], which we
draw with its tail at the point (2,1) (Fig. 5). As predicted, v is tangent to the
path, and of the two tangent directions, v points in the instantaneous direc-

FI6.5
 9.6 The Velocity Vector • 289

tion of motion. Furthermore, at time 2, the particle’s speed is ||w|| = VT?

meters per second. Similarly, if r = -1 then r = -i - 2] and v = i - 2].
The particle is at the point (—1, —2). The vector v attached to this point on
the curve is tangent to the curve and points in the instantaneous direction
of motion. At this instant, the speed is ||i}|| = Vs. Note that the position
vector r is drawn with its tail at the origin, while the velocity vector v is
pictured with its tail on the curve, at the head of r.

Problems for Section 9.6

1. Sketch the path and indicate the direction of motion. Eliminate the parame¬
ter if feasible to identify the path more thoroughly.

(a) X = -t 5, y = t (d) f = (2 + t'^)i + (4 - 2t^)j

(b) X = + 5, y = —t (e) r = e'i -I- 2e‘j
(c) x = 2 + t, y=4-2t

2. Sketch the path and indicate the direction of motion (without trying to
eliminate the parameter).

(a) X = 4 cos —t,y = 4 sin <

3 3
^ cos t sin t -
(b) r = -1 -I-t > 0
t t ^
(c) r = cos ti 4- sin tj + tk

3. Find equations of motion for the circular path.

(a) radius 3, around the origin, clockwise, one revolution per 2v seconds
(b) radius 3, around point (2,7), counterclockwise, one revolution per 27r
seconds
(c) radius 3, around the origin, counterclockwise, one revolution per second

4. If r(<) = (2 — t)i -I- (3 -I- t'^)j -I- btj, does the particle pass through the fol¬
lowing points, and if so, at what times?

(a) (-3,28,4) (b)(3,4,-6)

5. Find the connection between the paths with respective position vectors
r\{t) = t^i -I- t^j and r^lt) = (t — 5)^i + (t — 5)^J.
6. Suppose the position vector is r(t) where l|r(t)|| = 7 for all t. Describe the path
if (a) the motion is in 2-space (b) the motion is in 3-space.
7. Find v(t) if r = t^i 4- 2tj + cos tL
8. If r = t cos ti + t sin tj, sketch the path, find v at time t = tt and attach
V to the appropriate point on the path.
9. Consider the circular motion with position vector f = 6 cos ti + b sin tj.

(a) Find the speed ||ti|| to see that it agrees with one revolution per 27r seconds.
(b) Find v at time t = tt 12 to see that it agrees with counterclockwise motion.

10. Letx = t,y = t^ - 3 (Fig. 1). Examine ||3|| to see that the particle decelerates
until time t = 0 and then accelerates.
11. Show that X = cos t^, y = sin t^, describes circular motion with decreasing
speed until time t = 0 and increasing speed after t = 0.
12. Let r(0 = (-1 + it)i + (1 - 2t)] + 4tk.
(a) Use the velocity vector to show that the path is a line.
(b) Find the speed.
(c) Change r so that the particle moves on the same line but with speed 2.
290 • 9/Vectors

13. Describe the path with position vector f if (a) r{t) - 0 for all t (b) r'it) 6
for 3.11 t
14. Suppose v{t) = 2ti + 5t^] + 6k and the particle passes through the point
(1,4,6) at time t = 3.

(a) Find ?(/)■ ' • . . _ o

(b) Find a unit tangent to the path at the point where t 1.

15. Let X = 3 cos t, y = 2 sin t.

(a) Use a variation of the technique in (4) to show that the path is an ellipse.
(b) Show that the speed is not constant, and find the maximum and minimum
speeds.

9.7 The Acceleration Vector

So far we have ignored one important aspect of motion. What is it that

makes particles move around on curves? Newton postulated in his first law
of motion that particles do not voluntarily move on circles or parabolas. A
particle initially at rest remains at rest, and a particle initially in motion will continue
to move in a line with its direction and speed unchanged, unless acted on by an
external force. Therefore an external force is required except for straight
line motion at constant speed, and another of Newton’s laws singles out the
precise force for any prescribed path, as follows.

The acceleration vector Let r{t) ^ x{t)i + y{t)j.

The second derivative r"{t) = x"{t)i + y"{t)j is called the acceleration

vector and is denoted by d{t).
Newton’s second law postulates that ifa particle with mass m has position
vector r{t) at time t, then the propelling force f is given by f = ma. The acceler¬
ation vector d(f) itself is therefore the force per unit of mass. It is pictured as a
vector attached to the path; the particle must be pushed in the direction
of d{t) with ml|a(/)|| units of force if it is to traverse the path.

If the force is suddenly removed at time to then, by Newton’s first law, the
particle will fly off along a line in the direction of the vector v{to) with
constant speed |lu(/o)il instead of continuing on the original path.
For example, consider the position vector r{f) = ti + {t^ ~^^)j from
(1) of the preceding section. Then v{t) = i + 2tj and d(t) — 2j. At time
/ = -1,
r = -1 - 2], V = 1 - 2], a ^ 2] (Fig. 1).

The particle is at the point (-1,-2) and moving instantaneously in the

direction of the vector i - 2j. It is acted on by the force ma = 2mj
where m is the mass of the particle; in other words, it is pushed north by
2m units of force. The direction of the force is such that the particle is
pulled back toward the path and away from its natural inclination to leave
the path in the direction of v. Furthermore, the force is at an obtuse angle
with V so it acts as a drag and decelerates the particle (decreases its speed).
At time t = 2,

r = 2i + j, V = i + 4ij, a — 2j (Fig. 1).

 9.7 The Acceleration Vector • 291

The particle is at the point (2,1) and moving instantaneously in the direc¬
tion of the vector i + 4j. The force ma = 2.mj is acting on the particle,
pulling it toward the parabola and preventing it from flying off on a tan¬
gent. The force accelerates the particle since it pulls at an acute angle with
V. (In this particular example, the acceleration vector is the same for all
times t, but usually a varies with t.)

The tangential component of the acceleration vector The word accelera¬

tion has more than one meaning. The acceleration vector is the force per
unit mass. However, a driver considers acceleration to be the rate of change
of speed. With this second meaning, the acceleration of a particle is a scalar.
It is positive if the particle is speeding up and negative if it is slowing down.
In the preceding example we observed that the size of the angle between a
and V determines whether the particle/car accelerates or decelerates. Now
we wish to go further and compute the car’s precise acceleration.
The acceleration of the particle/car is the rate of change of its speed,
that is, the derivative^of ||i)(0||. If the position vector is r = x{t)l, + y{t)]
then V = x'{t)i + y'{t)j and

car’s acceleration = A||5(0|| = Dpf[x'{t)f + [y'(^)P

= y([x'(<)? + + [j'WP)
(chain rule)

^ 2x'{t)x"{t) + 2y'{t)f{t)
2V[x'(t)f + [/(()? ■

After the 2’s are cancelled, the denominator is 115(^)11 and the numerator is

the dot product a • v. Therefore the particle/car’s acceleration is -[rnr, a

IpII
formula given geometric significance in (12) of Section 9.3:

The car’s acceleration is the component of a in the direction of v. It is called

the tangential component of acceleration, or the tangential acceleration, and
often denoted by Otan- In other words

a • V
(1) rate of change of speed .
V

As predicted, if the angle between a and v is acute (so that the force is an
impetus) then Otan is positive and the car is accelerating; if the angle is obtuse (so
that the force is a drag) then Otan is negative and the car is decelerating. Figure 2
shows Otan = 4 if ^ = 1, and Otan = ~3 if i = 7. The particle is accelerating
at time t = \ hy 4 meters per second per second, and decelerating at time
^ = 7 by 3 meters per second per second.

Warning If Otan = “3 then either write that the particle is decelerating by

3 meters/second per second (this is the clearest report) or write that it is
accelerating by -3 meters/second per second, but don’t use a double nega¬
tive and say that it is decelerating by —3 meters/second per second.
292 9/Vectors

Example 1 Suppose the position vector is r(/) = + {t* - 12<)7. Then

^t) = 2/i + (4/' - 12); and a{t) = 2i + At time / = 1 we have

r = 1 - \\], V = 2i - S], a = 2i + 12;,

,- a ‘V 92
\\v\\ = V^, pll = Vl4S, - -gp - - ^ •

The particle is at the point (1,-11), moving instantaneously in the direc¬

tion of the vector 2i ~ Sj with speed 68 met^s per second. A force acts
on the particle in the direction of the vector 2i + I27 ; the magnitude of
the force is mVTiS, where m is the mass of the particle. The particle is
decelerating at the moment by 92/V^ meters/second per second.

Warning It is Otan and not ||a|| which indicates whether the particle is speed¬
ing up or slowing down.

The normal (radial) component of acceleration In 2-space there are two

directions perpendicular to a velocity vectors; the inward perpendicular is
called the normal or radial direction (Fig. 3). It is more difficult to describe
the radial direction in 3-space where there are infinitely many directions
perpendicular to a velocity vector v. In fact, the radial direction in 3-space

radial PiRfcrioN
 9.7 The Acceleration Vector • 293

is usually not defined geometrically, but in an algebraic manner which we

will not pursue.
In addition to selecting a radial direction we also assign (but omit the
details) an instantaneous radius of curvature r at each point by approxi¬
mating the curve with a circle through the point. Figure 3 shows r = ri at
A, r = r2 at B. For the extreme case of a line, r = oo.f
The component of a in the radial direction is called the radial or normal
component of acceleration, and is often denoted by Arad- Figure 4 shows
flrad = 2 and Otan = “3. The tangential component may be positive or nega¬
tive, but the radial component is never negative; the angle between a and
the inward normal is never obtuse.
The radial component is taken as that aspect of a which changes the direction
of the particle; Orad ~ ^ if o-nd only if the particle moves on a line. (We have already
shown that the tangential component is that aspect which changes speed; citan = 0
if and only if the particle moves at constant speed.) It can be shown that, at any
point,

(2) = H!
r r

where r is the instantaneous radius of curvature. If the radial force (per

unit mass) supplied by friction between tires and road, and by the bank of
the road, is not enough to satisfy (2), then the car plunges off the road. At
a sharp curve, r is small, and the small denominator tends to increase the
required Orad- Thus drivers are warned to compensate by slowing down to
decrease the numerator p|p, so that the available radial force (per unit
mass) will be sufficient to match (2).

Problems for Section 9.7

1. Let r = ti + (l/t)j. Sketch the path. Then draw v and d at time t = —1. Is
the particle accelerating or decelerating at this moment, and by how much? How
many pounds of force act on the particle at time t = -1 ?
2. Let X = e‘,y = e~‘. Sketch the path. For < = — 1, draw v and a. Is the particle
speeding up or slowing down at this moment?
3. Suppose the position vector is r{t) and the force on the particle is directed
toward the origin for all t. Show that f = r" = 6 for all t.
4. A particle with mass m is launched in 2-space at time t = 0 from the point
(1,2) with initial velocity 4i -I- 2j (Fig. 5). Newton’s law of gravity states that a force
acts down at every instant of time, with magnitude mg where g is a constant (whose
value depends on the system of units used to measure distance and mass). Find the
position vector r{t).
5. Suppose j(t) is the distance traveled by a particle from time 0 to time t.

ds d
(a) Find the physical significance of — and —j and express them in terms of
V and a.
d/T diT
(b) We know that — is the velocity vector. Use the chain rule to show that —
dt ’ ds
is a unit tangent vector.

tif the instantaneous radius of curvature is r then 1/r is called the instantaneous curva¬
ture K. For example, a line has r = oo and x = 0. At the other extreme, at a tight turn, the
approximating circle is small, so r is small and k is large.
294 • 9/Vectors

6. Consider the circular motion x - 5 cos - 5 sin t.

(a) Find ||v(0ll verify that the speed is constant.

(b) Confirm that atan = 0, as appropriate for a particle whose speed is not
changing.
(c) Find flrad and confirm that (2) holds.

7. Newton’s first law states that a particle moves on a (frictionless) line with
constant speed if and only if no force acts, that is, a = 0. Describe a if the particle
moves (a) on a line but at nonconstant speed (b) at constant speed but not on
a line. . „
8. Let X = 4 - t®, y = + < be the position of a particle at time L Con¬
sider time t = 1. Where is the particle? What is its instantaneous direction and
speed? Is it speeding up or slowing down and by how much? How many pounds of
force are acting on it and in what direction?

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 9

1. u = 2i + 2>j + k and v = —4i -t- 5j — 2k find

(a) u • V (f) the vector component of u in the

(b) \\u\\ direction of v
(c) U x V (g) the unit vector in the direction
(d) the cosine of the angle determined of V
by uand v (h) a vector with length 6 in the
(e) the component of u in the direction of u
direction of v

2. Let A =(2,1,6), B = ^4,-2,7). Is point C = (6, -5,9) on line AB ?

3. (a) If u X V = -j + 5A, find v x u. (b) If Hu x uH = 6 find Hu x mH-
4. The associative law for multiplication of numbers states that (xy)z = x(yz)
for all x,y, z. Decide if the following are true or false and explain.

(a) (u • v) • w = u ' (v • w) for all 3-dimensional vectors u,v,w.

(b) (u X v) X w = u X (v X ui) for all 3-dimensional vectors u,v,w.

5. Let P = (1,3,0), Q = (3,7, z), A = (10,1,3), B = (16, -1,5). Find z so that

the lines AB and PQ are perpendicular.
6. Show that the area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors
Ui U2
u — Uil + U2j andu = Uit + uaj is the absolute value of the determinant
Ul Vi
 Chapter 9 Review Problems • 295

7. Show (a) geometrically and (b) algebraically that if i/ • y = 0 then

+ ll^ir = l|w + y||l
8. Show that if u and v are perpendicular unit vectors then m x 5 is a unit vector
/ perpendicular to both u and v.
9. Draw pictures to show why \\u + 5|| < ||m|| + ||i5||. Under what conditions does
equality hold?
10. (a) Show that ||m + uP + \\u — t;|p = 2||m||^ + 2||iy|p. (b) Find the geo¬
metric significance of part (a) for a parallelogram.
11. Suppose the wind velocity is u = 2i + Sj — k and a plane flies in the direc¬
tion of V = 4i ~ 5j + k. Does the plane experience a head wind or a tail wind? By
how much is the plane’s speed increased or decreased because of the wind?
12. When is it true that ||m x 5|| === ||m||||3||?
13. Let r — t cos ti + sin tj. It is not feasible to eliminate the parameter; never¬
theless sketch the path for t > 0 and include r(7r), v(tt) anda(7r) in the picture. Find
the speed at time tt. Is the particle speeding up or slowing down at time t = tt, and
by how much?
14. Describe the motion if, for all t,

(a) r • r' = 0 (c) r' x r" = 0

(b) f X r' = 6 (d) r • r" = 0
 V

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10/TOPICS, IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

In 2-space, a curve can be described with an equation in x and)i or with

a pair of parametric equations giving x and y in terms of the parameter t
(Sections 3.8 and 9.6). For all practical purposes, in 3-space, the graph of an
equation in x, y and z is a surface, while a curve is described with parametric
equations giving x, y and z in terms of a parameter t (Fig. 1). This chapter
discusses some special surfaces along with the most important type of curve,
the line. The preceding chapter on vectors provides the basis for much of
the geometry of this chapter, and both will be needed when we continue
with calculus in the next chapter.

10.1 Spheres

The circle in 2-space with center (xo,yo) and radius r has equation
(x - xo)^ + (y - ydf = r^- Similarly, an equation of the sphere with center
(xo,yo. Zo) and radius r is

(1) (x - Xo)^ + (y - yo)^ + (z - Zo)^ = .

In particular, an equation of the sphere with center at the origin and radius
r is

(2) X 2 -I-1 y 2 -I-I z 2 = r 2 .

Example 1 An equation of the sphere with center (3,-4,6) and radius 7

is

(x — 3)^ + (y + 4)^ -I- (z — 6)^ = 49.

Example 2 The graph ofx^ -l-y^ -f z^ = 4 is a sphere with center at the

origin and radius 2. The upper hemisphere in Fig. 1, where z > 0, has
equation z = V4 — x^ — Similarly, the lower hemisphere where z < 0
has equation z = — V4 — x^ — y^. The interior of the sphere is described
by x^ + y^ + z^ < 4, and the exterior by x^ -f y^ -f z^ > 4.

Problems for Section 10.1

1. Find an equation of the sphere with center (4, —3,5) and passing through
the origin.

297
298 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

2. Complete the square to identify the graph of + y + z + z ^ ,

3. Is the origin on, inside, or outside the sphere (x + 2) -H (y a)
(z - 2)" = 2? . .u
4. Find an equation of the sphere with center (3,5,6) and tangent to the
x,y plane.

10.2 Planes

Just as lines are fundamental curves in 2-space, planes are fundamental

surfaces in 3-space.

An equation of a plane parallel to a coordinate plane The graph of an

equation of the form x — c (where c is a fixed constant) is a plane parallel
to they,z plane (Fig. 1). Similarly, y = c is a plane parallel to the x,z plane,
and z = c is a plane parallel to the x,y plane.

The point-normal equation of a plane A vector perpendicular to a plane

is said to be normal to the plane and is called a normal vector, or simply a normal.
(Warning: Don’t confuse a normal vector (a perpendicular) with the norm
of a vector (its length) or with a normalized vector (a unit vector).)
Figure 2 shows the plane through the point (xo,yo, Zo) and with normal
vector (a, b, c). To find its equation, note that the point (x,y, z) is on the plane

FI6.1
 10.2 Planes • 299

if and only if the vectors {a,b,c) and (x — Xo,y — yo,z — Zq) are perpendicu¬
lar or equivalently, if and only if ia,b,c) • (x - xo,y - yo,z - Zo) = 0.
1 herefore, we have the following conclusion.

An equation of the plane that contains the point (xo,yo,Zo) and

has normal vector (a, b, c) is
(1)
_~ + b(y - yo) + c(z - Zq) = 0.

Examples will illustrate that no matter how a plane is determined, it is

almost always feasible to extract a point and a normal vector from the given
data and use (1), the point-normal form, to find its equation.

Example 1 Find an equation of the plane determined by the points

A = (1,2,3), B = (4,5,6), and C = (-2,0,3).

Solution: The vector AC x AB = (-3,-2,0) x (3,3,3) = (-6,9,-3)

is a normal to the plane (Fig. 3). To simplify the components, divide by 3
to get the normal (-2,3, -1). Any of the points A, B, or C can be used in
the point-normal equation. With point A, (1) becomes

(2) -2(x - 1) + 3(y - 2) - (z - 3) = 0.

With point B, we have -2(x - 4) 3(y - 5) - (z - 6) = 0; with C the

equation is —2(x + 2) + 3y — (z — 3) = 0. Each equation simplifies to

(3) —2x -l-3y—z — 1 = 0.

If we use the original normal (-6,9,-3) along with point A we have

—6(x — 1) + 9(y — 2) — 3(z — 3) = 0, which is a multiple of (2) and also
simplifies to (3).

The general equation of a plane When the point-normal equation in (2)

is rewritten as (3), the point (1,2, 3) is no longer prominently displayed,
but the components of the normal -2i + S] - k still appear in the equa¬
tion as the coefficients of x, y and z. In general, the graph of the equation
az + by + cz + d = 0 is a plane with normal vector ai -I- bj + ck. It
is called the general equation of the plane.
For example, the graph of 2x -I- 3y -I- 4z - 24 = 0 is a plane with
normal 2 i + 3j + 4^. Figure 4 shows (a portion of) the plane, obtained by
plotting the three convenient points (0,0,6), (0,8,0) and (12,0,0).
 p

V
1
300 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensionai Anaiytic Geometry

Example 2 Find an equation of the plane through the point (1,4,5) and
parallel to the plane 2x + 3)) - 4z = 7. ^ ^
Solution: The given plane has normal 2* + 3; - Ak, and the parallel
plane has the same normal. Therefore an equation for the parallel plane is

2{x - 1) + 3()) - 4) - 4(z - 5) = 0, or 2x + 33) - 4z = -6.

As a second method, note that since parallel planes have a common

normal, the desired plane has an equation of the form 2x + 3)) — 4z — d.
Substitute x = l,))=4, z = 5to obtain d = -6. Therefore the plane is
2x + 3)1 - 4z = -6, as before.

The distance from a point to a plane Consider the plane ax + by + cz +

(/ = 0 and the point P = (xo,)o,Zo). To find the distance between the point

and the plane, pick any point in the plane, say Q = ^^0,0,-—^ Then

(Fig. 5), the desired distance is the length of the projection of the vector

^ = I ico, yo, zo+—I in the direction of the normal vector n = ia,b,c). By

\ cI ^ -n
(12) of Section 9.3, this is the absolute value of^|^. We have the follow¬

ing result.

The distance from point (xo.yo.Zo) to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is

|qxo + byo + czq + d\

Va^ + b^ + c'^
 10.2 Planes • 301

For example, to find the distance from the point (5, 2,9) to the plane
z — X + Sy — 4, rewrite the equation of the plane in the general form
x + 3y-z-4 = 0 (equivalently, -x - 3y + z + 4 = 0). Then the dis-
|5 + 6 - 9 - 4| 2
tance is or
VTT VTi ■

Lines in 2-space versus planes in 3-space The equations and formulas

involving planes in three-space have abridged versions applying to lines in
too-space. Similarly, we may generalize from lines in 2-space to planes in
3-space except when slope is involved, since slope remains a 2-dimensional
concept. The following summary lists results from this chapter and
Appendix A2, and in (4), (6) and (7') produces new results by analogy.

Lines in 2-space Planes in 3-space

(4) The line through the point (4') The plane through the point (xo,yo, Zo)
(xo,yo) with normal vector with normal vector ai + bj + ck is
ai bj is
o(x — Xo) + b{y — yo) -f c{z — Zq) = 0.
a{x - xo) + b{y - yo) = 0.
(S') The general equation of a plane is
(5) The general equation of a
ax + by cz + d = 0.
line is ox -f iy -1- c = 0.
(6') The distance between the point
(6) The distance between the
(xo,yo, Zo) and the plane
point (xo,yo) and the line
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
ox -f iy -1- c = 0 is
|oxo + byo + cZ(^ + d\
|oxo + bya -f c\
Vo^ A c'^
Vo^ +

(7) The line with x-intercept (7') The plane with x-intercept 0,
0 and y-intercept b is y-intercept b and z-intercept c is
X y X y z ,
-
0 + bL = 1- — + T + - = L
a b c

Problems for Section 10.2

1. Find an equation of the plane

(a) containing point (5,5,4) and perpendicular to the line AB, where
A = (4,5,6) and 5 = (9,8,7)
(b) determined by points A = (2,0,0), B = (0,5,0), C - (0,0,7)
(c) containing point (3,4,5) and perpendicular to the x-axis
(d) containing point (3,4,5) and parallel to the x,y plane
(e) containing point (3, tt, 7) and parallel to the plane 2x -H Qy - 62 -I- 4 = 0

2. Let A = (1,3,-2), B = (2,-1,0), C = (4,4,3) and D = (1,2,3). Use an

equation of plane ABC to decide if the four points are coplanar.
3. Find the distance from the point (2,3, —4) to the plane 3x — 4y + 2z = 6.
4. Find the distance from the origin to the line y = 3x + 4 in 2-space.
5. Find an equation of the sphere with center (1,3, -1) and tangent to the plane
2x + y — z = 4.
6. Show that the planes 2x: - y + 3z = 6 and 2x - y -f 32 = 8 are parallel,
and then find the distance between them.
302 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

7. If a plane has intercepts a, h,c, and its distance to the origin is D, show that

8. Let A - (-1,2,4), B = (0,3,3), C = (1,-8,2) and D - (4, 5,5). Find an

equation of the plane containing line AB and parallel to line CD (Fig. 6).

10.3 Lines

A line in too-space is determined by a point and a parallel direction,

the direction is usually conveyed by a slope m. Similarly, a line in three-
space is determined by a point (xo,yo, ^o) and a parallel direction, but the
direction is conveyed by a parallel vector (a, b, c) rather than a slope, since
a line in 3-space does not have a slope. To find an equation for the line
(Fig. 1) note that the point {x,y,z) is on the line if and only if the vector
(x - Xo,y - yo,z - zo) is parallel to the vector {a,b,c), that is, if and only if
there is some scalar t such that (x — Xo,y ~ yo,^ ~ ^o) — t{a,b,c). Equate
respective components to obtain x — xq = ta, y — yo = tb, z — Zq = tc.
Therefore, we have the following result.

The line determined by the point (xo,yo, and parallel to the

vector ai + bj + ck has parametric equations

X = Xq + at

y = yo + bt

z = Zq + ct.

Similarly the line in 2-space through point (xo,yo) and parallel to

ai + bj has equations

X = Xq + at

y = yo + bt.

For example, the equations x = 2 + 4/, y = 5- 3/, z = 6 + 7/ describe a

line containing the point (2,5,6) and parallel to the vector 4i — 3y — 7Lln
particular, the point (2,5,6) corresponds to the parameter value / = 0.
Every value of t produces a point on the line; if / = 2 then the correspond¬
ing point is (10, — 1,20). To decide if a point is on the line, search for a value
 10.3 Lines • 303

POINT

of t that produces it. The point (3,4, —6) is not on the line since x = S
requires that t be \ (from the first of the parametric equations), but t = \
does not produce y = A and z = -6.

Example 1 Consider the line determined_by the points A = (3,5,6) and

B = (1,6,8). The line has parallel vector T5 = -2t + J + 2k and passes
through point A, so it has parametric equations

(2) X = 3 - 2t, y = 5 -h t, z = 6 + 2t.

With the same parallel vector, but using point B this time, we have

(3) X = 1 - 2t, y = 6 + t, z = 8 + 2t,

another parametrization of the same line. The same points are produced by
the two sets of parametric equations, but for different values of t. Point A
corresponds to ^ = 0 in (2), and to i = — 1 in (3). We can also use the new
point C = (-1, 7,10) obtained by setdng i = 1 in (3) (or t = 2 in (2)) along
with the parallel vector Ai — 2j — Ak to get the third parametrization

X = -\ + At, z = 7 - 2C z = 10 - At.

There are infinitely many ways to parametrize the line. (From the point
of view of Section 9.6 where {x,y,z) is the position of a particle at time t,
the different parametrizations represent motions with different timing
and velocities.)

Example 2 Find equations for the line containing the point A =(4, — 3,6)
and perpendicular to the plane 3x - 7y + 2z + 9 = 0.
Solution: The plane’s normal, 3i - l] + 2k, is parallel to the line
(Fig. 2). Therefore a parametrization of the line is x = 4 + 3C y =
— 3 — 7t, z — 6 + 2t.

The intersection of two lines in 3-space In 2-space, two lines are either
parallel and different, parallel and actually the same line (that is, coin¬
cident) or intersecting. In 3-space, the lines may also be skew. A good way
to decide among the four possibilities is to test for parallelism first. If they
are parallel, decide if the lines are the same or different. If they are not
parallel, decide if they are intersecting or skew. We will illustrate the proce¬
dure and show how to find the point of intersection, if it exists.
304 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

Consider the lines

X = 2 + St X = 9 - 2t
(4) y = 4 - t and y = - I + 2t
z = 8 + 3/ z = 5 + 3C
V

The lines have respective parallel vectors m = (3, -1,3) and v = (-2,2, 3).
Since u is not a multiple of v, the lines are not parallel. Now we decide
between skew and intersecting. To find a common point, it is tempting but
incorrect to equate the expressions for x, y and z in (4) to obtain

2 + 3/ = 9 ~ 2/
4 - / = -1 + 2/ (2p^
8 + 3/ = 5 + 3tS^
This is not correct because it unnecessarily demands that a common point
be produced by the same value of t, whereas it is possible for a common
point to appear with the label / = 6 on one line, and / — 117 on the other
line. To allow for this possibility we switch to the letter s as the parameter
for one of the lines, and rewrite (4) as

x = 2 + 3/ x=9-25
(5) y = 4 — t and y = — 1 + 25
z = 8 + 3/ z = 5 + 35.

Then equate expressions for x, y and z to get

2 + 3/ = 9 - 25
(6) 4 - / = -1 + 25
8 + 3/ = 5 + 35.
To solve this system of three equations in two variables, write the first two
equations in the standard form

25 + 3/ = 7
-25 - / = -5

and solve to get 5 = 2, t = 1. These values satisfy the third equation in (6)
so there is a point of intersection. Substitute / = 1 in (5), and as a check set
5 = 2, to obtain x = 5, y = 3, z = 11, the point of intersection. If it had

turned out that 5 = 2, t = 1 did not satisfy the third equation in (6) then we
would have concluded that there was no point of intersection and that the
lines were skew.

Warning Two parameter letters, 5 and t, must be used when trying to find
a point of intersection of two lines.

The intersection of a line and a plane For a line and a plane in 3-space,
there are three possibilities: the line lies in the plane (Fig. 3a) the line is
parallel to but not contained in the plane (Fig. 3b) the line intersects the
plane at one point (Fig. 3c). We will illustrate methods for choosing among
them, and for finding the point of intersection in the last case.
Consider the line x = l + 2/, y=3 — /, z = 2 + 2/ and the plane
2x + 6y + 3z = 6. Substitute to obtain
 10.3 Lines 305

(7) 2(1 + 2t) + 6(3 - t) + 3(2 + 20 = 6

and solve to get t = —5. Since there is a unique solution for t, the line and
plane intersect in one point. Substitute t = —5 in the equation of the line
to find the point of intersection (—9,8, —8). If it had turned out that the ^’s
canceled in (7) leaving 0 = 0, then every value of t would be a solution; in
that case the line would be contained in the plane. If the t’s had canceled out
leaving say 0 = 27, then there would be no solution for t; in that case the
A line would be parallel to but not contained in the plane.
OF

The intersection of two planes Two planes are either the same, parallel
but not coincident, or intersect in a line (Fig. 4). We will illustrate how to
Llt^

decide which situation holds and give a method for finding the line of
intersection in the third case.
The planes 2jc + 3y + 4z + 5 = 0 and 4x + 6y + 8z + 10 = 0 are
the same because the second equation is simply a multiple of the first.
The planes 2x + 3y + 4z + 5 = 0 and 4% + Gy + 8z + 11 = 0 are
parallel (since their normals, 2 i + ?>j + 4land4i + 6] + 8l, are multiples
of one another) but not coincident (since the equations are not multiples of
FI6 A one another).
The planes
2x + y + z = 2
(8)
X + y + 3z = —6

are neither identical nor parallel since their normals, u = 2i + j + k and

V = i + j + 3k, are not parallel. Therefore the planes intersect in a line. In
fact, the pair of equations in (8) can be regarded as a set of equations for
the line. We want to find a standard set of parametric equations for the line,
using (1). For a vector parallel to the line (Fig. 4), use u x v = 2i — 5j + k.
To find a point on the line, set one of the variables in (8) equal to any
specific value and then solve to find the corresponding values of the other
two variables. With the convenient choice of z = 0, we have

2x + y = 2

X + y = —6
306 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensionai Analytic Geometry

whose solution is x = 8,3; = -14. Therefore (8, -14,0) lies on both planes
and hence is on the line of intersection. Therefore the line has parametric
equations x = S + 2t, y = —14 — 5t, z = t.
When we chose to set z = 0 in (8), we found the particular point where
the line of intersection crosses the x,y plane. If the line happens to be
parallel to the x,y plane, then setting z = 0 in (8) will result in a system of
two equations in x and y with no solution. In this case set x 0 or y 0.

Problems for Section 10.3

1. Find equations for the line

(a) containing the point (1,2,3) and parallel to the line x = 3 + t,y — 4 — 2t,
z — 1 + 5t
(b) containing the point (1,4,5) and perpendicular to the plane 3x — 4y +
6z — 1
(c) through the point (2,3,4) and parallel to the x-axis
(d) through the point (2,3,4) and perpendicular to the x,z plane
(e) through the origin and the point (7,-1,16)
(f) through the point (1,5,7) and parallel to the planes 2x - y + z = 0 and
3x + y + 4z = 2

2. Let A = (-1,3) and B = (13, -2). Find parametric equations for line AB.
3. Find equations for (a) the x, z plane (b) the z-axis.
4. Find an equation of the plane containing the point A = (3, -1,2) and the
line X = 6 + 4t, y = 2 — i, z = 7 + 8<.
5. Consider the line x = 2 + ^, y = 3 — 4t, z=6 + 5i and the line x =
6 + 2t, y = —6 — t, z = 10 — 6t.

(a) Verify that the lines intersect at the point (4,—5,16) but are not the
same line.
(b) Find the equation of the plane determined by the intersecting lines.
(c) Find the equations of the line perpendicular to both given lines through
their point of intersection.

6. Where does the line x = 2 - t, y = 3 + 4t, z = -5 + 2t intersect the y,z

plane?
7. Confirm that the lines X = 2 — 3t, y = 5 + <, z = 4 + 2t andx — —1 — 3t,
y - 6 + t, z = 2t are parallel but different, and find the equation of the plane
they determine.
8. Let A = (1,3,-2), B = (4,5,0),C = (3,3,5). Find equations of line AB and
use them to decide if the points A, B and C are collinear.
9. Consider the line x — Xq + at, y — yo + bt, z = Zo + ct and the plane
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 where a, b, c, A, B, C, D, Xo, yo, Zo are fixed constants.
Identify the geometric connection between the line and the plane if both
{*) oA + bB + cC = 0 and (**).Axo + Byo + Czo + D — 0 hold.
10. Are the lines coincident, parallel, skew or intersecting?

(a) X = 1 — 6<, y = 2 + t, z = 4 + 3C
X = -5 + 12<, y = 3 - 2t, z = 13 — 6<
(b) X = 2 — <, y = 3 + 2<, z = 5 — 3t;
X — t, y = 5 — 4t, z = —\ + 6t
(c) X—2 — t, y — 3 +t, z = 5 + 2t',
X — 3 — t, y = 4 + 2t, z = l+ t
(d) X — 2 + 3<, y = 5 — t, z = 3 + <;
X = —4 — 3t, y = T + t, z = \ — t
 10.4 Cylindrical and Quadric Surfaces • 307

11. Find the intersection of the line x = 1 + 2<, )> = 3 - t, z = 2 + 2t and the
plane (a) 2x + + z - 8 (b) 2x + 63) + z - 22.
12. Find the line of intersection of the planes 2x + 31 + 3z = 5 and x - y +
z = 4. ^
13. Show that the line of intersection of the planes x + 2^ + 8z = 20 and
X - 31 + 2z = 8 is parallel to but not contained in the plane 3x - 231 + 8z = 5.
^14. Find the projection P of the point (-1,1, 1) on the plane 2x - 3^ + z +
1 = 0, that is, the foot of the perpendicular from the point to the plane. (First find
the line through the point and perpendicular to the plane.)
15. Consider the line L with equations x = l+^, 31 = 2-^, z = 3 + 4< and
the point Q = (4, -1,4). Find the projection P of Q on L (the foot of the perpen¬
dicular from Q to L) and the distance from Q to L. (First find the equation of the
plane through Q and perpendicular to L.)
16. Show that the lines x = 2 - t, y = 3 + t, z = 5 + 2t and x = 3 - t,
y~4 + 2t, z = l
+ 7t are skew and find the distance between them. (First find
the plane containing the second line and parallel to the first.)
17. Let A = (3,0,2), B = (2,4,0), C = (4,5,6), D = (7, -7,12).

(a) Find the equations of lines AB and CD and show that the lines are parallel
but not the same line.
(b) Find the distance between the lines. (First find the plane through A and
perpendicular to both lines.)

10.4 Cylindrical and Quadric Surfaces

The graph in 3-space of an equation in x,y and z is (with rare, contrived

exceptions) a surface. Often the graph is too difficult to draw, but in this
section we single out a few special types of equations which occur frequently
and whose graphs are easy to sketch.

Cylindrical surfaces The graph in 3-space of an equation containing only

one or two of the three variables x,y,z is called a cylindrical surface. As an
illustration consider the equation y — x'^ whose graph in an x,y plane, that
is, in too-space, is a parabola. We wish to draw its graph in iAr^e-space. If we
extend 2-space to 3-space by adding a z-axis (Fig. 1), a point such as (2,4)
on the parabola is now (2,4,0) and still satisfies the equationy = In fact,
the z-coordinate of a point is irrelevant in deciding if the point satisfies the
equation. Thus if we move any point on the parabola up or down so that
its X and y coordinates remain unchanged, we obtain more points which
satisfy y = xl Figure 1 shows a portion of the final graph, a parabolic
cylinder, obtained by sliding the original parabola up and down.
To draw the surface z = y^ in 3-space first sketch the curve z = y^ in
the y, z plane. Then slide the curve in the x direction (draw several replicas
of it) to create the cylindrical surface in Fig. 2.
The graph ofx^ + z^ = 5 in the x,z plane is a circle. Slide the circle in
the y direction to obtain the graph of the equation in three-space, a circular
cylinder (Fig. 3).

Quadric surfaces The graph in too-space of a second-degree equation in

X and y is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola (or a degenerate form thereof).
In three-space, the graph of a second degree equation in x, y and z is one of
308 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

six quadric surfaces (barring degeneracies). We will illustrate the six with
examples and give a method for matching each type of quadratic equation
with the appropriate surface. Table 1 summarizes the results.
Consider the surface

(1) - 2z^ = 4.
To sketch a graph in two-space, we usually plot some points and connect
them in a reasonable fashion to form a curve. But the graph of (1) is a
surface, and plotting a few points is not enough to suggest the shape of the
surface. Instead we will sketch cross sections. The cross section in the x,y
plane where z = 0 is the ellipse -I- = 4 (Fig. 4). To find the cross
section at height 2, set z = 2 in (1) to obtain the larger, but similar, ellipse
6x^ -I- y^ = 12. The cross section at z = —2 is the same as at z = 2, while
those at z = ±3 are the still larger ellipses 6x^ -I- y^ = 22. Figure 4 shows
the cross sections, piled up like poker chips. The overall shape of the
surface is emerging from the stack of elliptical slices, but we need “sides” to
complete the picture. For this purpose, set x = 0 in (1) to obtain the cross
section in the y, z plane, the hyperbola y^ — 2z^ = 4. Similarly, the cross
section in the x,z plane is the hyperbola 6x^ — 2z^ == 4. Figure 5 shows a
final graph of (1), called an elliptic hyperboloid of one sheet.
Consider the surface

(2) 6x^ - y2 - 2z^ = 4.

To find its cross section in they,z plane, setx = 0 to obtainy^ -I- 2z^ = —4,
a null ellipse. In other words, the surface does not intersect the y, z plane.
 10.4 Cylindrical and Quadric Surfaces • 309

A'

3
c:
Plane B--X.
c -) CRO$f ^£l:TION
/N X;y

FI6,V

The cross sections at x = ±Vf are the point ellipse + 2z^ = 0. At

X = ±1 the cross sections are the ellipse + 2z^ = 2, and similarly at
X = ±2 the cross sections are the larger ellipse y^ + 2z^ = 20. Figure 6
shows the elliptical cross sections. To determine the sides, set z = 0 in (2) to
get the cross section in the x,y plane, the hyperbola 6x^ - y^ = 4; and set
y = 0 for the cross section in the x, z plane, the hyperbola 6x^ — 2z^ = 4.
The surface (Fig. 6) is an elliptic hyperboloid of two sheets.
Note that to graph (1) we began by setting z constant and found cross
sections parallel to the x,y plane. However for (2) we first set x constant and
found cross sections parallel to they, z plane. Why the switch? The purpose
of the initial cross sectioning is to produce a stack of curves which suggests
the shape of the surface. For both (1) and (2), two sets of cross sections are
hyperbolas and one set are ellipses. A stack of ellipses is easier to draw and
more indicative of an overall shape than a stack of hyperbolas (or parabo¬
las). We choose to begin each example by looking for elliptical cross sections
if they exist. The variable that is set constant to accomplish this depends on
the particular equation. Look for two square terms with the same sign on
one side of the equation and substitute constants for the remaining variable.
Consider the equation 6x^ -I- y^ — 2z^ = 0, or

(3) z^ = 3x^ + ly^.

Setting z = zo leaves x^ and y^ terms with the same sign, hence produces
elliptical slices. Ifz = 0, we have the point ellipse 3x^ + |y^ = 0. Ifz = ±1,
the cross sections are the ellipse 3x^ + ly^ = l.Ifz = ±3, the cross sections
are the larger ellipse 3x^ + |y^ = 9. Figure 7 shows the elliptical cross sec¬
tions. To complete the picture we need another cross section. Setting y = 0
310 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry
 10.4 Cylindrical and Quadric Surfaces • 311

BUIFTIC OF OME SHESr

Fl6. ^

ELl.]?T\C H'/PBf^B’DLOiP OF T'^0 ^pBBFS

F\6.^

ELUprie- COME

EFeiP^OIP

EUlPTlC fARAgOLOlp

HVPERBOLIC PAPA&oloip

FI6J3
312 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

in (3) gives or z = ±V3x, a pair of intersecting lines in tl^ x,z

plane. Similarly, if x = 0, the cross section is the pair of lines z - ±V2 y m
the VjZ plane. The surface in Fig. 7 is an elliptic cone.
Table 1 displays the six quadric surfaces and corresponding equations.
The table is incomplete in the sense that the^surfaces may appear in ditter-

ent alignments. The graph of - ^ + | + p = Hs the elliptic hyperboloid

of one sheet as in Fig. 8 but aligned along the x-axis rather than the z-axis.
To identify the graph of a quadratic equation keep the six possibilities in
mind and sketch a few cross sections (preferably ellipses) to single out the
particular surface and its alignment) rather than memorize the table.

Warning 1 The cylindrical and quadric surfaces are surfaces, not solids.
For example, the graph of bx^ y ^ + 2z2 = 4 is an ellipsoidal surface^ The
points inside the ellipsoid do not satisfy the equation (they satisfy the in¬
equality 6x2 + ^2 + 2z2 < 4). Furthermore, the graphs do not include cir¬
cular “lids.” For example, the cylinder in Fig. 3 is an unbounded tube with
no “ends”; only a portion of it is shown in the diagram.
2. The graph of an equation such as Bx^ - = Q in the x,y plane is
not a hyperbola. It is the pair of intersecting lines y = ±V5x.
3. The graph of a second degree equation never looks like Fig. 14;
i.e., it never is a surface with curved “sides and coming to a point in
the “middle.”

Problems for Section 10.4

In Problems 1-16, sketch the graph in 3-space.

1. y^ + = 4 9. 9x^ - y2 - z2 = -4
2. z = sin X 10. x2 + y2 + 2z2 = 1
3. 3x -1- 7y = 21 11. x2 - y2 + 4z2
12. -9x2 ^ ^y2 _ ^2 _ 5
4. + 2 = z
5. y^ -1- z^ < 6 13. z = 2x2 + y2 + 7
6. 4x2 _ 25^2 -1- = 100 14. z = -Vx2 -t- y^
7. 4x2 _ 25^,2 + z2 ^ 0 15. xy = 1
8. y2 -t- 4z2 == 2x 16. z - 2x2 - 2
y

17. Choose a and b so that x2/a2 + y2//)2 = z2 is a circular cone with radius 3
at height 6.

10.5 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

The cylindrical coordinate system Polar coordinates in the x,y plane

(Appendix A6) together with the rectangular coordinate z, are called cylin¬
drical coordinates (Fig. 1). The angle 6, considered as a polar coordinate in the
x,y plane, is a counterclockwise rotation from the positive x-axis. The cylin¬
drical coordinate 6 measures rotation from the x,z plane. In each case, 0
can be positive, negative or zero. The polar coordinate r in the x,y plane is
the distance to the origin. The cylindrical coordinate r is the distance to the z-axis.
In each case, we take r > 0. Thus, in polar coordinates, the graph of r = 0
is the origin, while in cylindrical coordinates, r = 0 describes the z-axis.
 10.4 Cylindrical and Quadric Surfaces 313

Cylindrical coordinates are often used when the distance to a fixed line
in 3-space is a determining factor. If an electric field is created by a line of
charge, then the strength of the field at a point depends on the distance
from the point to the line. In this situation, the natural system in which to
solve problems is a cylindrical coordinate system with the line of charge on
the z-axis, so that the all-important distance to the line is the coordinate r.
If do is a constant then the graph of 6 = do in polar coordinates is a ray;
its graph in cylindrical coordinates is a half-plane (Fig. 2). The graph of
z = Zo is a plane in both rectangular and cylindrical coordinates (Fig. 3).
The graph of r = ro in polar coordinates is a circle; its graph in cylindrical
coordinates is a cylinder (Fig. 4). The equation of a cylinder is much simpler
in cylindrical than in rectangular coordinates (r = ro versus -I- = rl)',
in Chapter 12 we take advantage of this by switching to cylindrical coordi¬
nates when it becomes necessary to compute triple integrals over cylindri¬
cal regions.
The cylindrical coordinates r, d and the rectangular coordinates x,y
continue to be related as they were in the polar coordinate system. Thus

(1) X = r cos d, y - r sin d, z = z.

where the last equation simply expresses the fact that the cylindrical coordi¬
nate z is identical to the rectangular coordinate z. Furthermore, as with
polar coordinates.

y (2) r = Vx^ + y^, r^ = x^ + y^, tan d = —.

X

The spherical coordinate system A point P in 3-space has spherical coordi¬

nates p, <p, d determined as follows. (Figure 5 includes rectangular, cylindri¬
cal and spherical for comparison.) The coordinate p is the distance from P
to the origin. Thus p ^ 0, and p = 0 only at the origin. If the origin is
314 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

denoted by A then the coordinate 0 is the angle determined by AP and the

positive z-axis. Thus 0 — (f) — 180°. The spherical coordinate 0 is the same
as the cylindrical coordinate 6', it measures rotation from the x,z plane.
Spherical coordinates are often used when the distance to a fixed point
in 3-space is of particular importance. If an electric field is created by a
point charge, then the strength of the field depends on the distance to the
point charge. In this situation, the natural system in which to solve problems
is a spherical coordinate system with the point charge at the origin, so that
the distance to the charge is the spherical coordinate p.
Figure 6 may be used to picture spherical coordinates geographically.
If p = po then the point lies on a sphere centered at the origin, an “earth.”
On the earth, (f) measures “down” from the north pole N. The great circle
NASBN illustrates various 0 coordinates. At N,(t) = 0°; at A, 0 = 90°; at S,
(f) = 180°; at 5, 0 = 90°. A parallel of latitude (including the equator) is a
circle on which is fixed. On the earth, 6 measures “around” from the
prime meridian in the x, z plane. Each meridian of longitude is a great
semicircle on which 6 is fixed. (Cartographers refer to the parallel where
(f) = 30° as 60° north latitude, to the equator where 0 = 90° as 0° latitude,
and to the parallel where 0 = 160° as 70° south latitude. Further, they refer
to 0 = -20° as 20° west longitude and to 0 = 25° as 25° east longitude.)
The graph of 0 = 0o is a half-plane, as in cylindrical coordinates
(Fig. 2). The graph of <p = (f)o is the positive z-axis if 0o is 0°; a cone if
0 < (j)o < 90° (Fig. 7); the x,y plane if 0o is 90°; a cone if 90° < (po < 180°
(Fig. 8); and the negative z-axis if (po is 180°. The coordinate (p is often called
the cone angle. As we have already seen, the equation of a sphere in spherical
coordinates is p = po, much simpler than the corresponding equation
x^ + y^ -I- z^ = poin rectangular coordinates; in Chapter 12 we take advan¬
tage of this by switching to spherical coordinates to compute triple integrals
over spherical regions.
 10.5 Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates • 315

FI&.6

We will demonstrate the following connections between rectangular

and spherical coordinates

X = p sin (f> cos 6, y = p sin (f) sin 6, z = p cos (f),

p = Vx^ + + z^

and

z
(f) = cos tan 6 = 1
’ X '

From the right triangle ABF in Fig. 5, z = p cos 4>, verifying the third
equation in (3). The same triangle shows that r = p sin </>; substitute for r
in (1) to get the first and second equations in (3). The fourth formula ex¬
presses the fact that p is the distance from {x,y,z) to the origin. Substituting
z
for p in z = p cos (f) gives cos (f) = —. ■ -^== ; since 0 < <^ < 180°,
Vx + A z^
316 • 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

S = Lu^~' ^ Finally, tan 0 = - as in cylindrical coordinates

^ ^ .
since 0 is a cylindrical as well as a spherical coordinate.

Warning 1. p 2: 0, and we always take r 2 0

2. (f> is never negative and is never larger than 180°.

Example 1 To find a spherical coordinate equation of the plane z — 4,

substitute z = p cos (f) from (3) in the equation of the plane to get
p cos 0 = 4, or p = 4 sec </>.

Example 2 Find an equation in spherical coordinates of the sphere

+y^ + (z - = 25.
Solution: One method is to substitute for x,y and z using (3). However,
the algebra is easier if we first write the equation as + y ^ + z - lOz = 0,
and then replace the entire expression x^ + + z^ by p^ to obtain
p^ - lOp cos 0 = 0 or p = 10 cos </>.
To see this geometrically note that the sphere has radius 5 and center
(0,0,5) (Fig. 9). A point P is on the sphere if and only if angle APB is
inscribed in a hemisphere and thus is 90°. Therefore P is on the sphere if
and only if cos (f) — p/10, or p = 10 cos (j).

Equation of a cone Consider the (half) cone in Fig. 10 with radius R and
height H. Let P be a typical point on the cone, with rectangular coordinates
x,y,z; cylindrical coordinates r, 0, z; and spherical coordinates p,(f),d. By
similar triangles, r/R = z/H so the cone has equation

(4) z r
R

in cylindrical coordinates. Since r = Vx^ + y^> the cone’s equation in rectan¬

gular coordinates is
 Chapter 10 Review Problems • 317

(5) z = —
R

(the double cone is + )’^))- In spherical coordinates, the cone is

(6) <j) = tan“'-^.

H

Problems for Section 10.5

1. Find by inspection (a) cylindrical coordinates if x = 0, y = 2, z = 3

(b) spherical coordinates if x = 0, y = 5, z = 0.
2. Find cylindrical coordinates given rectangular coordinates (a) (3,2,5)
(b) (-3,-2,5).
3. Find rectangular coordinates given (a) cylindrical coordinates r = 2,
d = 150°, z = 7 (b) spherical coordinates p = 2, </» = 30°, 9 = 120°.
4. Sketch in cylindrical coordinates.
(a) 1 < r < 2 (b) r = 3, z = 2 (c) 9 = 7r/3, z = 7 (d) 0 = 7r/3, r = 3

5. Find the equation in cylindrical and in spherical coordinates (and identify

the graph).

(a) x^ + y^ = 4z^ (b) x^ + y^ + z^ = 10

6. Find the equation of the x,y plane and the z-axis in (a) cylindrical and
(b) spherical coordinates.
7. (a) Find the distance to the origin in rectangular, spherical and cylindrical
coordinates, (b) Find the distance to the z-axis in cylindrical, rectangular and
spherical coordinates.

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 10

1. Let A = (2,3,—3), let line Li have equations x=2-<, y = 2 + <,

z = —4 + 3t, and let line L2 be x = 7 -I- 2<, y = —<, z = 4 -I- t. Find equations for

(a) the line through A parallel to Li

(b) the line through A perpendicular to both Li and L2
(c) the plane through A perpendicular to Li
(d) the plane through A parallel to Li and Lg

2. Find the intersection, if it exists.

(a) line x=<, y = 3-l-2t, z = 2- < and plane x + 5y — z = 1

(b) lines x = 2 + t, y = l — 2t, z = 3-l-3t and x=2 — t,y — ^ +
z = I - 2t
(c) planes 3x — y -t- z = 5 and x + y — 6z = 3

3. Find equations of line AB if A = (9,8,7) and B = (6,4,3).

4. Find the distance from the origin to the plane 5x + 2y — 6z = 8.
5. Sketch the graph in 3-space.

(a) y = In X (c) x = y -I- 2z

(b) X = y^ + 2z^ (d) x^ = y^ + 2z^

6. Show that the point (—1,1, V3) lies on the sphere x^ -l-y^-l-z^ = 5 and find
an equation of the plane tangent to the sphere at the point.
318 10/Topics in Three-Dimensional Analytic Geometry

7. Suppose a point has cylindrical coordinates r - 2, 6 - 90°, z 5. Draw a

diagram and find the rectangular and spherical coordinates by inspection.
8. Consider a cylinder with radius 2 and the z-axis as its axis of symmetry. Find
its equation in (a) rectangular, (b) cylindrical and (c) spherical coordinates.
9. Let line L have equations x - 2 + 4it, y = Z - 2t, z = I + t, and let plane
pi have the equation x + y - 2z = 3. Show that L lies in pi and find the equation
of the plane p2 containing L and perpendicular to pi.
11/PARTIAL

So far you have studied one-dimensional calculus, which is concerned

with functions such as/(x) = + x where the input x and the output/(x)
are numbers. In this chapter, we begin multidimensional calculus by con¬
sidering functions such as

f{x,y) = 2xy +7, g{x,y,z) = e’‘ + 2yz, h{xi,X2,Xs,X4) = ^

X4

For example,/(2,4) = 23,g(2,4,5) = + 40,/i(l, 2,3,7) = 18/7. The in¬

put may be viewed as an re-dimensional point or as a collection of re indepen¬
dent variables; the output is a number, a single dependent variable. The
function/ might represent the temperature at the point (x,y). The function
g could be the air pressure at the point (x,y, z). The function h might be the
blood pressure of a patient taking xi, X2, X3, X4 units respectively of four
particular medicines. We call f a function of two variables, g di function of three
variables and h a function of four variables. This chapter discusses the differ¬
ential calculus of such functions, and the next chapter considers integrals.
The details in this chapter will be new but the overall outline should be
familiar. Many of the topics from one-dimensional calculus (graphs, rates of
change, maximization) are repeated, but with added dimensions.

11.1 Graphs and Level Sets

The purpose of a picture is to convey information easily. This section

shows two ways to visualize a function of re variables.

Graphs As you know, the graph of/(x) = x^ is defined as the graph of the
equation)) = x^, a parabola in 2-space. Similarly, if g{x,y) = 3 - x^ - 2)^
the graph of g is defined as the graph of the equation z = 3 - x^ - 2)^
in 3-space. The methods of Section 10.4 may be used to produce a sketch.
The cross section in the x,y plane (where z = 0) is the ellipse x^ + 2)^ = 3.
The cross section in the plane z = 3 is the point ellipse x^ + 2)^ = 0, and
the cross section in the plane z = -3 is the ellipse x^ + 2)^ = 6. Some cross
sections are shown in Fig. 1 along with the final graph of g, an elliptic
paraboloid.
If h{x,y,z) = X + 2) — 3z, then the graph of h is (theoretically) the
graph of the equation w = x + 2y — 3z in four-space. We can list points
(x,), z, w) which belong to the graph, such as (1,2,3, -4), but we can’t draw
the graph because the world doesn’t have room for a geometric
4-dimensional space.

319
320 • 11/Partial Derivatives

In general, the graph of a function fix) of one variable is the graph of the
equation y = fix), a curve in 2-space. The graph of a function fix, y) of two
variables is the graph of the equation z = fix,y), a surface in 3-space. The graph
of a function fix, y,z) is a set of points in 4-space, and we make no attempt to
construct it.

Level sets The graph of a function of two variables might be difficult to

draw, and the graph of a function of three or more variables can’t be drawn
at all, so another way of picturing functions will be helpful.
Consider gix,y) = 3 - - 2))l The points where the value of g is
(say)-6 satisfy 3-x^-2y^ = -6; that is, the points constitute the ellipse
+ 2y^ = 9. If g(x,y) is the temperature at the point (x,y), then the ellipse
is called an isotherm. It contains precisely those points at which the tem¬
perature is -6. If g represents air pressure at (x,))), then the ellipse is called
an isobar. If g is the potential energy at (x,y), then the ellipse is an equi-
potential curve; if g is utility, then economists call the ellipse an indifference
curve. No matter whatg represents, the ellipse is a level set, in particular, the
-6 level. Similarly, the 2 level set is the set of points where 3 - x^ - 2y^ =
2, that is, the ellipse x^ + 2y^ = 1. The 3 level set is 3 — x^ — 2y^ — 3, the
point ellipse x^ + 2y^ = 0. The 4 level set is 4 = 3 — x^ — 2y^ a null ellipse.
Figure 2 shows some of the level sets of g. (If all the level sets were drawn,
instead of only a few, they would merge into an uninformative solid blob of
black print.)

In general, the level sets of a function /(x,y) are drawn in two-space by

considering equations of the form fix, y) = C for all possible numbers C; they are
usually, but not necessarily, curves. The level sets of a function /(x,y, z) are
drawn in three-space by considering equations of the form, fix, y, z) = C for all C;
they are usually, but not necessarily, surfaces.
 11.1 Graphs and Level Sets • 321

For example, let f{x,y,z) = 2x + 3y + 6z — 10. The 14 level set has

equation 2x + 3;y + 6z — 10 = 14, i.e., the plane 2x + 3y + 6z = 24 (see
plane ABC in Fig. 3). The 15 level set is 2x + 3)) + 6z — 10 = 15, the
plane 2x + 3y + 6z = 25, parallel to the 14 level set. In general, the level
sets are parallel planes (Fig. 3).

The connection between the graph and the level sets of a function of two
variables A function f(x,y) has a collection of level sets in too-space with
equations of the form/(x,))) = C. The function also has a unique graph in
three-space with equation z = f{x,y). The cross section at height z = 5 on the
graph in 3-space is identical with the 5 level set in 2-space (Fig. 4). In
general, the cross sections on the graph in ^-space in the various planes z = C are
the same as the level sets drawn in 2-space. Figure 1 shows the graph of
g{x,y) = 3 — x^ — 2y^. The level sets in Fig. 2 and the cross sections in
Fig. 1 are the same.
One of the best ways to visualize the relation between the graph and the
level sets is to think of the x,y plane as the earth’s sea level, and let f{x,y) be
322 11/Partial Derivatives

the altitude (in meters) of the earth above the point (x,))). For example, if
j-{2,3) = 4,000 then the earth rises to an altitude of 4,000 meters above the
point (2,3) in the x,y plane. The graph off is a plaster model of the earth’s surface
while the level sets are the contour curves on a topographic map. The contour
curves, that is, the level sets of altitude, in Fig. 5 show a mountain peak at
point A and a valley at point B.

-X

FI6.5

Graphs of equations versus graphs of functions versus level sets of func¬

tions The plane in Fig. 6 is the graph of the equation x + 2y + z = 4. It
is also (solve for z) the graph of the function/(x,y) = 4 — x — 2y. It is also
the 4-level set of the function g{x,y, z) = x + 2y + z. It is also the 0-level set
of the function h{x,y,z) = x + 2y + z — 4, and the 5-level set of
k{x,y,z) = x + 2)i+z + l. (In fact, it can be described in infinitely many
ways as a level set of a function of three variables.)
 11.1 Graphs and Level Sets • 323

The sphere with radius 2 in Fig. 7 is the graph of the equation

^ T 3’^ + = 4. It is not the graph of a functionbecause the point
(^o>3’o) in the x,y plane is paired with two values of z, and a function cannot
produce more than one output for a given input. Equivalently, it is not
the graph of a function f{x,y) since its equation cannot be uniquely solved
for z. However, the upper hemisphere is the graph of the function
fjx,^) = V4 - x^ - and the lower hemisphere is the graph of g{x,y) =
-V4 - - y^. The entire sphere is the 4-level set of h{x,y,z) = x^ + y^ +
z\ and also the 0-level set of k{x,y,z) = x^ + y^ + z^ - 4, and so on.

Warning The level sets of a function of two variables are drawn in

too-space, while its graph is a surface in three-space. The level sets of a
function of three variables are drawn in three-space, and its graph exists only
as an abstraction in/owr-space.
324 • 11/Partial Derivatives

Problems for Section 11.1

1. Sketch the graph and enough level sets to suggest the pattern.

(a) f{x,y) = x^+y^ (b) fix,y) = / (c) f{x,y) = x+y

2. Sketch enough level sets to indicate the pattern.

(a) fix,y,z) - x" + / + z" (c) f{x,y) -

r3 if 3) > X
(b) f{x,y,z) = x^+y^-z^ (d) f{x,y) - ^ ^

3. Is the point (2,6) on a level set of f(x,y) = xy? If so, identify and sketch the
level set.
4. Consider each curve or surface. Is it the graph of a function/(x) or f{x,y)}

Is it a level set of a function? If so, identify the function(s).

(a) line 2x + 3y = 6 (c) the paraboloid x = + 2y^

(b) the paraboloid z = x^ + 2y^ (d) the circular cylinder with radius 2 and
the z-axis as its axis.

5. Let/(x,y) be the distance from (x,y) to the x-axis. Sketch some level sets of
/ without attempting to find a formula for /.
6. Suppose/ is a constant function such that f{x,y) = 6 for all (x,y). Sketch the
graph and level sets of/.
7. Sketch the level sets.

(a) f{x,y,z) - y" - X (b) f{x,y) - y (c) /(x,y,z) = y

8. If the potential energy at the point (x,y,z) is

_2_
V(x + 2)2 + (y - 1)2 + (z - 3)'-^ ’

identify the equipotential surfaces, that is, the level sets.

9. Suppose the surface in Fig. 8 is the graph of /(x,y). (a) Decide which is the
largest of/(2,2),/(2,3) and/(3,2). (b) Sketch some level sets of/.

■%
10. Figure 9 shows some level sets of /. Sketch the graph of f.
11. Can two level sets of/ intersect? In other words, can a point Q be on more
F|6.^ than one level set of /?
 11.2 Partial Derivatives • 325

11.2 Partial Derivatives

This section defines and computes the partial derivatives of a function

of several variables, and concludes with some applications.

First-order partial derivatives A function f{x) of one variable has a first-

order derivative denoted by f'{x) or df/dx. A function/(x,y) of two variables
has two first-order partial derivatives. The partial derivative df/dxis defined
as the derivative of f with respect to x, with y treated as a constant. The partial
derivative df / dy is the derivative of f with respect to y, with x treated as a constant.
Similarly a function f{x,y,z) has three first-order partial derivatives, df /dx,
df/dy and df/dz, and so on.
For example, to find the partial of with respect to x, think of y^
as a constant coefficient of x^ so that the problem resembles cx^. Since

D,,cx^ = 2cx^, we have ^ = 2xyl Similarly, ^ ^ = 3x^y^.

dx dy

As another example, if f{x,y,z) = then — =

dx

and, by the product rule, — = -)- g2x+3y+iz

Higher order partial derivatives If / is a function of several variables,

d^f
among them x and y, then —^ is the derivative of f twice with respect to x,
dx

is the derivative of / first with respect to y and then with respect to x.

dx dy
dH .
derivative of / twice with respect toy and then with respect to

X, and so on.
For example, if/(x,y) = x^y® -t- x^ + y^ + 7 then

= 3x^y® + 3x^, — = 5x^y^ + 4y^,

dx dy

dj dH
= 6xy® + 6x, = 20x*y^ + 12y^;
dx^
also
dY
= — (3x^y^ + 3x^) = 15x^y^,
dy dx dy
(1)
dY
— —(5x^y^ + 4y^) = 15x^y‘*.
dx dy

The two partials in (1) are called mixed partials and it is not a coincidence that
they came out equal. For all functions f{x,y) encountered in practice, the mixed
partials are equal. (We omit a precise statement and proof of this result.)
Similarly, if / is a function of Xy, Xgj X^, X4 then

a'f a’f
dx\dxldx4 5x4 3xi 3x3 3xi 3x43x1 3x3

and so on. All that counts is how often the differentiation is done with
respect to each variable; the order in which it is done is immaterial.
Notation Some other commonly used partial derivative symbols^are/* for

for for SyL Jsy The

notation /„ means (/.),, so the partial is found by differentiating first with

respect to x and then with respect toy; the order of differentiation is found

by reading the subscripts from left to right. The notation means

A I'MY so the partial is found by differentiating first with respect toy and
dxXdy /’ ...f-jL j-u
then with respect to x; the order of differentiation is found by reading the
“denominator” from right to left. It is true that the same final answer results
regardless of the order of differentiation since mixed partials are equal;
nevertheless, every notation does indicate a particular order.

The partial derivative — evaluated at the point x = 2, y = 1 is often

^ dx
df df x^
denoted by — . For example, if/(x,y) = — then ~
dx x=2j=i y dy y

dy x= 1,31=3 9

Warning 1. Don’t write/'(x,y) because it is not clear whether the deriva¬

tive is intended to be with respect to x or y. In engineering and physics, if
dy
y is a function of the two variables x (for position) and t (for time) then —

is often denoted by y', and — by y. However we will not use this notation.
dt
d^U du d^u d^u
2. The partial should not be written as-— or-or —. 1 he
dx dy dx dy dxy d^xy
d^u d^u du‘
partial —5 should not be written as or as
^ dx^ ^d^x
^ dx 2-

Application to rates of change Partial derivatives are used in much the

same manner as the derivative of a function of one variable. The partial of
/(x,y) with respect to x is the rate of change of / with respect to x as y stays
rl f
fixed. Suppose— = —4; at the moment whenx = 2,y = 3,ifystays
dx x=2,y=3
fixed at 3 and x increases, / will decrease by 4 units for every unit increase
n r
in X. Similarly, is the rate of change off with respect to y as x stays fixed.

For example, let /(x,y) be the resting pulse of a person smoking x

cigarettes andjoggingy minutes per day. If/(30,40) = 75, then smoking 30
cigarettes and wheezing through a 40 minute run dai y will result in a
df
resting pulse of 75 beats per minute. Suppose — = 2 and
x=30,> = 40

= —1/2. Then with 40 minutes of jogging and 30 cigarettes

fly x=30,>=40
daily, an increase in cigarette consumption will increase the pulse by 2 beats
per minute for each additional cigarette. On the other hand, if smoking is
 11.2 Partial Derivatives • 327

fixed and the run lengthened, each additional minute of running lowers the
pulse by ^ beat per minute.
As another example, suppose a rope is wiggled so as to make each
point move up and down in the following way: at time t, the shape of the
rope IS y = sin(x - 2t), time in seconds and distance in meters. Thus,
at time t = 7t/2, its shape is y = sin(x - tt) (Fig. 1). We will find the
partials of y at x - tt, t and interpret the results physically. We have
dy dy
— = cos(x - 2t) and — = -2 cos{x - 2t), so — = 1 and
ox dx X=7r,(=(1/2)77
dy
= -2
dy
Tt *=77, (={1/2)77 Since x and y are the usual rectangular coordinates, —
dx
is a slope, in particular, the slope at point A in Fig. 1 is 1. Since y is vertical
dy
position at time t, the partial is a vertical velocity; point A in Fig. 1 is in

the process of moving down instantaneously at the rate of 2 meters

per second.

If a particle at point (7,2) moves east (so thaty is fixed and x increases) the
temperature drops momentarily by 3 degrees per meter. Similarly, if a
particle moves north through (7,2), the temperature rises momentarily by
4 degrees per meter. From this point of view, the partial derivatives are
called directional derivatives. In particular, df/dx is the rate of change of/
per meter in direction t and df/dy is the rate of change of / per meter in
direction j. In Section 11.6, we will develop directional derivatives more
generally, so that we can find the rate of change of temperature in direc¬
tions such as southwest, northeast^ and so on.

Connection between the partials and the graph of f(x,y) Consider the
graph of/(x,y), the Surface z = f{x,y) in 3-space. To interpret the par¬
tial derivative

(2)
dx x=xo,y=yo

we must first fix y at yo, which geometrically restricts us to the curve of

328 • 11/Partial Derivatives

intersection of the surface with the plane)) — yo (Fig. 2). Then (2) is the rate
of change of height z with respect to x, so (2) is the slope on the curve of
intersection of the graph of f and the plane y = yo at the point {xQ,yo,f{xo,yo)).
() f
Similarly, — is the slope of the curve of intersection of the graph of f and
dy x=xo,y=yo , • 1 r
the plane x = Xq at the point {xo,yo,fixo,yo))- We still do not admit slopes tor
arbitrary curves in 3-space. The partial in (2) gives the slope of a curve in
an X, z coordinate system in the plane y = yo, that is, in a too-dimensional
setting within 3-space.

Connection between the partials and the level sets of/(x, y) or/(x, y, z) We
will illustrate how to determine the sign of the partial derivatives from a
 11.2 Partial Derivatives • 329

picture of the level sets. Figure 3 shows level sets of a function/(%,3)), which
we will think of as the temperature at the point (x,^). A particle moving east
through point A will cross from lower to higher levels, and thus experiences
rising temperatures. In other words, as x increases and)) stays fixed,/(x,))
increases. Therefore df/dx is positive at point A. On the other hand, a
particle moving north through point A will move from higher to lower
levels and feel the temperature decreasing. That is, as x stays fixed and y
increases,/(x,)) decreases. Therefore df/dy is negative at point A.

Problems for Section 11.2

1. Find dzjdx and dz/dy if

(a) z = + 2x^y^ (d) z = x{2x 5yr

(b) z = xe (e) z = —
X

(C) Z =
X + y

2. Find Idy^ and dy/dx dy if

x +y
(a) f{x,y) - ln(2x + Sy) (b) f{x,y) = tan ' — (c) f{x,y) =
X X - y

3. The partial df/dx can also be written as y. Rewrite the following partials in
a similar fashion.

dy d%
(a) (b)
da db dc dx^ dt

4. l{f{x,y,z) = z sin x/y find

(a) Y (c) ^

f
dy /t
dx dz

5. Find

d^(e'‘ cos y) a®(x sin y)

(a)
dy^ ay®
d^ie’' cos y) a®(x sin y)
(b) (e)
ax® dx dy^
a®(x sin y)
(c)
ax®

d^x d^x
6. U X — p sin (f> cos 6 find (a) —5 (b) -
dp dcpdd

7. Let X be the price of a camera, y the price of a roll of film, and /(x,y) the
number of cameras sold daily. For example, if/(30,1) = 100 then 100 cameras will
be sold if a camera cost $30 and film is $1 a roll. Find the sign oidf /dx and of a//dy.
8. Let a and b be the prices of a round-trip ticket between New York and
Los Angeles charged by airlines A and B, respectively. If f{a,b) is the number of
passengers who fly airline A each week, find the signs of df /da and df/db.
330 ' 11/Partial Derivatives

9. Let fix, y) be the day’s profit in a company whose employees jog x miles and
bicycle y miles during their lunch hour. For example, if/(l,2) = 1,000 then the
company makes a profit of $1,000 when its employees healthfully run a mile and
cycle two miles that day. Interpret the following experimental observation:

df
> — > 0.
dx x=l/2,y=l dy x=V2,y=l

10. Suppose the temperature at the point (x,y) is (2x

3y)^. What is the rate
of change of temperature if a particle moves north through the point (4,3).
east? south? • i . • ■ c
11. Use the level sets of / in Fig. 4 to find the signs of the partial derivatives ot
r at A
12. Figure 5 shows the graph offix,y). Find the signs of (a) df/dx and (b) df/dy
at (2,5).

13. Figure 6 shows level sets off{x,y, z). (Each is an unbounded circular cylinder,
with no lids.) Find the signs of df/dx, df/dy and df/dz at the point P = (-2,3,4).

FI6.6
14. Figure 3 shows level sets of/. Suppose the level sets of g are the same curves
but for different levels as indicated in Fig. 7. Which is larger at point A, df/dx or
dg / dx}
 11.3 Chain Rules for First-Order Partial Derivatives • 331

11.3 Chain Rules for First-Order Partial Derivatives

The on^-dimensional chain rule is familiar: if ^ is a function of u,

denoted y = y{u), and m is a function of x, denoted u = u{x), then
(Section 3.6)

^2^ ^ _ dy du
dx du dx

For a too-dimensional version, suppose z is a function of u and v, denoted

z = z{u,v), and u and v are functions of x and y, denoted u = u{x,y),
V = v{x,y). For example, we might have z = uv^ with u = xy,v = 2x + 3y,
so that z = xy(2x + 3y)^. Figure 1 shows a dependence diagram picturing the
hierarchy of variables. A chain typically arises with a switch to a new coor¬
dinate system; if z is a function of x and y and we change to polar coordi¬
X y nates r and 6, then z = z{x,y) where x = r cos 6, y = r sin 6. This section
will give chain rules which express the ultimate derivatives, such as dz jbx
FIG. I
and bzjby in Fig. 1, in terms of intermediate derivatives, such as bzjbu,
bzjbv, bujdx, dujdy, dv/dx and dv/dy. An application will be discussed after
the technique has been described.

The pattern of a chain rule Each dependence diagram in multi¬

dimensional calculus has its own chain rule. We will illustrate the pattern so
that you can write them in any situation.
As a device for writing the chain rule for dz/dx in Fig. 1, consider all
(two) paths in the diagram from z to x, and label each branch with a
corresponding derivative (Fig. 2). Then multiply down each path and add
the results to obtain

^2^ dz _ dz du ^ dz dv
dx du dx dv dx

The chain rule contains a term for each path from z to x, and the factors
in each term are the derivatives written along the path. Figure 3 shows the
two paths from z to y that are used to write the chain rule

dz dz du dz dv
(3) — =-+-.
dy du dy dv dy

As a check, note that each term on the right side of (2) and of (3) “cancels”
to the left side.
332 • 11/Partial Derivatives

The familiar chain rule in (1) is a special case of the general pattern,
s
with only one path from y to x (Fig. 4).
We omit the proof of the chain rules.

dm
Example 1 If
M-
z=ziu,v,w), v=t^-2t, W=e^‘ (Fig. 5),
dm
dr then z is ultimately a function of t, but in a special way. Only the combina¬
tions t\ - 2t and occur in the formula for z, not loose for
%
example, if z = + tc then z = t\e - 2tY + All paths in Fig. 5 lead
F|6.'t
from z to t, and

z dz _ ^ + (2t - 2) — + 2e^‘—.
(4) ~dt~ du dt dv dt dw dt du dv dw

Warning 1. Use the partial derivative symbol d and the ordinary deriva¬
tive symbol d appropriately by thinking about the existence or nonexistence
oi other variables. In Fig. 5 the top branches are labeled viixh partial deriva¬
tives because at that level, z is a function of the three variables u, v, w. The
lower branches are labeled with ordinary derivatives because at that level, u,
V and w are each functions of the single variable t. The derivative dz/dt in
(4) is written with d rather than d because when z is considered as a function
of the variable t, it is a function of t alone.
2. We never mix tiers in a dependence diagram. In Fig. 5, z is a func¬
tion of u, V, w and from another point of view, z is a function of t. However
F\s.5 z is never considered as a function of u, v, tv and t simultaneously.

2 A NON-appIication of the chain rule Suppose

(5) z = uv^, u = sin X and v = (Fig. 6).

Then z = x^ sin x and without any multidimensional chain rule we have

(by the product rule)

(6)
dz 4 ,43-
— = X cos X + 4x sm x.
dx

With the chain rule, using the formulas in (5) and the two paths from z to
X in Fig. 6,
FIG .6
dz dz du dz dv
cos X + 2uv • 2x
(7) dx du dx dv dx

(x^)^ cos X -I- 2(sin x) (x^)2x = x"* cos x -I- 4x^ sin x.

The direct method in (6) and the chain rule in (7) produce the same answer,
which verifies the chain rule for this particular example. It also illustrates
an important aspect of the multidimensional chain rule. If z is given as a
particular, rather than an arbitrary, function of u and v, say z = uv^ as
opposed to z = z{u, v), and, in turn, u and v are given as particular functions
of X, then z may be written directly in terms of x, and a derivative found
without the chain rule.
It is not the primary purpose of the multidimensional chain rule to
produce derivatives of a particular function. The applications you will en¬
counter in later courses will involve arbitrary functions, and will typically
 11.3 Chain Rules for First-Order Partial Derivatives • 333

produce a general result. Compare this with a similar situation in algebra.

You learned that

(8) (x -I- yf = -I- 2xy -h y'^

but the main purpose of (8) is not to compute (3 + 4)^ by writing it as

3^ + 2 • 3 • 4 + 41 For computational purposes, (3 + 4)^ is called 7^ and
found directly. However (8) is often used in postalgebra courses in applica¬
tions involving an arbitrary x and y.

An application to differential equations Section 4.9 introduced (ordi¬

nary) differential equations, in which the unknown is a function y(x), a
function of one variable. The equation

(9) ^ = 3^_3^
dx dy

is a (partial) differential equation in which the unknown is a function

u{x,y,z), a function of three variables. We will show how the chain rule is
used to confirm that a certain type of function is a solution to the particular
equation in (9).
We claim that the functions
sin(x -I- 3z)
u = {x + + 5(y - 3z),
(10) 5(y — 3z)
u = (y — 3z)r“^''‘'^^^^

are solutions and, in general, any function of x, y and z in which the variables
occur only in the combinations x -f 3z andy - 3z is a solution. (We will not
conjecture how this was discovered originally.) Let’s check the first function
in (10). Its three partials are
du ,
— = 2(x -f 3z),
dx
du
— = 2(x -t- 3z) • 3 — 15 = 6(x -t- 3z) — 15,

and it can be seen that they do satisfy (9). But to confirm our general claim,
a we cannot test functions one at a time, but must perform a general test. An
arbitrary function of x, y and z containing only the combinations x -I- 3z
and y — 3z is referred to as a function of x 3z and y — 3z and denoted
by u{x + 3z,y — 3z). Equivalently, and particularly useful for the chain
rule,

(11) u = u{p,q), jti=x + 3z, q = y — ?>z (Fig. 7).

For example, the first function in (10) is of the form p"^ -I- hq where
/? = X -f 3z, and q = y — ?tz. We can test all the functions in (11) at once
with the chain rule. Figure 7 shows one path from m to x (not two, because
q is not a function of x), one path from m toy (not two, because p is not a
function of y) and two paths from u to z. Therefore

du du dp du du du dq du
j
dx dp dx dp dy dq dy dq
du du dp du dq
= 3— - 3—
dz dp dz dq dz dp dq'
The partials in (12) do satisfy (9). This verifies that all the functions in (11),
including the specific ones in (10), are solutions to the differential equation.

Problems for Section 11.3

1. Write a chain rule for dw/ds if w = w{x,y,z), x - x{r,s,t), y y(r,s,t),

z ^ z(t' Sf t} •

2. Write a chain rule for tiltif M = u{x,y,z),x - x{a,b),y - y{a,b),z = z{a,b),

a = a{t), b = b{t).
3. Let p = pit), t = tix,y,z). Write a chain rule for dp/dy.
4. Find the following derivatives directly and then, for practice, find them
again using the multidimensional chain rule.

(a) dw/dt if tw = sin xy, x = \n t, y = (b) dw/dx if w - 1/m, m - x sin y

5. Let w - w{x,y) be the temperature at the point (x,y) and let x = x(i), y - y(t)
be the position of a particle at time t. (a) Find dw/dt. (b) Suppose dw/dt is -2 at
time 3. What is the physical significance for the particle?
6. Find dz/du if z = z{x,y), x = sin t,y = 2t^ t = tiu,v).
7. If M is a function of Vx^ + y^ + z‘‘^, that is, u = nip) where
du du du
, . .ha. (I) =

8. If M = ui--^ I show that x^m^ + y^Uy + z^m. 0.

xy xz
9. Show all at once that the three functions z - (x^ + y^)®, z - Vx^ + y^,
dz dz
sin(3 + X + y ) satisfy y— = x—.

10. Let M = x^wl-,-), that is, u is the product of x^ with the arbitrary
\x X/
function w of x,y,z which contains only the combinations y/x and z/x. Show that
XM„ + yuy + zu, = 2 m. (Treat m as a product, and use the chain rule when it becomes
necessary to find derivatives of w.)

11.4 Chain Rules for Second-Order Partial Derivatives

Most of the applications of the multidimensional chain rules involve

second-order partials. For example, if m is a function of x and y then the

expression is called the Laplacian of v and is used extensively

in mathematics and mathematical physics. (If v is the temperature at the

point (x,y) then the Laplacian of-v is the heat flux density, which measures
the flow of calories in or out of a region.) If v is defined in a circular
region, it is preferable to switch to polar coordinates and express the
Laplacian in terms of r and 6 using a chain rule for the second-order
. , d^v , , , , , . ,
partials —^ and —^. This section will show that the same techniques that
dX dy
worked for first-order partials can still be used, but more care and patience
(and often product rules) are needed as well.

Example 1 Let

z = ziu,v), u = x^y, V 3x -f 2y (Fig- 1) •

 11.4 Chain Rules for Second-Order Partial Derivatives • 335

dh
We will find From Fig. 1,

^dz dz
(1)
dy du dy dv dy du dv'

Now differentiate again with respect to y to obtain

(sum rule)
dy^ dy\ du) dy dv

(2) X ±(^\
\ /
4. <,±(^
2 ■— I — (constant-multiple rule).
dy \ duj dy \ dv

Before continuing, note that z is initially a function of u and v, and ulti¬

mately a function of x and y (Fig. 1). The partial derivatives and — are
du dv
9^
also initially functions of u and v and eventually functions of x and y. In other

words, and — are variables with the same dependence diagrams as the original

variable z (Figs. 2 and 3). In those dependence diagrams, the branches are
labeled with partial derivatives in the usual way. For example, the branches
dz
in Fig. 2 from to u and v correspond to and • or.
du \du dv^\du)
d^Z dh
equivalently, —^ and as indicated.
du^ dvdu
Back in (2), to find the derivative of dzjdu with respect toy, consider
R6. ^
the two paths in Fig. 2 from dzjdu toy and use the chain rule. Similarly, the
’3^ derivative of dzjdv with respect to y requires a chain rule using the two
paths in Fig. 3 from dzjdv toy. Therefore

d'^z du d^z dv , d^z du d^z dv

= x‘ — -f
— + 2 ■— -f
dy‘ du^ dy dv du dy du dv dy dv^ dy
d^z d^Z dh
= x^i x^ + 2- + 2\ X + 2
du‘ dv du du dv dv'^
The mixed partials are equal, so the answer simplifies to

d^z dh dh d z
= + 4x‘ + 4
dy^ du^ du dv dv 2 •

Warning The indicated partial ^ (-^) in (2) is never left in the form, or
dy\du/
dh
even temporarily denoted by ———, because z is never considered as a
dy du
function of y and u simultaneously.

dh
Example 2 Let’s continue from (1) to find- by differentiating with
5 oc
respect to x. By the sum rule,

d'^z d dz \ d ,
(3) + — 2—
dx dy dx du, / dx'V dv
336 • 11/Partial Derivatives

The second term on the right side of (3) is the derivative of a constant
multiple oidz/dv, but the first term requires the product rule since both x
and dz/du are functions of x. Therefore

dx dy dx\du/ du dx\dv

To find the partials of dz/du and dz/dv with respect to x, consider paths to
X in Figs. 2 and 3 and use the chain rule to obtain
d^z du d^z dv^
dh
— x^ ^ ^ + 2x— + 2
dv^ dx
dx dy du^ dx dv du dx) du \du dv dx

dh dz dh fz
+ 2x— + 2 2xy + 3
dv du du \ du dv dv'^

dh dh d12 z
= 2xS—-7 + (3x^ + 4x31) -1- 2x-F 6*_ 2 •
du du dv du dv

d^w
t. Example 3 Let w = w{t), t = t{x,y). Find ^^2 •

Solution: From Fig. 4,

dw _ dw dt
dx dt dx

Now differentiate again with respect to x. Since / is a function of x and y,

dt/dx is also a function of x and y. The function dw/dt has the same
dependence diagram as w (Fig. 5) so it, too, is a function (eventually) of x
and y. Therefore, use the product rule to obtain

d^w _ dw d^t ^ dt d /dw

dx^ dt dx^ dx dx\dt

The derivative of dw /dt with respect to x is found using the path from dw /dt
to X in Fig. 5. Thus

d^w dw dh dt d'^w dt dw dH , (dtVd^w

(4) + — + —
dx^ dt dx^ dx dt^ dx dt dx^ \dx) dt

Warning 1. The expression in (4) is the square of the first-order

FI6.5 St d^t
partial — and is not the same as the second-order partial ——^.
dx dx
2. Don’t forget to use the product rule when necessary.

d^Xi)
Example 4 Let w = t = x^y^. Find using the chain rule in (4)

and then verify by finding the partial directly.

Solution: We have

d^w
^ = 2>xY> 6x/, = 3,^ = 6t.
dx dx^ dt^

Substituting in (4) gives

 11.5 Maxima and Minima • 337

S^xv
• 6xy^ + (3x^31^)^ • 6t

(5) = 3{xyy • 6xy^ + 9xY • 6xY = I2x^y\

^ *2
Directly, w — (x^y^)^ = so— = 9x®y® and ——^ = 72x^})® which agrees
OX oX

with (5). As noted in the preceding section, it is not the purpose of the chain
rule to produce derivatives of particular functions, as in this example, since
the direct approach is usually foster. It is meant for more general problems
such as computing the Laplacian of an arbitrary function v in polar coordi¬
nates (see Problem 5 and its solution).

Problems for Section 11.4

q2,
1. Let^ = p{a,b), a = ‘iu 4v, b = bu + Gv. Find—
du^
d^z
2. If z = z{x,y) where x = 3t, y = 4t, find

d^U
3. Let u — u(x,y), x = 2a + 3b, y = a^b. Find
db da
d^w
4. Let w = w{x,y), x = t^,y ^ Find 2 ■
dt

5. Let V = v(r, 0) where r = Vx^ + y^ and 9 = tan ' y/x.

(a) Show that — = — and — -

dx r dx r^

(b) Show that -^ = Y and ^ .

dx r dx r
d^v
(c) Find and simplify using parts (a) and (b).

6. Let V = v{x,y), x = x{t); y = y{t). Find v,,.

7. Show that if tt; is a function of x and t but contains them only in the forms
p = X — ct, q = X + ct where c is a constant, then c'^w^x — Wu = 4:C^Wpg.

11.5 Maxima and Minima

The process of maximizing and minimizing functions of two variables

is similar to the one-dimensional case. We will begin with relative maxima
and minima, and then concentrate on absolute extrema.

Relative extrema The function f{x,y) has a relative maximum at (xo,yQ) if

f{xo,yo) ^ f{x,y) for all points {x,y) near {xo,yo). Similarly, / has a relative
minimum at (xo,yo) if fixo,yo) — f{x,y) for all points (x,y) near (xo,yo)-
Suppose the function/(x,}i) has a relative maximum value at the point
(xo,yo)- Then the graph of/ has a peak there (Fig. 1). If/(x,y) is the tem¬
perature at the point (x,y), then the point (xo,yo) is a hot spot surrounded
by lower levels of temperature (Fig. 2).
338 11/Partial Derivatives

-X .
7 "

FI6.^

As in the one-dimensional case, there is a connection between relative

extrema and zero derivative.t Consider Fig. 2 which shows a relative maxi¬
mum of / at ixo,yo)- If a particle moves east through (xo,/o) so that the
temperature is a function of x alone, it experiences a relative maximum
temperature at x = Xq. Therefore, by the theory of relative extrema for
functions of one variable.

9/ = 0.
(1) dx

Similarly, if the particle moves north through the point (xo,yo)> so that the
temperature is a function of y, it feels a relative maximum when y — yo-
Thus,

(2)

Alternatively, (1) and (2) hold because the partials of f are the slopes on
the curves of intersection of the graph of / (Fig. 1) with the planes x = Xq
and y = y^, respectively, and each curve of intersection has a peak with a
zero slope when x = Xq, y = yo-
In general, if fix, y) has a relative extreme value at (xo,yo) then both df/dx
and df/dy are zero at (xo,yo); that is, both (1) and (2) hold. Equivalently, if either
of the partials is nonzero at (xo,yo), then f cannot have a relative extreme value at
(xo,yo)- On the other hand, if both partials are zero at (xo,yo), then a relative
extreme value may (Figs. 1 and 2), but need not, occur. As an example of the
latter, let / be the function with the level sets in Fig. 3 and the graph in
Fig. 4. If a particle moves east through (xo,yo) in Fig. 3, it experiences a
relative minimum value of/ at the point, so (1) holds. Alternatively (1) holds
because the curve of intersection of the graph of / with the plane y = yo,
namely, the curve BAC, has a valley at the point A = (xo,yo, 6), with slope 0.
On the other hand, (2) holds for the opposite reason. A particle moving north
through the point (xo,yo) in Fig. 3 feels a relative maximum value of / at the
point, and the curve of intersection of the graph of/ with the plane x = Xq,
namely, the curve DAE, has a peak at the point A. Therefore (2) holds in
addition to (1), but / does not have a relative extreme value at (xo,yo)-
If both df/dx and df/dy are zero at (xo,yo) then (xo,yo) is called a critical
point, and/(xo,yo) a critical value, of/. The preceding discussion shows that

tin one sense, we take a narrower approach in the two-dimensional case. We assume that
f{x,y) is finite at every point in the plane and that the partial derivatives always exist, assump¬
tions we did not make for/(x).
 11.5 Maxima and Minima • 339

the list of critical points includes all the relative maxima, all the relative minima, and
possibly nonextrema as well. In other words, the critical points are the only possible
candidates for relative extrema. There is a second derivative test, involving/^,
fyy and fy for determining whether a critical point is a relative maximum, a
relative minimum, or neither. We omit the test since our intention is to use
relative extrema to help locate absolute extrema, and for that purpose, as
in the one-dimensional case, it is not necessary to classify the critical points.

Absolute extrema The standard owe-dimensional extremum problem is

to find the largest and smallest values of/(x) in an interval \a,b\ The
standard too-dimensional problem is to find the largest and smallest values,
that is, the absolute extrema, off{x,y) in a region in the plane. We will refer
to absolute extrema simply as extrema.
In physical problems, a region arises from restrictions on the indepen¬
dent variables. If f{x,y) is the profit when a factory hires x women and y
men, then x > 0, y > 0, and perhaps x + y < 500 by Fire Department
safety regulations. In that case. Fig. 5 shows the region of interest.

The procedure for finding extrema off{x,y) in a region in the plane is

analogous to the method used for/(x) in [a, b]. An extremum occurs either
on the boundary of the region (Fig. 5) or at one of the relative extrema.
Thus, to locate the extrema, choose from the following candidates.
340 • 11/Partial Derivatives

Qf
(A) Critical values of f: Find the critical points by solving

— = 0, a system of two equations in two unknowns. Ignore critical points

dy
not in the region. The corresponding list of critical values contains all the
relative maxima and relative minima, and possibly some values of /
particular max/min significance. It is not necessary to decide which critical
value serves which purpose. Include them all in the candidate list without
classifying them.

(B) Boundary values of f: For a function f{x) defined on an interval

[a, b], the end values/(a) and f{b) are among the candidates. The analogous
candidates for a function f{x,y) defined in a 2-dimensional region are the
boundary values of /.
A difficulty arises here that did not occur for a function of one variable.
A region in the plane has infinitely many boundary points, while an interval
[a, /)] has only two endpoints. Instead of putting all the boundary points on
the candidate list, we will use a select few, as demonstrated in the examples.

Example 1 Let

(3) f{x,y) = x^y - 80x.

We will find the maximum and minimum values of/ in the region bounded
by the curvey = x^ and the line through the points (1,1) and (3,27) (Fig. 6).
If/(x,y) is the temperature at the point {x,y), we are finding the highest and
lowest temperatures in the region. We are also finding the highest and
lowest points on the graph of / over the region. In this example, both the
function / and the region in Fig. 6 were chosen arbitrarily. In Example 3,
we will begin with a physical situation which gives rise to a function and a
region. In any event, the region is not the graph of the function (the graph
is a surface in 3-space over and/or under the region), nor in any way related
to it. You may think of the region as a city whose residents wish to find the
hottest and coldest points within the city limits.
There are two types of candidates, critical points and boundary points.

r> f f) f
Critical points The partial derivatives are — = 2xy — 80 and= x'

The critical points are the solutions of the system of equations 2xy — 80 =
0,x^ — 0. The second equation is satisfied only when X = 0, but substituting
X = 0 in the first equation produces -80 = 0. Therefore the system has no
solution and there are no candidates from this source.

The boundary y = x^ To avoid having infinitely many boundary points

on the candidate list, we will choose only the best, and use as candidates the
hottest and coldest of the boundary points. To find them, proceed as follows.
Solve the equation of the boundary for x or y and substitute into (3), so that the
temperature on the boundary is expressed in terms of only one variable. Choose
whichever variable makes the algebra easier. In this case, if y is replaced by x^
(rather than x replaced by y *^^) we have

(4) / = x'-80x.
 11.5 Maxima and Minima • 341

The function in (4) gives the temperature at the point (x,y) on the curve
y — X . To find the extreme temperature on the curve between the points
(1, 1) and (3,27), maximize and minimize the function of one variable in (4),
for 1 :S X 3. /n general, each boundary curve gives rise to a standard one¬
dimensional subproblem for a function of one variable on an interval. The candidates
for the extrema are the critical numbers and the ends of the interval. To find the
critical numbers here, differentiate (4) to get f {x) = 5x^ - 80 and solve
5x — 80 = 0. The solutions are X = ±2, but—2 is outside the interval [1,3]
so it is discarded. Therefore the candidates in the subproblem are the
critical number X = 2, and the endpoints x = Each candidate determines
a point on the boundary; the other coordinate of the point may be found by substituting
in the equation of the boundary, y = x^ in this instance. If x = 1 then)) = 1; if
X = 2 then y = 8; if x = 3 then ) = 27. Therefore the candidates for the
hottest and coldest points on the boundary y = x^ are (1,1), (2,8) and
(3,27). Put them on the list of candidates in the original problem.

The straight line boundary The line has slope 13 and equation
) — 1 = 13(x — 1), or

(5) ) = 13x - 12.

Substituting 13x — 12 for y in (3) produces

(6) / = x2(13x - 12) - 80x = 13x® - 12x2 - 80x.

Since the boundary is only that portion of the line between the points (1,1)
and (3, 27), the subproblem involves (6) restricted to the interval 1 < x < 3.
(If we had solved (5) for x and switched to / as a function of y alone, the
interval would be 1 < y < 27.) Then /'(x) = 39x2 _ 24^^ _ gg, and the
critical numbers are the solutions of 39x2 - 24x_- 80 = 0. By the qua¬
24 ± V13056
dratic formula, the solutions are x = The value of x corre¬
78
sponding to the minus sign is negative, hence outside the interval [1,3]
and irrelevant. The other solution is approximately 1.77. Therefore the
candidates in the subproblem are the critical number 1.77 and the end¬
points X = 1, 3. The corresponding values of y are found by substituting in
(5), the equation of the boundary. If x = 1 then y = 1; if x = 1.77 then
y = 11.04 approximately; if x = 3 then y = 27. Therefore the candidates
for the hottest and coldest points on the straight line boundary are (1,1),
(1.77,11.04) and (3,27).

The list of candidates There are no critical points so the list contains
only the boundary candidates (Fig. 6). For each candidate, the correspond¬
ing value of / is found from (3).

point value of f

(1,1) -79
(2,8) -128
(3,27) 3
(1.77,11:04) — 107.11 approximately

The value of / at a boundary point may also be found from the one¬
dimensional version of / on the boundary. For example, instead of substi-
luting X = 2, 31 = 8 into (3) to find / = -128, it is also possible to merely
substitute x — 2 into (4). • • • o j u
The table shows that the maximum value of/ in the region is 3 and the
minimum value is —128.

Warning 1. A standard two-dimensional extremum problem involves a

function/(x,}i) and a region with one or more boundaries, each with an,
equation in x and y. The boundary equations are never differentiated. A bound-
ary equation is used to express / as a function of one variable, and it is the ^
function f that is differentiated.
2. Each boundary subproblem involves a function of one variable on
an interval, and the ends of the interval are automatically candidates in
that one-dimensional problem. Don’t forget them. As a consequence, the
vertices of a region (points at which the boundary changes equation) are
always candidates.
3. Check to see that each candidate is in the region. It is silly to locate .
the region’s hottest spot at a point outside the region.

Example 2 Suppose we want to find the maximum and minimum '

values of
(7) fix,y) = + 3y^ - 2x

in the x,y plane, an unbounded region. In one-dimensional calculus, to

find the extreme values of/(x) on the unbounded interval [o, °°), we con¬
sider the ordinary end value f{a), critical values, and the “end” value/(oo).
Similarly, to find extreme values of f{x,y) on an unbounded region, we
consider ordinary boundaries (if there are any), critical points, and a hypo¬
thetical boundary at infinity, represented in Fig. 7 by the jagged curve very
far” from the origin. It is frequently the case that a function blows up j
somewhere on the boundary at infinity, and this possibility should be ex¬
amined first.

FI6,7
Consider a north path to the boundary at infinity along the y-axis. Set
X — 0 in (7) and lety —> 00 to see that the limiting value of/ is lim,,..^. 3y ^ =
 11.5 Maxima and Minima • 343

In fact,/—> 00 on any path toward the boundary at infinity because and

are always positive, and has a higher order of magnitude than 2x.
Therefore, we have identified the maximum value off, namely oo^ but we
/ still need the minimum. The only place it can occur is at a critical point. The

partial derivatives are ~ = 2x — 2, — 6y. The system of equations

2x — 2 = 0, 6y = 0 has the solution X = l,y — 0. Therefore/has its mini¬

mum at the point (1,0). Since /(1,0) = — 1, the minimum value is —1.
The maximum and minimum can also be found without calculus. Com¬
plete the square to obtain f{x,y) = {x — 1)^ + 3y^ — 1. By inspection, the
maximum is oo when x or y approach ±0°; and the minimum occurs when
the square terms are 0, that is, the minimum is — 1 when x = 1 and y = 0.
The graph of z = (x — 1)^ + 3y^ — 1 is a paraboloid (Fig. 8) with vertex
(1,0,-1).

Example 3 A company making clocks and radios earns a profit of $40 per
OA-i) clock and $60 per radio. Three machines. A, B and C, are involved in the
manufacturing process. In its construction, a clock requires 2 hours of time
FIG.8 from machine A, 1 hour from machine B and 1 hour from machine C. A
radio requires 1 hour from A, 1 hour from B and 3 hours from C. Machine
A is available for at most 70 hours a week, B for at most 40 hours a week
and C for at most 90 hours. Table 1 summarizes the data.

Table 1

clock radio
$40 profit $60 profit

machine A 2 hours 1 hour

available 70 hours

machine B 1 hour 1 hour

available 40 hours

machine C 1 hour 3 hours

available 90 hours

The problem is to decide how many clocks and radios to manufacture each
week so as to maximize the company profits.
To begin, let x be the number of clocks to be made and y the number
of radios. Then the profit p is given by the function

(8) p = 40x + 60y.

With no restrictions on x and y, p can be made unboundedly large. However

X andy are restricted by the limited availability of the machines. If each of

the X clocks requires 2 hours from A, and each of the y radios requires
1 hour from A, but A cannot be used for more than 70 hours, then

(9) 2x + y < 70.

Similarly,

(10) X + y < 40 and x + 3y < 90 .

344 • 11/Partial Derivatives

Furthermore,
(11) X > 0 and )i > 0.

The inequalities in (9)-(ll) determine a region in the plane. To sketch the

region, first draw the lines 2x + }» = 70, x + = 40 and x + ?>y — 90
(Fig. 9). The line 2x + = 70 determines two half planes, one of which is
2x + )) < 70 and the other 2x + y > 70. The origin, which lies in the lower
half plane, happens to satisfy the inequality 2x + y < 70, so we conclude
that (9) is the line together with the lower half plane. Similarly the in¬
equalities in (10) are lines plus lower half planes. Points are further re¬
stricted to quadrant I by (11). Figure 9 shows the points {x,y) satisfying all
the inequalities, namely, the polygon ABODE which lies under each line,
and within quadrant I. The coordinates of the vertices are obtained by
finding the intersections of pairs of lines.

We have finally reached the stage where Examples 1 and 2 began; we

want to maximize the function p{x,y) where {x,y) is restricted to the region
ABODE.
The partial derivative dp/dx is 40, never 0, so even without considering
dp/dy, there are no critical points. It remains to examine the boundaries.
Consider the line AB with equation x + 3y = 90. Solve the equation
for X and substitute in (8) to obtain

p = 40(90 — 3y) + 60y = — 60y + 3600.

The boundary AB is that part of the line between the points (0,30) and
(15,25), so y is restricted to the interval [25,30]. Since p'{y) = -60, the
derivative is never 0, and there are no critical numbers in this subproblem.
The only candidates are the endpoints y = 25 and y = 30, which produce
the candidates (15,25) and (0,30) in the original problem. Similarly, the
 11.5 Maxima and Minima • 345

other boundary subproblems produce no critical numbers and the only

candidates that emerge are the vertices A, B, C, D and E.
For the final decision, compute />(0,30) = 1800, ^(15,25) = 2100,
^(30,10) = 1800,/>(35, 0) = 1400, jf?(0,0) = 0. The list shows that the maxi¬
mum profit ($2100) is obtained when the company manufactures 15 clocks
and 25 radios each week.
The maximum can also be located using the level sets of p, a collection
of parallel lines. For example, the 0 level set is the line 40x + 60y = 0; the
1000 level set is the line 40x -I- 60y = 1000 (Fig. 10). To superimpose the
level lines on top of the polygon, note that the level lines have slope —2/3,
line AB has slope —1/3, and line BC has slope —1. Therefore the level
lines are not as steep as BC, but steeper than AB. The higher levels do not
intersect the polygonal region at all, indicating that the factory cannot make
a million dollar profit. From the inclinations of the various lines, we see that
the first level line to hit the region from above does so at point B. Therefore,
of all points in the region, B has the largest value of p, and the company
should manufacture 15 clocks and 25 radios.

Maximizing and minimizing a linear function with linear inequalities

restricting the variables is called linear programming. Such problems occur
frequently in economics and operations research. In the two-dimensional
case, the inequalities determine a polygonal region, and the example shows
that the maximum value occurs at a vertex of the region. In most applica¬
tions, the number of variables is much larger than 2, and entire courses are
devoted to techniques of solution.

Warning Example 3 asks for the location of the maximum, so the answer
is X = 15, y = 25. If the example had asked for the maximum value then
the answer would be 2100. Make your answer fit the question.
346 • 11/Partial Derivatives

Problems for Section 11.5

1. Find the maximum and minimum values off{x,y) in the indicated region.

(a) Sxy — 2x^ + 231 + 8, region in quadrant I bounded by the axes and
y — 5 — x^
(b) Sxy - + 23) + 8, region in Fig. 11
(c) 2x - Sy, region bounded by 31 = and y - A
(d) x^ + x^y - y, region where x^ + 231^ ^ 4

2. At what points does the function have maximum and minimum values in
FI6.I the region.

(a) x^ + 31^ + Sxy + lOx in the triangular region with vertices (0,3), (5,3),
(-1,-3)
(b) + 2y^ + X in the region bounded by circle x ^ +y" - 1

3. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function in the x,y plane.

(a) 6y - 2x - x^ - y^ (c) x^ - xy + y^ + 2x + 2y - 4
(b) x^ + xy + 3x + 2y + 5 (d) x^ — 2xy — y^ + y

4. Find the point in the plane 3x + 2y + z = 14 which is nearest the origin.

5. Find the distance from the point (1,3,0) to the plane 2x - 2y + z + 10 = 0

(a) using formula (6^) in Section 10.2 (b) by solving a minimization problem.

6. Consider the skew lines x = 2 + 2<, y = 3 — 2i, z = 4 + 4^ and x == 1 + r,

y = 2 + r, z = 7 + 3r. Find the points ofclosest contact on the lines. In other words,
of all points A on the first line and all points B on the second line, find the two such
that distance AB is minimum.
7. A rectangular tank with an open top is to be built to hold 256 cubic feet. The
builder is anxious to conserve materials, so the worst option maximizes surface area
and the best option minimizes surface area, (a) Find the worst option, (b) Find the
dimensions of the tank with minimum surface area, (c) Suppose the tank must
stand on a 4-by-20 plot of land so that the dimensions x and y of the base are now
restricted to 0 s x" < 4 and 0 < y <20. Find the dimensions that minimize surface
area under these conditions.

11.6 The Gradient

In this section we will frequently think of/(x,y) as the temperature at

the point (x,y) so that we can express results more concretely. Assume that
distance is measured in meters.
In Section 11.2 we saw that df /dx at a point is the rate of change of/
(degrees per meter) along an east path through the point; similarly, df/dy
is degrees/meter along a north path. In this section we will find rates of
change in an arbitrary direction.

Directional derivatives Let / be a function of two or three (or more)

variables. The instantaneous rate of change of / (degrees per meter) in the
direction of a vector u is called the directional derivative of / in the direction

of u and is denoted by D^f (or or ^ where 5 represents distance). If /

is a function of two variables then the partial derivatives df /dx and df /dy
are the special directional derivatives D~if and D]f.
 11.6 The Gradient • 347

We will develop a formula for D^f by considering a specific example

first. Let/be a function of two variables, with df/dx = 7 and df/dy = 8 at
point A in the plane. Then, on an east path through A, the temperature is
instantaneously increasing by 7° per meter, and on a north path, the tem¬
perature is instantaneously increasing by 8° per meter. Suppose we want the
ra^of change in the direction of m = 2i + 3/ Figure 1 shows a step of
V 13 meters in the direction of m, visualized as the superposition of a 2 meter
east step and a 3 meter north step. If the temperature rises by 7° per meter
on the ea^leg and by 8° per meter on the north leg, then, on the original
step of V13 meters, the temperature rises by7x2 + 8x3 degrees, at the
rate of

7 X 2 + 8 X 3
(1) degrees per meter.
FI6.I Vis
The analysis is incomplete since we want the instantaneous rate of change at
A in the direction of u, and a step of VTs meters is too large. In fact, the
7 /meter and 8 /meter rates are themselves instantaneous rates at A and do
not necessarily persist for the entire 2 meter east leg and 3 meter north leg.
So consider the situation in Fig. 2 with steps a tenth as large as before. Then
the rate of change of temperature along the hypotenuse, in the direction of
u, is

2 3
7 X ^ + 8 X —
10_10
degrees per meter
Vis
10

which simplifies to (1) again. As the computation is repeated for smaller and
smaller steps, (1) is obtained each time, so we may take it to be the instanta¬
neous rate. As a generalization of (1), \iu = uii + 112] then

df df
— Ml -F ^M2
ax ay
(2) Duf =
IImII

We will digress briefly so that we may rewrite (2) in a more useful form and
give it geometric significance.

i- ivifrETR^
10

PER M£TFR

1° mbter

FIG.X
348 • 11/Partial Derivatives

If / is a function of x and > the vector V/, called the gradient of / is

defined by

(3) dx dy

Similarly, if / is a function of x, y and z, then

(4) V/ dx dy dz
dx’ dy’ dz

^ x^
To illustrate the idea, suppose f{x,y) = y • Then V/ = y ? ~

a gradient vector at every point, which we picture as an arrow attached to the point.
At the point A = (3, 1) for example the gradient vector V/ is 6i - 9j; we
use the notation V/U3.,=i = 6? - 9; and draw the gradient as an arrow
with its tail at the point (3, 1) (Fig. 3). rrr -
We may now write the numerator in (2) as the dot product V/ • u, and
use (12) of Section 9.3:

£).f = = component of V/in the direction of u.

I|m|1
Dzf may be visualized as the signed projection of V/ onto u. It is
positive if V/makes an acute angle with u, and negative if V/ makes
an obtuse angle with u] its absolute value is the length of the projection
of V/ on a line in the direction of u.

Example 1 Let’s continue with f{x,y) = xV/ d = (3, 1) and V/j.^ =

6z - 9]. We will find several directional derivatives of/ at the point A.
(a) (Fig. 3) Consider a northeast path through the point, that is, a path
in the direction of the vector u = i + j. The directional derivative is

_ V/-U 3
D northeast
ast/
V2 ’

so the temperature is dropping instantaneously by yy degrees per meter

as a particle moves northeast, through point A. Figure 3 shows that V/ forms

an obtuse angle with the northeast direction, corresponding to the negative
value of I>,K„theast/ The projection of V/ onto the northeast direction has
3 ... -3
length yy, and the signed projection is yy.

(b) (Fig. 4) Suppose a particle moves through point A at an angle of

70° with the positive x-axis. A unit vector in the direction of the path is
V = cos 70° i + sin 70°j and, since Hijl = 1, we have

^r-/ = V/ • u = 6 cos 70° - 9 sin 70°.

(c) (Fig. 5) Consider the path from A toward the point (1, —7), that is,
F16,5 a path in the direction of the vector u = —2i — Sj. Then
 11.6 The Gradient • 349

(6) n f= ^

Hull
so a particle moving through point A and heading toward the point (1,-7)
feels the temperature rising instantaneously by 60/\/68 degrees per meter.

Warning 1. The rate of change in (6) is an instantaneous rate at A. Once

a particle takes a small step past A, it is at a new point with a new gradient,
and a new rate of change prevails. The temperature does not continue to
rise by 60/degrees per meter as the particle moves along.
2. Note that in (6), u is (—2, —8), not (1, —7). In the formula for D^f, u
must be a direction, that is, a vector, not a point toward which the particle
moves.

Zero directional derivatives and maximum directional derivatives The

projection of a vector in a direction perpendicular to that vector is 0. Since
Duf is a signed projection of V/, Z)j/w 0 m a direction perpendicular to V/. In
other words:

If a particle moves through a point in a direction perpendicular to Vf at that point,

it instantaneously feels no change in the temperature.

In 2-space there are only two directions perpendicular to V/; in 3-space,

there are infinitely many such directions (Figs. 6 and 7).

p]RE::riON OF

i-f =0

DIRECTION OF

lA

F|6.6
pi'FcTNr

The projection of a vector is maximum in the direction of the vector

itself; the maximum value is the vector’s own length. Since the directional
derivative is a signed projection of Vf, we have the following results.

D^f at a point is maximum in the direction of Vf itself. The value of the maximum
directional derivative at a point is ||V/||. In other words, if a particle moves in
the direction of Vf, the temperature rises by ||V/|| degrees per meter, the maximum
possible rate. The gradient is said to point in the direction of steepest ascent of/.
In the direction of u = —Vf, D^f is minimum; the temperature drops by
||V/|| degrees per meter, the steepest possible drop (Figs. 6 and 7).
350 • 11/Partial Derivatives

Consider Example 1 again where V/ = 6i - 9J at the point A = (3,1)

(Fig. 8). On a path through A in the direction of 6i - 9j, the temperature
rises by ||V/|1 = V117 degrees per meter,^ and this is the maximum rate
available at A. In the direction of -6i + 9j, the temperature falls by V117
degrees per meter, the maximum drop. In the two directions which are
perpendicular to V/,namely,^3i + 2; and-3? - 2;, the directional deriva¬
tive is 0.

Warning In Example 1, to attain the maximum rate of change of tem¬

perature at A, a particle should move from A in the direction of the vector
6i - 9j, not toward the point (6,-9).

The gradient of/ and the level sets of/ In Example 1,/(3,1) — 9 so point

A lies on the 9-level set, — = 9, or y = \x'^, a parabola (Fig. 8). If a particle

moves along the level set, the temperature/ does not change. On the other
hand, if it moves from A in the direction of V/, the temperature changes
maximally. This suggests that V/ points “directly away” from the level set,
that is, in a perpendicular direction. To see this from another point of view,
note that in directions perpendicular to V/, D^f is 0, so these directions
coincide with tangents to the level set; therefore Vf itself is perpendicular
to the level set.

In general, if/ is a function of two (Fig. 8) or three (Fig. 9) variables,

V/ at a point is perpendicular to the level set of f through the point. Of the two
perpendicular directions in each case, / points toward higher levels.

(At any point, heat flows in the direction opposite to V/ at that point, since
heat flows down temperature hills from hot to cold; in particular, it flows
in the direction in which temperature drops most rapidly. Therefore heat
flows on paths perpendicular to level sets of temperature. In 2-space, the
heat flow lines are the orthogonal trajectories (Section 4.9) of the tempera¬
ture level curves.)

Normal vectors to a surface As a by-product of the directional derivative,

given a surface in space, we can find a normal vector (that is, a perpendic¬
ular) at any point. To illustrate, we will find a normal to the paraboloid
 11.6 The Gradient • 351

x = + 4 at the point P = (6,1,1), and then find the tangent plane

at the point. Rewrite the equation as

(7) + z^ + 4 — x = 0
so that we can think of the paraboloid as the 0 level set of the function
h{x,y,z) = y^ + z^ + 4 — X (Fig. 9). Then Vh = — i + 2yj + 2zk and
Vh\p = —i + 2j + 2k. Since the gradient of a function at a point is per¬
pendicular to the level set through the point, the vector -i + 2j + 2k
is perpendicular to the paraboloid at P. (There are two directions normal
to the paraboloid, “in” versus “out.” From Fig. 9, in which the vector is
plotted fairly accurately, we see that —i + 2j + 2k happens to be an outer
normal, a distinction that is irrelevant in the problem). Besides (7), we can
write the equation of the paraboloid in other ways, say

(8) + z^ — X = —4, X — y^ — z^^ = 4, ^x — y^ — z^ + 17^ = 21.

hi(x,y,z) k2(x,y,z) hs(x,y,z)

Therefore the paraboloid can also be viewed as the —4 level set of hi,
the 4 level set of h2, the 21 level set of hs, and so on. Since Vhi is the
same as V/i while Vh2 and V/13 equal -Vh these methods produce either
the same outward normal as before, or its negative, an equally acceptable
inward normal. Tbe tangent plane at P has —i + 2j + 2^ as a normal
vector, so an equation for the plane is — (x — 6) + 2iy — 1) + 2(z — 1) = 0
(Section 10.2, (1)), or —x + 2y + 2z + 2 = 0.

In general, given a surface in 3-space containing point P, to find a

normal vector to the surface at P, write the equation of the surface so that
all the variables appear on one side (so that the surface is a level set). The
normal is the gradient of that side, evaluated at the given point.

DiZ as a slope Let z = fix,y) = 9 - x^ - 2y^ P = (-2^ - l).^Then

V/ = Vz = —2x1 - 4yj, and at P we have z = 3, Vz = 4i -f 4j. The
graph of / is a mountain surface containing the point Q - (-2, -1,3); the
level sets in Fig. 10 are the contour curves of the mountain. Climbers at Q
can move in many directions on the mountain, such as north, southeast,
WSW and so on. Note that these are ^tzio-dimensional directions (vectors)
although the climbers are in three-sp3.ce. The altitude z rises maximally on
the path in the direction of Vz, that is, on a northeast path through Q, at the
rate of l|Vz|| = 4V2 meters up per northeast meter. In other words, of all
paths through Q on the mountain, the northeast path ascends most steeply,
and its slope is 4V2. (Note that we still do not admit slopes in 3-space in
general. The slope of the northeast path is taken with respect to the indi¬
cated plane in Fig. 10.)
Figure 11 shows the path through Q in the direction of m = -5i + j,
mostly west and slightly north. The altitude z on the path is changing at

the rate oiDiZ = ^ ~ meters up per meter in the u direction.

IMI V26
10
The climber in Fig. 11 is descending; the path has slope at Q.
352 • 11/Partial Derivatives

FI6,I

FI6.I0

In general, suppose a surface (i.e., mountain) in 3-space contains

the point Q = (xo,)>o, Zo)- Let m be a 2-dimensional vector. Consider the
path on the mountain through Q in direction u (Fig. 11). To find
the slope on the path at Q, solve the equation of the surface for z; the
Vz * W
slope is Du z = ■evaluated at x = Xq, v = Vq. Furthermore, the 2-
I|m||
dimensional vector is the direction of steepest ascent up the
mountain at Q and ||Vz|l itself is the slope of that steepest path.

Warning Vz is not a 3-dimensional vector and does not point “up the
mountain” or perpendicular to the mountain. It is a 2-dimensional vector
lying in the x, y plane determining {above it) the path on the mountain of
steepest ascent.

Summary of normal vectors, slopes, direction of steepest ascent Con¬

sider a surface in 3-space; as a special case we have the graph of/(x,y) with
equation z = f{x,y).
To find a normal to the surface, write the equation of the surface with
all variables on one side and take the (3-dimensional) gradient of that side.
Given a 2-dimensional vector u, to find the slope at a point on the
M-directed path on the surface (Fig. 11) solve the equation for z and find
 11.6 The Gradient • 353

DuZ = . The (2-dimensional) vector Vz itself points in the direction of

steepest ascent on the surface.

Example 2 Let f{x,y) = -f and let P = (1,2,5). Then P lies on the

graph of / since /(1,2) = 5.

(a) Find a normal vector to the graph of f at P.

(b) Find the direction of steepest ascent at P on the graph of /.
(c) Find the slope at P on the northwest path on the graph of/.

Solution: (a) The equation of the graph of / is

(9) z =

Rewrite the equation as z — x^ — 0. Then V(z — x^ — y"^) = —2xi —

2yi + k, and V(z — x^ — 3)^)!^ = —2i - 4j + k, a. normal to the graph of/
at P.
(b) From (9), Vz = 2xi -I- 2317, and Vz|,(=i,^=2 + 47, the direction
of steepest ascent on the graph of / at P.
(c) Let u — — i + j, a vector pointing northwest. With the vector Vz
Vz • u _ 2
from part (b), the desired slope is D^z =
||m|| ~ V2 ■

Warning Consider a function/(x,31) and its graph z = f{x,y), a mountain

surface.
The vector V/ is too-dimensional. It is not perpendicular to the moun¬
tain. Rather, perpendiculars are i/ir^g-dimensional and are found, as in
(a) above, by rewriting z = f{x,y) as z — f{x,y) = 0oras/(x,3)) — z = 0 and
taking the gradient of the lefthand side.
The vector V/ (i.e., Vz) lies in the x,y plane, perpendicular to a level set
of /. It is called the direction of steepest ascent up the mountain but does
not point up the mountain. It is a direction on the 2-dimensional map on
the floor of the expedition tent (as illustrated in Fig. 10).

Problems for Section 11.6

1. Suppose the temperature at the point {x,y) is -I- 6x -I- 3. Find the rate of
change of temperature per meter experienced by a particle at point P = (1,2) if it
moves through P (a) southwest (b) toward the point Q = (3,-4) (c) toward the
x-axis (d) in the direction of V temp (e) WNW, i.e., halfway between W and NW.
2. Let the temperature at a point (x,^) be x^y. A relay runner going northeast
passes the baton at the point (2,3) to a teammate who continues northeast down
the track. What rate of change of temperature does each runner experience at
the handoff?
3. Let f{x,y,z) = xy — y^ + z and let A = (5,2,1).

(a) If a particle moves through A away from the z-axis, what rate of change of
/ is experienced?
(b) In what direction(s) from A is / instantaneously not changing?
(c) Suppose a particle at A and a second particle at B = (6,4,2) start moving
toward one another. What rate of change of / does each feel initially? If
they move until they meet midway, what rate of change of / will each
experience as they pass one another?
 (d) If f{x,y,z) is the air pressure at {x,y,z) then a cloud at point A will move in
the direction in which air pressure is decreasing most rapidly. Which way
does it move initially, and what rate of change of air pressure does it
experience?
4. If a particle moves on the path in Fig. 12, does it feel the temperature
increasing or decreasing as it passes through P ?

p/\rH OF particle

5. Suppose that at the point P, Da/is maximum in the direction of 3i + 27,and

the maximum value is 2. Find Da/ in the north direction at P.
6. Let A = (1,2). If a particle moves through A toward the point (1,1), the
temperature is rising initially by 2° per meter; if it moves through A toward the point
(7,10), the temperature is initially dropping by 4° per meter. In what direction from
A is the temperature rising most rapidly? Find the maximum rate of change of
temperature at A.
7. Find V/ at the point P and sketch the gradient vector and the level set
of/ through P if (a) f{x,y) = x^y, P = (—1,2) (b) f(x,y,z) = + 2y^ — + 4,
P = (1,2,1).
8. Figure 13 shows some level sets of/ and g. Find the direction of V/ at A and
of Vg at B, and decide which gradient is longer.

LEVFL 5Er$ OF f Lb'/FL Of g

FI6 . )3
9. Suppose f{x,y) has a relative maximum value at P. Find V/ at P.
10. Let f{x,y,z) be the distance from (x,y,z) to a fixed line L. Without finding
a formula for /, sketch enough level sets and gradient vectors of / to indicate
the pattern.
11. Consider the surface xyz ^ 12 and the point P = (1,2,6).
(a) Verify that P lies on the surface.
(b) If mountain climbers at P want to climb on the steepest route possible, in
what direction should they begin, and what slope do they encounter?
(c) If the climbers move southeast from P, are they ascending or descending
the surface? What is the slope at P on their path?
(d) Find a vector normal to the surface at P, an equation for the tangent plane
at P, and equations for the normal line through P.
 11.7 Differentials and Exact Differential Equations • 355

12. Repeat problem 11 with the graph offix,y) = 3x^ - 2y^ as the surface, and
P =
13. Letf{x,y) = + y^.

(a) Find V/ when x = \, y = ?>.

(b) Find V(z - - y'^) when x = I, y = 3.
(c) The gradients in (a) and (b) are perpendicular to what curves or surfaces?

14. Suppose the earth’s surface is the ellipsoid x^ + 2y^ + 3z^ = 15, and the
temperature in space at the point {x,y,z) is 2xz +3)^ + 6. You are in a space ship at
the point P = (1,1,2) on the earth’s surface, about to be launched perpendicularly
into space away from the earth (Fig. 14).

(a) Find this outward perpendicular direction.

(b) What rate of change of temperature do you feel just as the ship begins to
take off?
(c) Your mother worries about you, and she wants the ship to take off from P
not perpendicularly away from the earth, but in a direction in which tem¬
perature is not initially changing (she thinks that changes in temperature
cause colds). Find three specific directions (of the infinitely many available)
which NASA can use to get no temperature change initially, if they care as
much about your health as your mother does.
(d) You may not have thought of this in part (c), but you want the three specific
directions to take you out into space and not burrowing into the earth
(your mother would rather see you catch cold than crash). Check that your
answers to (c) do not burrow, and change them if necessary.
(e) Your mother has just proudly watched you take off and now walks north¬
east off the field from point P. Find the slope at P of her path on the
earth’s surface.

11.7 Differentials and Exact Differential Equations

Section 4.9 discussed separable differential equations. This section will

solve another type of differential equation, called exact.

Approximating a change in f{x,y) If y — f{x) and x changes by dx then

Section 4.8 defined the differential off by dy = f'{x)dx, and showed that
dy approximates the corresponding change in y. Now suppose that z =
f{x,y) and x andy change slightly by dx and dy. We want to approximate the
corresponding change in z. If fix,y) is the temperature at the point {x,y)
356 11/Partial Derivatives

then the change in z is the change in temperature as a particle moves

from the point A = (x,);) to the points = (x + dx,y + dy) (Fig. 1). On the
east leg of the trip,/ is a function of x alone, so z changes by approximately

^ dx. Similarly, on the north leg, z changes by approximately dy. There-

dx
fore on a trip from A to B, the superposition of the east leg and the north

leg, z changes by approximately dx + dy. We define the differential of

z = fix, y) by
^ f ri f
(1) dz = — dx H-dy,
dx dy

thus, if X changes by dx and y changes by dy then the corresponding change in zis

approximated by dz.
Section 4.8 showed that ify = fix), then approximating the change in
y by fix) dx amounts to approximating a change in the height of the graph
of f by the change in the tangent line. Similarly, it can be shown that if
z = fix, y) then approximating the change in z by (1) corresponds to ap¬
proximating a change in the height of the graph of / by the change in the
tangent plane.
Mathematicians use the notation Vz for the change in z and use dz for
the differential in (1) which approximates the change in z. In applied fields,
nr nr
and in this text, the distinction between — dx H—- dy and the change in z
dx dy
is often blurred, and both are referred to as c?z; i.e., we often take the liberty
of claiming that

(1')

Example 1 Let z = x^y^. Then we write

dz = — dx H-dy = 2xy^ dx + Sx^y^ dy ,

dX dy

meaning that if x and y change by dx and dy, respectively, there is a cor¬

responding change in z given approximately by 2xy^dx + 3x^y^dy.

Example 2 To find di^q^), use the one-dimensional differential formula

dy = f'ix)dx, since only one varible is involved, to get di^q^) = 6qdq.
 11.7 Differentials and Exact Differential Equations * 357

Sum, product, quotient and chain rules for differentials Let u and v be
functions of one or more variables. Then

(2) d{u + v) = d{u) + d{v)

(3) d{uv) = ud{v) + vd(u)

^/m\ vd{u) — ud{v)

(4)
\v)

(5) dVfiu)] = f'{u)d{u).

For example, (i(ln u) = — d{u), d{sm u) = cos ud{u).

A differential can always be found directly, using (1), but sometimes (2) —(5)
are more convenient. For example to find d ln(2x + 3y) by (1), we have

9 ln(2x + 3y) , d ln(2x + 3y)

d ln(2x + 3y) dx - dy
dx dy

2 3
dx + dy.
2x + 3)1 2x + 3y

But also

1
d ln(2x + 3y) d{2x + 3y) (by (5))
2x + Sy

1
(2 dx + 3 dy) (by (2))
2x + 3y

2 dx + 3 dy
2x + 3y

Exact differentials Example 1 began with a function/(x,)i) = x^y^ and

found its differential, df = 2xy^dx + 3x^y^dy. To identify and solve exact
differential equations we will be concerned with the opposite problem:
given the differential expression 2xy^ dx + 3x^y^dy, find a function/(x,)))
with that differential. In general, an expression of the form

(6) p{x,y)dx + q{x,y)dy

is called a differential form. It is possible (indeed likely) that (6) simply is not
df for any/. If there does exist a function/(x,)) such that

(7) df = p{x,y)dx + q{x,y)dy

then the differential is called exact. In other words, (6) is exact if there is an
f{x,y) such that

df . , , , ,
(8) -f-= p{x,y) and — = q{x,y).
dx dy

For example, consider the differential

{3x^y^ + 2y^ + x)dx + {2x^y + 6xy^ + cosy + 7)dy

(9) y-y --• '-y-^

P 9
The problem is to find f{x,y), if possible, so that (7) and (8) hold. Begin by
antidifferentiating p with respect to x: to obtain the terms

(10) xY + + 5x1

The derivative with respect to y of this tentative answer is

(11) 2x^y + 6xy^.

Compare this result with q in (9). Since (11) lacks cos y + 7, expand (10) by
adding sin y + 7)i to obtain x®y^ + 2xy^ + Y + sin y + 7y. Note that ex¬
panding the answer does not change its partial derivative with respect to x,
since the additional terms do not contain the variable x. Thus, the final answer,
including the standard arbitrary constant, is/(x,y) = x^y^ + 2xy +5^ "f
sin y + 7y + C. Check the answer by finding its partials to see that p and
q are obtained.

Example 3 Let

(12) p = 3x^y^ + 2y^ and q = 2x^y + 6xy^ + 8xy^.

Try, but find it impossible, to obtain an / such that df = pdx + qdy. In

other words, show tha.t pdx + qdy is not exact.
Solution: Antidifferentiate p to obtain the terms

(13) x^y'^ + 2xy^

Differentiate this tentative answer with respect to y to obtain

(14) 2x^y + 6xy^

and compare with q. The term 8xy^ is missing from (14) and can be pro¬
duced only if (13) is expanded to x^y^ + 2xy ^ + 2xy^ However, 2xy^ contains
the variable x, so the expanded “answer” no longer has the desired partial p
with respect to x. We conclude that it is not possible to find / with partials
p and q\ the differential p<ix + qdy is not exact.

A criteria for exactness Given pdx + q dy, one way to decide if there exists
an / such that (7) holds, is to simply try to find it as in the preceding
examples. It is also possible to develop a test for determining in advance if
/ exists. Then the antidifferentiation process for finding f need be used only
when the criterion guarantees the existence of/. We will find the criterion
and then use it in examples.
w df . df dq dH , dp dH
If (7) holds then Y
dx
= p and — = q, so — = - ■
dy dx dx dy
and — =
dy dy ox
;

hence — = —. In more advanced courses the converse can be proved: if

5x dy

— = — then (7) holds. We restate these results as our criterion:

dx dy

(15) If — — then pdx + qdy is not exact.

^ dx dy ^ ^ ^

(16) If^ = ^ then pdx + qdy is exact,

dx dy
 11.7 Differentials and Exact Differential Equations • 359

For example, \etp{x,y) = xy and q{x,y) = + 2xy^. Then — = 5x^ + 2y^

dx
dp
and — = X. The two are not identical, so pdx + qdy is not exact. If you

choose to not use the criterion and simply try to find/ so xh'aX.pdx + qdy =
df, you will find it impossible (as in Example 3); thus you will, in a more
roundabout fashion, conclude that pdx + qdy is not exact.

A table of exact differentials You have already seen that integral tables
are available to help in antidifferentiation problems. Similarly, there are
tables of exact differentials to facilitate finding/ such that r// = pdx + qdy.
In (17)—(22), we select some items from the, tables for reference:

ydx — xdy _ (x
(17)
f \y

xdy ~ ydx _ Jy
(18)
x^ \x

— 2xdx — 2ydy _ J 1
(19)
(x^ + y^f ~

(20) =rf(±v^w)
±Vx^ + y^

(21) -„ = d ln(x^ + y^)

X + y

— 'idx-\-xd'>i J , v\
(22) ^2,2
X + y
= 4 tan-'^ .
\ x/

2x — y'
Exact differential equations Consider the equation y' . Then
3xy^
dy 2x — y ^
-j— so Sxy^dy = (2x — y^)dx\ the equation is not separable
dx 3xy
(Section 4.9). Now we try a second approach. Write the equation as
( yi _ J.., -L
(y^ — 2x) dx + ^yj2 dy = 0
(23)
P q

Since — — — {= Sy^), the left side of (23) is an exact differential df. To

dx dy
find/, antidifferentiate / with respect to x to obtain the terms xy^ — x^. The
derivative of this tentative / with respect to y is 3xy^, precisely q, so the
tentative / is final. Therefore the diff^erential equation may be written as
d{xy^ — x^) = 0. Since the differential is 0, if x changes by dx andy changes
by dy, the function xy ^ - x^ itself does not change. Therefore it is a constant
function. (In general/(x,y) is constant if and only if df = 0, analogous to the
one-dimensional result that /'(x) is constant if and only if /' = 0.) Thus
xy^ — x^ = K where K is an arbitrary constant, and this describes an implicit
solution y to the original differential equation. The explicit solution is found
u , •
by solving r y to obtain
tor u • y =
 In general, consider the differential equation p{x,y)dx + q{x,y)dy - 0

where ^ ^ .The left side of the equation is an exact differential, the equation

is called exact, and there is a function f{x,y) such that the equation can he written
as df = 0. The solution y{x) to the differential equation is given implicitly by
f{x,y) = K. An explicit solution is found by solving the implicit solution for y if
possible.
If a differential equation can be written as df = dg (rather than simply
as df = 0) then its solution is given implicitly by f{x,y) = g{x,y) + K.

Example 4 (a) Solve y' =--. (b) Find the particular solution satis¬

fying the condition y(3) = 1.

dy — y
Solution: (a) Write the equation as — =-, or
CLX X

{x^ — y) dx ^jcdy = 0.
P ?

Since — and — both equal -1, the equation is exact. In particular, it may
dx dy
be written as d{jx^ — xy) = 0, so the solution is given implicitly by

(24) - xy = K,

and explicitly by

(25) y = -^x^ - —.
6 X

(b) To determine K, substitute x = 3, y = 1 in either (24) or (25).

Using (24) which is more convenient, we have 9 — 3 = K, K = 6, so the
solution is y = — 6/x.

Warning The solution to (a) is not f{x,y) = — xy and is not |x^ — xy.
The solution is the function y(x) defined implicitly by the equation
|x^ — xy = K.

Integrating factors Consider the equation yc(x — xdy — y^dy. The right
side is an exact differential, namely d{\y'^), but the left side is not exact since

p{x,y) = y, q{x,y) = —x and However, compare the left side with

dx dy
(17) to see that it can be made exact by multiplying by 1/y^ Therefore, we
V dx — X dv
multiply on both sides to obtain --^-- = y dy. The left side is now an

exact differential, and fortunately, the right side remains exact. The equa-

tion may be written as c(l — 1 = d(jy^)-, the implicit solution is — = ^y^ + K.

It is not convenient to solve fory and obtain the explicit solution, so we settle
for the implicit version.
 Chapter 11 Review Problems • 361

A factor, in this case, which changes a differential equation from

nonexact to exact is called an integrating factor. There is no precise rule for
finding integrating factors, or for determining if one exists at all, but the
, exact differentials in (17)—(22) often serve as goals.

Problems for Section 11.7

1. Check formulas (18)-(22) by finding the differential indicated on the right-

hand side.
2. Suppose a point has polar coordinates r, 6 and rectangular coordinates x,y.
If r changes by dr and 6 changes by dd, find dx and dy.
3. Decide if the expression is an exact differential df, and if so, find /.

(a) 2xydx + ydy (b) (x® 4- 3x^y)dx 4- (x® + y^)dy (c) dx 4- I 5-\ dy

4. Find q so that xy^dx + qdy is exact.

5. Solve the differential equation if it is exact. Find the explicit solution when¬
ever possible.

(a) (6x ^ + y^)dx + (2xy 4- 3y ^) dy = 0 (e) (2r cos 0 — l)dr = sin 6dd
(b) (3x^ + y)dx + xdy = 0 (f) (x + y)dx 4- (x^ 4- y^)dy = 0
, X — y cos X (g) cos X cos ydx — sin x sin y dy
(c) y = ——^—
y + sin X = x®dx
(d) y' = (h) iye~'‘ — sin x)dx = {e~’' + 2y)dy

6. Find the particular solution satisfying the given condition.

(a) 2xydx 4- (x^ 4- y)dy = 0, y(l) = 4

(b) 2 sin(2x 4- 3y)dx 4- 3 sin(2x 4- iy)dy = 0, })(0) = tt/2

(c) —— dx 4-— dy = dx, y = \ when x = 0

X 4- y X 4- y

7. The equation (x^ + 2)dx + 3ydy =0 is both exact and separable. Solve
it twice.
8. Find an integrating factor which makes the equation exact, and then solve.

(a) (x^ 4- y^)dx = xdy — ydx (c) Vx^ 4- y^dy = xdx + ydy
(h) ydx — xdy = y^dx (d) xdx + ydy = {x^ + y^)dy

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 11

1. Sketch the graph and some level sets if

(a) /(x,y) = 2x 4- 3y

(b) fix,y) = Vx^ 4- y^.

2. Sketch enough level sets of / to indicate the pattern if

(a) /(x,y,z) = y^ 4-

(b) /(x,y,z) = 5 — x^ — 2y^ — 3z^.

3. If/(x,y,z) = xyz find (a) (b)

dx dz dx^ dz
362 • 11/Partial Derivatives

4. Show that if z = z(x,y) where x — r cos 6 and y — r sin 0 then

\0r/ r^\dd/ \0x/ \0)i/

r- .
5. If M = u(x,y,z), X — 2a + 3b, y = Sb + 40, z = ac, find ———.
V 6a 5c

6. Find the maximum and minimum values ofx)) + 2y^ — 12y in the indicated
triangular region (Fig. 1).
7. Let f{x,y) = 3x^ + 4y^. Of all the directional derivatives of/ at all points on,
the unit circle x^ + y^ = 1, find the maximum. In what direction and at what point
does the maximum occur?
8. Let fix,y,z) = x^yz, P = (1,2,3), Q = (0,-1, 1), R = (2,-3,5). If a particle
FI6. arrives at P from Q and then leaves for R, find the directional derivative of/ upon
arrival and upon departure at P.
9. Suppose the temperature T at the point ix,y) is — y.

(a) Find the level set of T which passes through the point (—2,2) and find a
vector perpendicular to the level set at that point.
(b) Let (2 = (-2,2,2).

(i) Verify that Q lies on the graph of T.

(ii) Find a vector perpendicular to the graph at Q.
(iii) Find the slope at Q on the northwest path on the graph.
(iv) Find the path on the graph through Q which rises most steeply.

10. The surface area S of a cylinder with radius r and height h is 2TTrh + 27rr^
Find dS if r changes by dr and h changes by dh.
— "v
11. Find the explicit solution to y' =-- satisfying the condition y(l) = 2.
12/MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
/

12.1 Definition and Some Applications of the

Double Integral

In this section we will review the definition of the integral of a function

of one variable, Paf{x)dx, and then define a new integral involving a func¬
tion of two variables. A comparison of the two integrals will reveal similar
constructions and common applications. In the next section we will begin
computing the new integral.

Definition of the integral of/(x:) on the interval [a, 6] Given a function

f{x) and an interval \a,b~\ on a line, divide the interval into many subin¬
tervals, not necessarily of the same length. Let dx be the length of a typical
subinterval, and let x be a number in the subinterval (Fig. 1). For each
subinterval, compute the value of / at x and multiply by dx. Add the results
from all the subintervals to obtain 2 /(x) dx. Repeat the process with smaller
and smaller values of dx, which requires more and more subintervals. The
integral of f{x) on \a,b^ is defined by

(1) f f{x)dx = lim ^f{x)dx.

Ja dx^O

We think of the integral as adding many representative values of/ from the
interval, each weighted by the length of the subinterval it represents.
With a new integral about to be defined we will refer to (1), which
involves a function of one variable on a one-dimensional interval, as the
single integral.

Definition of the integral of f{x,y) on a region in the plane (the double

integral) Given a function/(x,y) and a region in the plane, divide the
region into many small subregions, not necessarily of the same area. Let a
typical subregion contain the point {x,y) and have area dA (Fig. 2). For each
subregion, find the value of / at (x,y), and multiply by dA. Add the results
from all the subregions to obtain 'Z fix,y)dA. Repeat the process with
smaller and smaller values of dA, which requires more and more sub-
regions. It is likely that the resulting sums will be close to one particular
number eventually, that is, the sums will approach a limit. The limit is called
the double integral off{x,y) on the region and is denoted by /region/(^.y)<^A.

a. ^ b
<:-^

R6. I
363
364 • 12/Multiple Integrals

In summary,

(2) I f(x,y)dA = \im^ fix, y)dA .

■^region dA*0

We think of the double integral as adding many representa¬

tive values off from the region, each weighted by the area of
the subregion it represents.

The function fix,y) is called the integrand and the region is called the
region of integration.

Common application of the two integrals to average value Suppose a city

is divided into three boroughs, I, II, and III, with temperatures 68°, 72°,
and 69°, respectively. Then the average temperature in the city is the
weighted average of the three borough temperatures. Weigh each tem¬
perature by the area of the borough, add, and divide by the sum of the
weights, that is, by the total area of the city, to obtain

68° X area I + 72° x area II -I- 69° x area III

average temperature =
area of the city

Now suppose that the temperature in the city (a region in the plane) is
fix,y) at the point (x:,}i), not necessarily constant over each borough. The
problem is to find the average temperature in the city in this more general
situation. Divide the city into many subregions (Fig. 2). Let a typical sub-
region contain the point (x,y) and have area dA. Let the temperature / at
the point (x,y) represent the entire subregion. To find the average tem¬
perature, weight each subregion’s representative temperature by the area
of the region, add, and divide by the sum of the weights, that is, the total
city area. Therefore the average temperature in the city is approximately

-r-. This is only an approximation because the representative tern-

tOt3.1 3.rC3.
perature chosen from each subregion does not necessarily prevail over the
entire subregion. However, if the subregions are very small, then / doesn’t
have much opportunity to change within a subregion and remains more
nearly constant. We expect the approximation to improve as dA —> 0, and
therefore choose
 12.1 Definition and Some Applications of the Double Integral • 365

Urn X j
f(x,y)dA
average city temperature = —-
total area area of city '

In general, we have the following two-dimensional model for average value:

f{x,y)dA
region
(3) averao-p valup nf
WA J
f(v ■m'1 in
Xii
a t-orrinn 111
c*. 1
in 0 cmnn —
,
area of region

This extends the result in (3) of Section 5.2:

fix) dx
a
(4) average value of fix) on the interval [a,b] = -
b — a

Common application to computing a total amount given a variable den¬

sity We will illustrate the idea with total charge and charge density. Similar
results hold for mass and mass density, population and population density,
and so on.
If the area of a region in 2-space is 10 square centimeters and it has a
constant charge density of 4 coulombs per square centimeter, then its total
charge Q is 40 coulombs (total charge is density x area). Now suppose that
a region has variable charge density f{x,y). To find the total charge, divide
the region into many subregions and let a typical subregion contain the
point {x,y) and have area dA (Fig. 2). Let the density of the subregion be
represented by the value of / at the point (x,y). Then, by the formula
density X area, the charge dQ_ of the subregion is given approximately by
dQ^ = f{x,y)dA. This is only an approximation to dQ because the represen¬
tative density fix,y) chosen from the subregion does not necessarily prevail
over the entire subregion. To find the precise total charge Q, add dQ’s, and
let dA 0 to squeeze out the approximation error. Integration accom¬
plishes both tasks, so

(5)

Similarly, if the charge density of a rod along the interval [a, 6] is f{x)
coulombs per centimeter at the point x, then

(6) total charge of the rod = 1

c charge density f{x)dx.

Common application to the size of the region of integration If we let

f{x) = 1 in (2) then the double integral adds dA’s and produces the total area
of the region of integration. In other words.

(7) dA — area of the region.

region
366 • 12/Multiple Integrals

Analogous to (7),

length of the interval [a, b].

Common application involving the graphs off(x) a.ndf(x,y) Assume that

fix) > 0 for X in [a,b] and extend Fig. 1 to include the graph of/(x) above
the x-axis (Fig. 3). The rectangle in Fig. 3 has base dx, height/(x) and area
fix) dx. The sum of the areas of such rectangles approximates the area
under the curve. The approximation improves as c6c —> 0, so

iifix) ^ 0 then

C r/ \ 1 _ area under the graph of fix) and over the

^ ^ interval [a,b] on the x-axis.

Similarly, assume that/(x,y) s 0 for ix,y) in a Region R in 2-space, and

extend Fig. 2 to include the graph of/(x,y) above the x,y plane (Fig. 4). The
tube in Fig. 4 has base dA, height/(x,y) and volume fix,y)dA. The sum of
the volumes of such tubes approximates the volume under the graph of/.
The approximation improves as dA 0 so we have the following result.

lifix,y) ^ 0 then

(10) volume under the graph of/(x,y) and over

the region R in the x,y plane.

Once you learn to compute double integrals, you can use (7) to find areas
and (10) to find volumes.
More generally, if the restriction/(x) ^ 0 is removed, then

area above the x-axis

between the graph of/
and the interval [a, b]
area below the x-axis
(11) between the graph off
and the interval [a, b]

F16.3
 12.1 Definition and Some Applications of the Double Integral • 367

Total vomi:
' J’f(-x,y)o(A or f 6^/;)

VOLUME A

REGION K

F16A
Similarly, if the restriction/(x,y) > 0 is removed, then

volume above the x,y plane

between the graph of/
and the region R
(12) volume below the x,y plane
- between the graph of/
and the region R

Example 1 Express with a double integral the volume of the solid in

Fig. 5, a box topped by a portion of the sphere centered at the origin with
radius 6.
Solution: The sphere has equation x^ + y^ + = 36, and the top of
the sphere, where z is positive, has equation z = V36 - There¬
fore, the box lies under the graph of f{x,y) = V36 - x^ - y^, over the
square region R in the x,y plane (Fig. 5), and, by (10), its volume is
/fiV36 - - y'^dA.

The nonconnection between /(*,y) and the region of integration When

we compute double integrals in the next section, the function and the
region will be chosen arbitrarily, to provide practice. In applications, the
function and the region are chosen to achieve a desired result. To find total
charge, the integrand f{x,y) is the charge density in the x,y plane and the
region of integration is the region whose total charge is desired. To find
the volume of a solid, the integrand is the function/(x,y) whose graph is the
roof of the solid, and the region of integration is the floor of the solid in
thex,y plane. To find an area in the x,y plane, the integrand is 1 and the re¬
gion of integration is the region whose area is desired. In any case, the
region of integration is not the graph of the integrand /(x,y); rather, the
graph of fix, y) is a surface in 3-space lying above and/or below the region
in the x,y plane.
368 • 12/Multiple Integrals

FIG.5
Example 2 To reinforce the definition of the double integral as a
weighted sum, we will show how it may be possible to estimate the sign of
a double integral without actually computing its value. Let R be the region
in Fig. 6, and consider Jnxy^dA. Suppose the region is divided into small
subregions (Fig. 7). Each subregion has a positive area dA and a represen¬
tative value of xy^, which is negative if the region is to the left of the y-axis
and positive if the subregion is to the right of the y-axis. From the location
of the region R we see that l^xy'^dA is positive, since the positive terms
outweigh the negative terms. Therefore J^xy^dA is positive.
Alternatively, consider the graph of z = xyMn 3-space. Since it is
neither a cylindrical nor a quadratic surface, the graph is not easy to draw,
but by considering the sign of z we can see that the graph lies below that
portion of R to the left of the y-axis and lies above that portion of R to the
right of the y-axis. There is more volume above than below so, by (12),
^Rxy^dA is positive.

Example 3 Continue with the Region R in Fig. 6 and find the sign of
JnX^ydA.
Solution: Figure 8 shows a revealing subdivision of R. For each sub-
region above the x-axis, such as I where the value of x^y dA is positive, there
is a corresponding subregion II below the x-axis where x^ydA takes on the
negative of that value. Therefore J.x'^ydA = 0, and hence hx'^ydA = 0.
Alternatively, the integral is 0 because the surface z — x^y determines as
much volume above as below the region R.

Some properties of the double integral As with the single integral, a

constant factor may be pulled out of an integral sign. In other words.
 12.1 Definition and Some Applications of the Double Integral • 369

A single integral on the interval [2,7] may be computed, if desired, by

integrating separately on say [2,4] and [4,7] and then adding the results.
/
Similarly if a region is divided into two parts, Ri and R^, like a city divided
into two precincts, then

(14) I
•^region
f{x,y)dA = I i
f{x,y)dA + j
'^^2
f{x,y)dA.

Problems for Section 12.1

1. Let i? be a circular region with radius 2. Find //? 5dA.

2. Express with a double integral the volume of (a) a hemisphere with ra¬
dius 3 (b) a cylinder with radius 2 and height 5.
3. Let /?i and be the square and circular regions in Fig. 9. Describe the solid
whose volume is (a) (b) + y^)dA.

I I
4. Refer to Fig. 10 and decide if the integral is positive, negative or zero.
in m
(a) xy dA
•'ll!

FI6.I0 (b) j
^1 and 11
xy dA

(c) xy^dA
-'l and II

5. Suppose= 7. If the regionis enlarged (Fig. 11), will the value

of the integral increase?
6. Find J/? 0 dA.
7. True or False?
(a) If/(x,y) > g{x,y) for all (x,))) in R, then f{x,y)dA > jRgix,y)dA.
(b) If the region Ri is larger in area then the region R2, then jR,f{x,y)dA >
!Rif{x,y)dA.
(c) If the region R lies in quadrant I, then Jr f{x,y)dA > 0.
(d) If the region Ri is larger in area than the region R2 then Jn^dA >
(e) If/(x,y) > 0 for all (x,y) in R then Jr f{x,y)dA > 0.

8. The average value of x in a circular region is clearly the x-coordinate of its

center. Use this, together with (3), to find U^dA over the circular region R with
center (4,6) and radius 3.
9. Refer to Fig. 10 and decide if /x^/A on the entire circular region can be
computed by finding Jxd/A on region I (one-quarter of the circle) and then multi¬
plying by 4.
370 • 12/MuItiple Integrals

12.2 Computing Double Integrals

We’ll begin by evaluating a specific integral. The methods we develop

will then be summarized and used in general.

Example 1 Consider ^^xy^dA where R is the semicircular region of ra¬

dius 2 in Fig. 1. Divide the region into rectangular subregions using hori¬
zontal and vertical lines. A typical subregion contains the point (x,y) and has
dimensions dx by dy, so that xy^dA = xy^dxdy. To find the integral, we will
first add xy^dA’s across a typical horizontal strip and then add the strip sums
from bottom to top. On the typical horizontal strip at height y in Fig. 2, the
left end is ;c = —V4 — y^ (choose the negative square root since x is negative
on the left half of the circle) and the right end is x = 0. Adding xy^dxdy’s
across this strip is a one-dimensional integral problem involving the interval
[—V4 — y^, 0] on an x-line, so

F|G. I
 12.2 Computing Double Integrals • 371

rX = 0

(1) typical horizontal strip sum = xy^dxdy.

Jx=-V^
The horizontal strips stretch from y = -2toy=2, so adding the strip
sums to get a final total is a one-dimensional integral problem involving the
interval [—2,2] on ay-line. Therefore,

The right side of (2) is called an iterated integral and consists of two consecutive
single integrals; the parentheses are usually omitted. Note that in the inner
integral, the upper limit of integration is x = 0 because the right end of
every horizontal strip is x = 0. However, the lower limit of integration is
X = — V4 — not x = — 2, because a typical horizontal strip does not
begin atx = —2; the value at the left end of the strip depends on the height
y. On the other hand, in the outer integral, the limits are the extreme values
y = — 2 and y = 2 because the outer integral must add all the horizontal
strip sums, from bottom to top.
To compute (2), first find the inner integral in which the integration is
performed with respect to x, with y held constant. We have
^x=0

inner integral = xy^ dx

J*=-V4^
1
= —x^y^ (antidifferentiate with respect to x)
2

= -|(4-2/,

This result is the integrand of the outer integral, so

outer integral = “ ^y^) t/y =

Therefore fj^xy^dA = —64/15.

We can also evaluate the double integral by first adding xy^dA's across
a typical vertical strip (Fig. 3) and then adding the strip sums from left to
right. On a vertical strip located at horizontal position x, the lower end is
y = —V4 — x^ and the upper end isy = V4 — x^. Adding xy^(ixc^y’s along
the strip is a one-dimensional integral problem involving the interval
[—V4 — x^, V4 - x^] on ay-line. Adding the resulting strip sums from left
to right is a one-dimensional integral problem involving the interval [—2,0]
on an x-line. Therefore, as a second method,
^x = 0 / /•y—'\/4~x^

xy^dA = I xy
^x=-2 Oj=-V4-x2

Again, the right-hand side contains consecutive single integrals. We write

dy dx in that order to indicate that the inner integration is with respect to y
and the outer integration is with respect to x. Note that the inner limits of
integration are not the extreme values y = — 2 andy = 2 because a typical
vertical strip does not begin at y = —2 and end at y =2; the lower and
upper ends depend on its horizontal position x. However the outer limits are
372 • 12/Multiple Integrals

the extreme values x = -2 and x = 0 because the vertical strip sums must
be added from extreme left to extreme right to catch all of them.
One computation per double integral is sufficient, but we will evaluate
(3) for practice. First,
= V4-.x2

inner integral xy'^ dy

V=-V4-x2
y='\/4-x^

-xy' (antidifferentiate with respect to y)

= jx{4 - xy'\

Then

2 r ^
outer integral = — I x(4 — x^)^''^ dx.
3 x=-2 •'

Substitute u 4 — x~, du = —2xdx to obtain

r4
outer integral = I du — LA LI
3 0 ^ 5
3 15’

as before.
Of what use is the result? If xy^ is the charge density in the plane, then
64
the total charge in the semicircular region R is - —. If the graph of xy^ is

sketched in 3-space, it lies entirely below the region R (since xy^ is negative
at all points in R) and the volume between the graph and the region is
64/15. If xy'^ is the temperature in the plane then

. ^ -64/15 -64/15 32
average temperature in R =--— =-=-.
area of R 2tt 1577
 12.2 Computing Couble Integrals • 373

This section is concerned primarily with computing integrals, but we will

return to these and other applications in the next sections.

Warning The double integral in Example 1 does not compute the area of
' the semicircular region. The integrand must be 1, that is, the double inte¬
gral must be JjidA, to compute area.

Computing a double integral The methods established in Example 1 may

be applied in general. A double integral over a region R can be evaluated
with two single integrals in two ways.

Eor one method, identify the left and right boundaries of

R by imagining a horizontal walk from left to right through
the region (Eig. 4). Solve the boundary equations for x to find
X on the left and on the right boundary. Eurther, find the
lowest y and the highest y in R. Then
r ^highest y; in /? on right boundary of R

(4) I R
f(x,y)dA = 1
lowest y in
I
x on left boundary of R
f{x,y)dxdy.

We write dA as dx dy in that order to indicate that the inner integration is

with respect to x, and the outer integration is with respect toy. (The integral
in (2) is of this form.)

For a second method, identify the lower and upper

boundaries of R by imagining a vertical walk through the
region (Fig. 5). Solve the boundary equations for y to obtain
y on the lower and on the upper boundary. Further, find the
leftmost X and the rightmost x in i?. Then
r ^rightmost x in R on upper boundary

(5) J f{x,y)dA = I I f{x,y)dydx.

R •'leftmost x in on lower boundary

We write dA as dy dx in that order to indicate that the inner integration is

with respect toy and the outer integration is with respect to x. (The integral
in (3) is of this form.)
A double integral can be evaluated with either order of integration, but
sometimes one is easier to compute than the other. In Example 1, the
antidifferentiation in the outer integral was easier when the integration was
done first with respect to x. We will frequently set up double integrals twice,
using both orders of integration for practice.
Note that in both (4) and (5), the inner and outer limits of integration
follow different patterns. The limits on the inner integral are found by solving
boundary equations for one of the variables; the inner limits will contain the
other variable, unless the boundary in question is a vertical or horizontal
line with an equation as simple as x = 3 ory =2. On the other hand, the
limits on the outer integral are always constants, the extreme values of the
other variable.

Example 2 Find Jr (4x — y) dA where R is the triangular region bounded

by the y-axis, the line y = 2, and the line 2x -I- y = 8.
374 • 12/Multiple Integrals

First solution: Set up the double integral so that y goes first, that is,
so that the inner integration is with respect to y. The lower boundary of
the region is the line y = 2 (Fig. 6). The upper boundary is the line
2x + y =8; solve fory to obtain y = 8 — 2x. The leftmost x in the region
is X = 0 and the rightmost x is the x-coordinate of point C, x — 3 (obtained
by substituting y = 2 in 2x + y =8). Therefore
, ^x = 3 = S —2x

(4x - y) r/A = (4x - y) dy dx.

■Ir ■'x=0 ■'y=2

Then
■y=8 — 2x

inner integral (4x — y) dy

Fig . 6 y=2

= 4x(8 — 2x) —~ 8x + 2

= — lOx^ + 40x — 30,

and
px = S
outer integral = I (— lOx^ + 40x — 30) dx

-^x^ + 20x2 _ I = 0.
3 / lo

Therefore /« (4x — y)dA = 0.

Second solution: Let the inner integration be with respect to x. The left
boundary of the region is they-axis where x = 0 (Fig. 7). The right bound¬
ary is the line 2x + y =8; solve for x to obtain x = 4 — ^y. The lowest y in
the region is y = 2 and the highest y is the y-coordinate of point A, y = 8
(obtained by setting x = 0 in 2x -I- y = 8). Thus
r r>=8 |•*=4-y2

I (4x — y)dA = \ I (4x — y) dx dy .

'^y~2 *'x=0
Then
■x=4—y/2 x = 4-y2

inner integral = (4x — y)dx = (2x2 _

*^x=0 x=0

= y2 - 12y + 32,

and
8

outer integral - (y^ ^ 12y + 32)c?y = ~ 6y2 -I- 32y = 0.

2

Warning The inner limits are boundary values while the outer limits are
extreme values.
1. If you mistakenly use extremes for both sets of limits in Example 2,
ry=8 ^x=3 ^*=3 ry=8

and write I or , then, instead of integrating over the trian-

y=2 *=0 •' x=0 y=2

gular region R in Figs. 6 and 7, you are integrating over the rectangular
region in Fig. 8.
 12.2 Computing Double Integrals • 375

2. Suppose you mistakenly use boundary values for both sets of limits
^x=4-)i/2 |•y=8-2x ^y = 8-2x ,x=4->/2

in Example 2, and write or . Since the

... . x=0 •'51=2 J y=2 •' x=0
outer limits m the first instance contain y, the first setup produces a result
containing y. Similarly, the second setup leads to a result containing the
variable x. But a double integral is a number, so neither setup calculates a
double integral over the region in Figs. 6 and 7. In fact they do not corre¬
spond to a double integral over any region whatsoever. The outer limits of the
iterated integral must be constants.

Warning The region R in Example 2 (Figs. 6 and 7) is not the graph of

the integrand 4x — y. It is the region over which the function is being
integrated, just as ft f{x) dx integrates/(x) over the interval [a, b]. The graph
of 4x — y is the plane z = 4x — y in 3-space, lying partly above and partly
below R. To evaluate Jr f{x,y)dA it is not necessary to sketch the graph of
f{x,y), but it is important to sketch R so that the boundary values and
extreme values may be identified for the limits of integration.

Integrating on a region with a two-curve boundary Consider Jr f{x, y) dA

where R is the region bounded by the line x -1- y = 6 and the parabola
X = y^ We will express the double integral in terms of single integrals in two
ways, to practice setting up the limits of integration.

f\G.^
Figure 9 shows that the left boundary of the region is the parabola
X = y^. The right boundary is the line x -I- y =6; solve the equation for x
to get X = 6 — y. To find the extreme values of y we need points A and B.
Substitute x = y^ into x + y = 6, obtaining y^ -1- y = 6, (y -f 3) (y — 2) =
0,y = —3,2. Therefore A = (4,2), .6 = (9, —3), the lowesty is-3 at5, and
the highest y is 2, at A. Thus
y=2 .x=6->

(6) f{x,y)dA = f{x,y)dxdy.

Consider the other order of integration. The lower boundary is the

parabola x=y^ (Fig- 10)i solve the equation fory to obtain y =—Vx (choose
the negative square root because y is negative on the lower portion of the
parabola). However, the upper boundary consists of two curves, the parabola and
the line. It is not possible to find one expression for y on the upper bound-
376 • 12/Multiple Integrals

ary. To continue with this order of integration, divide the region into the
two indicated parts, I and II. For region I, the lower boundary is that
portion of the parabola where y =—Vx, and the upper boundary isy=Vx;
the extreme values of x are 0 and 4. For region II, the lower boundary is
again and the upper boundary is the line y=6-x; the extreme
values of x are 4 and 9. Therefore

(7) [ f{x,y)dA = f f{x,y)dA + | f{x,y)dA

Jr
J
Ji
-*=4
-'ll
ry = Vx
f{x,y)dydx +
rx = 9

f{x,y)dydx.
r= n J\t=-\/Z J X=A JtI=-\/x

In this particular example, the two-curve boundary can be avoided by

using (6) instead of (7). However, in some problems, dividing the region
into parts may be unavoidable (see Problem 2c, for example). Furthermore,
although (6) appears preferable to (7), it may be that the antidifferentiation
in (7) will turn out to be easier. We can’t state a preference for (6) without
knowing the particular function /.

Warning Examine boundaries carefully to catch the ones consisting of

more than one curve. If you mistakenly consider the upper boundary in
,(=9 .y=6-x

Fig. 10 to be only the line, and write f{x,y)dydx, then you are
J *=0 J y=-\/x
integrating over the region in Fig. 11, not Fig. 10.

Problems for Section 12.2

1. Evaluate

(a) dA where R is the region bounded by the lines y = 2x, y = 3 and the
y-axis
(b) U 3 dA where R is the region in quadrant I enclosed by y — x^ and y = x
(c) /k 2xydA where R is the region between the parabola y = x^ and the line
y = 10

2. Express jRfix,y)dA in terms of single integrals for the given region R. Set
up each integral twice, using the two orders of integration.

(a) R is bounded by the parabolas y - ix^ and x = y^

(b) R is bounded by y = e'‘, the line y = 2 and the y-axis
 12.3 Double Integration in Polar Coordinates • 377

(c) i? is the triangular region with vertices A = (0,0), = (2,4) and C = (3,1)
(d) R is the set of points {x,y) such that 2 ^ x < 7 and 0 < 3) < 5
(e) R is bounded by the parabola 4y = x^ and the line x - 2y + 4 = 0
(f) R IS bounded by the x-axis, lines x = 2, x = 3, and the hyperbola xy = 1
(g) R is the (unbounded) region inside the parabola y = x^
(h) R IS the (unbounded) region between the two branches of the hyperbola

(i) R is the region in Fig. 12

(j) R is the interior of the ellipse 2x^ + y^ = 4

3. Let R be the region in Fig. 13. (a) Set up /a f(x,y)dA using the order of
FI6.I1 integration dydx. (b) Can ^r f{x,y)dA be computed by integrating on only the
quarter of the region in quadrant I and then multiplying that answer by 4?
4. Each of the following represents a double integrals already expressed in
terms of single integrals. Sketch the region of integration R and then set up the
double integral using the reverse order of integration
p=i r*=i Too r<x)

(a) f{x,y)dxdy (d) I I f{x,y)dydx

(b) n
■'>=0

n n-x2
•'x=(V2)y

f(x,y)dydx
-X
(e)
-'x=0

J
*'0 •'sin
I
•^y=2x

f{x,y)dydx

FI6,13 (c) ,_f(x,y)dydx

Jo J-x/T^
roo

I
rx=^
f{x,y)dxdy
)|=0 •'x =0

5. Let/? be the triangular region with vertices A = (0,0), (0,1), C = (2,1).

Set up dA in both orders of integration. Then choose the order in which the
calculation will be easier and evaluate the integral.

12.3 Double Integration in Polar Coordinates

We 11 begin by evaluating a specific integral using polar coordinates

to see how it is done and why it may have an advantage over rectangular
coordinates. The method we develop will then be summarized and used
in general.

Example 1 Consider J^x^dA, where R is the region in quadrant I be¬

tween two circles with radii 1 and 5 as indicated in Fig. 1. The region poses
378 • 12/Multiple Integrals

two difficulties. First, the lower boundary consists of two curves, the x-axis
and the smaller circle; similarly, the left boundary consists of two curves, the
y-axis and the smaller circle. Therefore, no matter which order of integra¬
tion is tried, the region must be divided into two parts. Second, the circles
have equations of the form x^ + ~ ^o- When inner limits of integration
are obtained by solving for x or y, unpleasant square roots will result. Polar
coordinates will alleviate both difficulties.
The integration method of the preceding section was obtained by using
vertical and horizontal lines to divide a region into many small rectangles,
with typical area dA = dxdy. The procedure evaluates a double integral
with two single integrals, which add/(x,y)(iA’s on (say) a horizontal strip,
and then add strip sums from bottom to top. To integrate in polar coordi¬
nates we use circles and rays as shown in Fig. 1 to divide the region into many
small subregions. The plan is to express x^dA in polar coordinates, add on
the typical radial strip in Fig. 1, and then add the strip sums counter¬
clockwise. The typical subregion with area dA, configuration ABCD in
Fig. 1, is not a rectangle but it may be considered almost a rectangle since
a radial line intersects a circle perpendicularly. The subregion was created
by drawing two circles separated by dr, and two rays separated by angle dd.
Therefore side DC has length dr, but dd is an angular dimension, not a side
of the box, so dA is not dr dd. By (5) of Section 1.3, the arc length AD is rdd
Then the (almost) box has dimensions rdd by dr, so dA = rdd dr = rdrdd.
Furthermore, x = r cos d (Appendix A6) so

x^rfA = (r cos dYrdrdd = r^ cos^ddrdd.

The single integral fr=ir^ cos^ddrdd adds x^dA's on the typical radial strip
in Fig. 1. The many radial strips fan out counterclockwise from 0 = 0 to
d = 7r/2, so we add the strip sums with another integral to obtain

(1) I
•Ir
x^dA = I
■'8=0
I
■'r=l
r^ cos^ddrdd.

Then
^r=5 r=5

inner integral
"J ■'r=l
r^ cos^ddr =
' 4
cos^0
r=l
= 156 cos^d.

I-I6T
 12.3 Double Integration in Polar Coordinates • 379

and (with formula (40) from the integral tables)

outer integral 156 cos^ddd

2 W=7r/Z

= 156 '-—{d + s'md cos 6) = SOtt.

Computing a double integral in polar coordinates The method estab¬

lished in Example 1 may be applied in general.

A double integral over a region R can be evaluated with

two single integrals. Change x, y, and dA to polar coordinates
using

X = r cos d, y = r sin d, + y^ = r^,

dA = r dr dd.

To find the limits of integration, identify the inner and outer

boundaries of the region by imagining a radial walk from
the origin (Fig. 2). Solve the polar coordinate equation of
each boundary for r. Further, swing a ray counterclock¬
wise through the region and find the first 6 and last d en¬
countered, that is, the smallest and largest values of 6. Then

... j/(x,y)dA
(3)

Note that, in general, the inner and outer limits of integration follow different
patterns. The limits on the inner integral are found by solving boundary
equations for r, so the inner limits will contain 6, unless a boundary is a circle
centered at the origin with an equation as simple as r — ro (as in (1)). On the
other hand, the outer limits are always constants, the extreme values of 6.
It is possible to use the reverse order of integration, but equations in polar
coordinates are usually easier to solve for r than for 6 and experience shows
that the one version is sufficient.
Integration in polar coordinates is used primarily to handle regions of integra¬
tion which involve circles, such as the region in Fig. 1. Polar coordinates
should also be considered if the integrand involves expressions such as
+ y^, Vx^ -I- y^, (x^ -h y^f, since these forms become simpler (namely, r^,
r, r®) in polar coordinates.

Example 2 Let Ri be the circular region with radius 4 in Fig. 3 and let i?2
be the lower semicircular portion. Then

FI6.3
and
380 • 12/Multiple Integrals

J=0 .0=4ir

Warning In the latter integral, it is also correct to use I f and I f but

0= —TT 0=37r

it is not correct to write I . The values of 6 must be measured in a con-

J e=TT
tinuous increasing fashion.
V V

Example 3 A six mile square housing development, ABCD, contains only

one bus stop, at point D. The management does not want to reveal that
some residents may have to walk 6V2 miles (from ) to catch a bus, while
others (at D) are so close that their homes will reek of bus fumes. To gloss
over the unpleasant extremes, the management wants to advertise the aver¬
age distance to the bus stop. The problem is to find this average value.
Insert a coordinate system as in Fig. 4. Then, at the point {x,y), the
distance to the bus stop is + y^. Therefore we want to find the average
value of Vx^ + over the square region. By (3) of Section 12.1,

Vx^ + dA
Ldevelopment
I
(4) average value =-—
area of development

If we try to compute the integral in rectangular coordinates, the limits of

integration are simple but the antidifferentiation is difficult. If we switch to
polar coordinates, the limits of integration require care, but the integrand
0=3: is simpler since
X
Vx^ + y^ dA = rrdrdd = r^drdd.
-IL
On balance, polar coordinates will prove somewhat more efficient.
The inner boundary of the development is the point circle where
r = 0, but the outer boundary consists of the two segments AB and BC. To
set up the integral in (4) we must divide the region into the two parts
indicated in Fig. 4. However, in this particular problem we can backtrack
and avoid the extra work. By the symmetry of the situation, the average
©=o distance from the entire development to the bus stop is the same as the
m 5rop average distance from region I (or II) to the bus stop. So the answer can be
found with
FI6.^
Vx^ + y^ dA
(5)
area of I

For region I, the outer boundary is the line x = 6, which in polar coordi¬
nates is r cos 0 = 6, or r = 6 sec 6; the extreme values of 6 are 0 and
tt/4. So
9=V/4
/•O—TTIt ,.r=6sece
r r 6=^14 r=6sec9

rrdrdd = | dd
9=0 •'r=0 ■'«=''
'9=0 3 r=0
9=ir/4

I
9=0
72 sec^ddd

nl4

72 — sec 6 tan ^ 4 ln|sec 6 + tan d\

(Tables, (43))

= 36V2 + 36 ln(V2 + 1).

 12.4 Area and Volume • 381

The ai^a of region I is 18, so the value of (5), the final answer, is 2\/2 +
2 ln(V2 + 1).

Warning Remember to use rdrdd for dA. Don’t forget the extra r.

Problems for Section 12.3

1. Consider the circular region in Fig. 3 with radius 4. Evaluate

(a) j xdA over the right semicircular portion.

(b) jxydA over the first quadrant portion.

(C)
Ittt. 2 ^2 •^he entire region.

2. Find j e dA over quadrant I.

r>r=3 P=V9-«2

3. Find
J J
•'i:=-3 •'v=0 •
ln(l + + y^)dydx by switching to polar coordinates.

4. Find the limits of integration in polar coordinates for the following regions.

(b)

(e) (f)
382 • 12/Multiple Integrals

12.4 Area and Volume

We will summarize the methods for using integrals to compute area

and volume, and then illustrate with examples.

Area (A) If a region lies under the graph of f{x) and above an interval
[a, 6] on the x-axis (Fig. 1) then its area is f{x)dx (Section 5.2).
(B) Suppose a region lies between an upper curve u{x) and a lower
curve l{x) and stretches from x = a to x = b; that is, the projection of the
region on the x-axis is [a, 6] (Fig. 2). Then, whether the region lies above,

1 below, or straddles the x-axis, its area is Pa{u{x) — l{x))dx (Section 6.3).
(C) For any region R, no matter what its boundaries, and whether it lies
above, below or straddles the x-axis, the area of R is JfldA (Section 12.1).

Example 1 Find the area of the region R bounded by the parabola

y = x^ — 9 and the line y = 2x — 6 (Fig. 3).

FI6.3

Solution: First find the coordinates of the points of intersection, P and

Q. Solve 2x - 6 = x^ - 9 to get x^ - 2x - 3 = 0, (x - 3)(x -I- 1) = 0,
X = -1,3. Therefore P = (-1,-8) and Q = (3,0).
 12.4 Area and Volume • 383

We may use (B) with u(x) = 2x - 6 and /(x) = - 9 to get

(1) area = [ (2x - 6 - [x^ - 9])c?x

•'-1

= j (2x + 3 — x^) dx = ^x^ + 3x — ^x^

We may also use (C). The lower boundary of the region isy = x^ — 9,
the upper boundary is y = 2x — 6; the extreme values of x are — 1 and 3.
Therefore

r ^x = 3 |•y = 2x — 6

area = dA= dydx.

'^x=-\ •'y=x^-9

Since/fltZx = b - a, the inner integral is 2x - 6 - [x^ - 9]. Thus the outer

^*=3

integral is I (2x — 6 — [x^ — 9])<ix, the same as (1). Methods (B) and (C)
■' X- 1
merge, leading to the same final computation and answer.

Volume (A') If a solid lies under the graph of/(x,y) and above a region R
in the x,y plane (Fig. 4) then its volume is jRf{x,y)dA (Section 12.1).
(B') Suppose a solid lies between an upper surface u{x,y) and a lower
surface l{x,y), and its projection in the x,y plane is a region R (Fig. 5). Then,
whether the solid lies above, below, or crosses the x,y plane, its volume is
/ft {u{x,y) - l{x,y))dA.
Section 12.6 will give (C') to complete the analogy between area in
2-space and volume in 3-space.
(Note that in addition to the double integrals in (A') and (B'), and the
forthcoming triple integral in (C'), certain volumes were computed in
Section 6.1 with a single integral.)
We may restate (A') and (B') as follows.

(A') If the “floor” of a solid lies in the x,y plane then

volume roof dA
•^{loor

(B') If a solid lies between a roof and floor which is not necessarily in the
x,y plane (and not necessarily flat) then

volume (roof — floor)

projection in the x,y plane

The formula in (A') is the special case of (B') when the floor has equation
z = 0 and roof — floor simplifies to roof.

Example 2 Consider the solid bounded by the cylinder y = x^ the plane

y -h z = 5 and the x,y plane (Fig. 6). The solid lies under the plane
y -f z = 5, that is, under the graph of/(x,y) = 5 - y, and above the region
R in the x,y plane shown in Fig. 7. (The line y = 5 in Fig. 7 is the inter-
384 • 12/Multiple Integrals

F! 6. 6

section of the plane)) + z = 5withthex,}> plane where z = 0.) Therefore,

r rX=V5 ^;v=5
volume of solid
id = (5 — y)dA — (5 — y)dy dx
R '^x=—\/K •^V=X^

=v^ >=5
5^ _
1 y.
dx
x=—Vs V ^ y=x^
rx=V5
1
-L(f x=V^
25 5 „ 1
= fV5,
V5 3

Example 3 The elliptic paraboloid

(2) z = 2x^ + y^ (Fig. 8)

and the parabolic cylinder

(3) z = 4 - y2 (Fig. 9)

determine the solid in Fig. 10. By (B'),

(4) volume of solid = (4 - - [2x^ + y^])dA

= I (4 - 2x^ - 2y^)dA

where R is the projection of the solid in the x,y plane. Often a projection
 12.4 Area and Volume • 385

obvious and we will give an algebraic method for identifying it. Consider
the curve ABCD of intersection of the two surfaces. Equate the expressions
for z in (2) and (3) to obtain 2x^ + = 4 — or

(5) + y^ = 2.

The equation in (5) is satisfied by the x and y coordinates of any point on

the curve ABCD. Since the x and y coordinates do not change as a point is
projected onto the x,y plane, the projection ABCD continues to satisfy
(5). Therefore the projection of ABCD in the x,y plane is a circle with radius
V^, and the projection R of the solid itself is the circle plus its interior.
Now that R has been identified as circular, we choose to evaluate (4)
using polar coordinates. Since x^ + y^ = r^, the integrand 4 — 2x^ — 2y^
becomes 4 — 2rl Then
|•r=y/2

volume of solid = I I (4 — 2r^)rdrdd

•'9=0 •'r=0

^6=2tt ^r=V^

= I I (4r — 2r^)drdd
•'9=0 •'r=0

^27r r=V2

2^2 _
1 4
dd
9=0 \ ^

2dd = 2(27r - 0) = 47r.

386 • 12/Multiple Integrals

Problems for Section 12.4

1. Find the indicated area and, for practice, use as many of (A), (B) and (C) as
are appropriate.
(a) bounded by = x + 1 and x + y = 1
(b) bounded by xy =4 and x + y = 5 v
(c) inside the parabola y = x^ and under the line y = 4
(d) swept out in one turn of the spiral whose equation in polar coordinates is
r — 6 (Fig. 11)
2. Use a double integral to find the volume.

(a) the solid bounded by the cylinder x^ + y ^ = 4, the x,y plane and the plane
Fl6.1 X + 6y + 2z = 12
(b) a sphere with radius R
(c) the apple core of radius 3 in an apple of radius 6 (Fig. 12)
(d) a circular cone with radius R and height h
(e) a circular cylinder with radius R and height h

6.II
z
3. Express the volume with a double integral and then go one step further to
write the double integral as two single integrals.
(a) the solid inside z = 2x^ + 2y^ and under the plane z = 12
(b) the solid bounded by the paraboloids z = x^ + y^ and z 8 - 3x^ - 3y^
(c) the polar cap of radius 2 in a sphere of radius 5 (Fig. 13)
4. Two cylindrical pipes of radius 3 intersect so that their axes cross perpen¬
dicularly. Find the volume of the solid determined by the intersecting cylinders.
(Figure 14 shows half the solid.)
5. Consider Vx^ + y^ dA where R is the circular region in the x,y plane
with radius 5 and center at the origin. Is it computing an area? a volume? If so,
sketch the figure.
 12.5 Further Applications of the Double Integral ■ 387

2.

12.5 Further Applications of the Double Integral

The preceding section discussed area and volume; this section will
illustrate some nongeometric applications. As with area and volume, we will
show that some problems can be done with both single and double integrals.

Example 1 The cost of clearing jungle land is directly proportional to

both the area of the land and its distance from the supply road. (As the area
increases, naturally the cost goes up. As the distance to the supply road
increases, the equipment must be hauled further on Jungle trails and the
cost increases.) In particular, suppose that
(1) cost = area x distance to the supply road.
Consider a right triangular region with legs 6 and 3, with the supply road
running along its longer leg (Fig. 1). The problem is to find the cost of
clearing the land.
We can’t use (1) directly because different parts of the region are at
different distances from the road. One approach is to establish a number
line along the shorter leg as in Fig. 1. Consider a typical strip at position x
with thickness dx. The distance from the strip to the longer leg may be
considered to be constant, with value x; this is the reason for choosing strips
parallel to the road. By similar triangles,
strip height _ 6
3 - X “ Y’
388 • 12/Multiple Integrals

FI6,1

so the strip height is 2(3 - x), or 6 - 2x. Therefore, the strip area is
(6 — 2x)dx and

6(cost = strip area X distance to road = (6 — 2x)dx X x

= (6x — 2x^) dx.

Therefore

(2) total cost = — 2x^) dx = = 9.

As a second approach, establish the 2-dimensional coordinate system in

Fig. 2 and divide the region into many small subregions. Consider a sub-
region containing the point {x,y) and with area dA. The distance from {x,y)
to the road is x, so the entire subregion is taken to be at distance x from the
road. Then

FIG
 12.5 Further Applications of the Double Integral • 389

r/cost = dA X distance to road = xdA ,

and the total cost is /triangular region xdA. The lower boundary of the region is
the x-axis where y = 0, and the upper boundary is line AB, with slope —2,
y-intercept 6 and equation y = — 2x + 6. The extreme values of x are 0 and
3, so

total cost

y = ~2x+6
=n •x=3 ry= — 2x+6

x=0 •'y=0
xdydx.

The inner integral is xy = 6x — 2x^. Thus the outer integral is

eX = 3 y=0

J '
x=0I
(6 — 2x^)dx, the same as (2), so the two approaches merge to produce

the same final answer.

Example 2 Continue with the triangular plot of land in Example 1. Sup¬

pose that the cost of clearing the land is not only proportional to the area
of the land and its distance to the supply road but also inversely propor¬
tional to its distance from the creek, running parallel to the shorter leg 2
miles away. (Land far from the creek is less mosquito-ridden and clearing
costs are lower.) In particular, suppose that

area x distance to supply road

=-distance ,o creek-’

The problem is to express, with an integral, the cost of clearing the trian¬
gular plot.
The strip in Fig. 1 is no longer useful since the points in the strip are
at varying distances from the creek. On the other hand, the small subregion
in Fig. 2 may be considered to have constant distance x from the supply
road and constant distance y + 2 from the creek. Therefore, by (3),

xdA
(/cost =
y + 2

and
xdA
total cost =
I
triangular region y + 2
.x = 3 ^y=-2x + 6
X

= / /
V=n •'>=0
x=0 Ai y + 2
dydx.

The aim of the section is to demonstrate how to produce integral

models for physical situations. In this example, and in many of the solutions
to the problems, we set up the integral and then stop without computing
its value.

A general pattern for applying integrals Suppose a formula (such as (1)

or (3)) applies to a plane region in a simple situation {constant distances to
road and creek). In a more complicated situation (nonconstant distances),
the formula cannot be used directly. However, if the region is divided into
thin rectangular or circular strips or into small subregions, we may be able
to apply the formula to the pieces and compute “(/thing” ((/cost). An inte-
390 • 12/Multiple Integrals

gral, single if strips are used, double if small subregions are used, will add
the (/things and find a total thing (total cost).

Warning By the physical nature of the particular problems in this section,

if a region is divided into many small subregions, the simple factor dA
should be contained in the expression for (/thing; it should not be missing nor
should it appear in a form sUch as {dAf or \/dA. For example, (/thing may
be xy^dA, but should not be xy^ or xy^{dA)^ or xy^ldA. The double integral
is designed to add terms of the form/(x,)i) dA. A sum of terms of the form
xy^ or xy^{dAf or xy^jdA is not found with an integral.

Problems for Section 12.5

1. Consider a right triangle with legs 5 and 10. (a) Find the average distance
from points in the triangular region to the longer leg. (b) Find the total mass of
the region if the mass density (grams per square centimeter) at any point in the
region is the product of its distances to the legs.
2. A sandstorm blows in from a desert (Fig. 3) so that the number of particles
of sand per square meter deposited at a point in town is \/d, where d is the distance
500 from the point to the edge of the desert. Find the total amount of sand in the town.
3. A revolving sprinkler deposits water in a semicircular region of radius 6

Fife.3 centered at the sprinkler, so that by the end of the watering period, the water density
(liters per square meter) at a point is the cube of the distance from the point to the
sprinkler. Find the total amount of water delivered to the region.
4. The price of land in the city depends on the acreage and on the distance to
the town dump (real estate prices are lower near the dump). Suppose that the cost
of land is the product of its area and its distance to the dump. Express with an
integral the cost of (a) a circular region of radius 2, centered at the dump (b) the
land in Fig. 4.
5. Suppose f{x,y)dA computes the total number of people living in the
region R. (a) What does one term of the form f{x,y)dA represent physically?
(b) What does the function/(x,y) signify physically? For example, what can you
F|6.^ conclude if/(2,3) = 8?
6. If a group of persons is d feet from a smokestack then the amount of
induced disease among the group is (number of people)/(/. (The more people
exposed, the more disease, and the further they are from the smokestack, the less
the amount of disease.) Suppose the region in Fig. 5 has a population density of
f{x,y) people per square mile and a smokestack is at point C. Express the total
amount of induced disease in the region with an integral.
7. The heat concentration of a region which is distance d from a hot wire is
areald. Eind the heat concentration in the triangular region of Eig. 6.

FI6.6
 12.6 Triple Integrals • 391

8. The price of land in a town depends on its area, on its distance to the railroad
tracks (land closer to the tracks is cheaper) and on its distance to prestigious Tree
Drive (the closer to TD, the more expensive). In particular, the cost of a plot of land
is (area X distance to tracks)/distance to TD. Express the cost of the triangular plot
0 in Fig. 7 with an integral.

FIG.7
9. The energy collected in a plane region depends on its area and its distance
zo to the energy source. Suppose that energy is area/c? where d is the distance to the
source. Find the total energy in a circular region of radius 3 if the energy source is
>l30dV-7

(a) at the center of the region (b) distance 5 above the center of the region.
guy 15 10. The cost of painting a section of a billboard depends on the section’s height
h above the ground, its area A, and its distance d to the ladder. Suppose the cost is
Ah^ d. Find the cost of painting the entire billboard in Fig. 8.

10
GROUNP
12.6 Triple Integrals

The definition, applications and computation of triple integrals are

FIG. 8 similar to those for single and double integrals.

DeHnition of the integral of/(x,y,z) over a solid region R in 3-space (the

triple integral) Given a function/(x.y.z) and a solid region R in 3-space,
divide R into many small subregions, not necessarily of the same volume.
Let a typical subregion contain the point {x,y,z) and have volume dV
(Fig. 1). For each subregion, find the value of / at {x,y,z) and multiply by
dV. Add the results from all the subregions to obtain 2 f{x,y,z)dV. Repeat
the process with smaller and smaller values of dV, which requires more and
more subregions. It is likely that the resulting sums will be close to one
particular number eventually, that is, the sums will approach a limit. The
limit is called the triple integral oif{x,y,z) over the region and is denoted by
S region f{x,y, z) dV.

In summary,

(1) I f(x,y,z)dV = lim ^f(x,y,z)dV.

J region <^^-0

We think of the integral as adding many representative

values off from the region, each weighted by the volume of
the subregion it represents.

Applications By analogy with (3) and (4) of Section 12.1,

average value of f{x,y,z) in a region in 3-space

J region
/(x,y, z) dV

volume of region

As in (5) and (6) of Section 12.1, if/(x,y, z) is the charge density (cou¬
lombs per cubic centimeter) at the point (x,y,z) then

(3) total charge in a region [ f(x,y,z)dV.

region

We already know that if R is a region in 2-space, its area is f/tdA

(Section 12.4, (C)). Similarly, iff? is a solid region in 3-space, whether above,
below, or crossing the x,y plane, then

(C')
I dV = volume of the solid region B ;

the triple integral in (C') adds dV’s to produce the total volume. The result
in (C'), together with (A') and (B') in Section 12.4, completes the list of
methods for finding volumes using multiple integrals.

Nonapplication We noted in (9) and (10) of Section 12.1 that if g(x) > 0
and h(x,y) > 0 then fig(x)dx is the area under the graph of g and
^Rh{x,y)dA is the volume under the graph of h. For the first time, a view¬
point common to single and double integrals has no counterpart for triple
integrals. There is no analogous geometric interpretation of f{x,y,z)dV
since we cannot draw the graph of a function of three variables within the
confines of the real world. The triple integral /(x,y, z) dV has many appli¬
cations, but none involving the “graph” of/(x,y,z).
 12.6 Triple Integrals • 393

R6.1
Computing triple integrals To devise a method for finding /(x,)), z) dV,
divide the solid region R into many small boxes. Let a typical box containing
the point {x,y,z) have dimensions dx, dy and dz, so that its volume dV is
dxdydz. To evaluate the integral, add f{x,y,z)dV’s along a typical vertical
strip (Fig. 2), then add the strip sums from left to right, and finally add the
subtotals from back to front; or add the vertical strip sums from back to
front and then add the subtotals from left to right. This manner of addition
corresponds to using three single integrals, in the order of integration
dzdydx or dzdxdy, with limits of integration obtained as follows.

Identify the lower and upper boundary surfaces of R

(Fig. 2). Solve the equation of each boundary for z to obtain
the inner limits of integration. Use the projection of the solid
in the x,y plane to insert x and y limits on the middle and
outer integrals as if you were doing a double integral over the
projection. In other words.
z on up{>er boundary dz dy dx
(4)
/ /
double integrate
I
z on lower boundary
f{x,y, z) or
dz dx dy
over the projection
of R in the x,y
plane

Similarly, the integration may be performed first with respect to x. In

this case, identify the rear and forward boundary surfaces of the solid R.
Solve the equation of each boundary for x to obtain the inner limits of
integration. Use the projection of the solid in the y, z plane to insert y and
z limits on the two outer integrals. In other words.
 r
fx on forw'ard boundary dxdydz

(5)
•'R
f(x,y,z)dV =
1 J.
double integrate
over the projection
'X on rear boundary
fix,y,z) or
dx dz dy
of R in tne y,z
plane

V
Similarly,

dydxdz
r r r 1
ry on right boundary

(6)
•'r
f(x,y,z)dV =
J i
double integrate
on left boundary
f{x,y,z) or
dydzdx
over the projection
of R in the x,z
plane

Thus there are six ways to triple integrate in rectangular coordinates. Note
that after one variable is chosen to “go first” and provide the inner limits of
integration, the solid is projected into the plane of the other two variables.
(Projections are often geometrically clear. If not, the method of Example 3
in Section 12.4 for identifying a projection in the x,y plane may be adapted
to find a projection in any coordinate plane.)

Example 1 Consider Jrz(x^ + y^)dV where R is the solid polar cap in

Fig. 3 bounded by a sphere of radius 2 and the plane z = 1. We will set up
the triple integral in several ways.
The lower boundary of the region is the plane z = 1 and the upper
boundary is that portion of the sphere on which z = V4 — x^ — these
may serve as inner limits of integration. For the corresponding middle and
outer limits we need the projection of R in the x,y plane. When the plane
z = 1 intersects the sphere x^ + y^ + = 4, we have + 1 = 4,
x^ + y2 _ 3 Therefore the projection of R is a circular region with radius
Vs. Using the order of integration dzdydx we have

FI6.3
 12.6 Triple Integrals • 395

r i-x^VS p= -z=V4-*2-3,2

j z(x^ -h y^)dv = I I _I z(;,(;2 + y^)(lzdydx.

4=-V3 Jy=~Vs^ Jz=i

For the version in which the inner integration is done with respect
to X, note that the rear boundary of R is the portion of the sphere
where X - ~V4 - and the front boundary is the portion where
X = V4 - _ z2 projection of R in they,z plane (Fig. 4) is bounded
by the line z 1 and the circle "f z^ = 4. Therefore,

f ,2=V4^ ;, = VT->2-j5

j z(x^ + y^)dV = I I _z(x^ + y^) dx dz dy ,

R •'> = -V3 ■'z=l Jx=-V4-y^-z^

and also
r rz~2 i^x = —y(2—^2

j z(x^ +y^)dV= I _I _z(x^ + y^)dxdydz.

■'2=1 ■'y=-V4^ •1*=-\/4-3i2-z2

The version with inner y limits of integration is so similar to the setup

with inner x limits that we omit it, to avoid repetition.

FlG.‘f
Warning The integral f^zix^ + y^)dV may be interpreted as the total
charge in R if the charge density is z(x^ + y^), or the total mass if the mass
density is z(x^ + y^), but it is not the volume of R (the volume is fj{dV).

Triple integration in cylindrical coordinates Consider Example 1 again.

Since the projection ofR in the x,y plane is a circular region, it is convenient
to use polar coordinates for the middle and outer limits, along with inner
z limits. Then, instead of z(x^ + y^)dzdydx we write

zr^dzrdrdd - r^zdzdrdO,

and the upper surface z = V4 - x^ - y^ becomes z = V4 - There¬

fore,

I z(x^
•'R
+ y^)dV =
-'fl=0
I 1
■^r=0 •'z=l
r^zdzdrdd.
396 • 12/Multiple Integrals

Evaluating a triple integral using r, 6 and z is called inte¬

gration in cylindrical coordinates. In general, the inner limits are
z’s on the lower and upper boundaries, and the middle and
outer limits are found with polar coordinates over the
(7) projection in the x,y plane; the integrand, the inner z limits
and dV (Fig. 5) are switched to the new variables using

X = r cos d, y = r sin 6, r"^ - x'^ + y'^,

dV = rdz dr dd. -

R6.5
Warning 1. When using polar coordinates for the middle and outer lim¬
its, don’t forget to express the inner limits in terms of r and 6 also.
2. Suppose the order of integration, in rectangular or cylindrical coor¬
dinates, is

Z: /third variable /
second variable I
first variable ■
The inner limits of integration may contain the second and third variables.
The middle limits of integration may contain the third variable but not the
first. The outer limits must always be constants.

Example 2 The formula I'nR'^h for the volume of a cone with radius R
and height h was derived in Example 1 of Section 6.1 with a single integral,
and in Problem 2d of Section 12.4 with a double integral. Derive it again
with a triple integral.
Solution: By (C'), the volume is foiid conedV. The lower boundary of the
solid cone in Fig. 6 is the conical surface itself, whose equation in cylindrical
coordinates, z = rhfR, was derived in (4) of Section 10.5; the upper
boundary is the plane z = h. The projection of the solid in the x,y plane
is a circular region of radius R, so
p0=2Tr ^r=R ^z = h

volume = rdzdrdd.
FIG.6 •'9=0 ■'r=0 K=rhlR
 12.6 Triple Integrals • 397

Then
/‘Z=h z=h

inner integral rdz rz

h=^rhlR z=ThlR

r=R
r^h
middle integral
Jr r=0

and
1 r^—27r

outer integral = —R^h dd = -jR^h • 277 = -^iTR^h.

O Jfl=n
'8=0 D 3

Warning The lower z limit in Example 2 is not the extreme value z = 0;

rather, it is found by solving the equation of the lower boundary surface, the
rd=2TT rr=R ^z=k

cone, for z. The limits 1 1 ) > which are incorrect for the solid cone,

correspond to the solid cylinder in Fig. 7 whose lower boundary surface is

the plane z = 0.

Final warning (This is your last chance to get it straight.)

Consider f{x,y)dA over a plane region R.
It is not the area of the region R unless f{x,y) is identically 1.
If f{x,y) ^ 0, it is the volume of the solid with floor R and roof
2: =fix,y).
(More generally, if f{x,y) is not > 0, the integral is the volume above
minus the volume below; see (12) of Section 12.1.)
Consider f{x,y,z)dV over a solid region R.
l{f{x,y, z) is identically 1, the integral is the volume of R. Otherwise, it
is not the volume (or area) of anything.
In any case, an integral has many uses other than area and volume. In
fact the same integral may be used by one person to compute volume, by
another to compute a total mass, by another to find a total cost, by another
to find a moment of inertia, etc.

Problems for Section 12.6

1. Set up the triple integral three ways, using the three projections of R. Then
evaluate the integral (once).

(a) SiiX^dV where R is the solid prism bounded by the coordinate planes and
the planes x + y = 1 and z - 2
i. (b) fRX^zdV where R is the solid cylinder x^ + = 4 between the planes
z = 0 and z = 5

2. Set up Jr f(x,y, z) dV over the region R using as many projections as feasible

and interesting.

(a) the tetrahedron ABCD in Fig. 8

(b) the solid sphere with center at the origin and radius R
(c) the solid cone with radius R and height h in Fig. 6
(d) the quarter-cylinder in Fig. 9 with radius R and height h
(e) the solid in Fig. 10 in the first octant, formed by the intersection of two
cylinders of radius 3
398 • 12/Multiple Integrals

&

({) the cylindrical solid in Fig. 11

(g) the region bounded by z = 2x^ + and z — 4 —
(h) the region bounded by z = and planes z = 5, y == —2, y — 3
(i) the region bounded by the ellipsoid x^ + 2y^ + 3z^ = 12
(j) the region bounded by the planes x = 1, y = 0, y = 2, z = 0, and x — z
Fl6.il (k) the region inside the cylinder + y^ = 1 and between the planes z = 0
and y + z = 5
(l) the first octant region inside the cylinder x^ + y ^ = 1 and under the plane
z = X
(m) the solid frustrum in Fig. 12

3. Each problem has already been solved with a single or double integral.
Express the solution again with a triple integral.

(a) (Section 6.1, problem 18) Eind the total mass of a cylinder of radius R, and
height h if its density (mass per unit volume) at a point is

(i) the distance from the point to the axis of the cylinder
(ii) the distance from the point to the base of the cylinder.

(b) (Review problem 2, Chapter 6) If a solid of mass m is revolved around a

line, its moment of inertia is md^ where d is its distance to the line. Find the
moment of inertia of a solid cone of radius R and height h which revolves
around its axis, if its mass density is constant at 5 grams/cm^.
(c) (Section 6.1, Example 4) The work done when an object of weight w moves
distance d is wd. Suppose a cylindrical tank of radius 5 and height 20 is half
filled with liquid of density 2 pounds per cubic foot. Find the work done in
pumping the liquid out, that is, of moving the liquid up to the top of the
tank at which point it spills over.
(d) (Section 12.4, problem 3(a)) Find the volume inside the paraboloid
z = 2x^ + 2y^ and under the plane z = 12.

4. Express with an integral the volume of the solid bounded by x^ + 2y^ —

3z^ = 6 and the planes z = 0, z = 2.
5. Is it correct to find /solid sphereby integrating over a hemi¬
sphere and doubling the result?

12.7 Triple Integration in Spherical Coordinates

We will begin by evaluating a specific integral using spherical co¬

ordinates. The method we develop will then be summarized and used in
general.
 12.7 Triple Integration in Spherical Coordinates • 399

Example 1 Consider Jnz^dV where R is the upper hemispherical region

with radius 4, centered at the origin (Fig. 1). The integration can be done
with the methods of the preceding section, but just as double integrals over
circular regions are usually easier in polar coordinates, triple integrals over
spherical and conical regions are often easier in spherical coordinates.

The integration method of the preceding section was derived by di¬

viding the solid region into many small boxes using planes parallel to the
coordinate planes (Section 12.6, Fig. 2). The procedure evaluates a triple
integral with three single integrals which add f{x,y, z) dV’s on (say) a vertical
strip, add strip sums from back to front, and finally add subtotals from left
to right. To integrate in spherical coordinates we divide the region into
many small subregions using spheres, cones and half-planes. Figure 2
shows a typical subregion, called a spherical coordinate box. The face ABFE
lies on a cone with cone angle (/>; the opposite face DCGH lies on a cone with

FI6.Z
angle (f) + d<f>. The face lies on a sphere of radius p; the opposite face
EHGF lies on a sphere with radius p + dp. The face ADHE lies on a
half-plane, hinged along the z-axis at angle 0; the opposite face BCGF lies
on a half-plane with angle 6 -f d6. Not all the walls of the spherical coordi¬
nate box are plane, but its faces do intersect perpendicularly so we will take
the liberty of finding the volume dV by taking the product of the three
edges, AE, AB and AD. It is immediate from the construction of the box that

(1) AE = dp,

but d(t> and dd are angular dimensions, not edges of the box, so dV is not
dpd(f>dd. Figure 3 shows the edge AD, an arc on the great circle of inter¬
section of a sphere and a half-plane. The circle has radius p and the arc has
central angle dcp-, by the formula arc length = radius X angle in radians
(Section 1.3, (5)),

FI6.3
(2) AD = pd(f).

Figure 4 shows edge AB, an arc on the circle of intersection of the sphere
and a cone. The circle has radius^ and the arc has central angle dd. From
the right triangle QAP we have QA = p sin <f)-, by the arc length formula,

(3) AB = QAdd = p sin (t>dd.

Therefore, from (l)-(3),

dV = dp X pd(j) X p sin (f)dd = p^ sin (jidpd^dd.

Then, since z = p cos 0 (Section 10.5, (3)),

z^dV = (p cos 0)V^ sin (l>dpd(f)dd = p^ cos^0 sin (t>dpd4>dd.

The plan is to add z^dV's on the typical radial strip in Fig. 1, add the strip
sums down the great circle from 0 = 0 to 0 = 7t/2, and finally add those
subtotals around from d = 0 to 6 = 2tt. The addition is accomplished by
three single integrals, namely,
/• ^9=2i7 ^i^ = t/2-p=4

I z^dV =1 I I p^ cos’^d) s\n (j)dpd<^dd.

•'fl •'9=0 •'(<)=0 •'p=0
 12.7 Triple Integration in Spherical Coordinates 401

FI6.^
A routine calculation of the inner, middle and finally outer integral pro¬
duces the answer 27r(2/3) (4^/5), or 4^77/15.

Computing a triple integral in spherical coordinates The method estab¬

lished in Example 1 may be applied more generally. A triple integral over
a solid region R can be evaluated with three single integrals in the following
manner. Change x,y,z and dV to spherical coordinates using

X = p sin (p cos 6, y = p sin (p sin 9, z = p cos (p,

p2 = ^2 + ^2 + ^2^ dV = p^ sin (pdpd<pd9.

To find the limits for the inner integral, identify the inner and outer
boundaries of R by imagining a radial walk from the origin; the entrance
surface is the inner boundary and the exit surface is the outer boundary.
Solve the spherical coordinate equation of each boundary for p to obtain
the inner limits of integration. For the limits on the middle integral, imag¬
ine the positive z-axis, hinged at the origin, falling until it enters the region,
and continuing to fall until it exits the region. For all practical purposes,
spherical coordinates are used for a limited number of (important) conical
and spherical regions, and in these cases, the falling z-axis will enter at a
constant angle (/>i whether it falls forward, backwards or sideways, and
similarly exit at another constant angle (f)2- These extreme values of 4> are
the middle limits. Finally, the outer limits of integration are the extreme
values of 9 in the region. In other words, for the limited number of regions
in which spherical coordinates are advisable, the pattern for the limits is

^largest B ^largest </> rp on outer boundary

(5)
•'smallest B ■'smallest •'p on inner boundary

Other orders of integration are possible, but the version in (5) will be
sufficient. The limits on the inner integral will contain 6 and/or </> unless a
402 • 12/Multiple Integrals

boundary is a sphere centered at the origin with an equation as simple as

p = po. Theoretically, the middle limits may contain 9, but in practice they
will be constants, as indicated in (5). The outer limits are always constants.
Figures 5-11 show some common regions (with spherical boundaries) and
give the corresponding limits.

r'Z'fr fTT rPo

0=0 y-0

LBPr$oup
OF W/U5 Po

FI6T ^e=Tr -^psO

LO'A/EF 50LIP
OF po

rX-TT
'o-~o

FIK5T ocThHV Portion

OF 50PIP fFpBRB op
PAi>iyS po

FI6.8

F0iA//iRP SOLIP
OF R/IPIU5

f
* FIG.^
 12.7 Triple Integration in Spherical Coordinates • 403

j^GioM rwo
SPHERED lA//rfj fNNBp
po /\NP OVf^R
RADIUS P,
•J

jXir |-7r .ft

e-~0 (Ozp,
FIG.IO
z

RBOION RBWP£N a
SPHBPE OF IPAPIO^ po
ANP A CONPr i^iTH
U At^SLt <p^

Warning 1. The 6 limits in Fig. 6 may also be written as f-„ or fs^

but not in the discontinuous form /^.
2. The spherical coordinate 0 is always between 0 and tt. Therefore,
(f> limits in any integral problem are never negative and never larger
than TT.

Example 2 Consider the solid polar cap bounded by a sphere with radius
4 and center at A and a plane whose distance to A is 3. If the energy density
at any point in the cap is I/d' where d is the distance from the point to A,
find the total energy in the cap.
Solution: Establish the coordinate system in Fig. 12. The distance to the
origin in spherical coordinates is p, so the total energy, the integral of the
energy density, is /cap 1/p dV. The inner boundary is the plane z = 3 which
in spherical coordinates is p cos 0 = 3, or p = 3 sec p; the outer boundary
is the sphere p = 4. The smallest value of (/> is 0 and the largest is </»o, shown
in Fig. 12. The extreme values of 6 are 0 and 2tt. Therefore
r8=2TT r<l>=<t>(, rp=4 ^
total energy = I —p^sin <f)dpd(j)d6.
Jg=0 J,t,=0 •'3sec0 P
Then
p=4
9 sin (f)
inner integral = -^p^sin (f) = 8 sin (f)
/?=3 sec < 2 cos^(f)'

An antiderivative of is — it may be obtained using the

cos (p cos <p
404 • 12/Multiple Integrals

substitution u — cos </>. Then

1
middle integral cos (f) ——
2 cos 4> < t>=0

(6) = — 8 cos 00+8 —— - 1

cos 0(

To continue, it is not necessary to find the angle 0o itself. All we need is

cos 00 which, according to the right triangle ABC, is 3/4. Therefore

middle integral = — 8
2
3,nd

1 1
outer integral = ~ dd =—{2 tt) 77.
2 Je=o 2

Problems for Section 12.7

Use spherical coordinates in each problem.

1. Confirm that the volume of a sphere of radius R is

2. Confirm that the volume of a cone with radius R and height h ttR ^h.
3. Find the total mass of a spherical region of radius R if the mass density at
a point is \/d^ where d is the distance from the point to the center.
4. Find the limits corresponding to the (unbounded) half-space, where
(a) X s 0 (b) z > 0 (c) y > 0.
5. Find the volume of the solid in Fig. 11 if the radius of the sphere is 3 and
the radius of the circle of intersection of sphere and cone is 2.
6. Set up problem 3(b) in Section 12.6 using spherical coordinates.
7. Find the mass of the frustrum in Fig. 13 if the mass density at a point is 1/d
'/
where d is the distance from the point to A.
A'
12.8 Center of Mass
R6.13
In (1) of Section 6.2 we found that if n masses mx,--- ,m„ hang from
positions Xj, • • ■ on a line (Fig. 1) then the balance point x is given by
 12.8 Center of Mass • 405

^ r»iXi + • • • + m„x„ ^ total moment with respect to the origin

W] + • • • + total mass

We used (1) to find the balance point of a solid hemisphere, a symmetric

^ object with constant density. In this section we extend (1) to find balance
points of plane and solid objects in general, including nonsymmetric objects
with variable density.

Center of mass We’ll begin with a one-dimensional situation. Suppose the

density in a rod along the interval [a,U\ is f{x) mass units per unit of
distance. Divide the rod into many small pieces and let a typical piece
containing point x have length dx (Fig. 2). The density of the small piece
may be considered constant at value/(x), so cfmass = f{x)dx. To simulate
the situation in Fig. 1, picture the entire mass of each small piece concen¬
trated at position x, as indicated in Fig. 2. Then

moment = coordinate X <imass = xf{x)dx,

■b

total moment d! moment x/(x) dx,

/7 I

total mass = I olmass = f{x)dx

''a

and

moment of rod with respect to the origin

(2) X
mass of the rod

The balance point x is called the center of mass of the rod.

Similarly, if the density at (x,y) in a plane region R is f(x,y) mass units
per unit area then the center of mass (x,y) is given by

moment of the region

1 xf{x,y)dA
J R with respect to the y-axis
(3) X
mass of the region
[ f(x,y)dA
R

moment of the region

(4)
.
3’ -
] R
yf{x,y)dA
with respect to the x-axis
mass of the region
1 f{x,y)dA
R
If the entire plane is weightless except for the region R then the plane
balances at the point (x,))) (which is not necessarily contained in f?). The
numerator in (3) is called the rhoment with respect to the y-axis because the
factor X in the integrand is the signed distance to the y-axis; the numerator
in (4) is called the moment with respect to the x-axis because the factor y in the
integrand is the signed distance to the x-axis.
In the same manner, if the density at (x,y, z) in a solid region R is
f{x,y,z) mass units per unit volume, then the center of mass (x,y, z) is
given by

moment of R with respect

1 xf{x,y, z) dV
to the y, z plane
(5) X —
mass of R
[ f(x,y,z)dV
J R

moment of R with respect

yf{x,y,z)dV
Jr to the X, z plane
(6) y- mass of R
[ f{x,y,z)dV
R

moment of R with respect

1 zf(x,y,z)dV
J R to the x,y plane
(7) z —
mass of R
[ f{x,y,z)dV
•> R

One application of the center of mass is to the analysis of the behavior

of solids in a gravitational force field, where the solid may be replaced by
a point mass located at its center of mass.

Example 1 Find the center of mass of a hemispherical solid with radius R

if the density is the square of the distance from the point to the center.

Solution: Insert a coordinate system as in Fig. 3 so that the density at

a point is pi By symmetry, the center of mass lies on the z-axis sox = y = 0.
It remains to find z. For the numerator of (7) we have
^<^=7r/2 rp=R

p cos (p ' sin (f) dp d(j) dd.

^^6=0 -^0=0
 12.8 Center of Mass • 407

Then

inner integral = cos 0 sin cf) = — COS 0 Sin 0,

p=0 D

<f>=Trl2
R”
middle integral = — sin^0
(0=0 12 ’

i=2n
ttR^
outer integral =
12 I... 6 ■
For the denominator of (7) we have
/•2ir ^0=Tr/2 ^p=fi

I sin (f) dp d(f) do.

■'e=o •'<^=0 -'p=o
Then
p=/{
1 . .
inner integral = — p sm 0 sin 0,
5 p=o 5
0=7r/2
i? 5
middle integral = —— cos 0
5 0=0 5 ’ <

9=27r
27ri? =
outer integral, = — I = — ‘ o
2 tt =
5 -'@=0 5
Finally,

1
_ 6"^^ 5

The center of mass lies on the axis AB, five-twelfths of the way from A
to B.

Centroids If the density of a plane region R is constant, the center of mass

is called a centroid. In that case, the constant / may be pulled out of each
integral in (3) and (4) and cancels out, producing the centroid formula

(8) . J xdA
R
yd A
A r > / —
area of R area of R

Compare (8) with (3) of Section 12.1 to see that the coordinates of the
centroid are the averages andy coordinates ini?. Similarly, the coordinates
of the centroid of a solid region R are given by

xdV ydV zdV

J R - _ Jr Jr
(9)
volume of R ’ volume of R ’ volume of R

the average x, y and z coordinates in R.

408 • 12/Multiple Integrals

The centroid is a “geometric center” and in certain instances can be

identified by inspection. For example, the centroid of a solid sphere is its
center; the centroid of a rectangle is the intersection of its diagonals. On the
other hand, the centroid of a solid hemisphere or a triangle is not obvious,
but can be found with integrals.

Problems for Section 12.8

1. In Section 6.2 we found the centroid of a hemispherical solid of radius R

using a single integral. Do it again using a triple ihtegral.
2. Find the centroid of (a) a solid cone of radius R and height h (b) a semi¬
circular region with radius R.
3. Express with integrals the centroid of (a) the solid polar cap of radius 2 in
a sphere of radius 6 (b) a right triangle with sides 3,4,5.
4. Express with integrals the center of mass of
(a) a semicircular region of radius 2 if the density at a point is proportional to
the square of the distance to the center;
(b) a solid cylinder of radius R and height h if the density at a point is propor¬
tional to (i) the distance to the top of the cylinder (ii) the distance to the
axis of the cylinder.

REVIEW PROBLEMS FOR CHAPTER 12

1. Consider Jx^ydA over the region inside the circle — 2 and under
the line y = 1.

(a) Set it up in rectangular coordinates using both orders of integration.

(b) Set it up in polar coordinates.
(c) Without doing any calculating, decide whether the integral is positive,
negative or zero.

2. If the regions Ri and R2 are congruent (same size and shape) will
iR\f{x,y)dA and //?2 f{x,y)dA be equal?
3. Express with a double integral the area of the region bounded by y = x^ and
y = X -l- 2.
4. Find fe~'‘^~^^dA over the exterior of a circle with center at the origin and
radius 3.
5. The cost per square foot of land in a community is proportional to its
distances to the (noisy) airport runways and, in particular, is the product of the two
distances. Find the cost of the wedge of land in Fig. 1 with radius 2, bordering on
the two runways.
6. Let R be the solid bounded by z = 16 — y^ and the planes z = 0, x = 0,
X == 3. Set up /ft f(x,y,z)dV three ways, using the three projections of R.
7. Set up jR f{x,y,z)dV over the solid bounded by z = 4 — x^ — y^ and
FIG.I z = 4 - 2y.
8. Find j SdA (easily) over the circular region with center at (tt, V?) and ra¬
dius 9.
9. Express with (a) a double integral and (b) a triple integral the volume
above the x,y plane inside the cylinder x^ + y^ = 4 and under the paraboloid
z = 10 - 3x^ - 3yF
10. If a particle with mass m is at distance d from a line then its moment of
inertia as it revolves about the line is md^. Eind the moment of inertia of a solid
sphere of radius R and mass density 8 if it revolves about a diameter.
APPENDIX
/

A1 Distance and Slope

Distance The distance between the points and {x2,y2) is

(1) V(X2 - Xi)^ + (3I2 - 311)^

If A = (2,7) and B = (5,1) then distance AB is V(5 - 2)^ + (1 “ 7)^, or
V45.

Slope If a nonvertical line contains points and {x2,y2), its slope m is

given by

change in y _ y2 ~ y\
(2)
change in x X2 — x/

13 - 1
If a line passes through (-1,1) and (5,13) then m = = 2 or.
5 - (-1)
• , , 1-13 ^
equivalently, m = —;-- = 2.
—1 — 5
A line with positive slope rises to the right; a line with negative slope
falls to the right (Fig. 1). If a line is horizontal, that is, parallel to the x-axis,
then its slope is 0. If a line is vertical, that is, parallel to the y-axis, the
formula in (2) cannot be applied because it results in a zero in the denomi¬
nator, and we say that the line has no slope.
Two nonvertical lines are parallel if and only if they have the same
slope. Two nonvertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the product

FI6.
409
410 • Appendix

of their slopes is -1, that is, their slopes are negative reciprocals, such as |
and —
The angle d (taken between 0° and 180°) that a line makes with the
horizontal is called its angle of inclination (Fig. 1). The slope m and angle 6
are related by
(3) ^ m - tan 6.

If a line is inclined at an angle of 100° then m = tan 100° = -5.67.

Problems for Section A1

1. Find the slope of line AB and the distance between A and B if

(a) A = (-2,-3), fi = (4,-1) (b) A = (4,5), B = (6,5)

(c) A = (1,3),B = (-1,2)

2. LetA = (2,2),B = (1,4),C = (5,1),Z) - (-3,y). Find y so that the lines AB

and CD are (a) perpendicular (b) parallel.

g'Ayi5
A
A2 Equations of Lines
--UN£y=3
Horizontal and Vertical lines The graph of an equation of the form
I- X = c, where c is a fixed constant, is a line parallel to the y-axis. Similarly,
y = c is a line parallel to the x-axis (Fig. 1).

The point-slope form of the equation of a line The line with slope m and
UNE passing through the point (xo,yo) has equation
yc~-~X
(1) y ~ Jo = '•nix - Xo).
For example, the line through (-2,5) with slope -3 has equation y - 5 =
-3(x + 2), or 3x + y = -1.
As another example, consider the line determined by the two
1 - 7
points (2,7) and (5,1). Then m = ^ _ ^ = -2 and, by (1), using the

point (2,7), the equation of the line is y - 7 = -2(x - 2). Alternatively,

using the point (5,1) in (1), the equation of the line isy - 1 = -2(x - 5).
Both equations simplify to 2x + y = 11.

Intercepts The x-intercept of a line, usually denoted by a, is the

x-coordinate of the point where the line crosses the x-axis. Similarly, the
y-intercept, called b, is the y-coordinate of the point where the line crosses
the y-axis. Figure 2 shows a line with a = 2 and b — 1.

The slope-intercept form of the equation of a line An equation of the line

with slope m and y-intercept b is

(2) y = mx + b.

If a line has slope 6 and y-intercept —7 then an equation of the line is

y = 6x — 7.

The intercept form of the equation of a line An equation of the line with
x-intercept a and y-intercept b is
 A3 Circles, Ellipses, Hyperboles and Parabolas • 411

(3)

If a line has x-intercept 2 and ))-intercept 5 then an equation of the line is

x/2 + yjh = 1, or 5x + 2y = 10.

The general form of the equation of a line The equations in (l)-(3) can
be rewritten in the form
(4) Ax + By + C = 0,
called general form. All lines, and only lines, have equations of this form.

Example 1 Find the intercepts of the line 2x + 3y — 4 = 0.

Solution: If y = 0 then x = 2, so the x-intercept is 2. If x = 0 then
y = I, so the y-intercept is |.

Example 2 Find the slope of the line 4x + 3y + 2 = 0.

Solution: Rewrite the equation as y = -|x - f, its slope-intercept
form. By inspection, the slope if — | (and the y-intercept is — f).

Example 3 Sketch the graph of x + 2y — 2 = 0.

Solution: The x-intercept is 2 (set y = 0) and the y-intercept is 1 (set
X = 0). This gives enough information for the sketch in Fig. 2.

Problems for Section A2

1. Find an equation of the line

(a) determined by the points (1,5) and (7, -2)

(b) through the point (1,7) and parallel to the line 2y - 6x - 7 - 0
(c) through the point (-2,8) and perpendicular to the line y = 3x - 7
(d) perpendicularly bisecting the line segment AB if A = (1,3) and B -
(-3,5)
(e) with x-intercept 6 and slope 4
(f) through the point (1,7) and perpendicular to the line x/3 -1- y/6 = 1
(g) through the point (2,6) and parallel to the x-axis

2. Find the slope of the line with equation

(a) 2x — 5y + 8 = 0 (b) x/3 -t- y/4 = 1

3. Sketch the graph of

(a) X — 3y = 4 (b) y = 2x + 1

A3 Circles, Ellipses, Hyperbolas and Parabolas

The circle An equation of the circle with center at the origin and radius
r is
(1) x^ + y^ = .

More generally, an equation of the circle with center at the point (xo,yo) and
radius r is
(2) (x - xo)^ + (y - yo)^ =
For example, the circle with center (4,-2) and radius 3 has equation
(x - Af + (y + 2f = 9.
412 • Appendix

The ellipse Let A, B and C be positive, with A B. The graph of an

equation of the form

(3) Ax'^ + By^ = C

is an ellipse centered at the origin. For example, consider the ellipse

+ 3))2 = 12. To help sketch the graph, plot the intercepts: if x = 0 then
y = ±2, and if)i = 0 then x = ±V6 (Fig. 1).

The hyperbola Let A, 5 and C be positive. The graph of an equation of

the form

(4) - By'^ = C

or

(5) Ay^ — Bx^ — C

is a hyperbola. For example, consider 2x^ — Sy^ = 12. If x =0 then there

is no corresponding y since —Sy^ = 12 is impossible. If y = 0 then
X = ±V6. Figure 2 shows the graph. As another example, consider

2y^ - 3x^ = 12. If X = 0 then y = ±V6, but if y = 0 there is no cor¬

f\G.l responding value of X. Figure 3 shows the graph.

The parabola The graph of an equation of the formy = ax^ or x = oy^ is

a parabola. Figure 4 shows the four possibilities. For example, the graph of
X = — 3y^ is shown in Fig. 5.

Problems for Section A3

Sketch the graph.

FI6.3 1. 3x" + = 6 2. 3x^ - y^ - 6 3. y" - 3x" = 6 4. y = -3x"

5. X = —40y^ 6. y = ^x^ 7. x = 3y^

A4 The Binomial Theorem

The binomial theorem describes the expansion of (x + y)" where n is

a positive integer. To begin, we have

(x + y)^ = x^ + 2xy + y^,

(x + y)^ = x^ + 3x^y + 3xy^ + y^,

(x + y)^ = x^ + 4x^y + 6x^y^ -I- 4xy^ -I- y^.

 A5 Determinants • 413

In each term of the expansion of {x + )))", the sum of the exponents is n and
the coefficient pattern can be obtained from a device called Pascal’s triangle:

1 5 10 10 5 1

etc.

According to the triangle,

(x + 3))^ = + 5x^3 + 10x^3^ + 10x^3* + 6x3^ + 3^.

In general,

n(n - 1) ^ n{n - 1) (n - 2) __„_3 3

(x + 3)" = x" + nx"~^3 + ■x"""3" + ■X 3'
2! 3!
+ ... + n(n - 1) (n - 2) • • • 2 • 1

n!

where, for example, 5! means 5x4x3x2x 1. For instance, in the

8 * 7 * G
expansion of (x + 3)®, the coefficient of the term x^3^ is -=

8 • 7 •6 8 • 7•6• 5 •4
56; the coefficient of the term x^3^ is = 56. The
3 • 2 • 1 5!
two coefficients are equal and, in general, the coefficient of x'x^ in (1) is
the same as the coefficient of x^y'. In other words, the coefficients at the
end of the expansion match the coefficients at the beginning, as Pascal’s
triangle illustrates.

Problems for Section A4

1. Expand (x + 3)^.
2. Expand {2p + q)*.
3. Find the coefficient of x®3“ in the expansion of (x + 3)’'*.
4. Expand (1 — x)®.
5. Find the coefficient of x®3^ in the expansion of (x + 3)”.

A5 Determinants

Evaluating a 2-by-2 determinant The symbol |“ ^1 is called a 2-by-2 deter¬

minant, and its value is given by

a b
(1) = ad —be.
c d
For example,

2
= (2)(3) - (5)(4) = 6 - 20 = -14.
4

Evaluating an n X n determinant Every entry in the array has a cofactor

obtained as follows. Find the minor determinant of the entry by deleting
that entry’s row and column and attach a sign according to the location of
the entry in the following checkerboard pattern:

+ - + - +

- + - + -•••

(2) + - + - +

12 7 8
4 3 19
For example, consider . The cofactor of the entry 7 in row 1,
5 2 9 6
8 13 7
4 3 9
column 3 is + 5 2 6 (omit row 1 and column 3 from the original and
8 1 7
choose the sign in row 1, column 3 of (2)). The cofactor of the entry 1 in
1 2 8
row 2, column 3 is — 5 2 6 .
8 1 7
To evaluate a 3 X 3 determinant, pick any row (or column). Then

det = first entry in that row x its cofactor

+ second entry in that row x its cofactor
+ third entry in that row x its cofactor.

For example, using the first row for the expansion, we have

10 2 3
5 6 4 5
4 5 6 + 10 + 3 -27.
8 9 7 8
7 8 9 ' ly ' — ■ ' 'V

-3 -3

This method is referred to as expanding across the first row. For the same
determinant, by expanding down the second column we have

10 2 3
4 6 10 3 10 3
4 5 6 = -2 + 5 - 8 = -27
7 9 7 9 4 6
7 8 9
-6 69 48

A similar method holds for an n X n determinant. Again, pick any row

(or column). The determinant is the sum of entries of that row, each mul¬
tiplied by its corresponding cofactor.
For example, using the last column, we have
 A5 Determinants • 415

12 3 0
1 2 3 1 2 3
1-13 2
= +2 0 1 2 - 3 1 -1 3
0 12 3
2 1 4 2 1 4
2 14 0
Now work on each 3x3 minor determinant. If we expand the first one
down column 1 and the second one across row 1 we have

1 2 1 3 1 -1
det = 21 + 2 + 3
1 4 12/ \ 14 2 4 2 1
= 2(2 + 2) - 3(-7 + 4 + 9) = -10.

Some properties of determinants 1. If two rows, or two columns,

are interchanged, the sign of the determinant is changed. For ex-
a b c
ample, if d e f = — 7, then, after interchanging rows 1 and 3, we have
g h i
g h i
d e f = 7.
a b c
2. Multiplying a row or a column by a number will multiply the entire
determinant by that number. For example, if the second row is tripled then
the new determinant is three times the old determinant. In other words

a b c a b c
(3) U Se 3/ = 3 d e f
g h i g h i

Equation (3) may be thought of as a factoring rule which allows a common

factor to be pulled out of a row or a column.
3. If a row or a column consists entirely of zeros, then the determinant
is 0.
4. If two rows, or two columns, are identical, then the determinant is
a b c
0. For example, d e f = 0.
a b c
5. If one row is a multiple of another row, or one column is a multiple
1 2 5
of another column, then the determinant is 0. For example, 3 6—1
7 14 77
0 because the second column is a multiple of the first column.

Problems for Section A5

2 -3
1. Evaluate
4 5

10 2 3
2. Find 4 5-6 by expanding (a) across row 2 (b) down column 3.
1 -3 7
 1-1 3 4
0 3 0 1
3. Find by expanding down column 3.
2 10 3
1 1-12

A6 Polar Coordinates

The polar coordinate system locates points using two coordinates

named r and 6. The coordinate r is the distance from a point to the origin,
and 6 is the angle used in trigonometry which measures counterclockwise
rotation from the positive x-axis (Fig. 1). In applications, the coordinate r is
never negative, and is 0 only at the origin.! As in trig, a positive 6 describes
counterclockwise rotation while a negative 9 describes a clockwise rotation.
Figure 2 shows the point with polar coordinates r = 2, 9 — 120°. The same
point also has coordinates r = 2, 9 = —240°; r = 2, 9 = 480°; and so on.
The graph of the equation r = 3 is a circle with center at the origin and
radius 3. The graph of 0 = 45° is a ray from the origin inclined at angle 45°.
Polar coordinate graph paper contains a collection of circles (where r = Tq)
and rays (where 9 = 9o) as an aid to graphing (Fig. 3).

Connection between rectangular and polar coordinates In Fig. 1, by

definition of sine and cosine, cos 9 = xfr and sin 9 = yjr. So

(1) X = r cos 9, y = r sin 9.

For example, if r = 2 and 9 = 120° then x = 2 cos 120° = 2 x —5 = — 1

and y = 2 sin 120° = 2 x ^VS = VS.

tMathematicians are sometimes reluctant to allow a pair such as r = — 2, 6 = 30°, to

remain unplotted because of the negative value of r, and adopt the following convention. Find
the ray where 6 = 30° but instead of moving distance 2 along that ray, move “backwards,” i.e.,
along the ray 6 = 210°, as shown in the figure.

In a rectangular coordinate system it is crucial to plot with negative values of x and y as

well as positive values since otherwise points outside of quadrant I will have no coordinates.
On the other hand, in polar coordinates it may be satisfying to invent a meaning for negative
r but it is not crucial in the sense that point A in the figure already has the coordinates r = 2,
d = 210°. When polar coordinates are used in mathematics and in applied work, invariably, r
is taken to be nonnegative.
 A6 Polar Coordinates • 417

To find equations which try to express r and 6 in terms of x and y, use

the definition of tan d ns y/x in Fig. 1, and the fact that r is the distance
from {x,y) to the origin, to get

(2) r = Vx^ + = x^ + y^, tan 6 = —.

X

Sometimes tan 6 = y/x is written as 0 = tan"*y/x but this is correct only if

tan *y/x is loosely interpreted in a nonfunction sense to mean an angle
whose tangent is y/x. But mathematicians and calculators don’t think this
way, and you will not necessarily get 6 by pushing the tan“‘ button on a
calculator. Officially, tan~^y/x stands for the angle between -90° and 90°
whose tangent is y/x, and 6 might not be in this range. For example,
suppose X = -4 and y = -5 (Fig. 4). Then r = Vl6 + 25 = Vil. Fur¬
thermore, tan"^y/x = 1.25, which a calculator gives as approximately 51°.
But there are other angles whose tangent is 1.25 since the tangent function
repeats every 180°; the one we want, in quadrant 111, is 51° + 180° or 231°.
In general, to find 6, first find tan“'y/x; this is 6 immediately if the point
lies in quadrants I or IV, but you must add 180° if the point lies in
quadrants II or III. (Many calculators have a button distinct from the tan~*
button which produces 6 directly, given x and y.)
We can use (1) to switch equations of curves from rectangular to polar
coordinates. For example, the line x -h 3y = 4 has polar coordinate equa¬
tion r cos 0 -f 3r sin 0 = 4.

Graphs in polar coordinates Consider the equation r = sin 6. To draw its

graph in polar coordinates, begin with a table of values:

e 0 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° <-> 360°

r 0 1
2 |V2 \Vl 1 |V3
1
2 0 negative 0

Plot points (Fig. 5) until a pattern emerges. If 180° < 6 < 360°, r is negative
and we do not plot any points. The table stops at 0 = 360° because at this
stage further entries do not produce new points. For example, if 0 = 390°
then r = \ which describes the same point as 0 = 30°, r = | already in the
table. The graph resembles a circle and we can show that it is indeed a circle
by switching to rectangular coordinates. Use (1) and (2) to substitute in
418 • Appendix

r = sin 0 to get

Vx^ +
y
Vx^ + y'^ ’

or x^ +3)^ = y. Complete the square to get x^ + (3 ~ W — ^ circle with

center at (0,|) and radius f.
As another example, consider r = 2 sin 3 0. As 0 increases from 0° to
30°, 30 increases from 0° to 90°, sin 30 increases from 0 to 1 and r increases
from 0 to 2. As 0 increases from 30° to 60°, 30 increases from 90° to 180°
and r decreases from 2 back to 0, completing a thin loop (see quadrant I
in Fig. 6). For 0 between 60° and 120°, r is negative and no points are
plotted. As 0 increases from 120° to 150°, and then to 180°, r increases from
0 to 2, and then decreases to 0 again, completing another loop (see quad¬

rant 11 in Fig. 6). For 0 between 180° and 240°, r is negative, and we do not
plot any corresponding points. As 0 increases from 240° to 270°, and then
to 300°, r increases from 0 to 2, and then decreases to 0 again for still a third
loop. Finally, for 0 between 300° and 360°, r is negative and we have no
points. Figure 6 shows the final graph, a 3-leaved rose.

Problems for Section A6

1. Find X and y if

FIG.6 (a) r = 3, 0 = 60°

(b) r = 2, 0 = 90°
(c) r = 3, 0 = -7r/4
(d) r = 2, 0 - 0

2. Find r and 0 if

(a) X = 2, 3 = 4 (d) X = 0, 3 = -3
(b) X = -2,3 = —4 (e) X = -2,3 = 4
(c) X = -3, 3 = -3

3. Find the equation of the line x == 3 in polar coordinates.

4. Plot the points where

(a) 2 ^ r < 3 (b) tt/G ^ 0 tt/2 (c) < r b and tt/A < d < tt

5. Show that the distance between the points ri, 0i and r?, 0? is
VT + ri - 2rir2 cos(02 - 0i) (a) by switching to rectangular coordinates (b) di¬
rectly with the law of cosines.
6. Sketch the graph

(a) r = 2 - 2 sin 0 (d) r = 4 sin \ 0

(b) r == 2 cos 30 {e) r — 6
(c) r^ = 4 sin 20
Solutions
to the
Problems
 wjl.

n •
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'X'-vJl '-KTi. T 4' rottv

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t V m ■'* ^
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f • \t ,• '■ 14.'» - i|>'«|A4. * I* ■ r » ■ f f‘ti‘ ' 4 3**J Sfri^
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'4 i V -^pt I*!
r>-

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 Solutions to the Problems • 421

1/FUNCTIONS
0

Section 1.1 (page 4)

1. (a) /(O) = 2 - 0^ = 2
6. The number of passengers over 200 is / - 200,
price per ticket is 300 - ip - 200), so A =
p[300 - ip - 200)] = 500p - /" for 200 </ < 350.
(b) /(I) = 2-1" = 2-1 = 1
(c) 2-(fcy = 2--6«
(d) 9
(e) 4
(f) (ft*-3)" Section 1.2 (page 9)
(g) g{h) = {b- 3)" so [gib)T = [(6 - 3)"]^ = {b- Sf
(h) 2 - (2a + 6)" 1. (See figs.) (a) Line through the origin with slope 2;
(i) Range of / contains all numbers less than or increasing, one-to-one, continuous.
equal to 2, i.e., range is the interval (—<», 2]. (b) X+ |xl is 2x if X ^ 0, and is 0 if x < 0, con¬
Range of g is [O.oo) since g produces all, and tinuous.
only, non-neg numbers. (c) |xl/x is 1 if X > 0, and is —1 if x < 0, disc at
2. (a) /(-7) = l-7|/(-7) = 7/(-7) = -l,/(3) = 1 X = 0, continuous otherwise.
(b) X ^ 0 (d) For example/(7) = 7,/(2) = 3. In general,/(x)
(c) Range contains only 1 and —1. is X if X s 3, and is 3 if x <3, continuous.
(d) /(2 + 3) =/(5) = 1, /(2) = 1, /(3) = 1,
/(2) + /(3) = 2. No!
(e) /(-2 + 6) =/(4) = 1, /(-2) = -1, /(6) = 1,
/(-2) +/(6) = 0. No!
(f) No! Parts (d) and (e) illustrate what happens
when a and b are both positive, and when one is
positive and the other negative. If both a and b
are negative then f{a + b) = /(neg) = -1, PROBLEfVl PROBLEM I (b)
f{a) + f{b) = — 1 + — 1 = —2; still not equal.
3. (a) 1,-1 (b) All integers (c) 0,1
(d) To get fixed points, needx such thatx" + 4 = x,
x" — X + 4 = 0. But equation has no real solu¬
tions so there are no fixed points.
4. /(a") = 2a" + 1, (/(a))" = (2a + 1)". To see if they
are ever equal solve 2a" + 1 = (2a + 1)",
2a" + 4a = 0, 2a(a + 2) = 0, a = 0, -2. So -P-l
/(a") = (/(a))" iff (if and only if) a =0,-2.
5. (a) /(/(x))=/(x^) = (xY = x® PROBLEM 1(c)
(b) Int(Int x) simplifies to plain Int x because after
the first Int is taken, the result is an integer and
that integer is unchanged by the second Int. 2.
(c) /(/(x)) =/(-x + 1) = -(-X + 1) + 1 = X,
• --I • •
f if (fix))) = /(last answer) =/(x) = -x + 1,
f if if (fix)))) =/(last answer) =/(-x + 1)
-•-IP-•-1
= —(—X + 1) + 1 = X -X -I I R 3 ^
'3
In general, if there are an even number of/’s used suc¬
cessively then the result is x. If there are an odd number
of /’s then the result is -x + I. PROBLEM X
422 • Solutions to the Problems

3. (a) /(-I) == 0 since (-1,0) is on the graph,/(O) == 2, 8. (See figs.)

/(6) = 2. (a) Symmetric w.r.t. (with respect to) y-axis
(b) 31 is 4 when x is a little larger than 1, and again
when X is about 4.
(c) X < -1 (since the graph lies below the x-axis
when X < — 1)
4. Decreases
5. (a) Probably not, since the rate usually jumps at
certain weights.
(b) Yes
6. (a) Graph lies above the x-axis.
(b) Graph lies above the line y - x. (See fig.) (b) Symmetric w.r.t. the origin.

P(^0gL£M 6(b)

7.
9. Line has slope 3, equy — 2 - 3(x — l),y = 3x — 1.
So/(x) = 3x — 1.
10. (a) Doesn’t move. Remains at one point forever.
(b) Moves to the right at 1 mph. (See fig.)

-1-1-1-1-'-1——z-—

^3 'Z 'I 0 I ^ ^

problem 10(b)

(c) Moves to the left; as time increases, position

decreases.
(d) Stays to the right of the 0 position on the line.
(See fig.)

0
problem 10 W

Section 1.3 (page 18)

1. (a) 77/5 X I8O/77 = 36° (b) | x 180 = 150°

(c) -60°
2. (a) 12 X ^77 = Y577 (b) —77/2 (c) ■i§§77 = §77
3. (a) sin 210° = -sin 30° =
(b) cos 377 = cos 77 = — 1
(c) tan 77/4 = 1
 Solutions to the Problems • 423

5. (a) -sinx = -a (b) cosy = b (c) —a (d) —b

(e) (f) Can’t do.
6.

Us
problem 6(<r)
problem 6(b)

7.
Problem li-(b)

PROBLEM 7 (t’)

Section 1.4 (page 23)

1. /-74) = 3,/-'(2)-5
2. (a) X + 3 (b) Not 1-1, no inverse (c) l/x, i.e.,
function is its own inverse since the reverse of taking
reciprocal is to take reciprocal again, (d) —x (reverse of
negating is to negate again)
3. If = 2x - 9 then x = j(y + 9) so
r\x) = !(»: + 9).
424 • Solutions to the Problems

,4. 17 (a) In 2 + In 3 = a + i
5. An increasing function must be 1-1 so has an inverse. (b) In 2" == 3 In 2 = 3a
Inverse is increasing: since / increases, as x goes up, y (c) |ln 3 = \b
goes up also. So in reverse, if y goes up, x goes up. (d) In 3" == 4 In 3 = 46
Alternatively, if a curve rises to the right then its reflec¬ (e) -In 2 = —a
tion in line y - x also rises to the right. (f) In 3 - \n2 - b - a
.
6 True. If the/ graph is unbroken, its reflection is also (g) a + b V

unbroken. (h) ab
7. (a) Not unless is restricted to x s 0. (b) Yes (i) ajb
8. (a) Itt since cos iv — 0 and
177.
(b) 0
is between

(c) Not possible since there is no 6 such that

sin 0 = 2; sines are between -1 and 1.
tt and (j)
(k)
22
3 In 2 = 3a
(a) x + ‘5 > 0, X > -3/2
(b) sin 77X > 0, —2 < X < —1, 0 < X
< X < 3, etc.
,

(d) 150° since cos 150° == -|V3and 150° is between (c) All X

o'

A
(d) In X >

X
0° and 180°.
(e) -60° (e) In In X: > 0, In X > 1, X > e

1
(f) In In In X > 0, In In x > 1, In x :
(f) 45°
(g) -45° exp on both sides again), x > e‘
9. Just under tt/2, where tangents are very large. -ln(V2 - )
10. (a) False. As a counterexample, sin 277 = 0 but 1
= In
sin“‘0 is not 277. -1 + V2
(b) True. 1 -1 - V2
11. (a) Choose —^77 < 770 s ^77, —5 < 0 < |. Then
2(z — 3) = sin 770, 770 = sin“‘2(z — 3),
-1 + V2 -1 - V2.
(rationalize denominator)
0 = (I/77) sin“‘2(z — 3)
= ln(l + V2)
(b) Choose 0 20 - 377 ^ 77, 577 :£ 0 ^ §77. Then
6. (a) True, because In is 1-1.
cos^'-gx = 20 - 577, 0 = |(cos"*|x -I- 577).
(b) True, because exp is 1-1.
12. An even function can’t have an inverse since it is not
l-l;/(3) = /(—3) for instance. An odd function may have
(c) False; sin 0 = sin 277 but 0 ^ 277.
7. {e^ 21n3-ln2\l/3 — \e e K )
an inverse (sine does not, x® does). If an odd function / _ .3
does have an inverse then/“‘ is also odd: the graph of
In 1/2) 1/3 ^
= vTvTs
an odd function is characterized by symmetry w.r.t. the 8. ^ gln2« ^ 2*
origin. After reflection in the line y = x the curve still is
9. Car “starts” at the origin and moves right, slowly at
symmetric w.r.t. the origin.
first and then faster. (See fig.)

—f-^ - f-i-1- ••• -1-1-

-I 0 I z 3 ^ /o
Section 1.5 (page 28)
problem ^
.
1 (a) is very large, —is negatively large, e~^° =
1/e*® is near 0. So in order, -e*®, e“*®, e‘® .
10 (a) = I,
-X = In X = —In = In I, I I
(b) The larger the exponent on e, the larger the (b) 2x + 7 = e-\ X = - 7)
result. So in order, e~^, e~^, e® (c) No solution. e’‘ is never neg. Can’t say solution is
(c) e’ > e® so -e’ < —e® X = ln(-5) since there is no In of a neg number.
2. (a) 7 (d) e~^ < X <
(b) 4 (e) 2x + 7 > In 5, X > i(ln 5-7)
(c) gin 26 = 64 (f) In X = —4, X —
(d) In = 1 (g) —X — X — —e*
gln(l/2)-l ^ ^ln2 _ 2
(e) (h) 5x + 3 = 2x, X = — 1
(f) e’e””* = 4e (i) In X — e~^, X =
gln.+lny ^ g^nx ^Iny ^
(g) (j) e’‘ = sin 77/6 = f, X = In f
 Solutions to the Problems • 425

(k) In x'* + In 2x = 3, In 2x® = 3, 2x® = /(-lO) which is .16 - .054). In (-x,0),/is neg
since /(-I) = 16 - 54. In (0,°°), / is positive
(l) 5x — 3 = 2x, X = 1 since /(I) = 16 + 54. Solution is x
< or
(m) 5x + 3 = 2x, X = -1. Impossible since In 2x X > 0.
doesn’t exist if x = — l.^o solutions. (b) Problem is l/2x + 9/(6x + 4) - 3 < 0. Let
(n) In x(x + 1) = 2, x(x + 1) = e^, + 2x - ^ fix) = l/2x + 9/(6x + 4) - 3. First find where
0,X -1(-2 ± V4T4?) = -1 ± vrr?. / is zero. Solve l/2x + 9/(6x + 4) == 3,
But X and x + I must be positive. So only solu¬ 6x + 4 + 18x = 6x(6x + 4), 36x^ = 4, x = ±|.
tion is — 1 -I- Vl + e^. / is discontinuous at x = 0, -f where/ isn’t de¬
(o) X = —X, X = 0 fined. Now look in between. On (—<», -|)/ is neg
(p) X =0 (impossible) or In x = 0, solution is x = 1 (test X = -100 for instance). On (-|, -|)/ is pos
(q) ^’’(x -t- 2) = 0, e’‘ is never 0, so solution is (test X = -5 for instance). On {—j, 0)/ is neg, on
X = -2. (0,1) / is pos, on (i, 00) / is neg. Solution to the
(r) e’‘ is never 0 so must have In x = 0, x = 1. given inequality isx<-for -|<x<0or
(s) 25 = 10 -I- 5 In 3x, In 3x = 3, 3x = e^, x = X 3.

11. In ^V2 - In I + In V2 = -In 2 + In 2^'^ = (c) l/(x^ — 4) is discontinuous when x= 2, —2;

-In 2 + 5 In 2 = -f In 2 never is 0. Function is pos in (-<», -2), neg in
12. If In r = -I InV then In 7 = In T = (—2,2) and pos in (2,°°). Solution is x< —2 or
TV^'^ - 1. So is constant (namely, always 1). X > 2.
13. (In x) (4 + 2 In x) = 0, In x = 0 or 4 + 2 In x = 0,
X = 1 or In X = —2, solutions are 1, e~^.
14. (a) True (b) False (What is true is that = e‘.)
15. In I is a neg number since 5 < 1. Dividing by In ^
reverses the inequality and produces 2 > 1. Section 1.7 (page 37)

Section 1.6 (page 31)

1. (a) / is discontinuous at x = 3 (where / isn’t de¬

fined) and/ is 0 when 10 — lOx^ = 0, x = +1.
Look at intervals (—<», — 1), (— 1,1), (1,3), (3, <»);
/(—2) is neg so/ is neg on (—<», -1); /(O) is pos
so / is pos on (—1,1); /(2) is neg so/ is neg on
(1,3); /(lO) is neg so/ is neg on (3,°°).
(b) / is discontinuous if x = 1 (where/ isn’t defined)
and / is 0 when x = — 1. Consider intervals
(—00, — 1), (—1,1), (1,“>) where the function is
/ contract
continuous and nonzero; /(—2) is pos so / is HORI ZCHTALlY
positive on (—<», — 1); /(O) is neg so/ is negative
on (-1,1); /(2) is pos so/ is positive on (1,°°).
(c) / is never discontinuous. Equ x^ - X + 2 = 0
has no real solutions, so f is never 0. So on the PgOBLEn \{^)
interval (—°o,0°), / has one sign; /(O) is pos so/
is pos in (—°°, °o).
(d) No fancy theory necessary, e* is always positive
so fraction takes sign of denominator and is pos
in (0,<»), neg in (—<», 0).
(e) Never discontinuous, zero if x = —3,2.
/(-lOO) is positive so/ is positive in (-0°,-3).

2 /(O) = -6 so/ is neg in (—3,2); /(lOO) is pos so

/ is pos in (2, <»).
. (a) / is discontinuous at x = 0 and is 0 if 16x +
54 = 0, X = -¥• In (-°o, -t), f is pos (test
426 • Solutions to the Problems

(b) Reflect that part of In x which is below the

axis, and keep the rest.
(c) e'‘ is always positive so graph is just y = e*.
(d) g'*' is e* if X ^0 and is if x < 0.
(e) ln|x| is In X if X > 0 and is In(-x) if x < 0.

FmLffA ^(c)

PP.OBLEK)

5.

REFLECT IN

3. (a) :y = 2(x + 2)’ + (2[x + 2] + 3)®

(b) y = 2x^ + (2x + 3)® - 5
4. (See figs.) (a) To make y’s pos, keep that part of the
sin X graph where 31 > 0 and reflect the other
part in the x-axis.

PROBLEM
 Solutions to the Problems • 427

2. (a) Plot points.

X

y
0

0
1.3

1.3
22..88 3

0
3.7

.7 2.6
5.6 6 0
(b) [0,3)
(c) Not 1-1, no inverse.
(d) Forexample,/(10) = land/(/(10)) =/(l) = 1.
In general,/(/(x)) =/(x); i.e., second applica¬
tion of/ has no further effect.

6. The square (similarly cube) of a number between 0

and 1 is smaller than the original number. The cube root
of a number between 0 and 1 is larger than the original.
(See fig.)

3. (a) f{x) = X, graph is line y = x.

(b) / is 1-1, graph passes a horizontal line test.
(c) Graph is periodic, repeats every 7 units. (See fig.)

-+

PROBLEM

4.
Chapter 1 Review Problems (page 38)

1. (a) Vo = 3
(b) Defined for x ^ 5. Range is [0, oo).
(c) f(a^) = V5 - a", (f(a)f = = 5 - a
(d) / is half of parabola x = 5 — y^. (See fig.)

6
5. -45“
. (a) - 3x + 4, X - - 4)
(b) y - 4 - e®*, ln(y - 4) - 3x, x = | ln(y - 4)
428 • Solutions to the Problems

'7.

PROBLEM 7(3)

co5h %

PROBLEM 7 U)
(b) cosh^x — sinh^x = \{e’‘ + e — \{e'‘ — e
= + 2 + g-"") - - 2 + g-"") = I + i
= 1
 Solutions to the Problems • 429

9. (a) ln[x/(2x - 3)] = 4, x/{2x - 3) = x - when X == 0,3 and is 0 if x - 3 = 4x, x = -1;

- 3e^x(2^‘‘ - 1) = 3e^x = 3^7(2^“ - 1) /(-100) is neg so/ is neg in (-oo, -1); f{-\) is

0
(b) X < e ®
pos so/ is pos in (-1,0); /(2) is neg so/ is neg
(c) < -4. No solutions since e’‘ is never less than in (0,3); /(lO) is pos so/ is pos in (3,<»). Solu¬
. Solution is not x < In^—4) since there is no In tion is -1 < X < 0 or X > 3.
of -4.
10. = 5 X 9 = 45
(d) Let/(x) = l/(x — 3) — l/4x. / is discontinuous 11. ln(x/5x) = In 5 = -In 5

2/LIMITS

Section 2.1 (page 44) 5.

1. (a) 9 (Since x^ is continuous, just plug in x = 3.)

(b) 00
(c) 1 (Plug in X = 0 since cos x is continuous.)
(d) — 2 77(Left half of tan~^x graph has asymptote PROBLEM ^(a)
y = -577; see Fig. 7, Section 1.4.)
(e) For example, (1)“’'’“° is very near 0. Limit is 0.
(f) See fig. It shows fictitious points 577+ (where
tan is —00) and Itt— (where tan is 00). Left-hand
and right-hand limits do not agree; no overall
limit as X —> I77.

6 .

PROBLEM 6 (a)
PROBLEM 1(f)

' j—^ INF PIJF

(g) 9 (Set X = 2 since function is continuous.)
2. For example, Int 2.99 = 2, Int 3.01 = 3. (a) As
X —> 3—, Int X remains 2 and limit is 2. (b) As x 3+, 3
Int X remains 3 and limit is 3.
3. See Problem Ic, Section 1.2. (a) —1(b) 1
4. (a) From Problem 1(f), limx_(i/2),r- tan x = 00
(b) Left-hand limit (as x (Itt)-) is 00, right-hand
limit (as x -> (-fTr)-!-) is -00. No (plain) limit. PROBLEM b{i)
430 • Solutions to the Problems

7. Yes if f is continuous and we find the limit by setting (c) 0 - (-00) = 00

a = 0. But no if / is discontinuous. In the diagram, (d) = 1
/(2) = 5 but asa->0, 2 + a-»2 and /(2 + a) -> 4. (e) In 1 = 0
(f) 1 /O. Examine denominator more carefully.
If X -> (-4)+, fraction is 1/0-1- = oo.
If X ^ (“4)-, fraction is 1/0- = -oo.
No limit as X -4 since left-hand and right-
hand limits disagree.
(g) 2 X 6 = 12
(h) = 0
(i) As X -» Itt, sin X 1- and fraction is
3/((l-) - 1) = 3/0- - -00.
(j) 00 X COS l/oo = 00 X COS 0 = 00 X 1 = 00
(k) 1/-00 = 0
8. lim*-^3-/(x) = <», limx-H.-=/(*) = 1 (or more specifi¬ 3. (See figs.) (a) 1/0-1- = oo
cally, 1+) (b) If X -> 0-I-, limit is 1/0-i- = oo.
9. (a) If X is near 65 then x is not a power of 10 and If X —> 0—, limit is 1/0- = —oo.
f{x) = I; so limit is 1. (c) If X —> 1 + , X® is larger than x, x - x* ^ 0-,
(b) If X is near, but not at, 100 then x is not a power limit is 2/0— = —oo.
of 10,/(x) = 1 and limit is 1. If X —> 1- then X® is smaller than x (cube of a
(c) No limit. Most/ values are 1, but as x -> <» there number between 0 and 1 is less than the num¬
are infrequent but persistent 0 values, / never ber), X - X® —» 0+, limit is 2/0-1- = oo.
settles down.
10. (See figs.) (a) No limit (violent oscillations).
(b) Limit is 0 (damped oscillations approaching the
x-axis asymptotically).

PROBLEM 3ia)

4. (See figs.)
(a) lim,_oo = €“"-2 = 0- 2= -2, lim„_-c» =
- 2 = 00 - 2 = 00. ifx = 0,y = 1 -2 = -1.
(b) lim*_,oo = 3-1- 2e°° = 3 -I- oo = oo, lim,t—-oo =
3 -E 0 = 3. Ifx = 0,y = 3 + 2 = 5.

Section 2.2 (page 47)

.
1 (a) 0 (b) -00 (c) 00 (d) 00 (e) 0 (f) = 1 (g) l/oo = 0
(h) 00 (i) 0 (j) -00
2. (a) (In 0+)^ = {-°°f = °°
(b) l/oo = 0 PROBLEM problem '^(b)
 Solutions to the Problems • 431

6
5. Lim^_.o+/(x) = = 00, lim;,^o-/(x) = = 0. In¬
finite discontinuity, not a point disc. Not removable.
. (a) If X —> 0-I-, then 1/x ^ <» and sin I/x oscillates
between 1 and -1.
(b) sin l/oo = sin 0 = 0 '
(c) Plot a few points to help. (See fig.)
FR03LBIV] I (^}
■X s'ln-k
T
TT 0 2. (a) lim(2x^/x^) = lim 2x^ = 00
1 i'lr (b) (32 + 6)/(4 + 5) = 38/9
'% -1
% 3. (a) lim(2/x®) = 2/oo = 0
'0
Ztt 0 (b) |. Examine denominator again.
1 Method /.■ If X is pos and near 0 then x^ is
0
3ir 0
larger than x^ x® - x^-^0- so lim,c^o+ =
ere.. 2/0- = -00. If X is neg and near 0 then x^
is neg, X® - x^ ^ 0- so lim*_o- = 2/0- = -00.
INPlNlTtLY many So lim,c-^o = —°o.
Method 2: lim(x® - x^) = lim x^(x - 1) =
0 X —1 = 0— so answer is 2/0— = —00.
(c) |. Look again. If x —» 1+ then x® is larger than
x^ X® - x^ —> 0+, lim = 2/0+ = 00. if ^ > 1-,
X® is smaller than x^, x® — x^—> 0 — , lim =
2/0— = —00. No limit as x —> 1.
4. (a) (highest power rule) lim(-4x®) = —00
(b) 4 - 32 = -28
5. (a) If X = 0 or X 0— orx = rrorx—»7r+ then
sin X is 0 or neg, and there is no In sin x.
(b) In sin 0+ = In 0+ = —00
Section 2.3 (page 51)
(c) In sin 77— = In 0+ = —00
6. limx.^00 =1 — e“=l—00=: —00,
1. (highest power rule) lim;t^oo(—x^) = — oo
limx^-» = 1 - e~^ =1-0=1.
2. (a) (highest power rule)
If X = 0 then y = 1 - 1 = 0. (See fig.)
lim,_oo = lim 2x®® = oo
(b) (plug in X = 0)
(c) (plug in X = 1)
3. (a) lim;t_>oo(x/—x) = lim(—1) = -1
(b) 1/0- = -00
(C) 1/0+ = 00
(d) lim(x/—x) = lim(-l) = -1
4. (a) lim(3x‘‘/x^) = lim 3 = 3
(b) If X is just less than 1 then x^ is smaller than x,
x^ - X ^ 0-, lim is 5/0— = -oo. 7.
5. lim(—xV2x^) = lim(—5) = —|
6. Temporarily get 0/0, but (x^ - 4)/(x - 2) =
(x — 2)(x + 2)/(x — 2) = X + 2. Limit is 4. fOINf PI56
7. lim(2x/3x^) = lim(2/3x) = 0 peFIME
TO REMiJVf-

I
' INF PI^C,
ProbleM 7(a 6- NOT RFM0'//>5I-F
Chapter 2 Review Problems (page 51)
\

1. (a) 0 cos 0 = 0 X 1=0

(b) 0+1 = 1
(c) Damped oscillations. Limit is 0. (See fig.)
(d) lim(2x/3x) = lim | = | problem 7
432 • Solutions to the Problems

3/THE DERIVATIVE PARTI

Section 3.2 (page 61) heights INtRE/VSe

5L0PES
1. Slope atA: — OisO, so/'(0) = 0. Atx = —100, curve
is falling gently so/'( -100) is a small neg number. Simi¬
larly /'(lOO) is small positive number. Slope at x = 2 is PROBLEM
positive and is the largest slope on the curve so/'(2) is
pos and the graph of/' peaks at x =2. (See fig.) (c) True. If curve repeats, slopes repeat.
(d) False. If / is even then its graph is symmetric
w.r.t. the y-axis. Slope at x = —2 for instance is
opposite, not equal to, slope at x = 2. In fact/'
is odd since/'(—x) = —fix). (See fig.)

PROBLEM I
2. If / increases, S decreases. Expect neg dS/dp.
-z X
3. Since derivative is negative, as t increases)) decreases.
Distance to top is decreasing so bucket is moving up, PROBLEM ^U)
2 feet per second.
4. If X increases, y increases. So if x decreases, y 10. Car’s speed at time 6 is > the speed limit at position
decreases. /(6) so |/'(6)| > L(/(6)) (notfiG) > L(6)).
5. (a) At age 13.7 you’re growing by 2 inches per year, fix + Ax) - fix) X -L Ax - X
so you’ll grow by about 2 inches per year x .3 11. (a) limA^c^o-1-= hm---
Ax Ax
year = .6 inches by age 14.
= lim 1 = 1
(b) The derivative is 2 at age 13.7 but might not stay
(b) The graph of / is the line y = x. Slope at any
2 between ages 13.7 and 14.
point is 1, so fix) = 1.
.
6 (a) [0,x + Ax] people — [0,x] people = number of
(c) If a particle on a line has position fit) at time t
people in [x,x + Ax].
then it is moving to the right at 1 mph. So
(b) Population density (people per mile) in the in¬
fit) = 1.
terval [x,x -I- Ax]
12. From given graph of g' read thatg'(x) is near 3 when
(c) Instantaneous population density at position x
X is —10 000, decreases to 0 when x = 0, then increases
(d) Population density can’t be negative.
again and —> 3 as x ^ 0°. So graph of g has slope near 3
7. (a) Brown’s salary increases twice as much as
at the left end, slope decreases to 0 and increases toward
Smith’s.
3 again. No information about heights on the graph of g.
(b) Brown increases only half as much as Smith.
(See fig.)
(c) Brown decreases at the same rate as Smith
increases.
(d) Brown doesn’t change. ^LOPh

8. Units on /'(x) are gallons per mile (not miles per

gallon), always positive. Van needs more gallons to go a
mile so/' is larger for van than for motorcycle.
9. (a) Sentence says that if two curves have same
height at X = 2 then they have the same slope.
False.
(b) False. Slopes need not increase even if heights
do increase. (See fig.) PROBLEM 12,
 Solutions to the Problems • 433

13. (a) Temp is rising by 6° per hour (bad). But the 6° Section 3.3 (page 69)
per hour figure is dropping by 4° per hour per
hour (good). 1. (a) 6x"
(b) Temp is dropping by 6“ per hour (good) and (b) = -6x-’ =
the —6° per hour figure is in the process of go¬ 8„1/7
(c) 7^
ing down still further, by 4° per hour per hour (d)
(better). (e) d{x~'^'^)/dx = -|x
(c) Temp isn’t changing. It’s staying hot. Ugh! 2„-1/3
(f) 3^
14. (a) Moving left at 4 mph, accelerating by 1 mph per (g) 0

2
hour. (h)
(b) Moving right at 5 mph, decelerating by 2 mph (i) 0
per hour. . 1/z
(c) Momentarily halted, but in the process of accel¬ 3. y' = 1
erating by 2 mph per hour. 4. fix) = 0
(d) Moving right at 2 mph, speed not changing at 5. sec^t
the moment. 6. (a) y' = l/x,y" = D^x'* = -x"^ = -1/x"
15. Graph rises on [2,8], falls on [8,10], concave up on (b) y' = cos X, y" = -sin x
[2,6], concave down on [6, 10]. (See fig.) (c) y' = e^y" = e’‘
7. fix) = aX-‘'2 ^ ^
/'(17) = -l/2VrP - -1/(2 • 17VI7) = -1/(34VI7)
8. /(tt) = sin tt = 0,/'(x) = cos x,/'(7r) - cos tt - -1
9. (a) -3x“’‘
(b) 14x*®
(c) = lx-"'"
(d) Z);,x-" - -5x-® = -5/x®
(e) 1
(f) 1/x
(g)
(h) 4x"
(i) D,,x-" = -4x-" = -4/x"
16. The first derivative f is the “steering ratio,” wheel (J) D.X-' = -x-2 = -l/x^
turning per steering wheel turning. It is undesirable for (k) = -2x-" = -2/x"
the steering to be more sensitive in one position than 10. Curve rises slowly at B so the slope is a small positive
another; i.e., want constant/', so need/" = 0. number; the value of 1/x at B is also small positive since
17. /' is positive in [3,4] so/increases, more rapidly at X at B is large. Curve rises steeply at A the slope is a large
first (by 5 / units per x unit) and then more slowly (by positive number; value of 1/x at T is also large positive
only 1 / unit per x unit). Since/' decreases in the interval since x at A is slightly larger than 0. (See fig.)
[3,4],/" is negative in the interval.
18. (a) First 60 barrels cost a total of $400 to produce.
(b) /'(x) is the instantaneous production cost per
barrel at the moment that x barrels have just
rolled off the assembly line. For the given data,
after 60 barrels have been produced, the instan¬
taneous cost of producing more is $21 per bar¬
rel, but after 100 barrels have been made the
refinery has become more efficient and the in¬
stantaneous cost for new barrels is only $10 per
barrel. (The 101st barrel is cheaper to produce 11. Let y = tan ‘x. Then x = tan y where —Itt < y <
than the 61st.) Itt, and dy/dx = \/{dx/dy) = 1/sec^y = 1/(1 -I- tan^y)
(c) Total cost of the first 10 barrels is $200, an aver¬ (trig identity) == 1/(1 -I- x^).
age of $20 per barrel. Instantaneous cost of 12. (a) Reflect the piece of sin x between\tt and 37r/2.
the barrels after the 10th is only $3 per barrel, (See fig.)
much less than the overall average so far. Re¬ (b) D* Ilsin 'x can’t be 1/Vl - x^ since all the
finery is more efficient if it produces more than slopes on Ilsin-'x are negative while 1/Vl - x^
10 barrels. is positive.
434 • Solutions to the Problems

(k) 4xV(l + + 8x tan“*x

(l) X® sin X sec^x + x® cos x tan x -I-
3x^ sin X tan x
(m) -3x“^ = —3/x^
(n) D|x“* = —= — l/3x^
4. (a) f'{r) = 5r^/"(r) = 5 • 4r®,•••,
V /<®>(r) = 5v 4 • 3 • 2 • 1 = 5!
(b) = 4 • 3 • 2 • l,/‘"Hr) = 0

(c) f'(r) = r‘^ • — + 4r® In r = r® + 4r® In r,

f"(r) - 3r^ -t- 4r® • — + 12r^ In r

One way to get the correct derivative is to go back •' r
to (11). But now y is an angle between and 37r/2, = 7r^ + 12r^ In r,
so its cos is negative. Therefore cos y — —Vl — and /'"(r) = 14r -I- 12r^ • — -I- 24r In r
Dxllsin“'x = - 1/V1 — x^.
13. da/db = —Since b = db/da — = 26r -h 24r In r,
Then XKdbjdd) — —40®^"* = —4(6“^)®^^ (since a = b~‘^) =
-46“®, which does equal da/db. So the inverse derivatives f^^\r) = 26 + 24r0 -I- 24 In r
are reciprocals of one another. = 50 + 24 In r,
14. (a) Diff to get velocity cos t, which is -1 at t = 27r/3.
24
Speed is | m/sec. r\r) = -r
(b) Diff ^ain to get acceleration — sin t, which is
5. /(-2) = 48 + 4 = 52,/'(x) = 12x® - 2,
—|V3 if t — 27r/3. Velocity and acceleration
/"(x) = 36x^ /'(-2) = -96 - 2 = -98, f"{-2) = 144
have same sign so particle is speeding up, name¬
ly by |V3 m/sec per sec. 6. (a) (product rule) xe"" + e’‘
(c) Speed is |cos <|. Max when t — 0, tt, 277, etc. (max (b) xe" + «" + «" = xg* + 2«"
value is 1). Min when t = —7r/2, 7r/2, 37r/2 etc. (c) xe" + + 2e" = xe" + 3e"
(min value is 0). (d) Guess xe’' + ne’‘.
15. y' = 4x®, slope at (-2,16) is 4(-2)® = -32. Tan line
(6x + x^)3 — (1 + 3x)(6 + 2x)
isy — 16 = —32(x + 2). Perpendicular line has slope 7. (a) (quot rule)
equation is y — 16 = + 2). (6x + x^)^
3x^ + 2x + 6
(6x + x^)^
X cos X — sin X
(b) -T-
Section 3.5 (page 77) (1 + Se^) (xe^ + e^) - xe’‘ • 3^"

-FTsTp-
1. (a) 18x® - sin (b) lOx'* - 18x^ - 4
X xe" + + 3^"'"
1

2. (a) 2x-®, y'" = -6x-

II

II

>i

II
1

(1 + 3e^f
yW ^ 24x“® = 24/x®
(b) y' = cos x,y" == —sin x,y'" == —cos x,y^^^ = sin o _ 1 cos X • 0 — (—sin x) sin x
S. D sec X — D-=-^-- =-—
o'

- 0 cos X cos'^x cos^x

II

II

II

(c)
3. (a) |x^ 1 sin X
-- sec X tan x
(b) 6x^ cos X cos X
(c) D2x~® = —6x‘ = -6/x^
' sm X
if 0 < X ^ 77
(d) Dfx~® = —|x‘ = -3/2x^
9. (a) fix) = —sin X if 77 < X ^277
(e) l(3x^ + 2)
sin X if 277 < X < 377, etc.
(f) (product rule) — 2x® sin X + 6x^ cos X
cos X if 0 < X < 77
In X
(g) Vx • + |x “ ’ so/'(x) = -cos X
II

if 77 < X <277
X ^ 2X4
cos X if 2 77 < X < 3 77, etc.
(h) sec X • sec^x + tan X • sec x tan X
= sec®x + tan^x sec x (b) /'(x) is 6x^ if X < 2, and is 0 if x >2
(i) 2g"(l/x) + 2e* In X + lOx 10. y' = 6x^ + 6, slope at (1,8) isy'|„=i = 12. Tangent
(j) 2e* + 1/x line is y - 8 = 12(x - 1), y = 12x - 4.
 Solutions to the Problems • 435

y ~ y'\x^2 — -32. Slope of perpendicular by 12° per hour (hopeful) and the 12° per hour rate is
line is Perpendicular line is 3) + 11 = - 2). itself increasing by 18°/hour per hour (still better).
12. (a) y' - cos x, y" = -sin x, negative if 0 < x < tt, 19. Graph of y = —x^ -I- 8x is a parabola, y' = —2x -I-
positive if TT < X < 2 TT, etc. So sine curve is con¬ 8, slope is 0 if X = 4. If X = 4 then y = 16 so turning
cave down on [0, tt], concave up on [tt, 27r] as in point is (4,16). Graph of y = 16 is a horizontal line. The
Fig. 8, Sect. 1.3. ' two pieces join continuously since each has height 16 at
(b) y' = 3x^ y" = 6x, pos if x > 0, neg if x < 0. So ^ — 4. They also join smoothly (no cusp) since each piece
X* is concave down for x < 0, concave up for has slope 0 at x =4. Graph of y = x^ - 20x + 100 is a
X > 0 as in Fig. 12, Section 1.2. parabola, y' = 2x - 20, slope is 0 if x = 10. If x = 10
13. vel = 2t - 9t^, acc = 2 - 18r. At time t = 2, then y = 0 so turning point is (10,0). The line and the
— —32, acc = —34. Speed is 32 (mph). Car is speed¬ second parabola join without a jump since each has
ing up by 34 (mph per hour). height 16 at X = 6. They do not join smoothly since pa¬
14. /'(x) = 2x + a. Tangent line at (3,4) has slope 2 so rabola slope is -8 and line slope is 0 at x =6. (See fig.)
/ (3) = 2, 2"3-l-a=2, a = —4. Graph of f passes
through (3,4) so /(3) = 4, 4 = 9 - 12 + 6, 6 = 7.
15. y' = -6x - 4, slope is 0 when x = -|. If x = -|
then y = T- (See fig.)

20. If/(0 = 12t - then fit) = 12 - 3ffit) = -6t.

fit) = 0 lit ^ ±2,/'(0isnegin(-t»,-2), posin(-2,2),
neg in (2,<»)./"(0 is pos if < < 0, neg if i > 0.
16. The graph of / starts out as a parabola and then
switches to a line at x = 4. Need the heights x^ and time interval sign of/' sign off" particle
ax -I- 6 to agree at x = 4 for continuity. Otherwise the
graph of / will jump. (See left-hand fig.) So need i-^,-2) neg pos moves left,
16 = 4a + h. Also/'(x) is 2x if x ^ 4 and is a if x > 4. decelerates
0

pos pos moves right,

1

Need slopes 2x and a to agree at x = 4 for smoothness.

Otherwise / will have a cusp. (See center fig.) So need accelerates
8 = a; then 6 = 16 — 32 = —16. Then graph of/is con¬ (0,2) pos neg moves right,
tinuous and smooth. (See right-hand fig.) decelerates
(0,“) neg neg moves left,
accelerates

Key values are /(-“) == /(-2) = -16, /(O) = 0,

/(2) = 16,/(oo) = -oc. (See fig.)

o>cc
(XCC t=0 dec
U-Z dec.
-16 1$ P05in0N

17. y' cos X + sin x,

= X PROBLEM 20
y" = X • —sin x + cos x + cos x = —x sin x + 2 cos x.
Then y" -t- y = —x sin x + 2 cos x + x sin x = 2 cos x
18. T' = - 15, T" = 6h If r = 3 then T = -18,
T' = 12, T” = 18, so temp is -18° (cold), temp is rising
436 • Solutions to the Problems

Section 3.6 (page 80) 40. D(sec 3x^)® = 3(sec Sx'^fD sec 3x‘‘
= 3 sec^3x'‘ sec 3x^ tan 3x'‘ • 12x®
1. 41. -6(4 - x)®
2. 2 cos 2x 42. I
3. 43. (3/Vl - (ix)") • I = 3/2Vl - ix'
4. -g* 44. (1/sin e'‘) • D sin e’‘ = (e* cos ^’‘)/(sin e’') = e’‘ cot e’‘
1 45. Z)(cos 4x)® = 3(cos 4x)^ • D cos 4x
-1 = —12 cos^4x sin 4x
’ Vl - (3 - xf
6. —10 sin 5x 46. e^/x 4- In X
7. (product rule and chain rule) 47. Die’’ + 1)“‘ = -{€’’ + ly^e” = -e^/ie” + if
x^ •cos 5x • 5 + 2x sin 5x = 5x^ cos 5x + 2x sin 5x 48. -4 CSC 4x cot 4x
8. 5x • • 2 + e"’' • 5 = lOxe"* + 5^"* 49. (4/ln x) • D In x = 4/(x In x)
9. D{2 + sin x)“^ = -(2 + sin x)“^ • cos x 50. D(ln x)"'" - |(ln x)-''" • (1/x) = l/(2xVhr^)
= -cos x/(2 + sin x)^ 51. InVx = f In X so derivative is l/2x. Alternatively,
10. g* cos e" derivative is (1/Vx) • = l/2x.
11. e~’‘ • —sin 4x • 4 + cos 4x • e~’’ • —1 52. In 3 is a constant so the problem is of the form cx^
= —4e“* sin 4x — cos 4x where c is the number In 3. Derivative is 2x In 3.
12. x" • 6(2x + 5)® • 2 + 3x2(2x + 5)® 53. |x| = —X if X < 0 and |x| = x if x > 0 so
= 12x®(2x + 5)® + 3x2(2x + 5)® , I I nn(—x) if X < 0
and
13. —2 sin 5x • 5 = —10 sin 5x '"14 = tin, if, >0
if X < 0 1 . .1
14. ‘ -1- ‘ D ^ = — in both cases,
=
-w={<r'" if X > 0 X
5 — X 5 — X
54. (quotient and chain)
1
15. • —sin X = —tan x V2x + 3 • 4 - 4x • |(2x + 3)~^^^ • 2 4x 12
cos X
16. 2^®^^" 2x 4- 3 (2x + 3)®'^
17. 1(3 + x")-*'" • 2x = x/V3 + x" x" + 2 ^x' + 2
55. cos-— • D-—
X 4- 1 X 4- 1
1 + iixf'^^T+l? x^ + 2 (x + l)2x - (x" + 2)
19. i)4 sec 5x = 4 sec 5x tan 5x • 5 = 20 sec 5x tan 5x = cos- --5-
X 4- 1 (x 4- 1)^
20. TT COS TTX
x^ + 2x - 2 x^ + 2
21. D{cos x)® = 3 cos^x • D cos x = — 3 cos^x sin x cos
(X + 1)^ X 4- 1
„„ 1 1 (3x + 4) • -1 - (2 - x) • 3
22. cos — — = —2 —
Xvl\ v~ v
23. = e^/2V^
i (^4 (3x + 4)^
-5 3x 4- 4
24. e^'^D— = -e*'7x^ (3x + 4)" 2 —X
X
25. 3(tan-*x)7(l + x") 57. Rememberthatby the chain rule, Dti;^(r) = 2vit)v'{t).
26. 3(x^ + 4)^ • 2x = 6x(x^ + 4)" Then by the product rule D,jm{t)v^{t) = \m{t) •
27. cos x"* • 4x® = 4x® cos x* 2v{t)v'{t) 4- v^it) • \m'it). Set w = 5, u = 3, w' = 2,
28. £)x(cos x)'* = 4(cos x)® • D cos x = —4 sin x cos®x u' = — 1 to get {KEY = —6 at the fixed time. KE is de¬
29. D(x2 + 4x)-‘'" = -\{x^ + 4x)-®'2 • (2x + 4) creasing at this moment by 6 energy units per second.
30. In X® = 3 In X so derivative is 3/x (alternatively, de¬
58. ' ' ‘
rivative is (1/x®) • 3x^ = 3/x). In In In 2x In In In 2x In In • • • In 2x
31. 3(ln x)^ • D In X = 3(ln x)^/x
638 logs 637 logs 636 logs
32. D(ln x)“* = —(In x)~^D In x = — l/x(ln x)^
1' 1 1
33. D(sin x)^ = 2 sin x • D sin x = 2 sin x cos x
34. X • —sin 2x • 2 + cos 2x = -2x sin 2x 4- cos 2x In In 2x In 2x 2x
35. —sin(3 — x) • — 1 = sin(3 - x) 59. (a) -cscV(x) ' f'{x)
36. csc7* (b) x/'(x)4-/(x)
37. (product and chain) (c) 3(/(x))V'(x)
(d) f ix)/fix)
4x®g®’‘ cos 4x -I- Sx^e®* sin 4x -I- 3x^«®'‘ sin 4x
(e) e^^^fix)
1 2x
38. X 2...+ ln(2x +...
1) = - - 4- 1)
4- ln(2x 60. Dx star 3x = e®''([3x]® 4- 3) • 3
2x -4- 1 2x 4- 1
61. w' = • sec 26 tan 26 • 2
39. 6(3x + 4)® • 3 = 18(3x + 4)® = sec 20 tan 20,
 Solutions to the Problems • 437

w" = sec 26 sec^2d • 2

(b) Method 1: Vy = 3 - Vx, y = (3 - Vx)^ y' =
+ sec 26 tan 26 • 2 tan 26 2(3 - V^) • -1/2V^. If X = 1 then y' = -2.
+ • sec 26 tan 26 • 2 - sec 26 tan 26 Tangent line isy - 4 = -2(x - 1), 2x -I- y = 6.
= 12 sec 26e^^‘^^\sec^26 + tan^20 + sec 26 tan^20) Method 2: \/2Vx + y'/2^ = 0, y' = -Vy/
62. y' = 4(2 — • — 1. If X = 3^ then y' = 4. Tangent Vx. If X = 1, y = 4 then y' = —2 as above, etc.
line has slope 4 and equation 31 — 1 = 4(x - 3). Perpen¬
. 1 , -V
dicular line has slope equation 3 - 1 = -:j(x - 3). 4. y — —(xy' +y),y' =--.Wanty'whenx = 0
y 1 + xy
63. First derivative — (2 + 3x) ^ • 3, second deriva¬
but first need y. If x = 0 then In y = 1, y = g. Then
tive = 2(2 + 3x)~^ •3*3, third derivative = y'=f'{0) = -e\
-3.2(2 + 3x)- . 3^..., 99th deriv = ^1^2, 5. For ellipse, 8x -f 18yy' = 0, y' = —4x/9y. For hyp,
2x — 2yy' = 0, y' = x/y. Product of slopes is —4xV9y^.
100.U ^ • • 100! X 3*°'’ Solve system 4x^ -h 9y^ = 72, x^ - y^ = 5 to get points
100 th derivative = ^
of intersection (-3,2), (-3, -2), (3,2), (3, -2). For these
64. (See fig.) > = VlOO - x^,y' = |(100 -
3 • -2x values of x and y the product of slopes is — 1, so curves
= —x/V 100 — x^. Ifx = 1 then^i' = — 1/V^; ifx = 9 are perpendicular.
then y' - -9/VT9. As the ladder begins to slide, x is ye'^
6. e’^ • {xy' -I- y) = y',y'
small and)) is decreasing slowly, by 1/V^ ft/sec. When 1 — xe'^ 1 — xy
the ladder is nearly horizontal and x = 9, y is decreasing
since e'"^ = y. So (1 - xy)y' == (1 - xy)y-^— = y^
more rapidly, by 9/VT9 ft/sec.
as desired.
7. (a) y = X® sin X • (x^ -I- 4)~*,
y' = X® sin x • -(x^ -t- 4)“^ • 2x
+ X® cos X ' (x^ -I- 4)~*
+ 3x^ sin X • (x^ -I- 4)“^
_ -2x^ sin X X* cos x 3x^ sin x
(x^ -f 4)^ x^ -f 4 x^ -I- 4
(b) In y = 3 In X -I- In sin x — ln(x^ -I- 4),
1,31 2x
—y =-1- -cos X —
y X sm X + 4’
/3 2x \
Section 3.7 (page 84) y' ~ — + cot X-1--1. Replace y by
\X X ~i” 4/
1. (a) y' = X cosy • y' + siny, X* sin(x^ -I- 4)“* to get same answer as (2).
y' = sin y/( 1 — X cos y) 8. (a) If y = 2’' then In y = x In 2, (l/y)y' = In 2,
(b) 1 +y' y' =y In 2 = 2Mn 2.
= y sec^y • y' -t- tan y • y' -I- x sec^x -f- tan x, (b) y = x*, Iny ==xlnx,y'/y = x(l/x)-l-lnx,
y'(l — y sec^y - tan y) = x sec^x -I- tan x — 1, y' - y + y In X = x* -t- x"' In x
, X sec^x -H tan x — 1 (c) y = x*‘"*. In y = sin x In x,
y ^ I-2-
1 — y sec y — tan y (l/y)y' = (sin x)(l/x) -I- cos X In X,
2. y' = -sin(x^ -I- y^) • (2x -f 2yy'), sm X \
-h cos X In X I
y'(l + 2y sin(x^ -I- y^)) = —2x sin(x^ -I- y^), X /
dy _ —2x sin(x^ -I- y^)
= + cos X In x)
dx 1 -t- 2y sin(x^ + y^) ’
dx _ 1 _ 1 -t- 2y sin(x^ -I- y^) (d) 3x^
dy dy/dx -2x sin(x^ + y^) (e) 4(2x + 3)® • 2 = 8(2x + 3)*
3. (a) Method 1: y = -Vl - x^ (choose the negative (f) y = 4""^*, In y = (2x 4- 3) In 4,(l/y)y' = 2 In 4,
square root because point (5, —fVS) is on the y' = 2y In 4 = 2 • 4^"^* In 4
lower half of the circle, where y values are neg). (g)
Then y' = -^(1 - x")”*'" • -2x = x/Vl - x^ (h) y = (2x -H 3)V In = 4x ln(2x 4- 3),
Ifx = i theny' = 1/V3. Tangent line is — y' = 4x • -—^—- *24-4 ln(2x 4- 3),
y + iV3 = (1/V3) (x - I), y Vs - x = -2. y 2x + 3
Method 2: 2x -\- 2yy' - 0,y' = -x/y. If x = -j,
y' = (2x + 3)"*(^^^ + 4 ln(2x + 3))
y = —5V3 then y' = l/VS as above, etc.
438 • Solutions to the Problems

Section 3.8 (page 90) 30. 31. 77X

32. i(3x + 4)75 33. 2x"7-2 = -l/x^
1. (a) -3 cos X + C
(b) —I cos 3x + C It = |(x-7-2)
36. i(x-7-2) + C = -1/lOx" + C
= -l/4x^
(c) mV5 + C
(d) 77 sec(x/7r) + C 37. <‘'71 + c = 2Vr + c
(e) JrUt = r7-2 + c = -i/2r" + c 38. + C V
(f) Injxl + C 39. iix-y-2) + C = -l/6x" + C
(g) x-7-4 + C = -l/4x^ + C 40. ln|x| + C 41. Can’t do.
(h) fx^'^ + C 42. 2x — x^ + C
(i) /x-‘'"ix - x‘'7| + C = 2V; + C 43. f{2 - 3x)-'dx = -5 •(2 - 3x)‘7-2 + C =

(j) ^79+ C 1/6(2 - 3x)" + C

(k) f/x ^dx — \x V“ 1 + C = — l/2x + C 44. ■jx^ + 5x + C 45. X + C
(l) /4x“^dx = 4x‘‘V~l + C = —4/x + C 46. —5 cos 3m + C 47. Can’t do.
2. /(x) = —cos X + ix^ + C. Setx = 0,/(7 ~ to get 48. + C 49. Can’t do.

0
+
10 = -1 + C, C = 11,/(x) = -cos X + ix* + 11 50. — 1/x ® + C 51.

1
1
52. 2 • \ ln|3 + 4x| + C ^= f ln|3 + 4x| + C
3. f\x) = 5x + AJ\x) = — + Ax + 5, 53. Can’t do. 54. + c
55. -(3 - x)^'7l - -1(3 - xf^
/(x) = fx^ + |Ax^ + Bx + C
56. i[(5t72) + 3r] + C == + ft + C
4. If s is position at time t then s'{t) — 1 —
57. |[(5xV4) + 3x] = fx * + fx + c
5 = 7t - + C. Set < = 3, 5 = 4 to get 4 = 21 - 9 +
58. Can’t do.
C, C - -8, s = 7t - - 8. If t = 6 then s = -38.
59. i(2x + 3)76 + C = 12(2x + 3)® + C
5. 31 = x^ + 3x + C, —2 =1 + 3 +C, C = —6, y =
x^ + 3x — 6
6. No because D In sin x = (1/sin x) TIMES D sin x =
(1 /sin x) cos X.
7. (a) No, since D sin^x = 2 sin x cos x.
(b) No, since!) sin 2x = cos 2x TIMES 2. (Correct Chapter 3 Review Problems (page 92)
answer is | sin 2x + C.)
(c) Yes 1. (a) /'(t) is the rate in gallons/hour flowing in instan¬
(d) No, since D sin x^ = cos x^ TIMES 2x. taneously at time t. With the given data,
8. Let y be height at time t. Then y" = —32, y' = 20 gal/hour flow in at time 3 (unhappy) but the
—32t + C. Given 31' = 40 when t = 0, so 40 = 0 + C, figure 20 is in the process of decreasing by
C = 40. Then y = -16t^ + 40t + K. Given 3 = 24 1 gal/hour per hour (happy).
when t = 0, so 24 = 31 = — 16t^ + 40t + 24. Stone (b) Want /'(t) = 0 so that the rate of flow into the
reaches peak when velocity is 0 (turns from positive to flood plain is 0. Negative values would be nice
neg), —S2t + 40 = 0, r = I, 31 = 49. Stone hits ground but unrealistic since water will not spurt back
when 31 = 0, — 16t^ + 40i + 24 = 0, 2<^ — 5t — 3 = 0, through the hole from the land.
{2t + 1) (t — 3) = 0, t = -| (ignore) or r = 3 (answer). 2. 2 cos(2x + 377)
9.-3 ln|3 10. I ln|2x + 5| 3. X cos X + sin X
11. Can’t do. 12. 5 ln|x| . 1 r. 2x
4 = ■—
13. 5/(l/x)dx = I ln|x| 14. ln|2 + x| 1 + (x7" 1 + x'*
15. Can’t do. 16. (7/77) sin 77X 5. D{2 - x)-' = -(2 - x)-' • -1 = 1/(2 - xf
17. Can’t do. 18. i(ix^ + 3x")
19. Can’t do.
2 —X
5(3x + 6)“* -5
20. 5/(3x + 6)-^dx = 7. -1/x^
-1 3(3x + 6)
8. D\x-^ = i - -2x-® = -l/2x^
9. -2e-^’‘
10. -e*
22. 2 tan 7 23. Can’t do. 11. 3 sec^3x
3 277X 12. -3/x"
24. -6 cos(x/6)
13. x^ • 7(2 - 3x)® • -3 + 2x(2 - 3x)^
26. x742 27. -3e“’‘ = -21x72 - 3x)^ + 2x(2 - 3x)’
28. Can’t do. 14. x/Vl - x^ + sin“7
29. |x® + |x^ + ln|x| — 1/x — l/2x^ 15. I cos 4x
 Solutions to the Problems • 439

16. 3xe sec x tan x + sec x + sec x

17. -g sin X time interval /' particle
/"
18. Let 3; - 4^ Then In = x In 4, (l/;y)^' = In 4, -2) pos neg moves right, slows down
■j = )i In 4 = 4* In 4 (-2,-1) neg neg moves left, speeds up
19. 4x" (-1.0) neg pos
20 . (0,oo) pos pos
moves
moves
left, slows down
right, speeds up
21. 3(8 -1
22. Let y = (8 - xy. Then In )> = x ln(8 - x),
(1/31)31' = ^ • 1/(8 - x) • -1 + ln(8 - x), fi-cc) = -00,/(-2) = 5,/(-I) = 3,/(0) = l,/(°°) =
(See fig.)
;ji — (8 — -h ln(8 — x)
8 —X ^ dec
2x + 3\^ 2 _8/2x + 3^* dec <KCC 'yt--x
23. 4
'~5 t=oC gcc
5/5 5 V 5
24. 5(2x + 5) '^2.2 = 1/V2x + 5
25. 2 • -(3 + 2x)-2.2 = -4/(3 + 2x)' 0 1 Z 3 h- 5
. 1 1/2 _ .vl. PROBLEM
26. = e^y2V^
27. -f
41. cos sin sin sin 2x • cos sin sin
as ^ ~ ^ • 2 _ 3 — ^ ^ _sin 2x
824 sines 823 sines
(2x + 3)^ “ (2x + 3)^
cos sin 2x • cos 2x • 2
29. (product and chain)
42. (a) y'' =
- x^
x^' +
+ I,
^ always positive. So y increases. Al¬
1 1.1 1 1 1
ac • cos —-2 + sin — =-cos-h sin — ternatively, |x® and 2X are both increasing func¬
XX XXX X
30. (x^' tions, by inspection. So their sum is increasing,
e^)/x‘
31. i (b) If X = 2 then y' = f. So as x goes up, y goes up
2 -2 _ 4 as fast. So y is increasing slower than x at this
32. !• -x-^ = -2/3x
instant.
33. Z)(cos 2x)^ = 3(cos 2x)^ • -sin 2x • 2
43. Second derivative of e’' is e* which is always positive.
= — 6 cos^2x sin 2x
So graph of e* is concave up.
34. 3 cos ‘ e^’‘ • 2 = 6e^'‘ cos
44. Diff implicitly (a) xy' -I- 31 -t- 3x • 2yy' + 3y^ = -1,
35. Z)(7x* + 2x - 5)-' = -(7x^ + 2x - 5)-2(21x^ + 2)
y' - (—1 — 3y^ — y)/(x -I- 6xy)
= -(21x" + 2)/(7x' + 2x - 5)"
(b) cos X + y' cos y = 0, y' = -cos x/cos
gg (5x - 4) • 2 - (2x + 3) • 5 -23
(x"^ -H 3x) • 5 - (5x -1- 2) (2x -1- 3)
(5x - 4)^ (5x - 4)^ 45. (a)
(x^ + 3x)2
37. s' = 2t - 6t", T' = 2 - I2t. Ut = 2 then ^ - -11,
_ 5x^ + 4x + 6
— “20, s" - —22. Particle is at position -11, moving
(x^ -H 3x)^
left at 20 meters/sec, speeding up (since acceleration and
(b) (product rule)
velocity have same sign) by 22 meters/sec per sec.
x*(l/x) + 3x" In X = x" + 3x" In X
38. Graph rises until x = 3, falls until x = 5, then rises
again, concave down until x = 4, then concave up. (c) Lety (In t)^‘, then Iny = 2t In In t,
^See fig.) 1 1
-y' = 2t -1- 2 In In t.
y In t

y = (In t)^‘ ;-1- 2 In In r

In t
(d) 3x - 6 is positive if x > 2, negative if x < 2 so

|3, - 6| = P* ■ ® ‘f* - 2
1.—(3x — 6) if X < 2
j . . . (3 if X > 2
fROBLEM 3S derivative is 1
'-—3 if X < 2
(cusp at X = 2; see fig).

19. /(x) = 5x^ - x^ + C,/(2) = -2 so -2 = 4 - 4 + C, \

: = -2,fix) = ix^ - x" - 2
10./'(O = 3t^ + 6t ^ 3t{t + 2), /"(<) = 6r + 6; // is
;ero if i = 0, -2; never is disc; /' is pos in (-00, -2), neg
n (-2,0), pos in (0,a)); /" is zero when r = -1; never
lisc; f" is neg if ^ < -1, pos if r > -1.
problem ^5(d)
440 • Solutions to the Problems

3rd derivative = —111 (2 + 5x) ^ * 5 , • • •,

(e) 1 + e" 3.5.7 ... 37 jg _ . _39/2
(f) (product rule) te‘ + e‘ 19th derivative --:rr^ 219 5 (2 + 5x)
V3x + 4 • 2 - 2x • i(3x + 4) • 3
3 • 5 7 •• • 39 -41/2
3x + 4 ” 20th derivative = ^20
5^”(2 + 5x)
3x + 8 48. y = 1/x, y' = - 1/x ^ A typical point Q on the graph
(3x + 4)*^^ has coordinates (a, 1/a). Tangent line at Q has slope
(h) gl'‘lis^~*ifx <0andise*ifx > 0 soZ)«'*'is-g"’' — 1/a^, equation y — (l/a) — “(1/® ) (^ “
if X < 0 and is g"' if x > 0. a^y + X = 2a.Tanhits;^xisatC = (2a, 0), hitsy-axis at
46. (a) (product rule) A = (0,2/a). BU = 2a, BA = 2/a so area of triangle =
y' = 3x cos X + 3 sin x, jBC M = 5 • 2a • 2/a =2. All such triangles have same
y" = —3x sin X + 3 cos x + 3 cos x area, namely area 2.
= — 3x sin X + 6 cos x, 49. By product rule,
y'" = -3x COS X - 3 sin X - 6 sin x
{fg)"-fg"+f'g' +f'g' ^f'g
= -3x cos X - 9 sin X = fg" + 2/'g' + f"g,
(b) 1 - In X is pos if 0 < X < neg if x > e. So ifg)'" =fg"' +f'g" + 2(/'g" +f"g') +f"g' +f"'g
1 - In X if 0 < X < e = fg"' + 3/'g" + 3/"g' + f"'g Similarly,
-(1 — In x) if X > ^ i/gY'"'’ =fg^"' + 4/'g"' + 6/"g" + 4f"’g' +f\
-1/x if0<x<e Same pattern as binomial expansion for (x + y)"
1 /x if X > e (Appendix A4).
„ _ . 1/x^ if 0 < X < ^ n{n — 1)
^ 1 — 1/x^ if X > e Guess (/g)<">
There is a cusp at x = e. When y' changes for¬
mulas at X — s, the two formulas, — 1/x and 1/x, 50. (a) /' negative because reversed image appears
do not agree; i.e., left-hand slope and right-
when /(x) goes down as x goes up.
hand slope disagree at x = e. For confirmation,
(a') /' is positive.
consider graph of jl — In x|. First reflect In x to
(b) |/'(x)l > 1 so that /(x) goes up or down/aster
get -In X, then translate up to get 1 - In x, and
than X goes up.
finally reflect all points that are below the x-axis.
(b') l/'(x)| < 1
(See fig.) (c) f'{x) not constant so that /(x) doesn’t change
steadily as x goes up.
(c') /'(x) is constant.
51. 7 ln|x| + C
52. T/x'^dx = -l/7x + C
K, (4^ - 1 , r = -1 , r
-2 4 8(4x - 2)"
54. 2x^ + 2x + C
55. + C
56. -(2/^) cos fTTx + C
57. Can’t do.
58. Can’t do.
59. -Inl3 - + C
(3 - 0''^
(c) y' = X* ' -sin x^ • 2x + 4x® cos x^ 60. /(3 - =
1/2 ^ ^ ^
= -2x® sin x^ + 4x* cos x^
= -2\/3^ + C
y" = —2x® COS x^ • 2x — lOx^ sin x^ .3/2
+ 4x* • -sin x^ • 2x + 12x^ cos x^ (1 + 2x)
61 I + C = j(l + 2x)*'^ + C
= (12x^ — 4x®) cos x^ — (lOx"* + 8x®) sin x^ 3/2
(d) Iny = X In 5, il/y)y' - In 5, y' = y In 5 = 62. Can’t do.
5* In 5, y" = (In 5)D5*, and we just got 63. (a) Sx'*
D5^ = 5Mn 5 soy" = 5*(ln 5)" (b) x76 + C
47. 1st derivative = —1(2 + 5x)”*^^ • 5, (c) -4x-^ + C = -4/x^ + C
2nd derivative = 1*1(2 + bx)~^'^ • 5^ (d) x-V-3 + C = - l/3x^ + C
 Solutions to the Problems • 441

4/THE DERIVATIVE PART II

0

Section 4.1 (page 97) (e) Min at x = 2 by second derivative test.

(f) X = 2 is a candidate; no further conclusion.
1. (a) fix) = - dx - 24; f'{x) = 0 if (g) X = 7 is a candidate; no further conclusion.
3(x" - 2x - 8) = 0, (x - 4)(x + 2) = 0, 3. No. In diagram, the rel min at Xo is higher than the
X = 4, —2, the candidates. rel max at Xi.

(i) /' is pos on (-oo, -2), neg on (-2,4), pos on

(4,00) so/ has max at x = -2, min at x =4.
(ii) /"(x) = 6x - 6,/"(-2) = —18, neg, so/has
max at X = -2; f"{4) = 18, pos, so / has
min at X =4.

(b) fix) = 4x" - 2x,/'(x) - Oiff 2x(2x2 - 1) = 0,

X = 0, ±Vi 4. For each function, the derivative is 0 when x - 0 and
(i) /' is neg in (-oo, - V|), pos in (-Vi.O) the second derivative is also 0 when x = 0, an inconclu¬
(test say x = —.01), neg in (0, Vi), pos in sive second derivative test. By inspection, x® does not
(V5,00); / has min at x = — Vf, max at x = have a rel extremum at x = 0, x^ has min at x = 0, -x'*
0, min at X = Vf. has max at x =0. So inconclusive situation can go any of
(ii) fix) = 12x2 - 2, /"(-Vi) = 4, pos, min at three ways.
X= —Vi, /"(O) = — 2, neg, max at x = 0,
/"(Vi) = 4, pos, min at x = Vi.
(c) fix) - 5x* + 1, never 0. No candidates, no ex¬
trema (/' is always positive so / is an increasing
function with no relative extrema).
(d) fix) = ixe’‘ - ^")/x2, / ' = 0 if xe" - = 0,
e’^ix — 1) = 0, X = 1

(i) /'is neg if X < 1, pos if X > 1, / has min at

X = 1.
(ii) Using quotient and product rule, fix) -
ix^e’‘ — 2xe’‘ -H 2^'‘)/x^ /"(I) = e, pos, so /
Section 4.2 (page 104)
has min at x = 1.

(e) fix) = X • (1/x) -I- In X = 1 + In X, /' = 0 if 1. (a) fix) - 3x2 + 2x - 5;/'(x) - 0 if

In X == —l,x = e~^ = 1/e (3x + 5) (x — 1) = 0, X = —I, 1.

(i) / and f are defined only for x > 0. Con¬ (i) Candidates are end values /(-'») = -°o,
sider interval (0, 1/e). Test number from /(oo) = 00, and critical values /(—f), /(I)-
interval, say .0001; /'(.OOOl) = 1 -t- Max is 0°, min is —<».
In .0001 = 1 - large neg = neg. So /' is (ii) Candidates are /(O) = —5, /(I) = —8,
neg in interval; /' is pos in (1/e, <») so / has /(2) = —3. Max is —3, min is —8.
min at X = 1/e. (iii) Candidates are /(—I) = 0,/(0) = -5. Max
(ii) fix) = 1/x, /"(1/e) = e, pos, so min at 1/e. is 0, min is —5.
2. (a) Min at 2 by first derivative test.
(b) fix) = ixe^ - ^")/x2; /'(x) = 0 if x^" - e" = 0,
(b) X = 2 is a candidate; no further conclusion.
e^ix - 1) = 0, X = 1.
(c) No conclusion.
(d) No rel extremum at x = 3 since slope is not 0. Note that / has an infinite disc at x =0.
442 • Solutions to the Problems

collapsed house with area 0. So max area has dimensions

(i) Candidates are /(0+) = limx-*o+(«’‘A) “
1/0+ = 00, /(0-) = lim*^o-(«’'/*:) = X = 75 by M = 50.
1/0- = -oo(andendvalues/(-2),/(2)and 7. Let p{x) be profit when farmer sells after x more
days. Then p{x) = (100 + L2x)(12 — 40^) = — .03x +
critical value /(!)). Max is oo, min is -oo.
11.9x + 1200 where x > 0, or better still 0 < x £ 480
(ii) Candidates are /(0+) = oo, /(I) = e,f{2) =
since after 480 days the \2^ figure is down to 0. Then
e^/4. Max is oo, min is e^/4.
p'{x) - -.06x + 11.9. Critical x is 1L9/.06 or approxi¬
(iii) Candidates are /(-°o) = ~
0/-OO = 0,/(0-) = -00. Min is -oo, mately 198.3; p(198.3) is about $23.80, piO) — $12,
/(480) = $0. Sell after 198 days.
max is 0.
8. Slope i(x) = -3x2 - jQjj _ 13 ’Wg ^^^t max and
(c) /'(x) = (-x" + 4x - 3)/(x^ - 3)2 (quotient min values of s {not /). Then s'{x) =/"(x) = —6x — 10.
rule);/' = 0 if -x^ + 4x - 3 = 0, x = 3,1. Inf Critical value is x = — |, not in interval. Candidates are
disc at X = ±V3. 5(0) = -13, 5(1) = -26. Max slope on/ graph in [0,1] is

(i) Candidates are x = 0,5,1,3, VS. -13, min slope is —26.

9. (See figs.) At 5 AM, car B has reached the A road and
lim /(x) = (Vs — 2)/0+ = -00, the cars are 75 miles apart. From then on, the distance
X—►'\/3 +
between them is increasing so min must occur at or be¬
lim /(x) = (V3 — 2)/0— = 00.
x-*V3- fore 5 AM. At t hours after midnight, B has gone 20t
miles, A has gone 151 miles so
No need to look further. Max is /(V3 —) =
00,
min is/(Vs +) = —°o. 5(0 = Vn00'^^20tr+'2^, 0 < i < 5.
(ii) Candidates are/(2) = 0,/(3) = B,/(5) -
For convenience, can work with R{t) = (100 — 200 +
Max is I, min is 0.
225i2 instead of 5(0; B'(0 = —40(100 — 200 + 450t, 0
(d) /'(x) = 3x2 + 2x - 1 = (3^ - l)(x + 1), zero when t = T- Candidates are 5(t) = 60, 5(0) = 100,
if X =1,-1. Candidates are/(O) = 3, f{l) - If, 5(5) = 75. Cars are closest when t = 3.2, i.e., at 3:12 AM.

/(4) = 79. Max is 79, min is |f.

2. / is decreasing, graph falls to the left. Max is /(3), A»
min is /(4).
3. By inspection, max is oo when x = ±oo, min is V2
6 r'
when X = 0. MIPNI6HT A UTTLE LflTER
4. Let/(x) be the revenue with x passengers. The num¬
ber of passengers over 200 is x — 200 so each ticket is problem ^
reduced from $300 by x — 200 dollars. So
10. Let (x,y) be a typical point on the ellipse. (See
/(x) = number of passengers X ticket price fig.) Distance 5 from point to (1,0) is V(x - 1) + y'‘‘ -
= x(300 - [x - 200]) = 500x - x2 V(x - 1)2 + 1(36 - 4x2) ^ijei-e -3 ^ x 3. For con¬
where 200 ^ x s 350. venience, one can work with R{x) = (x - 1)2 +
1(36 — 4x2) instead of 5; B'(x) = 2(x — 1) - |x, zero if
fix) is 500 - 2x and is 0 when x = 250. Candidates are X = |. Candidates are x = | and ends x = ±3 so candi¬
/(200) = 60,000,/(250) = 62,500 and /(350) = 52,500. date points are A = (3,0), B — ( — 3, 0), C = (|, I),
Max revenue is with 250 passengers, min is with 350 D = (1 -I). AQ = 2, BQ - 4, CQ - ^ =
passengers. _ |VM. Points C and D are closest, B is furthest.
5. Let CD = X. Then AB = 100 + x and 200 —
(100 + 2x) feet of wire remain for sides AE and BC. So
BC = 1(200 - (100 + 2x)) = 50 - X and area A(x) =
(100 + x)(50 - x) = 5000 - 50x - x2 for 0 < x < 50.
A'(x) = -50 - 2x;A'(x) = Oifx = -25; not in [0,50] so
ignore. A(50) = 0 (“garden” dimensions are 150 x 0),
A(0) = 5000. Max area is 5000 using wall as entire side,
PROBLEM 10
min area is 0 as garden collapses to a segment.
6. Let X = BC (this is not the only way to begin). Then 11. Let r be the fixed radius, let x be the height of
rD 1QQ _
the inscribed rectangle. (See fig.) Area A(x) = base X
AB = 150 - X, = —,EB=-h + 100, area
150 — X 150 height = 2xVr2 _ 0 < x < r.
A(x) ^BCXEB^ x(-|x + 100) = -|x2 + lOOx for
A'(x) = 2xi(r2 - x2) *^2 . -2x + 2Vr^ - x^
0 < X ^ 150; A'(x) = -|x + 100. Critical number is
X = 75. By inspection, the ends x = 0, 150 produce a - 2Vr2 — x2 — 2x2/Vr2 — x^.
 Solutions to the Problems • 443

A' is 0 when 2(r^ - x^) - 2x^ = 0, x = ±r/V2. Ignore Section 4.3 (page 109)
the neg x. Candidates are ends x = 0, r when rectangle
collapses to a segment with area 0, and x = r/\^. Rect¬ 1. (a) 0/0 = lim,_,(3x2 - 5)/(2x - 3) (L’Hopital)
angle with min area is the degenerate case of a segment, =2/-1 - 2 =

rectangle with max area has dimensions r/V2 by 2r/\^. (b) I = 2

(c) lim*_„(xV5c^) (highest power rule) = lim x = oo
2. (a) 00 since x^ has higher order of magnitude.

(b) 0/0 = lim ~ (L’Hopital) = 1

PROBLEM II (c) — oo/0+ = — 00 (not indeterminate)

(d) 0; e’‘ has higher order of magnitude.

12. Let speed of truck be s. Trip takes 600/i hours and (e) 0/0 = lim -- = 0/0 = lim
sm X —cos X
total cost C = gas and oil + driver 0
= 0
= 600 miles x (5 -I- cents per mile -1
+ 600/i hours X 360 cents per hour (f) 0/(1 + 0) = 0
where 30 < i < 80; C'(i) = 60 + 360 • (-600/5^), zero — 00 —00
1 jX
ifi = ±60. Ignores = -60. Candidates ares = 30, 60, (g) = — = lim - Tu, (L’Hopital)
e CO e
80. Corresponding costs are $120, $102, $105. Best speed —X 0
is 60 mph, worst is 30 mph. ^ bm (algebra) = — = 0
e 00
13. Let X be the square’s share and 16 - x the circle’s (h) -oo/0+ = -00
piece. Square has perimeter x, side x/4, area x^/16.
(i) 0 since 3x has higher order of magnitude.
Circle has circum 16 - x, radius (16 - x)/2tt, area
7r(16 — xfl^TT^ — (16 — x)V47r. Total area is 27 27(ln x)"® • -
(In x) 00
3. lim. = — = lim — (L’Hopital)
A(x) - x^/16 + (16 - x)^/47r where 0 ^ x < 16. 00
1
X 16 — X
\ 2(16 - x) • -1 26(ln x)"® • -
O 477 ’ "8 27 ~‘
= 27 lim
(In x)^®
(algebra) = — = 27 lim
A'(x) — 0 when x — 64/(7r + 4). Candidates are 1
A(64/(7r + 4)) = 64/(7r + 4), A(0) = 64/7r, A(16) = 16.
(L Hopital) = 27 • 26 lim ^^— = —. Keep using
Max is A(0) so for max area, use whole wire for circle. X 00 ^ ®

14. Let one dimension of garden be x. (See fig.) To keep In X 00

L’Hopital to eventually get 27! lim
area fixed at A, other dimension is A/x. Perimeter p is X 00

2A/x + 2x, X ^ 0. When x = 0, have long thin garden \ /x

with huge perimeter. When x — <x>, have tall skinny gar¬ 27! lim —p = 0. So X is faster than (In x)^’.
den with huge perimeter. So endpoints produce max 4. (a) Method 1: Letw = 3x. Ifx ^ 0 then u 0 and
perimeter. Expect min perimeter at a critical point. limit becomes
p'(x) = -2A/x^ + 2, zero when x = VA, i.e., best gar¬
den is square. Min perimeter itself is />(VA) = 4Va. sin u 3 sm u
lim lim-
u^O 2 2 u^O u

Method 2: (L’Hopital) lim(3 cos 3x)/2 = |.

sin X
PROBLEM 14 (b) Method 1: lim-- sin x = 1 x 0 = 0.
X

Jr. /T.TTr • 2 sin X cos X

15. Let X be the price charged. Then Method 2: (L Hopital) lim-j-= 0.
number of vacancies is 5(x — 50),
number of rentals is 100 - |(x — 50) = -|x + 125. 5. First application is OK since original problem is of
Income I(x) = x X no. of rentals
the form 0/0. But lim,_i ^ = -^. It is not an
= x( —|x + 125) = 125x — ^x^ where 50 ^ x s 250. 6x - 4 2
(Once the price reaches $250, all rooms are vacant.) indeterminate quotient so L’Hopital’s rule can’t be used
I'(x) = 125 - X. Critical x is 125. Candidates are a second time. No need for a special rule anyway. Answer
X = 50, 125, 250. Corresponding incomes are $5000, is I = 3.
$7812.50, $0. Charge $125 a night (have 621 vacancies, 6. (a) Same order of mag since each is a multiple of
but max profit). the other.
444 • Solutions to the Problems

(b) oo - oo/oo = Um
getting nowhere. Instead use algebra to get
= lim e^’‘ ^ So has higher
order of magnitude.
In 3x °°
(c) Method 1: lim —— = —
x-» In 4x 00

3x
= lim-(L’Hopital) = lim 1 = 1.
— •4 In X — 00 l/x
4x 5. (a) 0 X —oo; hm- — = lim-5-
cot X 00 —CSC X
Same order of magnitude.
Method 2.- In 3x = In 3 + In x, In 4x = = lijn = 0/0 = • • • = 0. (See Prob. 4b,
In 4 + In X. Each has same order of mag as In x. X

7. We already know that lim:c-^.o (sin x)/x = 1. Draw the Section 4.3.)
hyperbolay = l/x and its reflection in the x-axis to serve (b) 1 X -00 = -00
as the envelope. (See fig.) (c) 00 X sin 0 = 00 X 0. Let u = l/x to get
lim„-^o+(sin u)/u^ = § = lim(cos u)/2u
(L’Hopital) = 1/0+ =00
I
(d) 00° (indet). Let y = x*^ Then Iny = (l/x) In x,
lim,,->» In y = lim,c^»(ln x)/x = 0 (In x has lower
order of magnitude). Answer is = 1.
(e) (0 + )" = 0 (not indet). If you don’t see the
answer 0 immediately, let y = x then In y =
(l/x) In X, lim„^o+ In y = lim,^o+(ln x)/x =
—00/O+ = —00. Answer is = 0, as before (no
indeterminancy in this approach either),
(f) r (indet). Lety = (1 + x:)*^’'; then In y =
(l/x) ln(l + x),
ln(l + x)
lim;t^o+ In y = lim,t^o+-

1
0 1 + X
= -^ = lim —j—(L’Hopital) = 1.

Answer is e * = e.
00“ = 00
(g)
(h) 00 X (e° - 1) = 00 X 0. Let u - l/x. Then
Section 4.4 (page 112) u —> 0+, and limu_o+(e“ - l)/u = §
= lim„->o+«Vl (L’Hopital) = 1.
1. (a) 00 X = 00 X 0; lim x/e'‘ = 0 since e* has (0+)2 = 0
(i)
higher order of magnitude. 1" (indet). Lety = {e’‘ + dx)^^*;
(j)
(b) = 0 X 1 = 0 then Iny = (2/x) ln(g’‘ + 4x),
(c) (—oo)e” —00 X 00 = —00 ,. , 2 ln(e’‘ + 4x) 0
2. (a) 1 - In 1 = 1 - 0 = 1 hm:,^o+ In y = limx^o+---== -q
(b) 0 - (-00) = 00
(c) 00 — 00. Answer is oo since x^ has higher order of (.’' + 4)
e’‘ + 4x
magnitude. = lim (L’Hopital)
1
3. (a) -00 since e'‘ has higher order of magnitude.
2(e'‘ + 4)
(b) -oo - 0 = -00 = lim*^o+-- 10. Answer is
4. lim;,->o+xe^'’‘ = 0 X = 0 x oo. Let u = l/x. Then e’' + 4x
M —> 00^ problem becomes lim„_>oo ^“/m = oo since e'‘ has
higher order of magnitude. Also lim*^.o- xe^'’‘ = 0 y. e
= 0x0 = 0. For the purpose of the graph, can be more
precise to get 0— X 0-t- = 0—. (See fig.)
 Solutions to the Problems • 445

Section 4.5 (page 115)

Each problem in this section has a diagram.

1. Parabola, opening down. Turning point when de¬
rivative is 0; f'{x) = -2x + 4, jero if x = 2.

6. Exponential curve; /(°o) = 2e ” = 0, /(-oo) =

2e" = 00,/(O) = 2.

2. f’{x) 4x® -h 6x^ zero if 2x^{2x + 3) = 0, x = 0,

~2'y f"{x) — 12x^ -I- 12x, /"(O) = 0 (2nd derivative test
is inconclusive),/"(-|) = 9, pos, rel min. On (-|,0),
/ is pos and on (0,<»), f is pos so no rel extrema at
PROBLEM 6
X ~ 0; lim:t_oo/(x) = oo and lim;c__oo/(x) = oo (x"* term 7. Sine curve, period tt. Plot a few points to pinpoint
dominates). location.

PROBLEM 7
8. / is defined for —\/2 ^ x < V2. /(-V2) = 0,
/(V^) = 0. Use product rule, and simplify, to get
/'(x) = (2 - 2x^)/V2 - x^, zero if x = ±1;/' is neg in
3. / is defined for x > 0 only; /'(x) - fx''^ zero only if (-V2,-l), pos in (-1,1), neg in (1,V2). Graph falls,
X = 0, otherwise positive so/ increases; limx->~/(x) = <». rises, falls.
f"{x) = positive for all x > 0 so concave up.
4. /(x) = By inspection, graph of / falls until
X = 0 and then rises; /'(x) = = 2/3'^, neg if / 1 \
X < 0, —00 if X = 0—, 00 if X = 0-I-, pos if X >0. So again, \ -1 y

graph of/ falls and then rises. At origin, left-hand slope ■-'fX
is -00, right-hand slope is oo; /(oo) oo,/(—oo) = oo.
PROBLEM 8
9. lim,c-^o+ = 1/0-1- = 00, lim„^o- = 1/0- = -oo.
Otherwise, fit cosine curve in envelope y - ±l/x, and
reflect cosine when 1/x is neg, i.e., when x < 0 (see fig.).
10./'(x) = 1/x/
-2 . 1 1 1
/"M - ~ ^ =
3 ^-4
X X X X
/'(x) > 0 for X ^ 0, graph of/ rises on (—oo, 0) and rises
in (0,oo); /(0-) = = 00, /(0 + ) = - 0,
5. /'(x) = 4x® + 3x^ + lOx, zero if x(4x^ + 3x + /(oo) - = 1, /(-^) = gO - 1; /"(x) = 0 if X = i In
10) = 0. Equation 4x^ + 3x + 10 = 0 has no real roots (-00,0),/" pos and graph concave up; in (0,f),/" is pos
so only sol is x = 0; /' is neg in (—oo, 0) and pos in (0, oo) and graph is concave up; /" is neg in (|, oo) and graph is
so rel min atx =0; /(oo) = oo,/(—oo) = oo (x^ dominates) concave down.
446 • Solutions to the Problems

li.f'ix) = 1 + Inx, zeroifx = l/e;/"(x) = l/x;/"(lA)

is pos, rel min; /(oo) = 00, ^(0+) = 0 x -00
In X -00 lA •. n
= lim.-*o+ tT" =-" lim.^o+ -^(LHopital)
1/x 00 -i/x
= lim(—x) = 0.

14. Method 1: Draw)i = x,y = In x and subtract heights.

Method 2: f'{x) = 1 - 1/x; zero if x = 1; /"(x) =
/"(I) is pos so rel min; /(oo) = 00 (x term dominates),
/(0+) = 0 - (-00) = 00.

= Xg* + e* = e’‘{x + 1), zero if x = -1;

/"(x) = e"‘ + e*(x + 1) = e^(x + 2); /"(-I) is pos so rel
min at X = —1; /(°°) = /(“°°) “ ^ 0 ~
lim^^-oo(x= -oo/oo == limx^-»(l/-^'*) 15.f'{x) = 2/(x + 1)^, pos forx > -1 and forx < -1.
(L’Hopital) = limx^-«(-^’‘) = 0-. Curve rises on ( —00, — 1), rises on (—1,<»); /(°o) =
lim(x/x) = 1 (highest power rule), /(-°°) = 1,
limx_(-i)+/(x) = -2/0+ = -00,
limx^(-i)-/(x) = -2/0- = 00

12./'(x) = e *(2x - x^), zero if x = 0,2; pos if x in

(0,2); neg if X > 2 or X < 0, so relative max at x = 2;
PROBLEM I S’
y(cx)) = 00 X 0 = lim(x^/€*) = 0 since e’‘ has higher order 16.
of magnitude./(—«>) = 00x00 = 00.
 Solutions to the Problems • 447

17. Exponential curve.

max at (-1,-2); /(oo) = (» + o = oo, /(-oo) =
/H = -4,/(-=o) = -00,/(O) = -5 -00 + 0 = -00, /(0 + ) = 0 + 00 = 00, /(0-) =
0 + (-00) = -00. Results agree with method 1.

22. /(oo) - 0,/(—oo) — 0. By inspection,/ has max value

of 4, when x = 0.

19./'(x) = e’‘{x - 5)/x®, zero if x = 5;/'(x) is neg on

(-00,0), neg on (0,5), pos on (5,oo), rel min at x = 5.
y'(oo) = 00 since has higher order of mag; /(—oo) -
0/-OO = 0;/(0 + ) = 1/0+ = ^,/(0-) = 1/0- - -00.

23. (a) / is defined for x > 0; /(0+) = —oo/0+ — —oo,

/(oo) = 0 since x has higher order of magnitude
than In x; /'(x) = (1 — In x)/x^, zero if x = e,
pos if 0 < X < e, neg if x > e, rel max at x = e.

20. /'(x) = —2x^ zero if x = 0, pos if x < 0, neg if

X > 0, rel max at x =0;/(oo) = = 0,/(—oo) = 0.

(b) The graph of (ln|x|)/x agrees with the graph of

(In x)/x for X > 0; i.e., the right half of (ln|x|)/x
is the same as the graph in (a). But now there is
a left half as well. Consider say x = —5. Then
ln|x| In 5 In 5 , . , .
=-g— which IS the opposite of
21. Method 1: Draw line y = x and hyperbola y = 1/x
and add heights. the height in the part (a) graph at x = 5. So left
Method 2: /'(x) = 1-1/x^ zero if x — ±l.f"(x) = 2/x*; half of graph in (b) is obtained by reflecting the
/"(I) is pos,/"(— 1) is neg. So rel min at point (1,2) and rel graph of part (a) as indicated.
448 • Solutions to the Problems

6. In figure, x{t) — 5 tan d{t),

x'{t) = 5 sec^d{t) • e'it) = IOtt sec^d since we are given
d'{t) = 277 radians/min. If x = 12 then BC = 13,
sec 6 = ^, x’ ^ 33877/5 miles per min, speed of the
Section 4.6 (page 118) spot of light.

1. Functions involved are volume V{t) and radius r{t),

related by V{t) — |7r[r(<)p. Then V'{t) = 47rr^r'. Given
V' = —10 (neg because melting means decreasing vol¬
ume). When r = 2, we have -10 = 47r • 4 • r', r' =
-5/87r. At this instant, radius is decreasing by 5/8tt feet
per sec.
2. A{t) = b{t)h{t) so A'it) = b{t)h'{t) + h{t)b'{t) (prod¬
PROBLEM 6
uct rule). If 6 — &,h = S, b' — A, h' — —3 then A' = 14. 7. In figure, if h{t) is height of water at time t then
Area is growing by 14 ft^/sec. radius of the water-cone is h/4 by similar triangles,
3. Let s{t) and x{t) be the distances indicated in the T - 1777^/1 - ^77/i", V'{t) = ieTTh^ii)h'{t), h'it) =
diagram. Then 5^ = 8100 + so (diff w.r.t. t) AS/rrh^ since T' = 3 is given, li h — 2 then h' = \2/tt.
2i5' = 2xx', s' - xx'/s. Now plug in specific data for in¬ Water level is rising by 12/77 meters per min.
stant when runner is 30 feet down the line. Set x = 30,
i = 30VT0, x'{t) = 25 (positive since x is increasing) to
get i' = (30) (25)/30VT0 = 25/VlO. Runner moves
away from home plate at rate of 25/VTO ft/sec.

8. In figure, by similar triangles

= ^-7—. 6y = 15y - 15x, y = fx, y'(t) = fx'(0 = 5

15 b
4. Let h{t) be the water level at time t, Vit) the corre¬
since x' = 3 by hypothesis. Since y is increasing by
sponding volume of water. V'(t) = 7rr^h{t) = l6Trh{t),
5 ft/sec, speed of shadow’s head is 5 ft/sec.
V'{t) - IdTrh'it). So h'{t) = V'{t)/\&TT = S/IOtt. At
every instant of time, the height is increasing by 1/277 ft
per min.
5. If PQR is equilateral, center of circle is A, radius is r
(see fig.), then AP = r, PBA is a 30°, 60°, 90° triangle,
AB = \r, PB = |rV3, altitude RB = r -f- = |r, base
PQ— rV3, area A(<) = ^bh — 4V3[r(t)]^ A'{t) =
fVarr' = fVSr since we are given r' = 3. If r = 4,
then A' = ISVS. Triangle’s area is increasing at this in¬
stant by 18 Vs ft^/ sec. PROBLEM 8
 Solutions to the Problems • 449

9. In figure, let h{t) be water level at time t. By similar 13. Let r(t) be radius of ice-coated sphere. Then
triangles, the corresponding radius of the water-cone is
^(0 ~ sTJ’LKO]*) V(i) — 4777^7'. Surface area is 4777^,
\h. Then
and melting rate of ice is proportional to surface area.
So V' = -^(4777^) for some positive constant k (V is
m = = ^Tr[h(t)f„ V'{t) = ^Trh^h'. negative because ice is melting), r' = V'/4777^ =
—A(4777^)/4777^ = —k. Radius is decreasing at the con¬
(a) T' = -10 (negative because leak makes water stant rate of k volume units per time unit. So thickness of
volume decrease). If A == 3 then ice is decreasing at a constant rate.
h' = (4)(—10)/97r = —40/977. 14. In figure, ^ y^(t) - 900, 2xx' = 2yy',
Water level is dropping by 40/977 cm per min. x' ^ yy'/x = -2y/x since y' = -2. If y = 50 then
(b) 1{ h — 6and/i' = — 2thenT' == —18 77. Volume X = 40 and x' = — | (appropriately neg since fish is mov-
is decreasing by 18 77 cubic cm/min, leak is I877 ing toward the dock and x is decreasing). Speed of fish is
cubic cm/min. I m/sec. If y =31 then x = V^, x' = -62/V^. Fish
(c) If h = 2 then r = 1, exposed area = rrr^ = 77, speed is now 62/^61 m per sec (faster than before).
V = —''/tt (negative because evaporation makes
V decrease), h' = AV'/nh^ = -1/V^. Water
level is dropping by \l\fTT cm per min.

15. Remember that ify is a function of t then derivative

of 1/y with respect to Ms (-1/y^) • y' by the chain rule.

Differentiate w.r.t. t to get --^R' = - \r'2,

R Ri i? 2

^ ^ R'l = 2, R2 ^ -3. If =

10, R2 = 20 then 1//? - + ^ = ^, i? = f,

„, _ 400 / 2 3 \ 5
^ VT^ ~ 400/ ■g ’ ^ increasing at the
moment by | ohms/min.

10. A(t) — TT\r(t)Y, A'(t) = 27rrr' = 47rr since r' = 2. If

r = 5 then A' = 2077, disturbed area is growing by
2077 square m/sec.
11. Let r be inner radius, R the outer radius. Then Section 4.7 (page 122)
A(t) = Tr[R(t)f - 7r[r(0P,
A'(t) = 2ttRR' — 27777' = 477i? — 8777 since These problems were solved using a TI-55 calculator.
7' - 4, - 2. If 7 = 5, =9 then A' = 8677 - 4077 1. Letf(x) - x^ — 39. Thenf'(x) = 2x,
= —477. Area is decreasing at this instant by 477 m^/sec.
12. In figure, A(<) = \x(t)y(t), A'(t) — \xy' + \x'y (prod new X = old x - —. If old x = 6 then
2 X old
rule) = 3x — 2y since y' = 6 (positive since y is in¬
36 - 39
creasing), x' = —4 (negative since x is decreasing). If new X = 6 — -— = 6.25. If old X = 6.25 then
y = 12, X = 10 then A = 30 — 24 = 6. Area is increas¬
(6.251^ - 39
ing by 6 square meters/sec. new X = 6.25 -——-= 6.245. If old x = 6.245
12.5
then new x = 6.244998. The last two approximations
A agree on two decimal places. Take to be 6.24. To
check on accuracy, /(6.24) < 0, while /(6.245) > 0 so
there is a root between 6.24 and 6.245. The decimal
places 6.24 are correct.
2. We want to solve equ x® = 173. Let/(x) = x® — 173.

Then f'(x) — 3x^ new x = old x —

PROBLEM 12. 3(old)
450 • Solutions to the Problems

37r/2, say old x = 4.5. Let fix) ^ x - tan x.

Starting with old x — 5.5 as first guess (since 173 is
between 5® and 6*) we get successive approximations Then/'(x) == 1 - sec'x and new x =
5.5730028, 5.5720548, 5.5720547. Have agreement in old — tan(old) _ , . _ old — tan(old)
six places, so stop and take 5.572054 as the approxi¬ 1 — sec'(old) — tan'(old)
mation. To check accuracy, note that /(5.572054) < 0, Next approximations after 4.5 are 4.4936139,
/(5.5720548) > 0 so there is a root between 5.572054 4.4934097. Have 3 place agreement so take solu-
and 5.5720548. Our six places are correct. " tion to be approximately 4.493. To test accuracy,
3. Figure shows two solutions to e’‘ — 3 — x^, namely note that/(4.493) > 0 and/(4.4935) < 0 so root
Xo and Xi. Let/(x) = e* -I- x^ - 3. Then/'(x) = «* + 2x, lies between 4.493 and 4.4935. Our three places
+ (old)' - 3 are accurate.
new X = old — . Starting with old
+ 2(old)
X = 1 as first guess, successive approximations are

.8477662, .8345815, .8344869. Take .834 as an approxi¬

mate solution. As accuracy check, /(.834) < 0.
/(.8345) > 0 so there is a solution between .834 and Section 4.8 (page 127)
.8345. The three places .834 are accurate.
Starting with old x = -2, successive approximations 1. (a) dx/2'Vx
are -1.7062267, -1.6775167, -1.6772327. Approxi¬ (b) —sinxdx
mate solution is -1.677. As accuracy check,/(-1.677) < (c) x®d(sinx) + sinxd(x^)
0,/(—1.6773) > 0. Solution is between -1.6773 and = X® cos xdx + 5x* sin xdx
-1.677. Our 3 places are accurate. xd(sin x) - sin xd(x) x cos xdx - sin xdx
? x'
(e) cos x^d{x^) = 5x^ cos x®fiJx
(f) 0
2. 6x'dx
3. df = dx
4. (a) <i(x® + x') = (3x' + 2x)dx. Set x = 3,
dx = —.0001 to get d(x® + x') = —.0033.
(b) d(x*'^) = \x^^''^dx. Set x = 16, clx = .1 to get
dix^'^) = i(16)-*^" X .1 = (i)(iK-l) = 1/3^
5. (a) By trigonometry (see fig.), AE = rVS, CD =
AD — 2r,base = 2rV3, height = 3r, A = \bh =
4. (a) The graphs ofy == x andy = tan x (see fig.) do
3r'V3. If r changes by dr then dA = 6ry/3dr,
not intersect in interval (0, 7r/2) so there is no
the area of the triangular shell.
solution.
(b) See intersection at a point where x = Xo, the de¬
C
sired solution. To find Xo make a first guess near

PROBLEM

(b) V — ivr^h. If h stays fixed and r changes by dr

then dV = jmrhdr, the shell volume.

Section 4.9 (page 134)

1. (a) cos ydy = -x dx,

siny = —|x' + C (implicit solution)
 Solutions to the Problems • 451

(b) ydy = -dx/x\^ = l/2x^ + C,

(b) Isolate the C first so that it differentiates away;
y = ±V l/x'** + D ye^’‘ = C. Then differentiate w.r.t. X to get
(c) yUy = -x^dx,iy^ = -jx^ + C, 3 • 3^®* + y'e^’^ = 0, 3' = —33. For orthog

y = + D family, 3' = I/33, ydy = \dx, 53^ = ^x + C,

(d) dy/y = dx/{2x + 3), Ih Ky ^ \ ln(2x +3) = X = \y^ + D,
lnV2x + 3, Ky = V2x + 3, y ^ A V2x + 3 a family of parabolas. (See fig.)
(e) e~^dy = dx/x^, -g-> = -\/x + C, = 1/x +
D, -y = ln(l/x + D),y = -ln(l/x + D)
(f) ydy = (5x + 3)dx:, = fx^ + 3x + C,
y = ±V5x^ + 6x + D
2. (a) dy/y = xdx, In Ky = |x^ Ky = y =
3 = Ae^'^,A =
y = ^
(b) ydy = (3 - 5x)dx, ^y^ = 3x - fx" + C. Set x =
2, 31 = 4 to get C = 12. Then \y^ = 3x -fx" +
12, 31 == V6x — 5x^ + 24. (Choose the positive
square root since y is positive when x = 2.)
(c) e^dy = 3xdx, e^ = |x^ + C. Set x = 0, 3 = 2 to
get C = e'^. Then e^ = |x^ + e^,
y - ln(|x^ + e^). (c) Using differential notation for variety, Axdx -
(d) dy/y'^ = cos xdx, -I/33* = sinx + C. Setx = 0, 2ydy — 0. For orthog family Axdy + 2ydx = 0,
3 = 2 to get C = -1/24, 3 = -\/^2> sin x - i dy/y = —dx/2x, In = —5 In X = In x“‘'^,
3. (a) dy/y - 2dx/x, In Aj = 2 In x = In x^, Ky = x^, Ky = 1/Vx, X = A/y'^. The original is a family
3 = Ax^. (See fig.) of hyperbolas, all with asymptotes 3 = ±xV2.
For the graph of the orthog family note that
limj,_>oo 1/3^ = 0, lim,—00 1/3^ = 0,
limj,_o 1/3^ = 1/0+ = 00. (See fig.)

(b) 3 = 4A, A = 3/4, 3 = |x"

4. (a) Differentiate w.r.t. x; 2x + 433' = 0,3' = —x/2y.
For orthog family, 3' = 23/x, dy/y = 2dx/x,
In Aj = 2 In X = In x^, Ky = x^, 3 = Ax^, a
family of parabolas. (See fig.)
5. (a) y'{t) = -Toy{i),dy/y = -dt/10,In Ky = -jot,
Ky = e'"'°,3 = Ae-‘'^°
(b) Set r = 0, 3 = 75 to get A = 75. Solution is
3 = 75e-"'“.
(c) Note that in the general solution in part (a), if
t - 0 then 3 = A, so the constant A represents
the initial amount. For half-life set y = \A and
solve for/; 5A = Ae~‘'^°,^ — ln| = ~//10,
/ = 10 In 2, for any initial amount A.
6. m.'{t) = \m{t), dm/m = \dt. In Km — \t. Km — e^^,
m = Ae""^. Set / = 0, tw = 2 to get A = 2, m(t) — 2e‘''^.
Then if / = 3 we have m = 2e^''^.
452 • Solutions to the Problems

dv dv dt 8. (a)
'7. m— = mg - cv,
at cv — mg m’
_ —Cl/m
— In Kiev -mg) =-, K{cv - mg) - e
c m
-cl/m c f f
cv — mg = Ae v — — +

to get A = -mg. Solution is v = -^ (1 - e “'"‘).

Set r = 00 to get steady state velocity mg/c.

(b) Exponential curve with /(<») = 2 + 0-2,

y(-oo) = 2 + 00 = 00, /(O) = 2 + 5 = 7. (See

Chapter 4 Review Problems (page 134) fig-)

1. PV = kT, V = kT/P. Differentiate w.r.t. time

/pY' _ TP'\
t\ y'(t) = -j- KT = 20, V ^ 10 then P =

20V10 = 2k. With P' = -2, T' = 3 we have

, JOk + i0\ U + 20 . . , , ^ .
V' = )itl--—I = -, positive because r > 0.
\ 4^ / 2h
V is increasing by (3A + 20)/2A volume units per sec. 9. (a) 1 X -00 = -00
1 i (b) indeterminate 0°. Lety = x'®"*. Then In y =
tan X In x, lim,c_o+ In y = lim,—o+ tan x In x =
2. (a) - = lim--(L Hopital) = hm — = - - 0 0 X -00 (indet) = • • • = 0 (see Prob. 5(a), Sec¬
In X
tion 4.4). Final answer is = 1.
X
10. Let diagonal be d, one side x. (See fig.) Other side is
(b) In 0+/ln 1+ = —oo/0+ = —oo
- x^; area A(x) = xVd^ - x^ where 0 x < d. If
3. Use product rule to get /'(x) = r~'‘(1 — x), zero if
X = 0 or d, rectangle collapses to segment with area
X = Uposifx < l.negifx > l.Relmaxatx = l.Also,
0, a minimum. Maximum will be at critical point.
y(cx3) = 00 X 0 = lim;,_oc x/e’‘ = 0 since e’‘ has higher
order of mag,/(-oo) = -oo x oo = -oo. (See fig.) A'(x) = X • i(d^ - x^"'^ • “2x + Vd^ - x^
= (d^ - 2x7/Vd^ - x^, zero ifx = ±d/V2. Ignore neg
value. Rectangle with max area has sides x = d/V2 and
Vd^ - x^ = Vd^ — Id^ = d/V2, a square.

4. Clearly min is —oo since products such as -90 x 100,

PWBLEM 10
-990 X 1000, etc. can get unboundedly low. To search
for max product let the numbers be x and 10 — x. Then 11. By quotient rule, y' = -2(x^ — l)/(x^ + 1)^, zero if
product p = x(10 — x) = —x^ + lOx; p'{x) = —2x + X = ±1, negin (-00,-1), pos in (-1,1), negin (1,00). Min
10, zero if X = 5. Get max product from factors 5 and 5. at X = —1, max at x = 1; lim,—ooy = 0 (x^ has higher
5. xd{e^) + e^d{x) = 2xe^dx + e'^dx order of mag). Similarly lim,—— y = 0. (See fig.)
6. (a) In x^ = 2 In x, a multiple of In x. Same order of
magnitude.
(b) lim,_«e'‘V^* = oo/oo = 2xR’‘7«*(L’H6pital). Still
oo/oo and getting more complicated. Instead,

lim;,_,oo = lim,:^oo = 6" (since x^ has

higher order of mag than x) = So e’‘^ has
higher order of magnitude.
7. V{t) = [e(0]®, U'(0 = 3V^'. K e = 3, e' = 2 then
V = 54. Volume is increasing at the moment by 54 cubic 12. (a) f'(x) = 4 sin^x cos x, zero ifx = •••, —tt/2, 0,
meters/sec. tt/2, tt, 37r/2, •••;/' is neg in (—7r/2,0), pos in
 Solutions to the Problems • 453

(0,7r/2), neg in (7r/2, tt), pos in (tt, 37r/2), • • •. 3 fences of length 10 to subdivide into the four smaller
By first derivative test, min at X - 0, maxat ■7r/2, rectangles).
min at tt, etc. 15. / is defined on (0,1); fix) -
f"{x) = 4sin\ • — sinx + cosx • 12 sin^x cosx
= —4 sin^x + 12 cos^x an^x. X-1- In X + (1 - x) • —^— • -1 + ln(l - x) • -1
X 1 — X
/"(O) = 0, /"(7r/2) = -4, /"(ir) = 0, • • •. = In X — ln(l — x).
Second deriv test is inconclusive about critical Zero if In X = ln(l — x), X = 1 — X, X = f. Candidates
numbers 0, tt, • • •, shows max at tt/2, 37r/2, etc. are/(0+),/(l-),/(!); lim,_o+ x In X is indet form 0 x ooj
By inspection, sin^x ^ 0 and has min when ans is 0 (see § 4.4, (l)-(3)). So/(0+) = 0 + 1 x 0 = 0;
sin‘‘x = 0, sin X = 0, X = 0, tt, 2tt, •••. Sines are lim*_.i-(l — x) ln(l — x) is indeterminate 0 x oo. Let
between —1 and 1 so sin^ has max value of 1 M = 1 — X to get limu_.o+ u In m which is 0, as above. So
when sin X = ±1, namely at x = ±7j-/2, ±3Tr/2, /(!-) = 1 X 0 + 0 = 0; /(i) = |ln| + ilnHlnH
etc. -In 2, neg since In 2 is pos. Min is -In 2, max is 0.
(b) /'(x) = 2(x + 2), zero if x = —2; /' is neg if 16. (a) /'(x) = 3x^ — 4x + 3. /' never jumps and is
X < —2, pos if X > —2. Rel min at x = —2 by never 0 (the equation 3x^ - 4x + 3 = 0 has no
first deriv test;/"(x) = 2,/"(-2) = 2, pos, so real roots since — 4ac is neg). So/' has only
rel min at x = —2 by second derivative test. one sign. /'(0) is pos so/' is positive for all x, and
By inspection, (x + 2)^ is always ^ 0 and is / is an increasing function.
smallest when it is 0, namely when x = —2. So (b) /(—“>) = — °°,/('») = <»,/ increases, so graph of
(x + 2)^+1 has min value of 1 when x = — 2. / crosses the x-axis only once; equation has only
13. dy/y — dt/t^. In Ky = —\/t, Ky = y = Ae~^^‘. one root.
Set r = 00, y = 2 to get 2 = Ae°, A = 2, y = 2e~^“. (c) /(I) is neg,/(2) is pos; root lies between x = 1
14. Let AD = X. Then 100 - 5x is left for AB and DC, and X = 2. One sensible starting x is 1.5.
AB = 1(100 - 5x), (d) If first guess is x = 1.5 then next approxi¬
area A = x x |(100 — 5x) = 50x — |x^ mations are 1.6666667, 1.6507937, 1.6506292.
where 0 x ^ 20. If x = 0 or 20, plot collapses and Choose approx solution 1.650. For check on ac¬
has zero area, min. Will find max area at critical number. curacy, /(1.650) < 0, /(1.6507) > 0. Root lies
A'(x) = 50 — 5x, zero if x = 10. Other dimension is between 1.650 and 1.6507. Newton’s method
25. For max area make outer rectangle 10 x 25, (with produces three accurate places.

5/THE INTEGRAL PART I

Section 5.2 (page 145)

In Problems 1-3, each part has a diagram.

1. (a) Jtiddx = area under graph = 5 x 6 = 30

(b) J-iXfix = area II area I = 2 — 2 = 4
(c) P-2X^dx = II - I 0

PROBLEM I ft)

2. (a) /i In x^i)c
(b) — J'1/2 In x<i)c
FKOBL^M IW FKOBLBf^ I ft) (c) In x<ix: — /}/3 In x(ix
454 • Solutions to the Problems

Problem 6(<^)
(b) /o’^sin^xiLc = /o’'(l “ co%^x)dx
= /o’"ldx - fo^cos^xdx. But
Jo^ dx = area of rect (ht 1, base 27r) = 277,
and Jo” cos^xdx = fl'" sin^xdx by (a).
3. (a) So /o’^ sin^x(ix = 277 — fl” sin^xilx,
2fo" sin^xdx = 277, /o’" sin^xdx = 77.
7. Ai = area under graph of / between x — a and
X - b.
(a) (See fig.) Will get same area if graph of / and
interval [a, b] are both translated similarly. In A2,
interval is translated right 3, graph doesn’t
move; in As, interval moves right 3, graph moves
left 3; in A4, interval and graph both move right
3. So Ai = A4.
PROBLEM 3(a)

(b) = A, j-ix^dx — A — B (smaller)

(c) f-ix^dx = —B, f-2X^dx = —(C + B) (smaller)

PROBLEM 7W
(b) (See fig.) In As, both graph and interval have
contracted horizontally by a factor of 2. New
area is half the old area, so As = |Ai.

4. (a) More area below than above. Negative.

(b) cos^x is always S: 0, graph lies above x-axis. Inte¬
gral must be positive.
5. (a) True. (See Fig. 5 where graph lies below x-axis,
integral = -area = neg.) PROBLEM 7ft)
(b) False. See diagram in problem 1(c) where
/i2X®dx < 0 (more area below than above) but 8. (a) 10 (change in dummy variable doesn’t change
X* is not < 0 throughout [—2,1]. value)
(c) True. If graph off lies below graph of g then (b) /a4x*dx = 10so4/oX*dx = 10,/^x^tLc = 10/4
“/ area” is ^ “g area”. Alternatively if 9. Consider circle x^+y^ = i?^. (See fig.) Top semi¬
f (x) ^ g{x) then E/{x)dx ^ E g{x) dx. circular area lies under graph ofy = — x^ between
6. (a) Area under cos^x for 0 ^ x ^277 equals area X = -R andx = R. Semicircle area = — x^dx,
under sin^x so integrals are equal. (See fig.) circle area = 2 /-i? - x^dx.
 Solutions to the Problems • 455

00 /osinxiix -cos X |o
- n-= 2/77

24. (a) \x* + C

(b) ^x^l? = 15/4
25. Sl5dx + StOdx + fWdx
= 5(3 - 2) + 0 + 1x^4 = 5 + 260 = 265
26. 4 - X is positive if x < 4, negative if x > 4. So
|4 - x| is 4 - X if X < 4 and is -(4 - x) if x >4. So
PROBLEM ^ /3°|4 - x|<k = ft {4: - x)dx + fl°(x - 4)dx
= (4x - 5x^) II -h (^x^ - 4x) ||o = I -h 18 - 37/2.
27. (a) Graph crosses the x-axis at x = 0, 2, 4. Area =
/o(x® - 6x^ + 8x)cix - /|(x® - 6x^ + 8x)dx
= {\x^ - 2x^ + 4x^)1^ - {\x^ - 2x® + 4x^)||
Section 5.3 (page 150) = 4 - (-4) = 8.
(b) (See fig.)
1. (2x* - + 2x)|i, = 14 - - f Method 1: Given area = /oV9 - xdx - 10
2. (3r = 2 = -1(9 - xf^\l - 10 = f - 10 = I
3. {k^-lx^)\l = f-0-f Method 2: Point B has coordinates x = 0,31 = 3. Turn
4. -5 cos 2x iJ/i = 5 - 5 = i sideways so that x-axis is vertical, positive 31-axis is to your
5. tan"' X |o = itr - 0 = jTT left. Region lies under graph of x = 9 - 3^, area =
6. -(I/tt) cos 77X = 0 - (-I/tt) = I/tt /’«(9 - f)iy = (9, - i,>)|S = 18 - f = f.
7. In X |i == In 5 - In 1 = In 5
3* ~l/12x^|i = —m ~ (~^) = 435
9. 2x'*'Mi = 2V5^ - 2 = lOVs - 2
10. -1(10 - = -I - (-IW) = -I + f = f
11. 5ln(2x + l)|t - lln 9 - |ln 7
12. 4(5 - -2) = 28
13. tan X = 1 — 0 = 1
14. /i Itix = 1(5 - 2) = 3
15. /li(x® + 4x" + 4)^ix = (^x’ + x" + 4x)|i,
_ 296 _ = 118

16. I • \iix + 7)^ ’2 \t = 1(9^ - 8“) = ^

17. • 5|L, =J[(l)»-(!)•]

18. I ln|x| |lt = I In 4 - I In 5 Section 5.4 (page 155)

19. (IO/tt) sin 57TX |°3 = 0 - IO/tt == -IO/tt
20. -l/4(2x-9)Mi--i[i-^]=il 1. (a) h 4, Xo 0, 30 fix o') Ij Xj ~ 4, 3i —
21 . = /(xi) = 1.0019512; xg = i, 32 == /(xz) =
22. (See fig.) 1.0307764; xs = I, 33 =/(xs) = 1.1473475;
(a) Base AC — 6, height = 2, area = ^bh = 6. X4 = 1,34 =/(x4) = 1.4142136;
(b) Line AB has equation 31 = 5X, line BC has equa¬ ihiyo + 43, + 232 + 433 + 34) = 1.0894134
tion 31 = —X -H 6. (b) h g, Xo 0, 3o fixo) l;xi 6>3^i —
/(xi) = .027399; xz = 5, 32 = fix^) = .1053605;
Area = foixdx -I- /^(—x + 6) dx
= I, 33 =/(x3) = .2231436; X4 = |, 34 =
= + (-ix^ + 6x)|t = 4 -I- 2 = 6. /(X4) = .3677248; xs = i, 35 =/(xs) =
.5273549; xg = 1, 3g =/(xg) = .6931472;
\hiyo + 431 -1-232 + 433 -I- 234 + 435 -f- 3g) =
.2639393
(c) /i = i; Xo = 1, 30 =/(xo) = .5; Xi = |, 31 =
/(xi) = .4125705; X2 = 1,32 = fix^) - .3386243;
Xs = T, ys ^fixs) = .2778079; X4 = |, 34 ==
fix,) = .2285714; xg = 35 ^ fix,) -
. 1889996; xg - |,3g ^/(xg) - .1572482; xy = f,
456 • Solutions to the Problems

yi =/(je7) = .1317211; xs ^ 2, ys = fixs) = Chapter 5 Review Problems (page 161)

.1111111; lh{yo + 4y, + 2y2 + ^ys + 2y^ +
+ 2316 + 43/7 + 3/8) = .2543498 .
1 (a) -fx’l-i = ? - (“?) = f
(b) (Improper, x® blows up at x = 0.)
(d) — 5; xq — 0, 3^0 y'(^o) Ij 6> 3*^ 00-1-00
/(x,) = .9992287; X2 = iy2= fix^) - .9877302; f-l + /i. = -l/5x^|°l - l/5x^|i4 =
X3 = 33 -fixs) - .9394131; X4 = \, y* -
/(X4) = .8207548; X5 = i, >5 ^ f{xs) = {c) -l/5x^lT = 0 + i = l
/I 3 I q\|2_26 10 _ 16
.6173908; Xe = 1, 36 = /(xe) = .3678794; (d) (sX^ + 3x)ll - 3 - 3 - 3

\h{yo + 431 + 232 + 433 + 234 + 435 + 35) = (e) M(3x +4)^^^|? = |(10VT0-7V7)
.8449433 (f)
2. /^ = i; xo = 1, 30 =/(xo) = 1; xi = I, 31 =/(xi) = (g) 2 sin 5X jo = 0
.64; X2 = 1,32 = fix2) = |;x3 = 1,33 ^ fixs) = .3265306; (h) 3(7 - 4) = 9
(i) is if X ^0 and e’' if x < 0;
X4 = 2,34 - fixi) = .25;
jh{yo + 431 + 232 + 433 + 34) = .5004176. /°, e^dx +Poe-^dx = - e'lE
The exact answer is —(l/x)|i = —| + 1 = .5. = \ - e-^ - e-^ + I = 2 - 1/e - \/e^

(j)
i-i(2x + 5)®'il°i = (l/48)[5®-3®]
= 14896/48 = 310i
(k) -4 ln(2 - X) |i = 4 In 2
(l) 17 - 15 = 2
Section 5.6 (page 160) 2. (a) I + II + III - IV - V
= 1+1 + 2- 2-12 = -^ (See fig.)
1. -1/4x‘‘|3 = 0 + 1/4(81) = 1/324
2. |x®'®l2-“-1*2^ = °°
3. -l/2x"|ia = -i + 0 = -i
4. -l/xl°l = -(I/O-) - 1 = 00
5. In X |L = In 2 - (-«>) = «>
6. (Integrand blows up at x = 0.)
f_-2l/x*dx + /*.1/X*dx = -1/2x2|«-2 - l/2x^lE.
= -(1/0+) + 1- ^ + ^=-°° + °°- The integral di¬
verges, and there is no “answer”.
7. tan'* X l-« = 0 - {—tt/2) - 7r/2
8 1-4x10 _ 1 n _ 1
• 2^ 1"®° — 2 ^ 2
9. (Integrand blows up at x = 4.)
ir + L\ = -1(4 - xf'^ir - i(4 - x)^^^i4^
PROBLEM X
= -1
10. (1/x^ blows up at X = 0.)
/-2 + = -I/X l-i - 1/x 1E+ = °° + “ = “ (b) Line AS has equation 3 = 3x + 1, line BC has
11. (Improper because 1/x blows up at x = 0 and be¬ equation 3 = — 4x + 8.
cause interval is infinite.) /o / (x) dx
In X I0+ = °° - °°. The integral diverges. = ;i(3x + l)dx + /?(-4x + 8)dx + /t(-4)c(x
12. -cos X |o = -cos 00+1 but lim:c-.»> cos x doesn’t ex¬ = (fx** + x)li + (-2x** + 8x)Pi - 4(3)
ist since cos x oscillates between — 1 and 1 as x 00. The = I + 0 - 12 = -19/2
integral diverges. 3. h = h xo = 0, 30 =/(xo) = 1; xi = i 31 =/(xi) =
13. is e~’‘ if x s 0 and is if x < 0. 1.0068733; X2 = i, 32 =/(X2) = 1.0266901; X3 = i
+ /oe'^dx = + -«'1o 33 ^fixs) = 1.0573713; X4 = §,34 =/(x4) = 1.0962894;
=l-0-0+l=2 Xs = I, 35 ^/(xs) = 1.1409243; Xe = 1, ye = /(xe) =
14. Improper because tan x blows up at x == tt/2. 1.1892071.
—In cos X — —In (0+) + lnl = oo-|-0 = oo So 3/1(30 + 431 + 232 + 433 + 234 + 435 + ye) =
15. lim;c-.» x/(x^ + 1) = limx/x^ (highest power 1.069769
rule) = lim 1/x =0. Similarly for x -> -00. 4. See diagrams. The graph of |/(x)| is found by re¬
tan"' 00 = 7r/2, tan'*(-oo) = -tt/2. flecting in the X-axis that portion of the graph of/ which
F(oo) - f(-oo) = |[0 + tt/2 - (0 - -7r/2)] = tt/2 lies below the x-axis, and retaining the rest. (See Problem
16. (Improper since In x blows up at x = 0). 4, Sect. 1.7.)
limx-.o+ X In X is 0 X 00 and turns out to be 0 (see (l)-(3), Case 1: Graph of/ lies above the x-axis, i.e.,/(x) s 0.
Section 4.4). So (x In x — x)lo+ = -1. Then l/(x)l = /(x). Both I and II equal area A, so I = II.
 Solutions to the Problems • 457

5. {J\ l/xdx)/{e - I). Numerator is In X If = I. Answer

rr is l/{e - I).
6. Graph crosses the x-axis at x = 1, -2, 3.
Area = -/-i[-(x® - 2x^ - 5x + 6)]dx
0 + - 2x^ - 5x + 6)]dx
= (ix" - |x" - |x' + 6x)|i, - (^x" - |x" - fx" + 6x)|?
problem ^ = f+ f = 16
CASE I 7. (a) The graph of / is symmetric w.r.t. the origin so
that as much area lies above as below. (See fig.)
Case 2: Graph lies below x-axis. Then I = C II = Answer is 0.
and I = II.

rypicAL p

PROBLEM ^
PROBLEM 7W
CASE X
(b) Graph off is symmetric w.r.t. the y-axis. (See
Case 3: Graph crosses x-axis. fig-) S-sfix)dx - 2 fi f{x)dx.
Then I = Z) -t- F = D +£, II = |Z) —£'|;Iis larger.
In general can conclude that in any case, II < I.

PROBLEM 4 CASE 3 PROBLEM 7(b)

6/THE INTEGRAL PART II

Section 6.1 (page 170)

4.
0
Each problem in this section has a diagram, except for
9,15,19. PROBLEM
1. The indicated piece of wire has almost constant den¬
sity x®, length dx somassdwi = density x length = x^dx.
Total mass = fox^dx.
2. Consider the time interval [3,5]. During the dt hours 5 5
around hour t, speed is almost constant at Distance
PROBLEM 2
458 • Solutions to the Problems

traveled in the dt hours is ^distance = speed x time = 6. Consider slab x feet up, with thickness dx.
t^dt. Total distance is flt^dt. slab radius
- slab radius = x/4. Slab is a cylinder with
3. Indicated strip of wall has area 7 dx, height x, X
dcost = .01 X 7dx, total cost = /o.07 x^dx. radius x/4, height dx, vol dV = irr^h = 7r(x^/16)dx,
dweight = density x vol = -^irx^dx. Slab must
be moved up 20 — x feet,
<icost'= weight x distance moved = sTtx^dx X (20 - x),
total cost = Jo” dcost |77X^(20 - x)dx
6
- STT fo® (-X® + 20x^)dx.
X-

■0

PROBLEM 3
4. Consider slab at position x with thickness dx. Slab
radius is Treat slab as a cylinder with height
dx, radius — x^, dV = irr^h = Tr{R^ - x^)dx,
T = tt{R^ — x^)dx = 7r(i?^x — |x®)|-fi = Itt/?®.

7. Indicated strip has width dx, distance x from pole.

strip height ^ height = 2(x - 2). Strip area

X 2 3
dA = bh = 2(x - 2) dx, dmass = 2S(x — 2)dx,
dmoment = md^ = 25(x — 2)dx X x^,
total moment = 25 /i»:^(x — 2)dx.

5. Indicated strip has width dx, distance to tracks

„ strip height 5 . . . ,
IS X + 6; -^--— = —, strip height = 7(7 - x).
7 — X 7
Strip area is dA = f(7 - x) dx, PROBLEM 1
dprice = area x distance to tracks
8. If the temp is t degrees then the specific heat is and
= f(7 — x)dx X (x + 6).
the number of calories dc required to raise the temp by
Total price = fljO — x){x + 6) dx
dt degrees is dc = dt. Total calories = Jm t^ dt.
- + it + 42)dx - 137.1

PROBLEM 8
 Solutions to the Problems • 459

9. (a) The time interval [2,14] was subdivided, and

<icharge = density X length = e~'^^dx and
dx represents a small amount of time around
total charge = = 2 (Section 5.6, Prob. 13).
time X.
(b) Since ^f{x)dx is the total number of words,
f{x)dx is the number of words (i.e., dwords)
typed during dx minutes around time x.
(c) Since f{x) dx is words and dx is number of
minutes, f{x) is words/min, the instantaneous
PROBLEM IZ
typing rate at at time x. If/(3.2) = 25, the secre¬ 13. The points in the indicated shell are all roughly
tary is typing at the rate of 25 words/min at distance x from the center. Density in shell is xl Shell
time 3.2.
has radius x, thickness dx, dA = 27rxdx (Section 4.8, (8)),
10. (a) Slab in Fig. 12(ii) has height dx, radius x^, vol¬ dmass = density X area = 27rx^dx,
ume dT = TTT^h = TTX^dx. Total volume of solid total mass = fo27rx^dx.
is /o7^x^^ix.
(b) Revolve a strip to get a small slab with height
dy, radius Vy, volume dV = irr^h = irydy. Total
volume = /oTrydy.

problem 10(b)
14. The indicated cylindrical shell has radius x, thick¬
11. Consider slab x feet above square base, with thick-
ness dx, height 2VR^ - x^, dV = 2ttx x 2VR^ - x^tZx
ness dx. Then-^ - ~jr~’ * (Section 4.8, (9)), <Lmass = 47r5xVR" - xUx. Shell is
(almost) all at distance x from the pole so by (5),
Slab volume = (area of base) x height = (edge)^<fx dmoment = AttSx^VR'^ - x^dx,
= a^(h - xf/h^ • dx, total moment == 47r5 foxWR^ - x^dx.
total volume = (aV^^)/o(A - xf dx
— (a^/h^) • —^{h — x)^\o — \a^h = | base X height. POLE

problem

15. (a) Pipeline was divided into pieces, dx is the length

of a typical piece located around mile x.
12. Convenient to let P be the 0 point on the wire. The (b) The sum of g{x)dx's is total cost, g{x)dx is the
small piece of wire around position x with length dx is fiJcost of the typical piece of length dx around
roughly distance |x| from P {not plain x) so mile X.
460 • Solutions to the Problems

* (c) dx is miles, g{x)dx is dollars so g{x) is $/mile,

the instantaneous cost per mile of the pipeline at
mile X. If g(4) = 17000 then at mile marker 4,
the pipeline costs $17000 per mile.
16. Look at a small piece of the rod around position x
with length dx. All of it (almost) travels in a circle of
radius x. Circumference of circle is 27rx so the piece
travels at speed v — 2ttx feet per sec. Piece has mass
Sdx (use density x length),
denergy = j x S dx (27rx)^ = drr^x^dx,
total energy = 67r^/o°x^dx.

17. Divide the “sector” into subsectors. The indicated

radial strip has angle dd, is located roughly at angle 0,
has radius cos 0 and area dA = ^d0 cos^0.
Total area = cos^0d0.

PROBLEM 18(b)
20. The indicated slab is distance x above earth, dimen¬
sions are 5 by 6 by dx, volume dV — 30 dx, density is 8,
massdm — 308dx, dw — 30Sdx/{2 + x^).
Total weight == Jlooo 30S/(2 + x^)dx.
18. (a) Divide solid cylinder into cylindrical shells (sig¬
nificance of the shell is that its points are (al¬
most) all the same distance from the axis). Typi¬
cal shell has radius x, thickness dx, volume
dV - 2TTxhdx (Section 4.8, (9)); distance to axis
is X so density is x,
dmass = density X vol = 2'rTx'^hdx.
Total mass = 2'nh /ox^dx.
(b) Divide solid cylinder into cylindrical slabs (be¬
cause slab is (almost) at a constant distance from
base). Typical slab x feet above base has height
dx, radius R, volume dV = ttR^dx, density x,
dmass = irR^xdx. Total mass = 7ri?^/oxdx.
19. (a) Machine is dead when 225 — - 0 (no earn¬
ings), t - 15.
(b) Consider the time interval [0,15]. During the dt problem ZO 0
years around year t, machine earns at the rate of
225 — dollars per year so learnings = 21. All the points in the circular ring are (almost) at
(225 - t^)dt, total earnings == Jo® (225 - t^)dt. distance x from the pump. Ring has radius x, thickness
 Solutions to the Problems • 461

dx, area dA — 2vxdx (Section 4.8, (8)),

tfcost = 2Trxdx X Total cost = 277 fox^dx.

PROBLEM 73
22* Indicated slab is at distance d = 12 ~ x from col¬
lector, dimensions are 9 by 10 by dx, volume dV = 90 dx,
dheat = 90dx/(12 - x + 1).
Total heat = /o^ 90/(13 - x)dx.

PROBLEM

/^ t'2- only -----th of them will last. So

coui^ecTof?.
\i-y-
d(lasting flakes) = R{t)dt/{\ \ - t),
total lasting flakes = /o°i?(<)/(ll “ t)dt.
drl

Z
—I-(--.—I-1-
0 i 10

PROBLEM 2S
--0
/o 26. The indicated onion shell has thickness dx, radius x,
surface area 47rx^. Current flowing through it travels
PROBLEM Xl distance L = dx, dR = dx/477x^.
Total i? = (1/477)/^° 1/x^dx.
23. Indicated cylindrical slab has radius 3, height dx,
(almost) all water in it fell distance 9 — x, dV = Ott^x,
dsplash = 97rdx x (9 — x).
Total splash = 977 fo (9 — x) dx.
24. If the moving charge is at position x, so that distance
from A is x, then deffort required to move dx feet closer
is (l/x^)dx (number of feet x effort per foot).
(a) Total effort to move from C to i5 is
fll/x^dx = -l/x|i = 3/10.
(b) fo 1/x^dx = -1/x jo+ = -i + °° =
25. (a) During a small time interval of dt hours around
time t, the snow falls at the rate of R(() flakes
per hour. So dflakes = R(t)dt,
total flakes = fl^R{t)dt.
(b) R{t)dt flakes land in the dt hours around time t
but in the remaining 10 — t hours until time t.
462 • Solutions to the Problems

Section 6.3 (page 180)

1. (See figs.)
(a) u{x) — 3x, l{x) = x^.
Area = fo(3x — x^)dx = (|x^ — ix^)|o = I-

2. (a) A = (7r/4,iV2),B = (57r/4,-|V2). To the left

of A, m(x) - cos X, l{x) = sin x; situation
reverses between A and B. Area =
(cos X — sin x)dx + (sin x — cos x)dx
— (sin X +COS x) + ( — cos x — sin x) |„/4
= (v^ -1) + 2V2 = 3V2 - 1
(b) A - (-2,4), B = (i4), C - (1, 1). Area =
/LI (4 - x^)dx + /U (1/x - x^)dx
= (4x - ix®)lL| + (In X - ix®)|\/4
(b) Graph of x = 31^ is a parabola. Upper part
— (l^lfe+S — |) + (—5 — In 5 + T^)
is 31 = Vx so u(x) — Vx, l(x) = x^. = 6 + In 4
Area = /o(Vx — x^)dx - (|x*^^ - ix®)|o = I- 3. (a) dy = e’‘dx, ds — y/dx^ + {e*dxY = Vl + dx,
s - /j=o y/l + e'^’‘dx
(b) dx = Sy^dy, ds = y/9y'^dy^ + =
Vl + 93■*dy, s = fy=o Vl + 93^dy
(c) 3 = 1/x, dy = -(l/x^)dx, ds = Vl + \/x*dx,
s - /Li Vl + 1/x^dx
(d) dx = 2dt dy = 2tdt, ds = ^{2dtf + {2tdtf =
2VI + t^dt. Point (3,1) corresponds to t = 1,
point (9,16) to t = 4 so 5 = 2 Vl + dt
4. Line AB has eq 3 = m{x — xi) + 31 where m =
(32 ~ y\)l{x^ ~ X\). Then dy = mdx,ds — Vdx^ + m^dx'^
= Vl + m^dx. Say X2 > Xi. Then s — Vl + dx.
Note that V1 + wi ^ is a constant,
so s = Vl + m^(x2 —Xi)
(c) Line AB has equation 3 = -4x — 12,
u(x) — 8/x, l{x) — —4x — 12.
(3’2 - yit (X2 — Xi)
(X2 - Xi)^
Area = f-l (8/x — (-4x — 12))«ix
= (8 In |x| + 2x" + 12x) |:H 6 - 8 In 2. (X2 - Xi) + (32 - 31)
(X2 - Xi)
(X2 - Xi)^

= V(x2 — Xi)^ + (32 — 31)'^, Standard distance formula.

Section 6.5 (page 187)

1. {^t^ + 5t)\‘,Zl = fx" + 5x - 12

2. (a) The piece of wire indicated in the diagram is
(almost all) at distance x from A, charge density

(d) Need points where parabola crosses x-axis. <■■■>

x2 - 4x + 3 = 0, (x - 3) (x - 1) - 0, X = 3, 1. Jt-
Area = -/i(x^ - 4x + 3)dx ^
- -(ix® -2x2 + 3^) |3 ^ 1 problem a
 Solutions to the Problems • 463

in piece is e *, (/charge = e “ dx.

Total charge = Jo ^ dx.
(b) ile~‘dt
3. (a) During the time interval of duration dx hours,
roughly x hours after 3 4>M, the (/rainfall hx^dx.
Total rainfall = /oX®(/x.
(b) ilt^dt
4. (See figs.) Case 1: 0 < x < 1. By similar triangles,
^1 = ED/{\ -x),ED = 2- 2x. Then
AB = 2 - (2 - 2x) - 2x.
/(x) = area ACDE = ABE + BCDE
= x^ + x(2 - 2x) = 2x - x^.

2>
~D, 7(—1) = E — D, 7(—5) = E — D — F, etc. Can get
rough graph by plotting points. Can also use the fact that
= fix)', graph of7 has slope 0 at x = 0, -1, slope 3
at X = 2, slope | for large x, slope °o at —<».

PROBLEM ^
CA^E I
Case 2: 1 < x < 3. I{x) — ACE (can use 7(1) from
case 1) + FGHJ = 1 + 4(x - 1) = 4x - 3.

6. (a) 7(1) = So^rndt = dt = I

(b) I{2) = Slf{t)dt ^Sodt + SUdt
= 1 + In 11? = 1 + In 2
(c) If 0 < X ^ 1, then 7(x) = Jof{t)dt = fodt = x.
If X > 1 then 7(x) = Jo fit)dt
PROBLEM ^ = Jo (/t + f\ {\/t)dt = 1 + In i = 1 + In X.
C/\SB X So 7(x) is X if 0 s X ^ 1 and 1 + In x if x > 1.
7. (a) y(7) includes the “extra” amount /}/2 In tdt. That
amount is negative, namely -A. (See fig.) So J(7)
Case 3: x ^ 3. 7(x) = ACE + FGHJ (can use 7(3) from
is smaller; J{7) = 7(7) — A.
case 2 for this sum) + HEM + GHLK
= 9 + f(x — 3)^ + 4(x — 3) = fx^ + X + |.
2
2x — X if 0 ^ X :£ 1
All in all, 7(x) 4x—3 ifl^xS3
fx^ + X + I if X ^ 3.

5. (See figs.) 7(1) - 0,7(2) = S^fit)dt - area A, 7(3) =

Pif{t)dt - area B, 7(10) = area C, 7(0) = Pf{t)dt =
464 • Solutions to the Problems

. (b) The graphs are parallel curves. The J(x) graph is 3. The indicated strip (see fig.) has length 4, width dx,
and most importantly is (almost) all at depth 11 — x.
lower by A.
Area is Adx, threading = depth x area = 4(11 — x)dx.
8. (a) (2/V^y^*'
(b) e~'‘lx Total reading = Jo dreading = 4 Jo (11 ~ x)dx
(c) Continue from (b). = {—xe — e ’‘)/x^ - 4(1 lx - ix")l^ = 170.
9. I'{x) - sin I"{x) = 2x cos
10. Si'(x) = (sin x)/x; zero if x = • ■ •, —rr, tt, 2tt, Stt, • • •.
(If X = 0 then Si'(x) = (sin 0)/0 which for all practical
purposes is 1 (Example 2, Section 4.3). So x = 0 is
not a critical number.) Si"(x) = (x cos x — sin x)/x^.
Si"(-7r) = I/tt, positive, Si x has rel min at x = -tt by
2nd derivative test; Si"(7r) = ~l/7r, negative, rel max at
X = tt; Si"(27r) is positive, rel min at x = etc.
11. /(x) = Si(x®) so /'(x) = 3x^ Si'(x^). But Si'(x) = 0 ■■

(sin x)/x so Si'(x®) == (sin x®)/x® and /'(x) = (3 sin x®)/x.

12. Numerator—> 0 (since Si becomes /o) so lim is
0/0. Use L’Hopital; lim Si'(x)/1 = lim(sin x)/x =
0/0 = lim(cos x)/l = 1
13. (a) (ix^ - 5x)l! = -8 - (-12) - 4 4. Line AB (see fig.) has equation y - 2x - 4,
(b) i ln(2x + 5) = I In 5 - I In 9. u(x) - 2x - 4, l(x) - sin ttx,
area = /L (2x - 4 - sin ttx)
dx = (x^ - 4x + i cos 7rx)|i/2 = l/v - 1/4

Chapter 6 Review Problems (page 188)

.
1 In dt days around day i, colony grows atf(t) cm®/day
so dgrowth = f{t)dt cm^. Total growth = Pif{t)dt.
2. The cylindrical shell indicated in the diagram has
radius x, thickness dx. The significance of the shell is that
(almost) all its points are the same distance from the axis,
namely distance x. By similar triangles,
{h - shell height)/x = h/R, shell height = h{R - x)/R. 5. Region is triangle ABC where B — (4,8). (See fig.)
By Sect. 4.8, (9), shell vol dV = 2irx • hiR — x)/R • dx, (a) ABC has height 8, base 12, area 48.
dmass = SdV, dmoment = dmass x d^ (where d = x) (b) Area = I + II = /^2xdx + (12 - x)dx
— 2'nh8/R •x®(i? — x)dx. = x^lS + (12x - ix^)|l^ = 16 + 32 = 48.
Total moment = /o dmoment
= {2TThS/R)!URx^ - x*)dx
= {2TTh8/R){\Rx^ - IX®) 1^ = -^^*8.

6. (a) In the dt years around age t the sheep produces

wool at the rate of 100 - < pounds per year so
dwool = (100 — t)dt,
total wool = /KlOO — t)dt.
(b) (100 — x) dx (use dummy variable other than t)
7. (a) /(x) = ili2t + S)dt = {e + 30|l
= x^ + 3x — 10
 Solutions to the Problems • 465

(b) If X < 7 then

lix) = - x' - 8.
If X > 7 then
I(x) = = JlSt^dt + Sy5dt
- 7(7) + 5(x - 7) = (7® - 8) + 5(x - 7)
= 5x + 300.
All in all, /(x) isx^ — 8ifx:<7 and is 5x + 300
if X > 7.
(c) Can find formula for / and proceed as in (b) or
can use geometry (see fig.); 7(2) = flfit)dt = 0.
If 2 X ^ 4 then 7{x) = /S f{t)dt - area ABC.
Base AC = x — 2; by similar triangles, height
0 ifx<2
BC = 4(x - 2), 7(x) = |AC • IC = 2(x - 2)".
If 4 s X < 6 then 7(x) = area ADEF — 2(x - 2)" if 2 < X < 4
AGD - EFG = 16 - 2(6 - x)". ' ' 16 - 2(6 - x)" if 4 < X < 6
If X ^ 6 then 7(x) = area AGD = 16.
.16 if X ^ 6.
If X < 2, 7(x) = 0 since there is no area under
the graph of f to the left of x = 2. All in all. 8. 7'(x) = e*' {not e‘^), 7"(x) = D,e’‘' = 2xe’‘'

7/ANTIDIFFERENTIATION

Section 7.2 (page 195) 12. By inspection or let it = 2 — x, du = -dx. Then

1. Let u = x^, du = 2xdx. Then "2(2-x)^^^-

jxe’‘^dx = ^fe'‘du — + C = ^e’‘^ + C. 13. By inspection or let it == |0 — 1, du = idd. Then
2. Let u = 3x^ + 1, du = 6xdx. Then 2/ cos udu — 2 sin it + C = 2 sin(|0 — 1) + C.
^jy/udu = /\ + C = 5(3x^ + 7)®^^ + C. 14. Let It = -X, du - —dx. Then / (-it)e“ • -du
3. By inspection or let it = 3 + 5x, du = 5 dx. Then = fue'^du - e'^{u - 1) + C (formula 61)
y/udu = /\ + C = ■^(3 + 5x)^^^ + C. = e-^i-x - 1) + C.
4. Let u=3 + 7x, du = 7 dx. Then 15. Let It = cos X, du = —sin xdx. Then
7/ l/y/udu — jy/u + C — fV3 + 7x + C. -/It®tilt = —-jit^ + C = —i cos^'x + C.
5. Let u = tan x, du = sec^xdx. Then 16. By inspection or let it = —x, du = —dx. Then
/ w tilt = -^u + C = tan‘® x + C. -/e“tiit = -e“ + C = + C.
6. Let It = X + I, du = dx, x = it — 1. Then 17. Let It = 3x, du — ?>dx. Then sin it • idu
= if u sin udu - i(sin it - it cos it) + C (formula 48)
-—7— du = f {u~* - 2u“®) du = -- - 2-- + C
It® - 3 - 4 = |(sin 3x — 3x cos 3x) + C.
18. Let It = TTX, du - Trdx. Then (I/tt)/ sin^ittiit
_^ +_L_ + c = (l/7r)|(it - sin It cos it) + C (formula 39)
3(x + 1)® 2(x + 1)^
7. Let It = 1 + 2 sec 0, tilt = 2 sec 0 tan 6dd. Then = (l/27r)(ttx—sin ttx cos ttx) + C.
/ = 1/ 1/V^tiit = lit‘'71 + C - Vl + 2 sec 0 + C. 19. 3/x sin xtix = 3(sin x — x cos x) + C (formula 48).
8. Let u = \n X, du — 1/xtix. Then 20. Let It = 3x, tilt = 3 dx.
J I/udu = Injitj + C — ln|ln x| + C. f (|tt)^ cos It • idu = ^Jit^ cos udu (use 51)
9. Let It = x^, du - 2xdx. Then /x® sin ittiit/2x = = ^[(it^ - 2) sin It + 2it cos it] + C
l/x^ sin udu = if u sin udu - |(sin u — u cos it) + C = ^(9x^ — 2) sin 3x + ^x cos 3x + C.
(formula 48) = |(sin x^ — x^ cos x^) + C. 21. Let It = 2x + 3, tilt = 2tix. Then
10. By inspection or let it = 1 + 3x, du = 5 dx. Then 1/ In It tilt == |(it In It - It) + C (formula 62)
1/u^du - ^it® + C — -^(1 + 3x)® + C. = |(2x + 3) ln(2x + 3)— |(2x + 3) + C.
11. By inspection or let it — 2 — 3x, du = —5dx. Then 22. / sec xdx = Injsec x + tan x| + C (formula 33)
-5/ lludu = —5 ln|it| + C = -i ln|2 - 3x| + C. 23. NO! The first step is OK, but the second step im-
466 • Solutions to the Problems

plicitly lets u = VSx in which case du = y/^dx. Then dx (long division)

6. (a)
./ \ 2x + 6y
f —J—dx - f-J—-^ = — tan ‘m + C - |x -3-1 ln|2x + 6| + C (by inspection).
J 1 + (Vsxf J 1 + Vs Vs
(b) Use formula 5 with a = 6, b = 2 to get
== —7= tan * VSx + C.
Vs I+ |x- I lnl2x + 6| + C

24. (a) Let u = Sx, du = 3dx. Then i/ tan ^udu = |x — I ln|2x — 6| +

= \{u tan“*M - I ln(l + m^)) + C (formula 59) (c) Let u = 2x + 6,du ^ 2dx. Then
= X tan“'Sx — i ln(l + 9x^) + C.
(b) Not possible yet.
25. Let u = cos x, du = -sin xdx. Then - \u - ^ ln|M| '+ C
-/ l/udu = -Inlul + C = -ln|cos x| + C. = \i2x + 6) - I ln|2x + 6| + C as in (b).
. r sec x(sec x + tan x) , I tix (longdivision) = x — tan 'x + C.
26. f sec xiix = -;-dx 7. 1 -

J sec X + tan x + 1/
sec X + sec x tan x
I sec X + tan x
dx.

Now let w = sec X + tanx, c?m = (secx tanx + sec x)dx.

Then / du/u = lnlM| + C = ln|sec x + tan x| + C.
Section 7.4 (page 202)
27. / sin^x<Zx =1/(1 - cos 2x)6ix = |/ ix -
1/ cos 2xdx = |x — 2 ’ 2 sin 2x + C = I* — 3 sin 2x + C.
A 5 C , D
1. (a) —+ — + — + +
X X X X + 1 2x + S
(b) x^ + 2x - 2 factors into (x - [-1 + VS]) •
(x - [-1 - VS]) and x^ - 2x + 2 doesn’t
factor since — 4ac < 0, so decomp is
Section 7.3 (page 198)
+_?._
1. 2 + 6x - x^ = -(x^ - 6x - 2) X - (-1 + VS) X - (-1 - VS)

= -(x" - 6x + 9 - 9 - 2) = -([x - S]" - 11) Cx + D

+
= 11 — (x - S)^. Then to do x^ - 2x + 2
/ 1/Vll - (x - S)‘''cix let It = X - S, (fit = dx, use (19) 12 B
+
f du • -1 “ , • -1^ ~ ^ , r (x - VS)(x + VS) X + Vs ' X - Vs’
12 = A(x - VS) + B{x + VS).
2. X + 2x^ = 2(x^ + |x + ^ - ^) = 2([x + - Te)- If X - Vs then
Let u — x + \, du — dx. 12 = 2V3B, B = e/Vs = 2V3.
if dx _ 1 r du If X = -Vs then 12 = -2V3A, A - -2V3.
V(x + i)^ - ^ ~ ^ Vu^ -
. -2V3 2V3

= In IX + \ + V(x + - Te \ + C (formula 27).

^ X + Vs X - Vs
1 A B
(b)
dx (x - 4) (2x + S) X - 4 ^ 2x + S ’
3. -Lf. _= In lx + Vx^ — 11 + C 1 - A(2x + S) + B{x - 4).
Vs J Vv^ Vs
VsJ If X = 4 then 1 = llA, A = 1/11.
(formula 27).
Ifx = -S/2 then 1 = -^B,B ^ -2/11.
4. x^ — 4 + I dx (long division) . 1/11 2/11
x^ + 4 Decomp is
4 2x + S
= --4«+2 dx 5x Ax + B
+ 4 J x^ + 4 (c) +
= fx® - 4x + ln(x^ + 4) + 8 tan“' |x + C. (x" + l)(x - 2) x" + 1
(Sub u - x^ + 4^, du - 2xdx in first integral; use 1(b) 5x = (Ax + B)(x - 2) + C(x^ + 1).
or 16 for second.) If X = 2 then 10 = 5C, C = 2.
5. / xV(x + 1)^ — 1 tfoc. Let M = X + 1, dw = tix; Equate x^ coeffs to get 0 = A + C, A = —2.
J(m - 1)Vm^ - 1 du Equate x coeffs to get 5 = B — 2A, B = 1.
= /uVu^ - I du - /y/u^ - Idu . - 2x + 1 2
Decomp is +
= |(it^ - 1)^^^ - \uy/u^ - 1 + I Inju + Vm^ - 11 + C x^ + 1 X - 2
= ■|(x^ + 2xf'^ - |(x + l)Vx^ + 2x 2x + 3 A
+
B
(d)
+ 5 ln|x + 1 + Vx^ + 2x I + C. (x - 2)"“ X - 2 ' (x - 2)' ’
(Sub V = u^ - I, dv — 2udu \n first integral; 2x + 3 = A(x - 2) + B.
use 28 in second.) If X = 2 then 7 = B.
 Solutions to the Problems • 467

Equate x coefficients to get 2 = A. diff by inspection or substitute u = a + bx to get

So decomp is ^ + —'■■■
Injxj-'.‘
2 - ‘ +c
d 0/ a a + bx
3 A B 1 1
3. (a) + =-^(Inla + bx\ — ln|x|) + + C
(2 - x)(x + 1) 2 - X , X + 1’ a{a + bx)
3 = A(x + 1) + B{2 - x). a + bx 1
If X = 2 then 3 = 3A, A = 1. =-5 In + + C.
a a{a + bx)
If X = -1 then 3 = 3fi, B = 1. Decomp is
1
--H — • Antidiff by inspection to get 6. x^ + 5x + 4)x^
x^ + 5x +4
answer —ln|2 — x| + ln|x + I| + C.
-5x - 4
f
3dx 5x + 4
(b) For -5-- use formula 1(a) with a = SO = 1 - and
J —X + X + 2 x^ + 5x + 4 x" + 5x + 4
~2x + 1 ~ 3
— \,b — I, c = 2 to get In + C dx
-2x + I + 3 / x^ + 5x +4
—X 1 xdx dx
= In + C = In + C
2 - X 12 - x| ^ + 5x + 4 J x^ + 5x + 4
= Ini|x + l| — ln|2 — x| + C. First integral is x. For second integral use formula 2 with
I X dx a = 1, 6 = 5, c = 4, or factor denom and use
(a) Can write as 2 —5--- +
J x^ - 4x + 4 decomposition. Second is

3
r —---use
dx
formulas 2 and 1(c). Or dx.
-5 • f Injx^ + 5x + 4| H-— I —5-—
.. X 4x +t 4 2 J X + 5x + 4
2 Add in first and third to get
can decompose (see problem 2(d)) into +
X - 2
X - I ln|x^ + 5x + 4| + -y f —
7 J X + 5x + 4
g. Then antidiff by inspection to get an-
(X - 2) (formula 1(a) or decompose)
swer 2 ln|x — 2| — 7/(x 2) + C. 2x + 5 - 3
— X — I ln|x^ + 5x + 4| + "Y ■ i In
8x _ 8x 2x + 5 + 3
(b) x + 1
(x" - l)(x" + 1) (x + l)(x - l)(x^ + 1)
= X — I ln|x^ + 5x + 4l + "e" In
A B Cx + D X + 4
+ +
x + 1
= X — I ln|x + 4| |x + l| + V In ^ ^
8x = A(x - l)(x^ + 1) + B(x + l)(x^ + 1)
+ (Cx + D){x^ - 1). = X — I Injx + 4| — I ln|x + 11+-^ ln|x +
If X - 1 then 8 - 4B, B = 2. If X = -1 then - ^ ln|x + 4|
—8 = -4A, A = 2. Equate x* coeffs to get 0 = = X + I Injx + l|—T ln|x + 4|.
A + B + C, C = -4. Equate x^ coeffs to get
0 = -A + B + D, D = 0. So decomp is
2 2 4x
-1-2-. Antidiff the first frac-
x + 1 X — 1 x+1
tions by inspection, substitute u = x^ + 1 for
the third. Answer is Section 7.5 (page 204)
2 Injx + 1| + 2 ln|x - 1| - 2 ln(x^ + 1) + C.
1. (a) LetM — x,dv = e’’ dx. Then du = dx,v = e’‘and
(c) Either use formula 10 or decompose to
/xe*dx = xe’‘ — f e’‘dx = x^* — e” + C.
-2/9 1/3 , 4/9 ^ .
—--— H-. Antidiff by inspection (b) Let u = tan“* x, dv = dx. Then
X X 2x 3
du = dx/{\ + x^), V = X and
to get —I Injxl + l/3x + | ln|2x — 3| + C.
1 A B C f tan“'xdx = x tan“‘x — -—;—^dx
5. + \2 ’
*' J 1 + x^
x{a + bx)^ X a + bx (a + bx)^
= X tan“‘x — f ln(l + x^) + C
1 = A(a + bxf + Bx(a + bx) + Cx.
(use formula 2 or sub m = 1 + x^).
If X = 0 then 1 = a^A so A = 1/a^.
(c) Let u = sin^^x, dv — dx. Then
Ifx = —a/b then 1 = -{a/b)C, C = -b/a.
du = dx/Vl - x^, V = X and
Equate x^ coeffs; 0 = b^A + bB, B = —bja^. Get
-if ^
f sin xdx = X sin x — —, —; dx
W-dx-^\ —^ dx - - I J 2 dx. Anti- ^ J Vl - x'
j X J a + bx a J {a + bx)
468 • Solutions to the Problems

(now sub M — 1 -
= X sin~’x + Vl — + C.
sin” ‘x cos"'*^‘x ^ m -
m + n m + n
si If
sin”"^x cos”xdx. Continue

(d) Let M = In X, dti = dx. Then du - dx/x, v = x, with 52(b) on the last integral. Note that 52(b) uses the
/inxdx = xlnx — / dx = xlnx —x +C. letter m as the sine exponent but our integral has m — 2
2. (a) Let u — cos(ln x), dv = dx. Then as the sine exponent so 52(b) has to be used with its letter
m replaced by m — 2 to get
du = -sin(ln x) • (l/x)dx, v = x,
f cos(ln x)dx = X cos(ln x) + / sin(ln x) dx. sin ■*x cos"'^*x m - 1
/ sin^x cos"xdx = — -t-
m + n m + n
Now let u = sin(ln x), dv — dx. Then du —
cos(ln x) • {l/x)dx, V = x and sm X cos" ‘x - 1
/ cos(ln x)dx = m — 2 + n
-H
m — 2 + n / sin” ^x cos" ^xdx

X cos(ln x) + X sin (In x) — / cos(ln x) dx. 5. New integral is missing the numerator x and is not of
Collect terms to get the same form as the original.
2 / cos(ln x)dx = X cos(ln x) + x sin(ln x) 6. (a) Let u = sin x, du — cos x dx.
so / cos(ln x)dx — |x[cos(ln x) + sin(ln x)] + C. f sin X cos xdx = /udu — ^u^ + C
(b) LetM = x^,dv — e'‘dx. Then du = 2xdx,v = e’‘, = I sin^x + C.
/x^^*dx = x^e* - 2 Jxe^dx. Now either use for¬ (Can also use u = cos x, du — —sin xdx.)
mula 61 or use parts again with u = x, dv — (b) Let u - cos X, du - —sin xdx.
e’‘dx. Then du = dx, v — e’‘ and -/u^^du = + C = -^ cos'^x + C.
fx^e’‘dx = x^e* — 2(xe* — / e’^dx) (c) Use 52(c) with m — 0, n = —5 to get
= x^g" - 2x^* + 2e^ + C. —sm X cos ‘‘x
-h sec^xdx.
(c) Let u = tan“*x, dv = xdx. Then
du = dx/{l + x^), V = fx^,
-4 -4 -J
Now use 43 to get i sin x sec^x -f-
1 r
/x tan *xdx = ^x^ tan ^x — j j —2^ |[| sec X tan x + | Injsec x + tan x|] + C.
(d) Use 53; / tan^xdx = | tan^x — / tan^xdx
= |x^ tan ^ dx (long div) = 5 tan^x — (tan x - x) + C (by 41).
(e) Let u — sin x, du = cos x dx.
= jx^ tan^'x — jx + j tan“^x + C. / du/u'^ - -1/m + C — -1/sin X + C.
3. Let u = sec x, dv = sec^x dx. Then sin\ cos ^X 1 r sin^x
du = sec X tan xdx, v = tan x, (f) dx (by 52(c))
-2 ^ J cos X
/ sec^x dx = sec x tan x — f sec x tan^x dx
= I sin\ sec^x — |(—sin x -I- / sec xdx) (52(a))
— sec X tan x — / sec x • (sec^x — l)dx (trig identity)
= I sin\ sec^x — |(—sin x + Injsec x + tan x|)
= sec X tan x - /sec\dx + f sec xdx
+ C (by 33).
= sec X tan x — /sec^xdx + Injsec x + tan x|.
(g) Can use 52(b) once or can use
So 2/sec^xdx = sec x tan x + ln|sec x + tan x|,
/ sin^x(l — sin^x) cos xdx = J{u* — u^)du
/ sec^xdx = 5(sec x tan x + ln|sec x -I- tan x|) -t- C.
(let u = sin x, du = cos x dx)
4. Let u = X, dv = xe~’‘^dx. Then du — dx, v —
= \u^ — \u^ -I- C = I sin®x — 7 sin^x + C.
Jxe~’‘^dx — — (sub u — —x^, du = —2xdx). Then
(h) Let M = 3x, du ~ 5 dx. Tben| / sin'^udu
/x^e“*^dx = —■+ 2 / « ~*^dx = —+ |Q(x) + C.
- i(~4 sin^M cos M + I / sin^Mdu) (by 52(a))
= —^ sin^M cos M + -J • |(m — sin u cos m) -t- C
= —sin®3x cos 3x -f- |(3x — sin 3x cos 3x)
+ C.
• 2 99
—sm X cos X 2 9Q
Section 7.6 (page 206) 7. COS X
101 101(99)
99
1. Let u — x", dv — e’‘dx. Then du = nx”“’dx, v — e’‘,
“COS X 99 2
sin X -h (use sin^x = 1 — cos^x)
/xVdx = xV - n /x"“Vdx. 99 101 101
99 99 101
2. / (sec^x — 1) tan"“^xdx = / sec^x tan"“^xdx — COS X 99 -cos X cos X
1 - cos^x -I-
/ tan”''^xdx. For first integral, sub u = tan x, 99 101 99 101
du = sec^xdx to get (tan”“*x)/(n — 1) — / tan"“^xdx.
3. Let u = (In x)”, dv = dx. Then du — n(ln x)""^ • ^dx,
V = X, / (In x)”dx = x(ln x)" — n / (In x)”“‘ dx. Using it,
/ (In x)® dx = x(ln x)® - 3 / (In x)^ dx
= x(ln x)® — 3[x(ln x)^ - 2/in xdx] Section 7.7 (page 209)
= x(ln x)® — 3x(ln x)^ + 6(x In x — x) + C.
4. First use 52(a) to get / sin’"x cos"xdx = In each problem, use the indicated diagram.
 Solutions to the Problems • 469

1. (a) — a tan u, x = a sec u, V3 cos u

dx = a sec u tan udu.
1
1 3 sin^M
V3 cos udu = f cot^udu

= —cot u — u + C (by 42)

1 a tan u■a sec u tan udu Vs — x^ . X
= / sec udu = Injsec u + tan u\ + C (by 33) — sm + C.
Vs
X \/x^~~~Q^ ^
= In - + + C (keep going with
I ^
algebra to make answer look like the tables)
lx + Vx^ — a*'
= In + C
a
'fW
= Injx + Vjr-a^l — In a + C
= ln|x + Vx^ — a^\ + K. PROBLEM 7^

3. Vx^ — 5 = Vs tan u, x = V5 sec u,

/- , , f V5 sec u tan u du
dx — v5 sec u tan udu. Then —-g ■> /?
J 5 sec UVD tan u
1 Vx‘" - 5
jf cos udu = 5 sin M + C = I + C.

PROBLEM

(b) Va^ — x^ = a cos u, x = a sin u,

dx = a cos udu.
f a cos u • a cos udu
f cos^udu = |o^(m + sin u cos u) + C
—
rvL 5^
12/ • X X
= 2<2 (arcsin-h + C
a a a_ PROBLEM 3
= arcsin x/a + |xVa^ — x^ + C.
4 _
4. VTW V? sec u, (7 + x^)^ = (V7
= sec u)
49 sec'^u, X = V? tan u, dx = V? sec^udu;
f V? sec^udu if 2 J
-T— = —■= cos udu
J 49 secV 7V7 J
1
5(m + sin u cos u) + C
7V7
1 / X xV7
PROBLEM I (b) + C.
I4V7 V V7 ^ 7 + x=

(c) Va^ + x^ = a sec u, X = a tan u,

dx = a sec^udu.
f a sec u 2 , r du
-a sec udu = a \ -5-:-
J a tan M J cos u sin u
(now use 52(c) with m = —I, n - —2)
= a(sec u + f CSC udu)
= a sec u — a Injcsc u + cot u\ + C (by 34)

= + x‘^ — a In + i. + c. 5. X = a tan u, dx = a sec^udu, WW — a sec «;

X X
f a sec^udu if , 1 . , ^
-r = —5 cos udu = —5 sm M + C
{a sec m)*
J (a u) J
X
+ C.
a^WW

PROBLEM I (^)
2. V3 - x^ = Vs cos u,x= Vs sin u,
PROBLEM S
dx = Vs cos udu.
470 • Solutions to the Problems

Section 7.8 (page 210) 35. Long division (or formula 5)

n*-|/2;^ = i*-5>"|2* + 3| + c
1. Sub u = Vx
2. Sub M = 1 — 36. cos 5x + C by inspection (or sub u = 5x)
3. Formula 16 with a = VS 37. Sub M = 2 -
4. V2x + 3 + C by inspection (or sub m = 2x + 3) 38. Use 42.
5. Sub u = X - 1 or parts with u = x, 39. 52(a) once. Or sin x • (1 - cos^x) and sub u = cos x.
dv = {x — 40. 2x + C
6. je~’‘dx = —+ C hy inspection (or sub u = —x) 41. Sub u = 2x. Then 33.
7. Long division and then inspection 42. / (2 + 2>/x)dx = 2x + 3 Injxj + C
8. Sub M = 4 - x^ 43. Use 46.
9. x^ + 9x + C by inspection 44. -\'n cos(2x/7r) by inspection
10. Formula 19 45. Sub u = sin 2x (or sub u = cos 2x).
11. Formula 9 or partial fractions 46. \ lnl5x - 2| + C by inspection
12. Sub u = 3x. Then formula 31. 47. Multiply out numerator and then use long division.
13. Formula 11 or partial fractions 48. Sub M = x^ + 7
14. Factor out the 2 (or sub u = V2x). Then 49. Sub u = cos X
formula 21. Or trig sub. 50. Parts with u — sin“*x, dv — xdx. Get
15. Partial fractions
16. Long division and then inspection
fx^ sin -I fJ
^ ^=. Then trig sub (or big table).
\/1 — Y^

17. Formula 52(b) once, then 42. Or use 51. Sub u - x^

cos\ = (1 — sin^x)^. 52. Partial fractions
18. -(I/tt) cos ttx + C hy inspection (or sub u - ttx) 53. Use 61 (or integration by parts)
1 1 — cos^x
19. + C by inspection (or sub M = 3x + 1) 54. 52(a) or- = sec x - cos x
24(3x + 1)® cos X
20. Sub u = 9 + 4x* 55. Factor out 2 (or sub u — V2x). Then 27.
f sin^x 56. Sub u — S — 2x. Then 31.
21. -dx. Use 52(a) once, then 31. Or use
J cos X 57. -|(3 — x)®^^ + C by inspection
sin^x sin X •( 1 — cos^x) 58. -|(2 - ix)^ + C by inspection
- =- = tan X — sm x cos x.
cos X cos X 59. Sub u = e”, du = e’‘dx. Get
22. Tables 22
I —, du - \ —5-^^— du. Then formula 16.
23. ^(9 + 4x)‘‘ by inspection (or sub m = 9 + 4x) J U + \/u J + 1
24. / sec^xdx. Formula 35. 60. / sin X cos^x dx. Sub u — cos x.
25. Trig sub (see fig.) 61. Factor out 3 (or sub u = VSx). Then formula 20.
62. Complete square. Then formula 24.
63. Use 1(b).
64. Sub M = 4x + 5. Then 62.
65. + C by inspection (or sub u = ^6)

f 9 (use 16) + 2 [ 2 (sub m = 1 + x^)

67. Trig sub (see fig.)

PROBLEM ^5

26. Use 52(a) twice or use sin^x == (1 — cos^x)^. Then

suh u = cos X.
27. / (I ~ 4:/x^)dx = X + 4/x + C
28. Formula 43
29. f ln|2x + 1| + C by inspection (or sub m = 2x + 1)
30. Sub u — x^
31. Use 52(c) once. Then 35. problem 67
32. Use 50 (or integrate by parts twice).
33. Factor out the 3 (or sub u = V3x) and use 68. 52(a) once. Then 39 (or 52(a) twice).
formula 23. 69. 52(b) once or use cos^x = 1 — sin^x. Then
34. + C by inspection (or sub u - 3x) sub u = sin x.
 Solutions to the Problems • 471

^0. / tan 2xdx. Sub u — 2x and use 31. 2. (a) Let u = 3x^ — I, du — 6xdx.
ri. Sub u = \ + e’‘, du - e’‘dx. Get
ijt\u^°du = gTT«“|n - ^(47" - 1T‘)
, ^du _ f
(b) Parts with u - e dv — cos xdx.
w ~ - -- du. Then lone division or formula 6.
e J u - I ® io e~’‘ cos xdx — e~’‘ sin x |o + /o sin xdx
^2. 52(a) twice or sin x • (1 — cos^;y)^ and sub u = cos x. — /o sin xdx
^3. Complete square. Then 19. = —e~’‘ cos X |o — cos xdx (parts again).
So 2/0 cos xdx = 1,/o e"''cos xdx =
^4. Sub u = cos 2x. Get —5. Then 17 or partial
J 9 - u (c) Let M = In X, dw = ;dx; Jlu^du = iu®|o = g.
fractions. (d) sin X cos®x \Zi2 + i/wa cos^xdx (by 52(a))
^5. Partial fractions = 5 • I(x + sin X cos x) \Zi2 (by (40)) - 7r/16
^6. Sub u = 2 + 3x. Or parts with u — x, (e) Let u = X®, du = Sx^dx.
Iv = (2 + 3x)^^^x. Or multiply out whole integrand to /-ooX^g’^’dx = jf-oc e'‘du - je^
jet a polynomial. (f) Let M = x^ + 4, dtt = 2xdx.
'^7. Formula 64 UlV^du = - 8V8/3 - 8/3
3. (a) Let it = 1 — x, dw = —dx.
78. -+f /ix’"(l - x)”dx = -/?(1 - u)Vdu (sub)
J 2x^ + X - 1 J 2x + X — 1
_Jse 2, 1(a) on first; use 1(a) on second. = /o(l — M)”'it"dit (since Jtf{x)dx
79. Parts twice starting with u = (In x)^, = -jaf{x)dx) = Jo(l - xY'x'^dx (change
liv — dx, du = 3(ln x)^ • dx/x, v — x. dummy variable from it to x)
80. Sub u — 3x. Then 41. (b) Let It = X + 20, du = dx.
/o'’(x + 20)^ dx = /ioit^du (sub) = /iox^dx
81. Parts; u = x®, dv — sin xdx. Then 51.
(change dummy variable)
82. Sub u = 2 + cos X.
(c) Let u — |x, du = f dx.
83. Formula 40
84. Can start with 52(b). For another method, /la Vsin \xdx — 2/a Vsin udu — 2/aVsinxdx
|r cos^x dx = j cos x( 1 — sin^x) dx (change dummy variable)
1= / cos X dx — / cos X sin^x dx. 1 2
4. u In In X, dv - xdx, du = -- • — dx, v 2X ,
feub « = sin X for second integral. In X X
85. Sub u = cos X. J f ^ xdx
fix In In xdx = jx^ In In x |i — ^ I
In X
= I In In 3 - 2 In In 2 —

Section 7.9 (page 214)

1. (a) du = 3 dx, fi sin^xdx = i/e® sin® \udu

Chapter 7 Review Problems (page 214)
(b) du = idx, /f sin(ln x)dx = /o sin u • xdu
— /o^“ sin udu 1. (a) Formula 2 with a = \, b = 9, c = \. Get
(c) X = 2 CSC u, dx = —2 CSC u cot udu, Vx^ — 4 == I ln(x" + 1) + C.
2 cot u. If X = 2 then it === 7r/2 (degenerate tri- (b) Let It = x^ + 1, dit = 2xdx. Then
angle). If x = 4 then it = tt/G. (See fig.) i/ dit/it = i ln|it| + C = i ln(x^ + 1) + C.
PVx - 4 r’''®2cotit (c) (See fig.) tan u = x, dx — sec^itdit,
---dx = -—•—2 CSC u cot udu
J2 x^ l„/2 4 CSC It Vx^ + 1 = sec It;
’"'®COS^lt f X , f tan It sec^itdit ^ ,
du -5-dx = -5- = J tan It du
-[„i2 sm It J x^ + 1 J sec^it
= ln|sec it| + C (by formula 31)
= In + C = ln(x' + 1)*'" + C
= i ln(x^ + 1) + C.

PROBLEM i fO

problem I(^)
472 • Solutions to the Problems

4. (a) By 45 with a = 5, b - S.
(d) Let u = X, dv - dx. Then du = dx, i sin 2x - ^ sin 8x + C
+ 1
(b) IJ (cos 2x - cos 8x)dx
V = tan“V and
= 5 sin 2x - -h sin 8x + C

J
= X
X*
X

1
dx = X tan V - / tan \dx (use 59)

tan'^x - (x tan^^x - i ln(l + x^)) + C

(c) Let u = sin 3x, dv = sin 5xdx (or vice versa).
Then du — 2> cos 3xdx, v = —5 cos 5x.
V / sin 3x sin 5xdx
= i ln(x2 + 1) + C. = sin 3x cos 5x + |/ cos 3x cos 5xdx.
2. (a) Let M = X + 2 (could also sub m == x - 4),
Now let u = cos 3x, dv — cos 5xdx,
du - dx. Then x — u - 2. Get du = -3 sin 3xdx, v = i sin 5x. Then
1 1 f sin 3x sin 5xdx = -j sin 3x cos 5x +
du
! - du
u{u - 2 — 4) u{u —6) I (I cos 3x sin 5x + f / sin 3x sin 5xdx).
1 It — 6
+ C = — In
1 . X - 4
+ C. Collect terms to get sin 3x sin 5xdx
= - 35'" u 6 X + 2 = -i sin 3x cos 5x + ^ cos 3x sin 5x.
So / sin 3x sin 5x dx
(b) dx
I x^ - 2x - 8 / (X - 1)" - = ^ sin 3x cos 5x + ^ cos 3x sin 5x + C
(now sub M = X — 1, dw — dx) - 5 sin 2x - ^ sin 8x + C using the identities
1 . X — 1 1 . X — 4
+ C.
for cos X sin y and sin x cos y in Sect. 1.3.
= — In + C — — In 5. LetM = tanx, du = e*dx. Thendu = sec^xdx, u =
6 X — 1 D X + 2
2x - 2 - 6 and /r e* tan xdx = e" tan x 1^ - sec^xdx
f 1
(c) dx = In + C - Vs - Q.
J x^ - 2x - 8 6 2x - 2 + 6
6. Let M = 2 + x^, du = 2xdx.
1 , X — 4
= — In + C. (Use 1(a).) /ix(2 + x^fdx = UWdu = ^u^\l = 665/12
6 X + 2
7. (a) -cos X + C
1 - 1/6 1/6
(d) ■ decomposes to-r + ■so (b) |(x - sin X cos x) -f C by 39
(x + 2) (x - 4) X + 2 ' X - 4 (c) One method is to use 52(a). As another method
Integra is ln|x + 2| + i Inlx - 4| + C which J sin^xdx = / sin x(l - cos^x)dx
= / sin X dx — / sin X cos^x dx.
is In “ “ ^ + c.
b X + 2 First integral is —cos x. For second,
(a) Formula 64 (or parts twice) sub u = cos X, du = —sin xdx to ^et
(b) I InlSx + 4| + C by inspection / sin X cos^xdx = / {—u^)du = —=
(c) Formula 19 cos^x. Final answer is -cos x + I cos\ + C.
(d) Sub M = 1 + 2x® (d) Let u - sin x, du = cos x dx (or could sub
(e) Sub u - 3x. Then formula 41. u = cos x). Get Judu — ^u^ + C = i sin^x + C
(f) + C by inspection (e) Let u — sin x, du = cos xdx. Get
(g) i ln|x| + C by inspection ju^du = ju^ + C = i sin\ + C.
(h) Long division and then inspection (f) Begin with 52(a) (or 52(b)) to get
(or formula 5) sin X cos\ + i / cos^x dx (now use 40)
(i) /(I + S/x)dx = X + 3 Injxj + C = sin X cos\ + i • |(x + sin x cos x) + C.
(j) Long division and then inspection
(g) ^ + C = -1/x + C
(k) Formula 13 or sub u = 3x + 4
(l) Complete square. Then formula 27. (h) ln|x| + C
(m) Partial fractions or formula 10 xl^2
(n) Formula 1(b) (i) —— 4- C = fVx + C
 Solutions to the Problems • 473

8/SERIES

Section 8.1 (page 219) 37r/2, brtjl, etc. In that case series converges to
sin^0/(l — sin^0) = sin^0/cos^0 = tan^0.
1. (a) (-1)^ H (-1)" i + (- D" TT, i.e., -^ + i - TT 9. Series is I/tt + I/tt* + I/tt* + •••; a = I/tt,
(b) a\ + 4a2 + Qos I/tt
r = I/tt^. Converges to = 7r/(7r^ — 1).
2. (a) Partial sums are 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3,•••. They 1 - I/tt-
oscillate wildly so series diverges (not to <» or —
but plain diverges)
(b) Partial sums are 1, l|, 2, 2|, 3, • • • which <».
Series diverges to «>.
3. (a) S„ ^ 00 as n ^ 00. Series diverges (to oo). Since Section 8.3 (page 227)
partial sums are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, • • •, series itself is
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + •••• .
1 (use nth term test)
(b) S„ —> 1 as n 00 so series converges to 1. Since (a) F (c) F
partial sums are 1, 1, 1, 1, !,•••, series is (b) T (d) T
1+0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + ---. 2. (a) nXj^ 00 as n 00 since n! is listed in (4) as
4. Series is (1 - |) + (I - i) + (i - i) + (4^” 5) + • • • • having higher order of magnitude. Series di¬
Partial sums are Si=l — 5, S2=l~i (the |’s cancel in verges by nth term test.
the sum), S3 = 1 - 5 (other terms cancel in the sum), etc. (b) n^/4” —» 0 as n —> 00 since 4" has higher order of
Limit is 1; series converges to 1. magnitude. No conclusion from nth term.
5. 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + -- - and 1 + 1 + 1 + • • • both di¬ 3. (a) S 1/3", geometric, r - converges.
verge (to 00) and so does the sum series 2 + 34-4-1-54- (b) 2 1/n^, p-series, p = 2, converges.
•••. On the other hand, 1 + 1 + 1 + ••• and (—1) + (c) -E 1/Vn, -series, p = \, diverges.
(—1) + (—1) + (—1) + • • • both diverge but the sum se¬ (d) E Vn, terms do not 0, diverge by nth term
ries 0 + 0 + 0 + • • • converges (to 0). test.
6. S99 adds up the first 99 a’s and Sioo adds up the first (e) 3E 1/n!, standard convergent series.
100 fit’s. So Sioo ~ S99 — flioo- (f) E 1/n* -series, p = 3, convergent.
(g) Every other term (i.e., subseries) of Sl/n*^^,
p-series, p = 3/2, convergent.
(h) (Drop 5 and 6) E 1/n, diverges (harmonic).
(i) Er=3V(w + 1), terms^ 1 not 0, diverges by nth
Section 8.2 (page 221) term test.
(j) l/2"n! < 1/n! so E l/2"n! conv by comparison
1. r = -i,a = -1. Series converges since -1 < r < 1. with convergent series E 1/n! (or by comparison
Sum is -1/(1-i) = —f- ^ ^ ^ with E 1/2").
2. r = -i a = i Converges to i/(l-5) = i (k) l/n2" < 1/2" so El/n2" converges by com¬
3. r = I > 1. Series diverges (to 00). parison with convergent geom series E 1/2".
4. r = 3 > 1. Diverges (to 00). (Even without geom series (l) E 1/n*, p-series, p = 5, converges.
test, series obviously diverges since partial sums “.) (m) E 1/5", geom, r = 1/5, converges.
5. Series is 1/4^ + 1/4^ + 1/4^ + •••; a = 1/4 , (n) Converges by comparison with 1/e* + l/e"* +
1/4* ••• (conv geom, r = 1/e).
r = 1/4. Converges to ^ = 1/48.
(o) E 1/n^, p-series, p = 2, converges.
6. a = i r = (1)^. Converges to i/(l - (|)^) = p (p) Many methods. Terms are less than those of
1. a = .\,r - .1. Converges to .1/(1 - .1) = i ^ i + ^ + 8^ + • • •. conv geom. (r - 1/10);
(i.e., the repeating decimal .1111111... is the fraction g) given series converges by comparison.
8. Series is sin^0 + sin^0 + sin®0 + •••; a = sin^0, (q) Converges; subseries of the convergent series
r = sin^0 which is between -1 and 1 provided 6 ^ 7r/2, El/nl.
474 • Solutions to the Problems

•4. (a) converges so > 0, l/a„ does not —> 0, (n + 1)1

18. Ratio test, a„ == 1 . q . /o„ ^
S l/fln diverges by nth term test. 1 3---(2n + 1)
(b) a„/n! < if Efln converges so does 2a„/n! by (n + 2)1
an.,/an = {n+ 2)/(2n + 3).
comparison. 1 • 3---(2n + l)(2n + 3)
(c) Can’t tell. If is S 1/n! then SnlOn is 1 + Limit as n ^ 00 is i Series converges.
1 + 1 + 1 + ••• which diverges. But if Eon is 19. Geom, r = e/2> between “1 and 1, converges.
E l/(n!)^ then Sn! is E 1/n! which converges. 20. Geom, r = e/2'> 1, diverges.
(d) E an converges so a„ —»• 0. But then cos fln 1 21. Every other term of E l/n^ converges.
so E cos On diverges by nth term test. 22. E l/n(n + 1) acts like E l/n^ converges.
23. Acts like En/nVn = E 1/Vn which diverges; origi¬
nal diverges.
24. n/(n - 1) 1 not 0 as n Diverges by nth term
test.
an.. _ [(n + 1)!]^ (2n)! ^ [(n + 1)!]^ (2n)!
Section 8.4 (page 231) an [2(n + 1)]! (n!)" (2n + 2)1 (n!)"
_ (n + l)(n -I- 1)
1. Acts like 5E 1/n^, convergent /^-series. So original
“ (2n + 2)(2n + 1)’
converges also.
Limit is 5 (since numerator contains n^ and denominator
an., _ [2(n + 1)]1 (3n)! _ (2n + 2)1 (3n)!
contains 4n^). Converges by ratio test.
dn [3(n + 1)]! (2n)! (3n + 3)1 (2n)!
Vrr + T 3” n -I- 1
_ (2n + 2)(2n + 1) 26.
an+l
. Limit is 4. Series
jn+l
an 3 Vn n
“ (3n + 3)(3n + 2)(3n + 1)'
converges by ratio test.
Limit as n —> is 0 (denominator contains n®, numerator
2-4 ' (2n + 2)
only contains n^); series converges by ratio test. 27. Ratio test, a„ =
(2n + 3)1
3. p-series, /> = i diverges.
4. Same as E 1/3”, geometric series, r = i, converges. 2 • 4 • • • (2n + 2) (2n + 4)
an+\ ~
5. n!/10" does not approach 0 as n ^ series diverges (2n + 5)1
by nth term test. ^n+ 1 2n + 4 1
6. E I/V2, V2 1 as n 00 so 1/V2 does not 0, (2n -I- 5) (2n 4-4) 2n 4- 5
series diverges by nth term test. Limit as n ^ 00 is 0. Series converges.
7. Acts like E 1/n^ (j!?-series, p = 3), original con¬ 28. Acts like E Vn/n = E 1/Vn, diverges.
verges. 29. E (I)”, geom, r = f, converges.
8. -E(n - l)/n^ acts like -E 1/n (div harmonic) so 30. E(n -4 l)/n^, acts like E 1/n, diverges.
original diverges. 31. El/(4n — 2) (equivalently El/(4n 4- 2)), acts like
_ (n + 1)^1)”^^ _ S(n + V 4E 1/n, diverges.
Limit as n —>
an n^(!)” 4V n 32. Terms smaller than those of conv series E 1/4”; con¬
is |. Series converges by ratio test. verges by comparison.
,n+l
10 n! 10 33. In n < Vn (since In n has lower order of magni¬
10 . ^n+ 1
ttn (n + 1)1 10” n 4- 1
Limit is 0 as n 00.
tude), (In n)/n^ < Vn/n^ = 1/n®'^; E 1/n®'^ converges
' Series converges by ratio test. ip =1); original series converges by comparison.
11. E 1/Vn diverges {p i). Terms of Eln n/Vn are 34. Terms smaller than those of E 1/n^, converges by
even larger so it too diverges. comparison
12. (n - l)/n does not^ 0 as n 00, series diverges by 1
35. —r 4- 4- • • • — Ai 4- A2 4- A3 4-
nth term test. 2 In 2 3 In 3
13. Acts like 2E 1/n, diverges. 1
dx (let u — In X, du = — dx)
(n + 1)^ 5” _ 1 n + 1 J9 X In X
14. . Limit is 4. Series
,2 K n
a„ 5”^‘ n- — 2 ijudu = In u |n,2 = Series diverges. See fig.
converges by ratio test.
15. Geometric, r = .1, converges. SRfiPH OF
1 • 3 • 5---(2n - 1) %\Ay-
16. Ratio test, a„ = an. I —
3 • 6 • 9 • 3n
1 - S' •(2n - l)(2n + 1) ^0. A,
,a„+i/a„ = (2n -I- l)/(3n + 3),
3 * 6 • • • (3n) (3n + 3)
1234?
limit as n —> 00 is I, series converges
17. Geometric, r = 1/5, converges. problem 35
 Solutions to the Problems • 475

5. (a) 1 + i i + ••• = l/(2n - 1) which acts 7. (a) n/(l -I- n^) i 0 so series conv. But series of abs
like 1/n, diverges; | + 4 + g + • • • = values is 21n/(l + n^), acts like 211/n, diverges.
S l/2n = 5E 1/n, diverges. Original series is conditionally convergent.
(b) There are millions, e.g., 1 + 4 + 8 + ^+ (b) Series of abs values is 21(n + 2)/(n® -I- 3), acts
{geom,r = 5), 1 + i + I + -p + A + • • • (p = 2). like 21n/n® = 211/n^, converges. Original is abs
7. (a) If 2 On is X 1/n ^ then it converges but Ena„ is convergent.
2) 1/n which diverges. On the other hand, if Ea„ 8. (a) 21 o„ can’t be absolutely convergent but we can’t
is 2) 1/n^ then it converges and 2)na„ is S 1/n^ tell if it is conditionally convergent or divergent,
which converges also. (b) 21 a„ converges, and furthermore is abs con¬
(b) Suppose 2!a„ converges by ratio test, i.e., vergent.
lim„—« a„+i/a„ < 1. Then ratio test for Sna„ 9. (a) 211anl diverges.
(n + l)a„+i n + 1 a„+i (b) No conclusion (Fig. 2 shows that convergent
uses hm -= hm - hm -=
n-»»> TlCLn n->«> n series may have E |a„| converge or div.
1 X (less than 1). So limit is less than 1, new 10. (a) 1/n! i 0 so series converges by alt series test.
series also converges by ratio test. Series of abs values is E 1/n!, converges. Origi¬
nal converges by (9).
(b) 1/Vn i 0, series converges by alt series test.
Series of abs values is E 1/Vn, diverges. No in¬
formation about original.
ection 8.5 (page 236) 11. (a) Convergent geom series has r between —1 and
1. Series of abs values has r between 0 and 1 (For
.
1 E(—1)”‘^VV^ converges by alternating series test example if r is — f then series of abs values has
ince 1/Vn i 0. Error using S24 is less than 1/V^ = i. r = |. If r is y then series of abs values has r = y).
Lpproximation is under since last term, 1/V24, was sub- Series of abs values converges. So original is abs
racted. convergent.
2. (a) 1/n! [ 0, series converges by alt series test. First (b) p-series are positive series. Series of abs values is
term less than .001 is 1/7!. So use same as original. Original is abs convergent.
1 - 1/2! + 1/3! - 1/4! + 1/5! - 1/6! =
as approximation.
(b) 1/n" i 0 so series converges by alt series test.
First term less than .001 is 1 /5® so use 1 /4^ as the
approximation (i.e., just add one term). Section 8.6 (page 240)
3. (a) False (see warning 1).
lx"'’"' terml |(n -I- 2)x"‘’’*| n -I- 2, .
(b) True by nth term test. 1. -h-= -h-=-X . Lim as n —» 00
.
4 (a) n^/n! j 0, series converges by alt series test. [x term l(n + l)x" n + 1' '
(b) n!/n^ does not 0, series diverges by nth term is lx|. Interval of convergence is |x| < 1 < X < 1.
test. _ 3"n"
2.
(c) 1 /n In n [ 0, series converges by alt series test. jx term| 3"^‘(n + 1)'
(d) 2n/(n^ + 4) j 0, series converges by alt series 1 / „ \2

test. 3 \n 4- 1/
(e) Geometric series, r = — .1, converges (can also Limit as n -> 00 is ||xl. Interval of convergence is
apply alt series test). f|x| < 1, jxj < 3, —3 < X < 3.
(f) Terms —» 1, not 0, diverges by nth term test. \(n -f IV x"'’'M

(g) Vn — 1/n i 0, converges by alt series test. 3. —I--- = (n + 1) lx|. Limit as n is <» (ex-
|n!x"|
5. (a) True. If S bn converges then -> 0. Eventually cept when x = 0). Series converges only when x = 0, i.e.,
0 < < 1. Then bl < bn so 'Lbl converges by
comparison. n! 1
X""'
(b) False. If = 1/Vn then 2) (-l)"''*^^ converges 4. 1x1. Limit as n ^ 00 is 0.
(n + 1)! x" n + I
by alt series test, but 2) is 211/n and diverges.
Series converges for all x, i.e., interval of convergence is
6. (a) All converge since in each case a„ i 0.
(-00,00).
(b) For the alternating version of Table 1, the di¬ lx2" + *l
Ix^"^* terml
viding line between conditional conv and abso¬ 5. E:.o(-1)"V""S
Ix^"^'
|A terml
LCl ill lx^""'l '
lute conv is where the dividing line is in Table 1
Limit as n —> 00 is x^. Interval isx^<l,—l<x<l.
itself between convergence and divergence, i.e.,
21(-l)"'^*l/n^ is conditionally convergent if K v” o2n„2n+i F term I _ F ^ I _ 921 21 _
^n=l^ * > |„2n+l |o2n„2n+l| ^ I’' '

p < 1 and is abs convergent if p > 1. Ix^"^' terml l2^"x

476 • Solutions to the Problems

Method 2: Multiply the series for 1/(1 - x)

4x^. Limit as n oo is 4x^. Interval is 4x^ < 1,
and for 1/(1 - 3x) and then multiply by x.
-i < X < i
in+lxn+l
3” n 1 1 1 11
7. S3"xVn, X . Limit as (g) — 2 -2 + X -2(1 - ix) 2 1 -
n + I 3"x" n + 1
< 1, W < 1/3, -I < i Replace x by ^x in the 1/(1 x) series. Get
71 —> 00 is 31x1. Interval is 3 X <

-■|(1 + |x + (|x)^ + (|x)® + •••). — 1 < < 1,

5:r=o “ xV2"^* for -2 < X < 2.

Section 8.7 (page 246) (h) ln(2 -H x) = In 2[1 lx] = In 2 + ln(l + ix).
Use (10), get In 2 + fX — i(|^)^ + 3(2^) ~ 4(2^)
1/3 _
1. (a) Binomial series with q = 1/3, (1 + x) X ^ ,2
-y • • • for -1 < IX < 1, In 2 + - - +
2 2^ • 2 '
2! 3!
-X — -x'^ + • • • for -2 < X < 2 (the
for — 1 < X < 1 2®-3 2'‘-4
1 2 ,.2-5, 2 • ^
^ 5 • ^
8 4 ^ In 2 term is the constant term in the series).
1 + lx - + ^r^x®-X +
3^2!' 3'’3! 3H! 2. Binomial series, q — h x replaced by — 3x^,
for — 1 < X < 1. Vl - 3x"
1/ 1
(b) Multiply series in equation (1) by x; get q..2x2 2L_H_1(-3x2)*
1 -f- 5( —3x^) + •(-3x")" +
X + x^ + X® + x'* + • • • for — 1 < X < 1. 2! 3!
(c) Binomial series with q = -3, (1 + x)“^ = + *•• for —1 < — 3x^< 1
1 _ 3, + ^ 3' • 1 • 3 « 3
, 39 3 4 ^ ^" • 1■*'^'^..8
• 3 • 5
-X
1 - IX - tttttx-r-jr:—-
2! 3! 2^2!" 2^3! ■■ 2 4!
3 • 4 3 • 4 • 5 + for x^ < i, — V| < X < Vi.
= 1 ~ 3x + x^ — -X +
2! 3! . 3'"-1 •3-5---31
The X term is — — x®^. Series is
for — 1 < X < 1. 2’"17!
1 1 1 1 ^ _ £ 3">l-3---(2n -3)
(d) . Use series for
2 - 3x 2(1 -|x) 2 1 - fx 2"n!
1/(1 - x) with X replaced by |x. Get 3. (a) (1 + -xV‘ = 1 + (-l)(-5c^)
1(1 + fx + (|x)^ + (fx)® + •••) (-l)(-2) (-l)(-2)(-3)^
-y {-xY+ " '"{-x^
for — 1 < |x < 1 21 ' ' 3!
3 3" „ 3" -y • • • for — 1 < —x^ < 1
• + -
2 = 1 -y x^ + x^ + X® + • • • for — 1 < X < 1.
for —I < X < f. (b) Replace x by x^ in (1), 1/(1 - x^)
1 = 1 + x^ + (x^)^ + {x^f + ••• for -1 < x^ < 1
(e) Factor, then binomial series.
(3 + xf = 1 +x^ -y x^ + X® -y • • • for — 1 < X < 1
1 1 1
-L-—- 1(1 + lx)-® - 1(1 - 6(|x) + (c) -2 = ;—; = (l-yx+X^ + X*-y
3®(l+ix)® 3®^ 3®' 1— x^ 1—xl+x
(-6)(-7) . , (-6)(-7)(-8),,, • • •) (1 - X + x^ - X® + • • •) for -1 < X < 1
■iixf + ' -^(s^:) + •••) for
2! 3! = 1 -y x^ + x‘‘ + X® + X® + • • • for — 1 < X < 1.
1 6 • 7 (use (1) twice, once with x replaced by —x)
■1 < -jx < 1. Answer is - -^x +
3® 3"" 3®2! 1 1
(d) -y
6 • 7 • 8 1 — x^ (1 -y x)(i — x) 1 -y X 1 — X
x^ + • • • for —3 < X < 3.
3''3! = f(i — X -y x^ — X® + • • •)
-y i(i -y X + x^ + X® + • • •)
(f) Method 1 : +
(1 — x)(l — 3x) 1 — X 1 — 3x = l-yx^-yx^-yx® + -'' for — 1 < x < 1.
by partial fraction decomposition. Get series for (e) 1 + x^ + x"* -y —
first fraction directly from (1). Get series for 1 - x^jl
second fraction from (1) by replacing x by 3x. 1 - x"
Get “"1(1 + X + x^ + x^ + •••) + 2(1 + 3x + X
2 4
9x' + 27x' + •••) = 2r=l(3" - First se¬ X — X
ries converges for — 1 <x < 1, second series for X* etc.
-1 < 3x < 1, i.e., —i < X < i. Sum series con¬ So 1/(1 — x^) = 1 -y x^ + x^ -y • • •. Series was
verges on smaller interval —| < x < i. not obtained from a previously known series, its
 Solutions to the Problems • 477

interval of convergence is not simply “inher¬ fiO) = l,/'(0) = q,f"i0) = qiq - 1),
ited.” With this method, must use ratio test to /'"(O) = qiq — l)iq — 2), • • •. The Maclaurin series is
find interval (— 1,1).
(-2) (-3)
4. (a) (1 -t- -x)-" = 1 - 2(-xV + (-xf +
2! ing with binomial series.
(-2)(-3)(-4)
■(-xf + for — 1 < —X < 1 1 1
3! 2. Let fix) = --. Then fix) fix) =
1 — X (1 - x)^
— 1 + 2x 3x^ 4x* -l- for — 1 < X < 1.
2 3-2 4>
(b) - = (l+X-l-X^ + X®-|- ) (1 -l- X (1-x)®’^ (l-x)^’-^ (1-x)®’
1 — X 1 —
X
/(O) = 1, f'iO) = 1, /"(O) = 2, /'"(O) = 3! ,
-I- x^ -t- X® -t- • • •) for — 1 < X < 1
2
= 1 -I- 2x -I- 3x^ -I- 4x* -!-••• for — 1 < x < 1. /*‘‘^(0) = 4!,---. Maclaurin series is 1 -I- x -I- +
5. (a) First find series for 1/(1 + x^) by replacing x by
3!
-x^ in (1), get 1 - x^ + x^ - X® + • • • for -1 < — x" + 1 + X -t- x"^ + X* -|- x^ + again. If
—x^< 1, —1 <x < 1. Then antidiff to get
tan~*x = C -I- X - x*/3 -I- x®/5 - x^/7 + ••• fix) = ln(l -h x) then/'(x) == , fix) = - ^
for — 1 < X < 1. Set X = 0 to get C == 0. 1 •+• X ’ (IF x)^

(b) tan“^x^ == x^ — x®/3 -I- x’°/5 - x’‘‘/7 + 3 • 2

f"ix) - ,fix) - ,/<®>(x) =
for —l<x^<l, —l<x<l by part (a). So (1 + x)^ (1 + x)'
.11 4!
1/2 11/2
/rtan-^x^dx = yir - ^,0 + 0 (1 + x)®’"'’-^^®^ " " -l./"'(0) = 2,
5 • 11
1 1 f^*f0) = —3! , /^®\0) = 4!, • • •. Maclaurin series
-I- third term which is less
24 (21) (128) 1 2 2 s 3! .
IS X — —X + —X--X -I-
than .0001 — •••. Use sum of first two terms, 2! 3! 4!
as the approx. Underestimate, last term = X — fx^ -I- ix® — ^x* -I- • • •. In each case the interval
used was subtracted. of conv would have to be found using a ratio test.
6. Can get x + 2x^ -I- 3x* -t- 4x^ + ••• by differen¬ 3. (a) Method 1: It fix) = ■!(«* — e~'‘) then fix) =
tiating l-l-x-t-x^-l-x®-l--- - and then multiplying by x. ^ie’‘ + ef, fix) = - ef,---,fi0) = 0,
1/(1 — x)== 1 -f-x + x^-l-x®-l- ••• so (diff and then /'(O) = 1, /"(O) = 0, /'"(O) - 1 • • •. Maclaurin
multiply by x) x/(l — x)^ = x -I- 2x^ -H 3x® + 4x^ + • • •. series is x + x®/3! H- x®/5! -!-•••. Need ratio
Answer is x/(l — x)^. test to find interval of convergence (—°°, “).
Method 2.- = 1 + X + x72! + x73! + •••
7. (a) /W = for all X, so e~’‘ = 1 + (—x) + (—x)^/2! +
X X® (-x)73! + ••• = 1 - X + x72! - x73! + •••
(b) / (Jc) - 1 + — + ^ + ^ + • • • for all X. Subtract series, ^ie’‘ — ef
(c) Series for fix) is geom, r = |x. If -1 < |x < 1
= i(2x + 2x73! + 2x®/5! + • • •)
= X -I- x®/3! + x®/5! + • • • for all x.
it converges to 1/(1 - |x), i.e.,/'(x) is the func¬
tion 1/(1 — |x); /(x) is an antiderivative so (b) Method 1: Let fix) — Then fix) —
fix) = —2 ln(l - 2»:) + C. To find C, set x = 0,
get 0 - 0 + C, C = 0. So fix) is -2 ln(l - ix). 2 2^-2 2® • 31

8. (a) 4(1 + - 4(1 + Uje) + l(-f)(-ft)V2! + • • •)

;>/"W = 7r-TT5-/»
(3-2x)2’-' (3 - 2x)® (3 - 2x)"
= 4 + 4(.09375) - 4(.0043945) + • • • Alternat¬
ing series, fourth term is less than .01. Use sum F’<") = ' ■ ■ ■' = 5- / '<“> =
of first three terms as approximation. /"(O) = 2^ • 2/3®, /'"(O) - 2® • 3!/3^ f\0) =
(b) binomial series converges for — 1 < x < 1 so
1 + 1
2^ • 41/3®, •••. Maclaurin series is -^ -^x -I-
can’t use it with x = 18. In part (a) we used it 3^3^
with X = ^ which is between -1 and 1. 2^•2 x^ 2® • 3’ X®
—5-1-3-h • • • which cancels to
3® 2! 3^ 3!
12 2^ 2®
y + -^x -I- ^x^ + ^x® -!-•••. Need ratio test
Section 8.8 (page 251)
to find interval of convergence (—f,|).

l./(x) = (1 +x)^/'(x) = qil +x)'>-\ Method 2: --— = -- --5“ =

3 - 2x 3 1 - |x
fix) = iq - Dqil + x)»-^
f'ix) = iq-2)iq-l)qil+xy-f---, 1(1 +|x + (fx)^ + (|x)® + ■••)
478 • Solutions to the Problems

for -1 < |x < 1. Simplifies (4), 1 - cos X = x72! - x74! + x®/6! - •••so
to same answer as method 1. ln(l + _ »--.72 + »V3-«74h--
4. sinx - S:=o(-ir^'"^V(2n + 1)1, 1 - cos * *72! - *74! + *76!-

cosx =S:=o(-ir^"”/(2n)! _ 1 - x^/2 + x^/3 - • • •

Limit as X 0 is
5. (a) By (4), cos 3x = 1 - (3x)^/2! + (3x)^/4! -
1/2! - x^/4! + x'‘/6! - •••
(3x)®/6! + • • • for —< 3x < °°
q2 o4 g6 l/(l/2!) - 2.
= 1 -^x^ + 77x'‘-^x« + ---forallx. X - x®/3! + x®/5! - x’^/7! + •••
2! 4! 6! (b) lim --
X
(b) By (3), X® sin x = x®(x — x^/3! + x®/5! - •••)
- - x®/3! + x®/5! - • • • for all x. = lim(l - x73! + xVb\-) = 1
x—*0
(c) By (5), 1 + (4x) + (4x)72! + (4x)V3! + ••• for 13. By (5), = Sr=o^VM! for all x. Setx == 1 to get e ^
42 43
all X, 1 + 4x + —x^ + —X® + • • • for all x. S“=o ; i-0., answer is e.
4! ol
6. sin^x = 1(1 — cos 2x)
(2x)^ (2x)^ (2x)'^ ^ 1\
2! 4! 6! J/
Q o3 o5
= —-X* H-X® — • • • for all x.
2! 4! 6!
7. fix) ^ g'ix) =/(x), f’ix) -fix)-gix),
Section 8.10 (page 256)
f\x) = g'ix) -/(x),---, /(O) = 1, /'(O) = g(0) - 0,
/"(O) =/(0) = l,/"'(0) - giO) - 0,f\0) = I,---. Mac- (x - 4)”^' nT 1 n 1
laurin series is 1 + x^/2! + x'*/4! + x®/6! + •••. Use 1. — 4|. Limit
(n + 1)3"^' (x - 3 n + 1
ratio test to get interval.
as n ^ 00 is ijx - A\. Interval is sjx - 4] < 1,
term| _ Ix^”"^^! (2n)! __jxj^_ -3<x - 4<3, l<x<7 (centered about 4).
|x^" term| (2n + 2)! |x^"| (2n + 2)(2n + 1) 2. (a) Function blows up at x = —8, can’t expand
around -8, can’t do powers of x-8, i.e.,
Limit as n is 0, series converges powers of X -I- 8.
for all X. (b) In X blows up at x =0 and is totally undefined
8. sin(—x) = (—x) — ( — x)®/3! + (—x)®/5! — ••• for X < 0. So can’t expand around 0 or any
= -X + x®/3! - x®/5! + • • • = -sin x negative number, i.e., can’t expand in powers of
9. Derivative of e'‘ = derivative of (1 + x + x^/2! + X, X + 1, X + 2, X + I, X + TT, etc.
jc73! + ...)=: 0 + 1 + 2x/2! + 3x73! + 4x74! + ••• 3. (a) Method 1: Inx = ln([x — 1] + 1) (letw = x — 1)
= 1 + X + x^/2! + x®/3! + ••• (old series back again). = ln(l + u) = u — m^/2 + m^/3 — m‘‘/4 + •••
10. sin 1 = 1 - 1/3! + 1/5! - 1/7! + •••. The first for — 1 < M < 1 by eq. (10), Section, 8.7;
term under .0001 is 1/9! so use sum of the first four = (X - 1) - |(x - 1)' + i(x - 1)* - \ix - 1)"
terms as the approximation, underestimate since 1/7! + • • • for —l<x — 1< 1.0<x<2.
was subtracted. Method 2: If /(x) = In x then /'(x) = 1/x,
11. (a) Use e’‘ series with x replaced by —x^. /"(X) - -l/x^ /'"(X) = 2/x^ ffx) = -3!/x^
/J(l - x" + x72! - x®/3! + ■■■)dx •••,/(!) = 0,/'(l) - !,/"(!) - -1,/"'(1) - 2,
y<4)(i) = -3!, /‘®>(I) = 4!, • • •. Use (1) to get
- X
3 0 5-2!o
-1 _i4.J-_-L+... (*-!)- i(* - 1)' + |(* - 1)> - |(* - !)•
~ 1 3 ' 10 42 '
Alternating series, fourth term is the first one + ••■ which cancels to the answer from method
less than . 1, so use 1 — | ^ as the 1. Need ratio test to get interval (0,2).
(over)approximation. (b) sin X = sin([x — tt] 4- tt) (let u - x — tt)
(b) Binomial series with q = —4, x replaced by x^. = sin(u + tt) — sin u cos tt + cos u sin tt

I "■
'•1/3
(- 4) (-5) (-4) (-5) (-6) — — sin M (trig) = —(u — m^/3! + m®/5! — • • •)
1 - 4x" + X H-
2! 3! for all u (by (3) Section 8.8)
+ •■■)clx - i - |(i)^ + Ts(i) Series alter¬ = — (x — tt) -I- (x — 7r)®/3! — (x — 7r)®/5! -!-•••
nates and first term less than .01 is the third one; for all X — TT, i.e., for all X.
use sum of first two terms as the (under)estimate. (c) e* - +i ^ _ 1) ^ ^ egu
12. Use (10), Section 8.7 to get ln(l + x^) = x^ - {xf/2 = e{\ -I- M + u^/2! + m*/3! -!-•••) for all u
+ (xY/3-= x' - x72 + x®/3 - x74 + •••. By (by (5), Section 8.8)
 Solutions to the Problems • 479

= e + e(x - 1) + ^(x - 1)^ + -^(x 1)= for —9 < X — 1 < 9, —8 < X < 10.
5 • 6 • 7---23
Coefficient of (x — 1)'® is —
+ • • • for all X - 1, i.e., for all x. 9^^ 19!
1 1
(d) Method 2: /(x) = /'(x) =
-6 - X -6 - [(x + 1^-1]
(let M = X + 1)
1 " (X + 8)^’^™^''^ " (X + 8)® ’ "
-6 - (m - 1) 1/9®, /'(I) = -5/9®, /"(I) = 5 • 6/97
1 1 1
/'"(I) = —5 • 6 • 7/9®, • • • . Series is ^ —
—5 — u b \ + \u
Now use series for 1/(1 — x) with x replaced by 5 • 6 5 • 6 • 7
(x - 1) + (X - 1)^ (X - 1)*
— \u to get 9® 9"2! 9®3!
-i(l + {-\u) + i-iuf + Huf + ■■■) + • • •. Must use ratio test to get interval of con¬
for — 1 < —ju < 1 vergence (-8,10).
= I + u/5^ — m^/5* + /b* — •••
(h) cos 2x = cos 2([x + Itt] — ^tt)
for —b<u<b = cos(2[x + Itt] - v)
= -i + (x + ll/S"' - (x + 1)75® + (x + \ f/b^ = cos 2[x + Itt] cos 77 -I- sin 2[x -I- ^77] sin 77
— for —5 < X + 1 < 5, —6 < X < 4. — -cos 2[x + I77] (let u = 2[x + I77])
1 1 ox 1 = -(1 - u72! + m74! - m®/6! + u®/8l-)
(e) — — •;—7-^7;-^ (let u = x + 2) =
X (x + 2) - 2 u - 2 for all u (standard cosine series). So
1 1 2^ 1 2^ 1
. Use 1/(1 - x) series. Get cos 2x = -1 + + 5'”’)^ ~
2 1 - iu
— f(l + + {ju)^ + (2^)® + • • •) 2 ®

for —1<|m<1,—2<m<2 + ^(X +|77)®----

= -5 - (x + 2)/2" - (x + 2)72® - (X + 2)®/2" for all 2(x + I77), i.e., for all x.
- • • • for -2 < X + 2 < 2, -4 < X < 0. In 3x = In 3([x - 2] + 2) = ln(3[x - 2] + 6)
(i)
(f) Vx = V(x — 9) + 9 (let u == X - 9) = In 6(i[x - 2] + 1) = In 6 + ln(l + |[x - 2])
= Vii + 9 = 3(1 + |u)’^^ (use binomial series) (let M = f[x - 2])
= In 6 -f M - uV2 + m®/3 - m74 + • • •
= 3(1 + i(iu) +
2! for — 1 < M < 1 (use standard ln(l + x) series).
(2) ("2) (“2) /i..x3
+ So In 3x = In 6 -I- “ 2) - ^g-.—(x - 2)^
3!
for — 1 < < 1, i.e., —9 < u < 9
2®. 3 2^ • 4 ^ '
3 + :7^(x - 9) - i7i4^(x - 9)"
2 • 3 3®2^2! for — 1 < |(x — 2)< l,0<x<4.
3 3 • 5 1 1
+ (X - 9)® - (x - 9)'* +
3®2®3!^'' 3’2M! 1 + 2x ~ 1 + 2([x + 4] - 4)
for —9 < X — 9 < 9, 0 < X < 18. - 1 ^ 1
3 . 5 . 7...97 “ 1 + 2[x + 4] - 8 -7 + 2[x + 4]
Coefficient of (x — 9)®° is — ■
3®®2®°50! 1 _ 1 1
1 1 “ -7(1 - f(x +4)) 7 1 - f(x + 4)
(g) Method 1:
(x + 8) ® ([x - 1] + 1 + sy (let w = f (x -I- 4)
1 1 = —71 4 u + + u* + • • •)
for — 1 < M < 1 (use standard 1/(1 — x) series).

(use binomial series)

= ;^(1 - b{^u) + ^
9 2!
(-5)(-6)(-7) ,
+ (iM)" + ---) for -1 < f(x + 4) < 1, -f < X < -i
3!
for — 1 < < 1, —9 < u <9
1 5 . 11 + ^ ‘ ® (X - 1)^ -
"" - 1) +
9*= 9’2!
480 • Solutions to the Problems

Chapter 8 Review Problems (page 257) E an converges by hypothesis so E converges

by comparison.
n+2
(a) Geom, r = 7, converges. 4"
8. Series is E”=4 x"'^V4" so = —. Limit as
4 n+ 1
(b) p-series, p = 1, converges. 4
(c) Geom, r = 2, diverges. Also series is S 2" which n is i x\ so interval of convergence is 5|x| < 1,
diverges obviously by nth term test. lx| < 4,-4 < X < 4
(d) p-series, p = diverges. 1 ^ J_ 1
(e) -S 1/n, harmonic series, diverges. 9. (a)
3 — X 3^1— ixj
(f) -I- n) i 0, converges by alternating series (now use series for 1/(1 - x))
test.
(g) Acts like 3 2 1 /n, diverges. = 5(1 + + • • •)
6"^' (n - 1)! 6 for —l<|x<l,—3<x<3.
(h) = —. Limit as n 00 is 0. Con-
n! 6" n 1 1
verges by ratio test. = — + —X + —X -I- -5X + , -3 < X < 3.
3 3^' 3"
(i) It is an alternating series. It diverges by nth term
test since terms approach I, not 0. 1 -1 -2
(b) -I-
(j) Converges by comparison with say 7 + 70 + (x - 1)(1 - 2x) X - 1 1 - 2x
7^ -f • • • which is convergent geom (r (partial fraction decomposition)
(k) 02/ai = 7/16, fls/aa = 9/32, 1 1
a„+\fan - (2n + 3)/2"'*'®. Lim as n is 0.
- 2
1 — X J - 2xJ
Series converges by ratio test. — 1 + X -|-X^-|-X^ + ‘'’
n -t- 1
(1) (!L±ir5:,
V*/ gn+1 „2
. Limit as n ^ °o is 5. - 2(1 + [2x] + [2x]" + [2xf + •••)
n using series for 1/(1 — x). First expansion holds
Converges by ratio test. for — 1 < X < 1, second for — 1 < 2x < 1,
(m) Partial sums are 1, —2, —1, —4, -3, -6, <x <7. So sum series has interval of conv
Series diverges to —°o. -7 < X <7 (the smaller) and answer is
-1 + (1 - 2")x + (1 - 2^)x^ + (1 - 2*)x^
2. Geometric, a = (5)®, r = (5)^,
-!-••• for —7 < X <7, i.e.. senes is
• (i)' - 1 e:=o (1 - 2”^')x".
1 _ (1)2 95 - 9® ■
Series can also be found by multiplying series
3. 2®/8! is first term less than .01. So use the sum of the instead of adding but that method doesn’t pro¬
first eight terms 1 - 2 + 2^/2! - • • • - 2^/7! as the ap¬
duce as clear a pattern.
prox (underestimate) to get error < .01.
(c) (Binomial series) (1 + x)“®
4. (a) l/(ln n)^ i 0 so series converges by alternating
series test. But series of absolute values is
2! 3!
S l/(ln n)^ which diverges. So original series is
4- for — 1 < X < 1
conditionally convergent.
(d) Use series for 1/(1 - x).
(b) Converges absolutely since series is positive
1/(1 + X®) - 1 + (-X®) + (-xY + {-xy
already and is convergent geom (r =7).
for — 1 < —X® < 1, — 1 < X < 1.
5. (a) Converges. Series of absolute values is Sa„
Get 1 — X® + x^^ — x^® -I- • • • for — 1 < x < 1.
which converges by hypothesis. So E(— is
absolutely convergent, so converges. 10. Method 1: /(x) = x^e’‘, f'{x) = x^e’' + 2xe'‘ (product
(b) May converge or may diverge. For example if rule), fix) = x^€" + 2xe" + 2x^" + 2e^ = x^e^ +
is Sl/n® then is E 1/n which di¬ 4xe’‘ -t- 2e*,/(O) = 0,/'(0) = 0,/"(O) = 2. Series begins
verges. But if Ea„ is E l/n"* then En^a„ is E 1/n^ with 0 -H Ox -H (2/2!)x^ i.e., 0 Ox -H x^.
which converges. Method 2: = 1 -f x -I- x^/2! + x®/3! + ••• so x^e’‘
6. Must have 0 by nth term test so (2„ —> —00. But begins x^ -1- x® -f • • •, actually with 0 -I- Ox -I- x^
then Ea„ is adding many huge negative numbers and „ 1 - (1 - x72! + x74!-)
11. linix-^o-9-
series diverges to —0°. X
7. (a) Let Eo„ and E6„ both be 1/V2 - l/VS -H 2
= lim,^o(l/ ! - x 74! + xV6!-) - 7.

I/V4 — •••. Each converges by alternating 12. (a) cos X = cos([x — 577] -I- ^ir) (let u — x — -jtt)
series test. But Ea„6„ is | + 5 -I- ^ -I- • • • which = cos(m -I- 777) == cos u cos 777 — sin u sin 777
diverges. = 7V2 cos u — 7 V2 sin u
(b) If E bn converges then —>• 0 so eventually bn is = 7V2(1 - u72! + uV4! - m®/6! + •••)-
between 0 and 1. So < a„ eventually. But 7 V2 (m - m73! + w75! - w77! + •••), all u,
 Solutions to the Problems • 481

so cos X = ^ V2 - i V2(x - \tt) - Ji(x" - X® + x72! - x‘V3! + ■■■)dx

‘ x’°
-57r)2 + ^(x -irrf +
0 ^ 2! • 10
V2 , , . V2 * —\5 1 1 1 1 1 1
:(x - iTrr - - 47r) - _
+ +
2-4!' 2-5! “4 7 2! 10 3! 13 4!16 5!19
for all X - \'n, i.e., for all x. First term less than .001 is 1/(5! • 19) so add five terms to
(b) "^fx — '^{x — 8) + 8 (now let u = x — 8) get (over) estimate.
= 2(1 + (use binomial series) 1 , o. . (-i)(-|)
14. (1 + -x'^)-''" = 1 - j{-x^) + (-xY +
21
- 21 1 + j{iu) + iiuf +
3-56
2! ••• (binomial series) = 1 + + x^ +
for —1 < iu < —S < u <8 9" 2‘^2! 2^3!^ ^
2,-b-l
-X + • • •. Antidifferentiate to get
' ^ 2'‘4!
2*2-5 2-2*5-8 1 , 3-57
sin 'x = C + X + -X® + X® + _X +
2 • 3" 2"2!5 2®3!7
for —8 < X — 8 < 8, 0 < X < 16. 3 • 5 • 7
X® + . Set X = 0 to find C;
13. x*e “ x^(l + (—x^) + ^(~x^)^ + iT(~x*)* + 2'‘4!9
for all —X®, i.e., for all x so 0 — C + 0 + 0 + 0 + ''',C — 0.

9/VECTORS

Section 9.1 (page 262) (f) Foot of perp from P to)i-axis has coords (0,3,0).
Answer is distance between P and foot:
1. (See fig.) V4 + 49 - V53.
(g) Foot of perp from {x,y,z) to x-axis is (x,0,0).
Distance between P and foot is V)i^ + z^.
(h) (See fig.) Foot of perp from (x,)i,z) to z-axis
is (0,0, z). Distance between P and foot is
Vx^+y^.

(a) Use (*) in Section 9.1. Vl + 4 + 81 - V^.

(b) Use (*), Section 9.1 with P and (0,0,0).
V4 + 9 + 49 - V^.
(c) P is distance 7 below x, y plane; answer is 7. 2. AF - {-4,0,5), HB - {4,5,0), HE - (4,5,3)
(d) P is distance 2 in front of)>, z plane; answer is 2. 3. (0,2)
(e) Foot of perp from P to z-axis has coords 4. (See fig.) Line \sy ^ -|x - | and has slope -|, i.e.,
(0,0,-7). Answer is distance between P and goes over 3, down 2. Arrows parallel to line are (3, -2),
foot: V4 + 9 = VTS. (-3,2), (6,-4), (-6,4), etc.
482 • Solutions to the Problems

8.Method 1: AE + BF + CD
= E- A+ F- B+ D- C
= i(D + C) -_A + + Q - D + |(A + 5) - C = 0

mthod^ AE_+ BF_J: CD_^ __

= A^+ B_^+ B_^+ CiL+ CA_ + AD^

= {AB + BC + CA) + {BE + CF + AD)
= 0 + + |A5 = 5(^ + S4 + AB)
= lO = 0
9. (a) ||«|| = V9 + 1 + 25 ^
(b) |1m|| = VtT^ + TT^ + TT^ + TT^ + TT^ = IT VS
5. AB = B - A = (-3,-3)
6. head - tail = (3,1,6), .
10 m/h = {2/vm,-o/vm,B/vm)
head = (3,1,6) + (1,0,4) = (4,1,10) 11. V 5lZnorinalized 3iz/||w[|

7. M = (3 cos 120°, 3 sin 120°) = (-|,fV3) 12. BC = 12DAnormaUzed = 12(0,-1/Vr7, -4/VT7),

Section 9.2 (page 269)

1. (a) DB
(h) DB ^ ^ ^ PROBLEM 17
(c) AB+CB--AB+m--DB
(d) AB - CB = AB + BC = AC 13. Hull = V38, so ||217m|| = 217V38
14. Use Section 9.1, (3), with r = 1 to get
(e) 0 (not the number 0 but the vector 0)
u — (cos 0, sin 0).
2. Need AB — DC so need C—D=B—A =
15. (See fig.) Foot of perp frorn A = (4,5,6) to y-axis is
(-1,_^2,-3),Z) = (5^,5) - (-l,-2,-_^= (6,7,_^.
B - (0,5,0); u points like AB but has length 3 so
3. AB = (1,4,-4), CD - (-2,-8,8), CD = -2 AB so
u — 3AB normalized 4, Oj 6)normalized
lines are parallel. ^
= 3(-4/V^,0,-6/V^) = (-12/V^,0,-18/V52).
4. AB = (^,-4), QP - {10,y,z - 2). Need QP a
multiple of AB so need 10/3 = y/6,y = 20 and 10/3 =
(z - 2)/(-4), z - -34/3. _ _
5. A,B,C are colline^if and only if vectors AB and AC
are parallel (see fig). AB = (—1, —6,4) and

? .c

PROBLEM 5
AC = (—4,-3,-3). Vectors are not multiples so not
parallel. Points are not collinear. 16. (See fig.) If origin is named B then u points like
6. (See fig.) AB - (-5,-6,::7) and Hull = 1/(25 + 36 + 49) =
1/110 SOM =tToA5 normalized

PASO Q . __
PROBLEM 6 ViioVTio’ iioVTio’ iioVTTo/'
Ka = so A - P ^ MQ - P)> A = ToiQ + 9P).

Similarly D = ^(2(2 + 8P), C = i^(3(2 + 7F).

7. (See fig.) w — —V + 2u
/ / I
PROBLEM 16

17. u - 2v - 5j - 3k, ||m|| = V4^-t- 9+1 = VTi,

renormalized = (2/yT4)7 + (3/VTi)] - (i/VT4)i
18. Normofr^r is times the norm of r soitisr^r = r"*.
PROBLEM 7 19. (See fig.) m/||m|| and t'/||u|| are unit vectors in the di-
 Solutions to the Problems • 483

9. 1|-6m|| = 6||m|| = 18, m • 3m = 3(m • u) = 31|m|P = 27,

1|m — w|| = V(m — v) ' (u — v)

= Vii -ii - 2u = vpp - 2iJ + W

= V9 - 10 + 4 = Vs
10. (a) u 'V — —33 so !«•?! = abs value of —33 = 33
(b) Can’t take the norm of the scalar u • v.
rections of u and v. They have the same length so their (c) Pll = V16 + 9+1 + 16 = V42 so
sum is the diagonal of a rhombus. On the other hand, IPIIm = (5V42,2V42,3V42, -4V42)
u + V is the diagonal of a parallelogram, not necessarily (d) Can’t divide by a vector.
a rhombus. Angle bisection occurs only in the rhombus (e) 1|m|1 = VM so 2/|1m|1 is 2/VM.
case. (f) M • w = -33 so (m • v)v = (132, -99,33, -132)
(g) Can’t dot the scalar u • v with the vector v.
11. (See figs.)

Section 9.3 (page 275)

1. u 'V= 5+ 12 — 15 = 2. Angle is acute since

u ‘v > 0. ?KoBLm llfc)
2. M • u = IImIIIPII cos 180° = 30(-l) = -30.
PROBLEM I Kb)
(a) (i). Draw u and v perp since u 'v = 0. In same
aS • AC —
3. cos A = —=T-, AB = (1, —3,9), picture can draw u + v and u-v. Then
_ ||A5||||AC|| ||m + ujl and ||m — y|| are (lengths of) diago¬
51
AC = (3, — 1,5) so cos A = , about .904 so A is nals of a rectangle. Diagonals of a rectangle
VWiV^ have same length so ||m + vH = ||m — i'll.
approximately 25°. ^ (ii) 1|m -f t!|| ^ V(^ + ^) ^ ^
4. (a) 61 is determined by u and i so = Vu ‘ u — 2u ' V + V • V
u • i U\ = \'u • U + V • V,
cos 01
u t ||m — ?|| ^ V(^ ~'^) ‘ ^ ^
Similarly cos 02 = W2/||m|| and cos 03 = W3/||m1|. = Vu • u — 2u • V + V • V
(b) (cos 01,cos 02,cos Os) = (Mi/||m||,W2/||m|1, Ws/1|m|1) = Vu • U + V ‘ V,

(by part (a)) w/j|w|[ ^normalized* so llu + u|l = ||u — ujl

5. (a) Slope AB =\, slope CD - -|. Product of (b) (i) Draw u,v,u + v,u—v. Parallelogram is a
slopes is — 1 so lines are perpendicular. rhombus because ||u|| = ||u||. Diagonals of
(b) ^ =J3,5), ^ = (5,-3), rhombus are perp so u + u perp to u — v.
AB • CD = 15 - 15 = 0 so lines are perp. (ii) If ||u|| = |lu|| then (u -K u) • (u — v)
= u • u^- ? • u = \\uf - ||uf = 0
.
6 You start walking in direction of vector AB = (6,5).
so u -K u and u — v perp.
After a left turn you are walking in the perp direction
12. (a) (u • u)/||ul| = —7/VTT
u = (-5,6). BC points like u and has length 7 so
(b) (u • u)/lju|| = —7/V29
BC = 7Z/\\u\\, C - B ^ (-35/V^,42/W),
13. With rays DC, and DH as axes, we have FH =
( 35 ^ 42 \ (-2,-10,0), AG = (-2,10,7) so {FH • AG)/||AG|| =
vm) -96/V153. Length of the projection is 96/V153.
7. (See fig.) First line has parallel vector u = (-2,7). 14. (See figs.) (a) Geometric method (more sensible).
Second line has parallel vector v = (1,4), Projecting onto the line determined by 4v is
u-v 26 same as projecting on the line determined by v;
cos 0 = ..->1111^
\u\\v VbSVTI' answer is 6 again.
Algebraic method (overkill). Given u • u/|lu|l = 6.
u • 4u 4(u 'v)_u'v_
W TilT ■ "PT ■
PROBLEM 7 by (10), Section 9.3; (15) Section 9.2.

8. Let u ‘U he denoted by a and v ’ u hy b. Th show

w
av - bu perp to u, dot them. We have u • {av - bu) Vw>v\_/
= a{u • v) - biu ' u) ^ (u • u){u • v) - (v • u) {u • u) PR07

= 0 so M perp to au - bv.
484 • Solutions to the Problems

(c) li X V is 0 so M • (u X v) - M ' 6 - 0.
(b) Angle between u and — v is obtuse; component
6. Method 1: (u + v)y (m + v)
of u in direction of -v (i.e., signed projection) is
= itXM + vXi;+wXit + MXu
-6.
= 0 + 0 + -(itX^) + itXu = 0.
Method 2: the cross product of a vector, namely u + v,
with itself is 0.
T. u y V and ^ x 9 are peij> to the floors of thejjuild-
FROSm l^(b}
ing so they are parallel. So (it y v) y 0^y q) - 0-
(c) If u is quadrupled, its projection is 4 times as 8. 3ii X (4m + 5m) = 12(m x m) + 15(m x v)
long as before. Answer is 24. = 0 + 15(m X m) = 15(m X m)^ ^ .

9. (See fig.) M X Ml is perp to v, w plane; m X (1/ X w) is

perp to M X Ml (and to m). All perps to m x mi land back
in the v, w plane. So m X (m x mi) is in the plane.

PROBLEM
15. (Seefig.)^ = 1|m1|cos60° == 6(i) = 3; component of m FKOBLm 9
in direction of u is —3.

10. (a) (-11,-12,27)

(b) — 17i + 13^ + k
(c) (0,0,21)
(d) (4,-2,11)
PROBLEM 15
11. Ml X M = (-13,11,-3),
16. Component of w in track direction is (w ■ t)/p|| - M X Ml = —(mi X m) == (13,-11,3)

6/V5 > 2. Disqualified! u ' V _ 5

17. (7 • vj/pll = 46/V29 < 10. Not ejiough force. Mfi” vi4v^’
18. Component is max in direction of u itself. Max value . „ 11«Xm|1 11(9,-5,17)11
is 1|m|1. ~ HI|m|1 “ 1|m|1||m1| VUVso’
25 395
19. = ^(5i - 2j) = Hi - cos^e + sm"0 - (14) (30) (14)(30) ~ ^
yq
20. p since it has the longer projection onto u. 13. (a) Anythmgjhat (^ts with u to give 0 is OK, e.g.,
i + 2j , 6i T 3^ — 3k, etc.
(b) Only M X M = (-3,27,11) and multiples of
^ u y V will do._^
14. Afi = (4,-6, 3), AC = (-1,-6,7)^B ^AC =
Section 9.4 (page 281) (-24,-31,-30), parallelogram area = IjAB x AC||,
triangle area = |V(24)^ + (31)^ + (30)'“^.
1. w X u is into the page, p X ^ is in plane of the page
pointing east, i x^i = 0.
2. « = 0 or u = 0 or M and v are nonzero parallel perp
^ ^ ^

vectors. The latter is impossible so either u = 0 or ly =0.

3. u and Mnormalized are parallel; cross product of parallel
vectors is 0. ^ ^ Section 9.5 (page 284)
4. If a X x = 6 then b is perp to a and to x But if
a • # 0 then b is not perp to a. So there is no such x. 1. a,2^,3)-jl,4,-3) = 0
5. (a) {u -v) y. w is scalar x vector; makes no sense. 2. x^ Ml — 716, volume is 16.
u ' {v X ill) is vector • vector; OK. 3. AB - AC X AD - (1,2,3) • (1,-1,2) x (1,-4,-3)
(b) V y u is perp to u (and to ?) so it • (w x m) = 0 == (1,2,3) • (11,5,—3) = 12 0; vectors not coplanar.
(the number 0, not 0). So points A, B, C, D not coplanar (see fig.).
 Solutions to the Problems • 485

(d) y = 8 - 2x again, but particle travels on only

half the line and then doubles back.

pROSLfM 3
4. V X w points down, makes an obtuse angle with u;

u • V X w is negative.
5. If vectors are placed with a common initial point, PROBLEM Id]
they are coplanar. So « • u x ili = 0
(e) y = 2x. Graph of y = 2x is a line but particle
6. (a) —5 (cyclic perm)
travels on only part of the line.
(b) 5 (noncyclic perm)
(c) 5 t 7 it)
(d) 60(q • p X 7) = -300 -100
(e) Method 1: q, p, q are coplanar (since there are

CM
i

1
-1
only two distinct vectors) so scalar triple product 0 (1.2)

o
is 0.

CM
10
Method 2: q X q = p 'q x q (cyclic perm) etc.
= ^•0 = 0^
Method 3: p x q is perp to q so dot product
q • (^ X ^) is 0.
(f) Method 1: same as (e). ^
Method 2: q 'r X r = q • 0 = 0.

Section 9.6 (page 289)

1. (See figs.)
2. (See figs.) (a) circle, radius 4, one rev per Gtt sec, ccl
(a) X = + 5

MOTIOW IS
bottom "^1
TO TOP
(fo(

PROBLEM 1(a)
PROBLEM Z(a)
(b) X + 5
(b) “Circle with radius 1/t”, a spiral
jSflME PATH
(a)
gur lim(cost)/< = 1/0+ = 00,
OPPOSITE
t'oi ►0 +
lim(sin t)/t = 0/0 = lim (cos t)/l(L’H6pital)
oiKeorioN (-►0+ (-.0+
= 1.
problem 1 (b)
So at time t = 0, particle comes in from (oo, 1)
(c) y 4 - 2(x - 2) = 8 - 2x and at time t = 7r/2 hits the y-axis and starts
spiraling in toward the origin.

problem 2(b)
486 • Solutions to the Problems

(c) Particle circles and rises since z — t. 11. Particle has polar coords r - d = Moves on
circle with radius 1; u = {~2t sin 0, 2t cos 0), IIHI^
V40([sin Of + cos t^f) = Vi? = 2|^|. (Note that V?
is \t\, not L) As t goes from -oo to 0, speed 2\t\ decreases
(from 00 to 0). As < goes from 0 to oo, speed increases
(from 0 to^oo). ^
12. iL = 3i - 2j T 4A.
(a) V is constant so particle has constant direction;
path is a line.
(b) pll = V^.
3. (a) One possibility is x == 3 sin t, y = 3 cos t. An- (c) Want to change (3, -2,4) to keep same direction
other is X = 3 cos t, y = —3 sin t. but g^ norm 2. Use v — 2(3, — 2,4)normaii2ed =
(b) X — 2 + 3 cos t,y — 7 + 3 sin t (6/\^,-4/V^,8/V^); 7 =
(c) X = 3 cos 2'nt, y = 3 sin 2TTt
4. (a) If X = -3 then 2 - t — -3, t - 5 but t = 5
does not produce z - 4; point is not on the path.
("‘ ^ ^
13. (a) Particle sits at the origin and refuses to move,
(b) Ifx - 3 then 2 — t = 5,t = -1. Ifi = -1 then
(b) Zero velocity, zero speed. Particle doesn’t move
y = 4, z = -6; point is on the path, reached at (but it isn’t necessarily sitting at the origin).
time r = — 1.
14. (a) Antidiff to get x = + Ci, y — |? + C2, z =
5. The particles travel on the same route but second
6t + C3. Need x = l,y=4, z = 6 when t = 3
particle gets everywhere 5 seconds later than the first.
so need 1 = 9 + Ci, Ci = -8. Similarly C2 =
For example at time < = 0, first particle is at the origin
but second particle doesn’t reach the origin until r = 5. -41, Cs = -12. So ^
7 = (? - 8)i + (I? - 41); + (6t - 12)k.
6. Distance from particle to origin is always 7. (a) Trav¬
els on circle with center at origin, radius 7. (b) Travels on (b) If t = 2 then v ^ 4i + 20j + 6k. Unit tangent
surface of a sphere centered at origin, radius 7. IS t^normaUzed
T. V = + 2j - sin = (4/V4^)i + (20/V452); + (6/V4^)^.
S. V = {-t sin t + cos t)i + {t cos t^+ sin t)j (prod¬ 15. (a) (ixf + (iy)^ = cos^t + sin^i = 1 so path is along
uct rule). At time t — tt,v - -i — nj . Path is a “circle ellipse x^/9 + y^/4 = 1.
with radius t", i.e., a spiral. (See fig.) (b) V = (-3 sin i, 2 cos f),_
speed = 11^11= V9 sin‘^< + 4 cos^'^
= V9 sin^i + 4(1 — sin^t)
— V5 sin^t + 4. Speed is min when sin^t — 0,
i = 0, 77, 277, etc. Min value of speed is 2. Speed
is max when sin^i - I, t - 77/2, 377/2, etc. Max
value of speed is 3.

9. v = —6 sin ti -f 6 cos tj_

(a) Ipll = V36 sin^i + 36 cos^t
— V36(sin^< + cos^t) = 6. Circle has radius 6, Section 9.7 (page 293)
circum 127r. A speed of one rev per 27r seconds
is 1277 feet per 277 sec or 6 ft/sec, same as ||ul|.
(b) V - —6i which does point ccl. (See fig.)

PROBLEM W

10. V - (1,20; speed is ||v|| = Vl + 40. As t goes from

-00 to 0, speed decreases; as t goes from 0 to oo, speed

increases. So particle decelerates, then accelerates. PROBLEM I

 Solutions to the Problems • 487

V = i - = (a • -r)/||-r|| = i(25 cos^t + 25 sin^<) = 5;

If < = ~ 1 then r = —i — j,v =i — j, a — ~2j, IMI^A ~ (5)^/5 = 5 also.
fltan = (a • i')/||u|l ~ 2/V2 = V2. Particle is speeding up 7. (a) Force ma acting on particle never makes it
by V2 meters/sec per sec; ||a|l = 2 so if mass is m then 2m change direction so a parallel to v.
pounds of force act (in direction of a, i.e., down). (b) No change in speed, so Otan = 0 so a perp to v.
2. xy = 1 but only one branch is traversed since x > 0, 8. (a) V = (—+ 1), a = {—6t,3t^). Particle is at
y > 0 (see fig.); v = e‘i - e~‘j, a = e'i + e^‘j. point (3,5/4), moving in direction of

If < = —l_^then_r = (\/e)i + ej, v = {l/e)i — ej, v = — 3i + 2/ at speed ||v|| = VTs ft/sec.
a = {l/e)i + ej, is negative at t = -1 since a - -6i + 3j and (a • u)/||u|l = 24/vT3;
a • V = \/e^ — < Q-, particle is slowing down. speeding up by 24/VT3 ft/sec per sec. If mass is
m then amount of force is m|la|l = wiV45 lbs in
direction of a.

Chapter 9 Review Problems (page 294)

1. (a) -8 + 15 - 2 = 5
(b) Vli
3. r" = a — f/m, (c) (-11,0,22)

(d) ^
IHIH Vuv^s
r points from the origin to the particle. By hypothesis, / (e) (u ’ v)/|lv|| = 5/V45
u • V /_4 5 _2..
points from the particle toward the origin (see fig.). So / (f) V = = 9V t 9> 9> 9l
and r are parallel (opposite directions) and their cross V • V

prod is 0.
(g) v/\\v\\ = (-4/V45)7 + (5/V45)7 - (2/V45)A
(J^ 6u/H|= (12/;^)1+ (18/VT4)J - (6/Vl4)i
2. AB = (2, —3,1), AC = (4,—6,3). Vectors are not
0RI6/M multiples, so not parallel; C is not on the line (see fig.).

Problem 3
•C jr'B
'T .
4. / = —mgj and / = ma so a = —gj, i.e., x" = 0,
y" = -g. Antidiff to get X' = Ci,y' = —gt + C2. Ift = 0
then u = 4i + 2j so Ci = 4, C2 = 2. Antidiff again to
problem X
get X = + Ki, y = -igt^ + 2r + X2. If t = 0 then
X = 1, y = 2^so need K\ — 1, =^2. So
3. (a) vXu — —{uXv) = j— 5k
r = (4< + l)i + {~kgt^ + 2t + 2)j.
(b) l|v X m|| = ||m X uII = 6
5. (a) ds/dt is the rate of change of distance traveled
4. (a) Meaningless to even write (u ' v) • w since scalar
w.r.t. time so it is the car’s speed, i.e., ds/rfr = ||Ty||.
u • V can’t dot vector w.
d^s d(ds/dt) </(speed) _ , _
(b) False. Make up almost any vectors u, v, w to get
dt^ dt dt ^ a counterexample; e.g., i X (i x j) =
speed = car’s acc. So d^sjdt^ — Ctan-
i X k = —j but (i X i) X j — 0 X j = 0.
dr dr /dt _ -
(D) T~ ~ I 7T" ii-»ii renormalized 5. PQ^ (2,4,z), AB = (6,-2,2). Need = 0
' ’ ds ds/dt ||v||
so 12 - 8 + 2z = 0, z = -2.
= unit tangent vector
Ml U2
6. (a) V = (-5 sin t,5 cos t), ||v|| = __ 6. M X v = I 0,0, Area of parallelogram is
Vl V2
V25 sin^« + 25 cos^^ = V25(sin^« + cos'^t) = 5
l|u X ^11 which in this case is absolute value of third com-
(b) a = (—5 cos t, -5 sin t),
Mi U2
dan = 0 because a • v = 0. ponent
(c) r = (-5 cos t, -5 sin t) is radial direction; Vi V2
flrad — comp in radial direction 7. (a) True by Pythagorean theorem (see fig.)
488 • Solutions to the Problems

||m||11i;|| sin d so llw X v|| = ||m||||v|| if and only if sin 0 = 1,

6 = 90°, u perp to v.
13. Spirals in x direction (see fig.).

pkoble-m 7(^)

(b) If M • u = 0 then |1m + =

(u + v) ’ (u + v) = u • u + 2u ’ V + V ' V
= ii«f+ o + pir-iiMir+ ff.
8. u X V is perp to u and to v by definition of cross
product; Ijw X ti|l = |1m1|||v1| sin 90° = (1)(1)(1) = 1 so
u X V is a unit vector
9. (See fig.) 1|« + m ^ ||m|| + ||v|l because third side of a
triangle is shorter than sum of other sides. In special case
that u and v point the same way then ||m + u|l equals
V = (—< sin t + cos t)i + cos t j,
m +
a = (—t cos t — sin i — sin t)i — sin t j
- (—t cos t — 2 sin t)i — sin t j.
If t = TT then r = —Tri,v — —i — j, a — iri,
speed = ||v|| = V2, ffltan = (a • ?)/||v|| = -7r/V2; slowing
down by 7r/V2 meters/sec per sec.
14. (a) V perp to r so particle circles the origin.
(See fig.)

10. (a) \\u + + 1|m -

= {u + v) • (m + w) + (m — v) • {u — v)
= U ' U 2u • V + V • V + u • u -- 2u • V-r V * V

= 2Z-Z + 2^-v= 2\\Zf + 2W

(b) Sum of squares of four sides of a parallelogram PROBLEM 14-(a)
equals sum of squares of the diagonals (see fig.).
(b) V parallel to r. Particle moves on a line through the
origin. (See fig.)

A
11. Component of wind in plane direction is PROBLEM l^(b]
(u • v)/|lu|| = -8/V42. So it is a head wind slowing the
plane down by 8/V42 mph. (c) V parallel to a. Force never makes particle change
12. 11m X ^11 is the area of the parallelogram determined direction. Path is a line.
by M and v. That area will be the product of the two sides (d) V perp to a so a^n — 0. Speed never changes (shape
if and only if u and v are perp. Alternatively ||m x v|l = of path unknown).
 Solutions to the Problems • 489

10/TOPICS IN THREE-DIMENSIONAL ANALYTIC

GEOMETRY

Section 10.1 (page 297) 6. Planes have common normal n = 2i - j + 3k so

they are parallel. (See fig.) To find distance between
1. Distance from center to origin is ^/KO. Equation is them pick any point in one plane and find distance from
(x - 4f + (y + 3f + (z - 5f - 50. it to other plane. Point (0,0,2) is in first plane. Its dis-
2. x^ + + z + j + (z + , . . |2(0) - 0 + 3(2) - 8| 2
tance to second plane is-, =-“7= •
Sphere, center (0,0, —|), radius ^ V4 + 1 + 9 VH
3. Set jc = 0, 0, z = 0 in left side. Result is >2;
origin is outside. Equivalently, distance from origin to
center (-2,3,2) is VT?, larger than the radius V2; ori¬
gin is outside.
4. Distance from (3,5,6) to x, y plane is z-coordinate 6.
7
Equation is {x — 3)^ + (y — 5) -I- (z — 6)^ = 36.
l 7
problem 6

7. Plane is-1■7■4-1 = 0so

a 0 c
Section 10.2 (page 301)
|0 +0+0- 1 by distance formula.
D =

V 01.1(i)1. (1)^
1. (a) Normal is (5,3,1). Plane is
5(x — 5) + 3(y — 5) + z — 4 = 0,
5x -l- 3y + z = 44. Square both sides and rearrange to get
(b) Intercepts are a = 2, i = 5, c = 7. Plane is , 1 1111
n2 _ --1--= —
x/2 + y/5 -I- z/7 = 1.
(c) Perpendicular to x-axis means parallel to y, z 1^1 1
9 1 9 2
’

a b c ^
plane; equation is x = 3.
8. A normal to the plane is (see fig.) AB x CD =
(d) z = 5
(1,1,-1) X (3,13,3) = (16,-6,10). Use point A (or B)
(e) Normal is 2i + 9j — 6k. Plane is
to get equation 16(x 4- 1) — 6(y — 2) 4- 10(z — 4) = 0,
2(x - 3) -I- 9(y - 7t) - 6(z - 7) = 0,
16x — 6y 4- lOz = 12.
2x -I- 9y — 6z = 97r — 36.
2. Normal to plane ABC is
M XAC ^ (1,-4,2) X (3,1,5) = (-22,1,13).
Plane is -22(x - 1) + (y - 3) + 13(z + 2) = 0,
-22x -I- y -I- 13z = -45. Test point D in the equation;
-22(1) + 2 4- 13(3) == ? -45, NO. Points not coplanar.
3. Write equation as 3x — 4y 4- 2z — 6 = 0. Distance PROBLEM 8
|3(2) - 4(3) + 2(-4) - 6| ^
V9 4- 16 4- 4 '
4. Write equation as 3x — y 4- 4 = 0. Distance is
|3(0) - 0 + 4| ^ 4
Section 10.3 (page 306)
VgTT VTo’
5. Radius of sphere is distance from center to plane, 1. (a) Line has same parallel vector as given line,
12(1) 4- 3 -(-!)-4] _J_ ^ namely (1,-2, 5). Equations are x = 1 4- i,
V4 + 1 + 1 V6 y = 2 — 2<, z = 3 4- 5i.
(b) Plane’s normal is (3,—4,6). This is parallel to
(x - 1)^ 4- (y - 3)^ 4- (z + 1)^ = |.
490 • Solutions to the Problems

line so line is x = 1 + 3<, y — A — 4r, 6. Set X =0 to get t = 2. Then y = 11, z - -1 so in¬

z = 5 + 6r. tersection is (0,11, — 1).
(c) Method 1: Parallel vector is i - (1,0,0); line is 7. (See fig.) Common parallel vector u = (—3,1,2);
X = 2 + r, > = 3, z = 4. lines are parallel. Not same line since A - (2,5,4) is
Method 2: Points on the line satisfy)) = 3,z =4, on first line but not on second (it takes < = — 3 to
X = anything; equations are X = r,) = 3, z = 4. get X = 2 but t = -3 does not produce y = 5, z = 4).
(d) Line is parallel to the y-axis. Has x = 2, z = 4, To get plane’s equation, need a normal. Point B =
y = anything; equations are x = 2, y = t (-7,6,0) and A = (2,5,4) are in pj^e so AB is paral¬
{y = 3 + t is OK too), z = 4. ^ lel to plane. Normal is m x AB = (-3, 1,2) x
(e) Parallel vector is 7i — j + 16A. Line is x = 7t, (-9, 1,-4) = (-6,-30,6). Use simpler normal
y — —t, z — 16<. (1,5,—1) and point A to get
(f) (See fig.) Planes have normals u = (2,-1,1). X — 2 "E 5(y — 5) (z 4) — 0, X + 5y z 23.
V = (3,1,4); u X V ^ (-5,-5,5) is parallel to
the line. With the simpler parallel (1,1,-1), the
line isx = l + t, ))=5 + t, z = 7 — r.

problem 7
8. AB = (3,2,2). Line AB is x = 1 + 3t, y ^ 3 -H
2t, z = -2 + 2t. Point C isn’t on the line since to get
X = 3 we need t = | but ^ = f doesn’t give y = 3, z = 5.
9. By (*), line’s parallel vector {a,b,c) and the plane’s
normal vector {A,B,C) are perp, so line and plane are
2. Parallel vector is AB = (14, -5). With point A, get
parallel. By (**), point (xo,yo,Zo), which we know is on
X = -1 + \4t, y - 3 — 5t. (With B get x = 13 + 14<,
line, satisfies equation of plane so line and plane have
y = -2 - 5t.) (xo,yo,Zo) in common. All in all, the line must lie in
3. (a) y = 0 (b) X = 0, y = 0, z = t
the plane.
4. (See fig.) Line contains point P = (6,2,7), has paral¬ 10. (a) Parallel vectors are (—6,1,3), (12, —2, —6). They
lel vector u = (4,-1,8). So u and AP — (3,3,5) are both are parallel to each other. Point (1,2,4) is on first
parallel to plane and u X AP = (-29,4,15) is normal to line (when t = 0) but not on second (need t - 5
plane. Plane is —29(x — 3) + 4(y -I- 1) -I- 15(z — 2) = 0, to get X = 1 but t - I doesn’t give z = 4). Lines
—29x -I- 4y + 15z = —61. are parallel (but different).
(b) Parallels are (-1,2, -3), (1, -4,6); not parallel
to each other. Lines are not parallel or coin¬
cident. Solve 2 — t = s, 3 + 2t — b — 4i,
5 - 3i = — 1 -I- 6i. Solution to first two equa¬
tions is i = —\,t = 3 which doesn’t satisfy third.
problem ^ Lines are skew.
5. (a) Point is t = 2 on first line and t — — 1 on second (c) Parallel vectors are (-1,1,2), (— 1,2, 1); not par¬
line so it’s on both. Lines aren’t the same since allel to each other. Solve 2 — t = 3—s,3 + t —
their parallel vectors u = (1,—4,5), v = 4 + 25, 5 -t- 2t = 1 + 5. Solution to first two
(2,-1, —6) are not parallel to each other. equations is5==-2, i = —3. Works in third
(b) (See fig.) Normal to plane isu x v - (29,16,7). equation too. Lines intersect, at point x = 5,
With points (2,3,6) from first line, plane is y = 0, z = -1.
29(x - 2) + 16(y - 3) + 7(z - 6) = 0, (d) Parallels are (3, —1,1), (—3,1,-1) which are
29x + 16y + 7z = 148. parallel. Point (2,5,3) is on first line (when
t — 0) and also on second (when t — —2). Lines
are coincident.
11. (a) 2(1 + 20 + 6(3 - i) + 2 + 2t - 8, 0 = -14.
No solutions. Line is parallel to but not con¬
tained in plane.
(b) 2(1 + 20 + 6(3 - 0 + 2 + 2< - 22, 0 - 0. All
PROBLEM values of t are solutions. Line lies in plane.
(c) u X V is parallel to line; line is x - 4 + 29<, 12. Normals are u = (2,1,3), v = (1, — 1, 1). Parallel to
y = —5 -I- 16L z = 16 + It. line is It X u == (4,1, —3). To get point, set z — 0 and
 Solutions to the Problems • 491

solve 2x + )) = 5, X - )) = 4. Get X - 3, ;y - -1. Point line to the plane. Use A — (2,3,5). Distance to plane is
on line is (3,-1,0). Line is x = 3 + 4t, 3) - -1 + L |3(2) + 5(3) -5-281 _ 12
z = -3l
V9 + 25 + 1 __ V^' ^
13, Parallel to line is u = (1,2, 8) x (1, -1,2) =
G2^6, -3). Normal to 3rd plane is v = (3, -2,8). Since
17. (a) (See fig.) AB ^(-1,4,^), CD = (3,-12,6);
M • V = 0, vectors are perpendicular so line is parallel to parallel. But AB and AC = (1,5,4) are not
plane. To show line is not in plane, find a point on the parallel. Lines parallel (but not coincident).
line. Set z = 0 and solve x + 2)i — 20 = 0, x — 3) —
8 = 0 to get X = 12,31 = 4. So (12,4,0) is on line. But it
doesn’t satisfy equation of 3rd plane (36 - 8 + 0 5).
So line is parallel to but not contained in plane.
14. (See fig.) Plane has normal u ~ (2, -3,1). So line has
parallel u. Line is x = -1 + 2t, y = 1 - 3<, z = 1 + t.
P is intersection of line and plane. Solve
problem 17(ck)
2(-l + 20 - 3(1 - 30 + 1 + t + 1 - 0, get t =
P=r-1 4--6.1_^1,3v_ ,8 5 17.
(b) (See fig.) Plane has normal AB; equation is
(' 0,0 -(x - 3) + 4(3 - 0) - 2(z - 2) = 0,
—X -1-43 — 2z = —7. Find point of intersection
P of line CD and plane. Line CD is x == 4 — t,
3 = 5 + 4t, z = 6 — 2<. Solve
-(4 -0 + 4(5 + 40 - 2(6 - 20 = -7;

problem P = (4\“ 4. « US',

•* 21,3 21,0 T 21) — t21,21, 21 )■

15. (See fig.) Parallel to line is u = (1,“1,4). So u is Distance between the parallel lines is
plane’s normal. Plane is X - 4 — (31 + 1) + 4(z — 4) = 0, AP = V(3 - |f)2 + (fi)^ + (2 -
X — y +4z = 21;Fis intersection of plane with line L.

Solve 1 + t - (2 - 0 + 4(3 + 40 = 21; t - |.

P = (1 + 1,2 — 1,3 + ^) = Distance from Q
to line L is PQ = V(4 - + (-1 - + (4 -

LINE. L

A PROBLEM 17(b)
PRO&leM )5

16. Parallels are M = (—1,1,2),? = (—1,2, 7); not paral¬

lel. Solve 2 — t = 3 — s, 3 + t - 4 + 2s, 5 + 2t =
1 -I- 7i. Solution to first two equations is i = —2,t = —3; Section 10.4 (page 312)
doesn’t work in third. Lines skew. Consider plane con¬
taining second line and parallel to first. (See fig.) Normal 1.
is w X iT = (3,5,-1). Point is (3,4,1). Plane is z
3(x - 3) + 5(y - 4) - (z - 1) = 0, 3x + 5y - z = 28.
Distance between lines is distance from any point on first

PROBLEM 1

PROBLEM 16
492 • Solutions to the Problems

8.

3. 9.
''plane" cyUNDtR

(and a fi-AlN plane

5|NC£ it is of
THE form
(ATLt Jjy + C-'E+c^-0)

problem 3
10 .
4. CVLINDLR.

d7 V J
-^

PROBLEM ^ 11 .
5.

12 .

6.
-y

7< PROBLEM 12.

X
13. CL

PROBLeM 6

7.

/ -^
^ PROBLEM 13

X
PROBLEM 7
 Solutions to the Problems • 493

14. half of cone 1

(THE H/lLf WHERE

PROBLEM 2(a)
PROBLEI^ 14-
(b) z = 5, r = VTS, tan 0 = = |; 0 is in
quad III, approx 214°
15.

3. (a) X = 2 cos 150° = 2(-|V3) = -Vs,

y = 2 sin 150° = 2(1) = 1, z = 7
(b) X = 2 sin 30° cos 120° = 2(i)(-i) = -i y =
2 sin 30° sin 120° = ^VS, z - 2 cos 30° = Vs
16. Hyperbolic paraboloid, saddle shaped; hard to draw. 4. (See figs.)
17. Need a — b to get circles rather than ellipses. If (a) Region between two cylindrical surfaces plus the
z — 6 get x^fa^ + = 36, — 36a^. Need surfaces themselves.
36a^ = 9, a = I, equation is + 4y^ = z^.

Section 10.5 (page 317)

1. (a) (See fig.) Point is iny, z plane; d — 90°. Distance

to z-axis is 2 so r = 2. Given that z = 3.

PROBLEM 4'(d)

(b) Circle of intersection of plane z = 2 and

cylinder r = 3.

problem I(c\)
(b) (See fig.) Distance to origin is 5 so p = 5. Point
is in X, y plane so 4> - 90°. Point is around 90° so
e = 90°.

(c) Ray of intersection of half plane 0 = 7r/3 and

plane z — 7.

(b)
2. (See figs.)
(a) z = 5, r - V9 + 4 = VTI, tan 6 = 1; 0 is in
quad I, approx 34°
494 • Solutions to the Problems

(d) Line of intersection of cylinder r - 3 and half (d) u X V = (4,7, -1) is normal to plane. Equation
is 4(x - 2) + 7(y - 3) - (z + 3) = 0,
plane 0 =
4x + 7y — z = 32.
Z:
2. (a) « + 5(3 + 20 - (2 - 0 = 1. < = -1- Inter¬
section is X = — 1, y = 1, z = 3.
(b) Parallels are (1, -2,3) and (-1,1, -2), not mul-
V tiples so lines not parallel. Solve 2 + L = 2 - 5,
1 - 2i = 3 + 5, 3 + 3i = 1 - 25. Sol to first
two eqs is L = -2, 5 = 2. Satisfies third equ.
Lines intersect at x = 0, y = 5, z = — 3.
(c) Vector parallel to line is (3,— 1,1) X (1,1,—6)
PROBLEM liU)
== (5,19,4). To get point, set z = 0 and solve
5. (a) (See fig.) Circular cone. In cylindrical 3x - y = 5,x + y = 3, getx = 2,y = 1. Line is
coordinates, = 4z^. In spherical, ^ x = 2 + 5t, y = l + 19^, z = 4t.
sm^<p(cos^0 + sin^0) = 4p^ cos^(f>, tan^(f> = 4, 3. AB = (-3, -4, -4). Line is x = 9 - 3i, y = 8 - 4i,
tan (f> = ±2, equ is (f> ^ 63° or 117° (approx). z = 7 - 4<.
Can see this geometrically since circular cone(s) ^ |5(0) + 2(0) - 6(0) - 8| _ 8
should be described entirely in terms of
V25 + 4 + 36 VW
cone angle(s).

(b) Sphere. In cylindrical, = 10. In spheri¬

cal, p = VIo.
6. (a) X, y plane is z = 0, z-axis is r = 0.
(b) X, y plane is <^ = 90°, z-axis is <^ = 0° or 180°.

7. (a) Vx^ -I- + z^ in rect, p in spherical; convert

the rect answer using = x^ + y^ to get
Vr^ + x'^ in cyl (can also see this in triangle ABP
in Fig. 5 where hypot AP is Vr^ -t- x^).
(b) r in cyl, convert r to get Vx^ + y^ in rect. Use
triangle ABF in Fig. 5 to convert r to p sin (f) in
spherical.

6. (—1,1, VS) satisfies sphere’s equ so is on sphere. (See

fig.) Plane has normal vector (—1,1, VS), passes through
Chapter 10 Review Problems (page 317) (“I> ^9^ is —(x -I- 1) +y — 1 + (z — V3) — 0,
—X + y + V3z = 5.
1. Li has parallel u — 1,3);
L2 has parallel v - (2, -1,1).
(a) X = 2 — L, y = 3 + ^, z = — 3 -I- 3<
(b) u Xv = (4,7,-1) is parallel to line. Eqs are
X — 2 + 4i, y = 3 + 7t, z = —3 — t.
(c) Plane has normal u; Equation is
-(x - 2) + y - 3 + 3(z + 3) = 0,
-X + y + 3z = -8. PROBLEM 6
 Solutions to the Problems • 495

7. (See Fig.) Point lies in)), z plane. a: = 0,)i = 2, z = 5

p = V25 + 4 - V^, d = 90°, (f) = tan-' f
z
%
—7

PROBLEM 7
Pi

8. (a) = 4
(b) r = 2
(c) (See fig.) Convert from r to p sin (f) to get
p sin (^ = 2, p = 2 CSC 0. problem 9
9. 2 + 4r + 3 - 2r - 2(1 + 0 = 3> 0 = 0. All t’s
work, L lies in plane pi. (See fig.) L has parallel point in p2 is (2,3,1) from line L. Equ of p2 is
Si

= (4, —2,1); pi has normal v — (1,1, —2). Both u and 3(x - 2) + 9(;y - 3) + 6(z - 1) = 0,
are parallel to p^ sou x v = (3,9,6) is normal to p2. A X + 3) + 2z = 13.

11/PARTIAL DERIVATIVES

Section 11.1 (page 324) The 5 level set is = 5, a hyperbola; -5

level set is x^ - y^ - -5, hyperbola; 0 level set
1. (See figs.) (a) Graph is circular paraboloid is x^ - = 0, the pair of lines y = ±x (the
z = + y^. No neg level sets. Zero level set is asymptotes for the hyperbolas).
+ y^ = 0, the origin. Pos level sets are circles. (c) Graph is plane z = x + y. Level sets are the lines
X + y = C.

(b) Graph is hyperbolic paraboloid z = - y^.

graph (b)
I_E\/EL (t>)
2. (See figs.) (a) Like Problem 1(a) but spheres.

(b) x^+y^ — z^-2isa hyperboloid of one sheet;

+ y^ — z^ = —2 is a hyperboloid of two
496 • Solutions to the Problems

of line y = x; this is the 3 level set. Remaining

points are 4 level. Other levels are empty.
3. /(2,6) = 12 so point has / value 12. It is on the 12
level set, the hyperbola xy = 12. (See fig.)

4. (a) Graph of fix) = |(6 - 2x);

6 level set of g(x,y) = 2x + 3y;
0 level set of h(x,y) = 2x + 3y — 6, etc.
(b) Graph of/(x,y) = x^ + 2y^; ^
0 level set of h(x,y,z) = z - x^ - 2y^;
0 level set of k(x,y,z) — x^ + 2y^ — z, etc.
(c) Not the graph of a function since no unique
solution for z. It is the 0 level set of
/(x,y,z) = z^ + 2y^ - x.
(d) Equ is x^ + y^ = 4. Not the graph of a function
(no z to even try to solve for). It is 4 level set of
sheets; + 3)^ - = 0 is a cone, etc. The cone /(x,y,z) = x^ + y^.
is an asymptotic surface for all the hyperboloids, 5. (See fig.) 6 level set is set of points at distance 6 from
the two-piece ones are inside, the one piece ones x-axis, a pair of lines; 0 level set is x-axis itself No neg
outside. level sets since distance is never neg.
(c) l/(x + y) = 100 is the line x + y =
l/(x + y) = “7 is the line x + y = —7. Can’t
V
have l/(x + y) = 0, etc.
7
6
0
6
7

PROBLEM 5

6. Graph is the plane z = 6. (See fig.) The 6 level set is

entire x, y plane. Other level sets are empty.

(d) Points where y > x are those on and to the left

7. (See figs.) (a) / is given as a function of 3 variables

(even though y^ — x has no z in it). The 6 level
set is surface y^ — x = 6, a parabolic cylinder,
etc.
(b) Level sets are the lines y = C in 2-space.
(c) Level sets are planes y = C in 3-space.
 Solutions to the Problems • 497

E
Section 11.2 (page 329)

1. (a) dz/dx = 2x4- 6x^31^, dz/dy = 4x^31

(b) dz/dx = e~^, dz/dy = —xe~^
, ^ dz {x + y - x) y .

dz , -X

(d) dz/dx = X • 4(2x + 531)® • 2 4- (2x 4- by)*

— 8x(2x 4- 53))® 4- (2x 4- 53)^, (product rule)
dz/dy — 4x(2x 4- 53)* • 5 = 20x(2x 4- 5y)^
(e) dz/dx = —3yx~^ = —3y/x^, dz/dy = 3/x
2. (a) df/dy = 3/(2x + 33),
d'^f/dy'^ = -3(2x + 33)-" • 3 = -9/(2x + 33)/
d^f/dx dy = -3(2x 4- 33)-" • 2 - -6/(2x + 3yf
K 1 1 ^ X
(b) 2 I 2
dy 1 4- (3/x)^ X X + 3^
_ ... 2 , ..2n-2 . o.. _ "2X3
3..2
dy^
+ 3’ ) ‘23 y 2-^2’

-\ ^ 2^2— (quotient rule)

dx dy (x^ 4- 3^)
= (3^ - xW + yr
61/ _ X — 3 — (x 4- 3) • — 1 _ 2x
8. The 6 level is = 6 or
(c)
V(x + 2f + (:y - 1)" + (z - 3)^ = I dy (x - yf (x - 3)^
{x + 2)^ + (31 - 1)^ + (z - 3)^ = i (sphere). There are d^f _o 4x
= 2x • -2(x - 3) ® • -1 =-
no 0 or neg levels. In general, if C > 0 the C level set is dy (X -3)*’

a sphere with center (—2,1, 3) and radius 2/C. dj _ (x - 3)^ • 2 - 2x 2(x - 3)

9. (a) Of points A,B,C, the surface is highest above A, jdx dy (x — y)*
i.e., z value is largest for A. So /(3,2) is largest, = (-2x - 2y)/{x- yf
(b) (See fig.) Cross section where z = 3 is a single 3. (a) gcba (diff first w.r.t. c, then b then a)
line. Cross section where z = 4 is a pair of lines. (b) Mto (first w.r.t. t, then x, x.)
No cross section if z <3. df X 1 Z X
4. (a) — = z cos — — = — cos —
dx y y y y
df .-2 _ —xz
(b) — = z cos — • -xy “ = cos —
dy 3 y
-7^ (c) df/dz - sin(x/3)
dH 1 X
(d) —— = — cos —
PROBLEM 9(M dx dz 3 3

5. (a) d/dy = -e* sin 3, d^/dy^ = -e’‘ cos 3,

dr’/dy^ = e” sin 3
(b) Successive derivatives w.r.t. x just keep produc¬
ing cos 3.
(c) d/dx = sin 3, d^/dx^ = 0, d^/dx^ = 0
(d) d/dy = X cos 3, d^/dy^ = -x sin 3,
d^/dy^ — —X cos 3
(e) d{—x ?\ny)/dx — —sin 3
6. (a) dx/dp - sin <f) cos 0, d^x/dp^ = 0
(b) dx/d0 = -p sin (f sin 0,
d^x/d(j) d0 - -p cos (f) sin 0
7.df/dx is probably negative because if the price of a
11. NO because then Q has more than one/ value (e.g., camera goes up, sales usually go down; df/dy is probably
more than one temperature) and a function can’t assign neg because if film goes up, camera sales usually go
two values to the same input. down.
498 • Solutions to the Problems

^8. df/da is negative because if prices on airline A go up, Section 11.3 (page 334)
number of passengers on A goes down; df/db is positive All problems have diagrams.
because your passengers increase if competitor’s price
goes up. bw bw bx ^ bw by ^ bw bz
9. Consider employees jogging \ mile and cycling bs bx bs by bs bz bs
1 mile. Since both partials are positive, increasingjogging
or cycling alone boosts company profits. Furthermore
increasing the jogging alone boosts them more than in¬
creasing cycling alone.
10. 0temp/3jc = 8(2x — 3y)®,3temp/3y == — 12(2x —
3y)*; if X = 4, y - 3 get -8 and 12. Eastbound particle
feels temp dropping by 8°/foot. Northbound particle
feels temp rising by 12°/foot. Southbound particle feels
temp dropping by 12°/foot. bu by da bu bz da bu bx db
bu bx da
11. Particle moving east through A feels temp rising so
bx ba dt by ba dt bz ba dt bx bb dt
df/bx is pos. Particle moving north through A feels no
bu by db bu bz db
temp change instantaneously so bf/dy = 0 at A.
by bb dt bz bb dt
12. (See figs.) (a) Particle moving on graph through B
with X fixed and y increasing isn’t going up or
down so bf/by — 0, i.e., slope on indicated curve
through B is 0.

bp _dp_bf
3.
by dt by

(b) Particle moving on graph throughwithy fixed

and X increasing (i.e., forward) is descending so
bf/bx is negative, i.e., slope at B on indicated
curve is neg. X 9 z
PROBLEM 3

4. (a) Directly w — sin(t^ In t) so

dw/dt = cos(t® In t) • {t^ • \/t + 3<^ In t)
= t^ cos(i* In t) + 2)t^ In t cos(<^ In t).
With chain rule
dw _ bw dx ^ bw dy
13. Note that P lies behind the y, z plane. A particle dt bx dt by dt
moving through P withy, z fixed and x increasing (i.e., = y cos xy • 1/t + X cos xy • 3t^
moving forward, but behind the y, z plane) moves from = t^ cos(<® In t) + 3t^ In t cos{t^ In t).
outer to inner cylinders, from lower to higher levels;
feels temp increasing. So bf/bx > 0. Particle moving
through P with x and z fixed and y increasing is moving
to the right, from inner to outer cyls, from higher to
lower levels; feels temp decreasing. So bf/by < 0. Par¬
ticle moving through P with z increasing is moving up
a cyl, not changing levels; feels no change in temp. So problem
bf/bz — 0.
14. bg/bx is larger because for a small eastward step, g
(b) Directly w — —:— so
changes more than /. X sm y
 Solutions to the Problems • 499

ii

X' *y ' PROBLEM 8

PROBLEM

dw 1 I du 1 du

dx sin y x^ sin y
With chain rule _ du dp _ du xy — (y — x)x 1 du 1 du
dw dw du 1 . 1 dp dy dp x^y^ dp dq
o Sill y o
dx du dx U X sin y Then x^u^ + y^Uy + z^Uz does equal 0
dw dw dx dw dy (everything cancels out as you add).
— + 9. The three functions are functions of x and y in a
dt dx dt dy dt
special way, namely they are functions of the combina¬
tion x^ + y^. In general let z = z{t) where t = x^ + y^.
„ dz dz dt ^ dz dz ^ dz , 0z ,
Then — = --= 2x—, — = 2y— , and y— does
dx dt dx dt dy dt ^ dx
dz dz
equal x— (both equal 2xy—).
dy dt

(b) At time 3 the traveling particle feels temp drop¬

ping by 2° per second.
dz _ dz dx dt dz dy dt
6. du dx dt du dy dt du
dz dt ^ „ dz dt
= cos t-+ 6t^-
dx du dy du
problem 9

10. By product rule Ux = x^dw/dx + 2xw where

w = w{p,q), p = y/x, q - z/x so

dp dx dq dx
PROBLEM 6
g(dw y dw
^ du du dp
—
X du X du
-- — =-—. Similarly
, — X
\dp
I
--5 +
x^ dq
-5 + 2xit;

dx dp dx Vx^ -I- -H z^ dp p dp
dw dw
= —y-z-1- 2xw
du _ y du du _ z du V -1- V + (— ^ dp dq
dw _ y,dw dp _ .^dw \ _ dw
dy p dp’ dz p
P dp \dx/ dy/
\dy/ \dz. Uy = X^
2 2 2 dy dp dy dp X ^ dp
X y z x^ +y^ + z^ dtiV
+ -2 „dw „dw dp 2dw I _ dw dw
p
2
p
2
p dp dp. Tpj ■ Uy = x^— = x^—^ - X ~r7 Ur
^ dy dp dy dp X ^ dp dq
u Then xux + yuy -H zuz
dw dw ^ g dw , dw
= —XV-xz— -t- 2x a; -I- xy-r xz-—
^ dp dq ^ dp dq
- 2x^w = 2m

problem 7

8. u = u{p,q) where p = {y - x)/xy, q - {z

du du dp du dq
rhen Mx = — = —::—
dx dp dx dq dx
_ du xy(-l) - (y - x)y ^ ^ xz(-l) - {z - x)z
PROBLEM 10
dp (xy)^ dq (xzf
500 • Solutions to the Problems

d^u - 3, d^u d% du
Section 11.4 (page 337) H-(2a^ + 6ab) + 2a— .
= 6 —2 + 2a^b
-> dy
All problems have diagrams. dx^ dy^ dx dy

^ . Need prod-
dp da dp db , a dt dx dt dy dt dx dy
H-- — — 3 — + 0 -77 ,
du da du db du da db uct rule to diff again w.r.t. t since everything on the
dp^ right-hand side is a function of t.

du du\da du\db/ + 6,^ +

d^p db , d^p da d^p db dt^ dt\dx/ dx dt V dyy . dy/
= + — + 5
da^ du db da du da db du db^ du , /d^w dx d^w 4y\ ,
d^p dy dx dt/
^ 9^ + . 30
..Jl + 25——
dadb db^ d^w dx d^w d)i\ „ dw
da‘
+ 2t
dx dy dt dy^ dt) dy
Use dx/dt = St^, dy/dt = 2t to get answer
?‘d(K ’ db „ dw ^dw
^ 4 A 2^ ^ , 1o 3 ^ ^
-h 6<— + 2 .
dx^ dy^ dx dy dx dy

dw BiAT

PROBLEM I
dz dz dx dz dy „
2. — =-1-- - 3— + 4— . Use product
dt dx dt dy dt dx dy
rule to diff again w.r.t. t since dz/dx, dz/dy, dx/dt, dy/dt
d^z d (3z\ d (5z\ problem ^
are functions of t. Get = 3 — 1 — 1 + 4—1 — I
dt dt\dx/ dt\dy/
dh
dr X
dx^dy dxj dx dy dy'
Vx^ -H y^ r
dh dh y\ y
= 9—5 + 16——5 + 24 1
dy‘ ^ -
dx
dx
i + i'i

dr
r — X-
dx 1 x^ y^
(quotient rule) =-3 ~ “s*
dX^
2^ ar _ 2xy
= -y
PROBLEM Z dx‘ dx r*
dv dv dr dv dd . .
du du dx du dy du du (c) — =-L-. Now use product and
3. — =-1-- = 2-L 2ab— . Need prod- ax dr dx dd dx
da dx da dy da dx dy
du chain rule.
uct rule to diff 2ab— w.r.t. b. ( dv\
dy a — a I—1
„ du _ dv aV \dr) dr \dr/
d^u ^ d (du\ r. , ^ — + - ZL
, = 2— —) + 2ab—[ — + 2a — dx^ dr dx^ dr ax aa dx dx
db da db\dx/ db\dy/ dy
d^u dx d^u dy /dv\
= 2 (I
_dx^ db dy dx db. . dv d^d ^vaa)
"f-9 “L 3l +
d^u dx d , du dd dx^ dr dx dd dx dx
+ 2ab + — \ + 2a
dx dy db dy dv aV ^_d% dd dr dv d^d
+
dr dx^ dr^ dx dd dr dx dx dd dx^
d% dr d^v dd
+ +
dr dd dx dd'^ dx dx
dv aV a^iy I 1 d^v dd dr
- —+ -j-il —I + 2
ar ax ar dr dd dx dx
dv d^d d%
+-0 4 9'
PROBLEM 3 aaax"^ aa^ .dx)
 Solutions to the Problems • 501

x'‘‘ xy d% d^v y^ dv d^w dp d^w dq\ d^w dp d^w dq

So (*) -5-T 5 ~ 2 “5- + ~7 5 + -
dx^ ar"
dr^ r® drdd r* dd^ r® ar dp^ dt dqdp dt) dp dq dt dq^ dt
^xy dv ^d^w „ 2 a^zi; 2^^"^
+ 2^ —. = c —5 - 2c - + c —5.
r* dd dp^ dp dq dq^
Then c^Wxx — Wa does cancel to 4c ^Wpg as desired.
Remark: Similarly, (**) — = ^ -^ + 2^ —— +
ay' r dr r dr dO
x^ d^v x'^ dv ^xy dv ^
7W '^7Tr~^7Te'
d^v d^v
have ——2 + —5 (Laplacian in rect coords) equal to
dx dy
d^v 1 dv 1 a^v
+-+ (Laplacian in polar coords).
ar^ r dr r" d0‘
PROBLEM 7
dv 3v
^'3r '9e

Section 11.5 (page 346)

1. (a) (See fig.) Critical: df/dx = 3y — 4x, df/dy =

problem 5(c)
3x + 2. Sol to 3y — 4x = 0, 3x + 2 = 0 is
^ dv dv dx dv dy , , , X - —2l^,y = -8/9. Not in region; ignore.
6. — =-r"'-r - Now need product rule Lower boundary: Here y = 0so/ = —2x^ + 8
dt dx dt dy dt ^
for 0 ^ X S VS; f'{x) = -4x, zero when x = 0.
d^v _ dv d^x a /av\ dx dv d^y ^ ^
Ends are x = 0, VS. Candidates are (0,0) and
dt^ dx dt^ dtydx/dt dy dt^ dt\dyj dt
(V3,0).
_ dv d^x /d^v dx d^v dy\ dx ^ dv d^y
Left boundary: Here x = 0so/ = 2y + 8 for
dx dt^ \ax^ dt dy dx dt) dt dy dt^ 0 <y 3; fly) = 2, never 0; only candidates
/ a^u dx d^v dy\ dy are ends wherey = 0, 3, i.e., points (0,0), (0,3).
\ax dy dt dy^ dt) dt Boundary y =3 - x^: Substitute for y to get
_ dv d^x dv d^y d^v /dx^ / - 3x(3 - x") - 2x^ + 2(3 - x") + 8
dx dt^ dy dt^ dx^Xdt) = -3x* - 4x^ + 9x + 14, 0 < X < Vs. So
^ d^v ^ 2 dx dy /'(x) = -9x^ - 8x + 9. Critical x’s are approx
.65 and —1.5 (not in interval). Candidates are
dy^ \dt) dx dy dt dt
.65 and ends 0, VS, i.e., points (.65,2.58), (0,3),
(V3,0).
,, dv
For final decision find /(0,0) = 8, /(0,3) =
14, /(V3,0) = 2, /(.65,2.58) = 17.3 approx.
Min value is 2, max value is approx 17.
y

PROBLEM 6

_ dw dp dw dq dw ^ dw
7. Wx = ——+
dp dx dq dx dp dq problem 1(a)
_ d /dw a /at/^'i
W, + (b) Same criticals as in (a). Again, not in region. On
~ Jx\ dp dx \ dq
boundary x + y —2,
_ d^w dp d^w d^w d^w dq
+ h + ^ + f = 3x(2 - x) - 2x" + 2(2 - x) + 8
dp^ dx dq dp dx dp dq dx dq^ dx = -5x^ + 4x + 12 for 0 ^ x ^ 2. Then
d^w d^w /'(x) = -lOx + 4 so X = ^ is critical. Ends are
= ^+2_ + “ 2>
dp^ dp dq dq‘ X = 0, X = 2; candidates are (■to,-i|), (0,2), (2,0).
dw dp dw dq _ dw ^ dw On lower boundary y is 0, / = — 2x^ + 8 for
Wt 0 ^ X 2;/'(x) = —4x,zerowhenx = 0. Candi¬
dp dt dq dt dp dq
dates are (0,0) and (2,0). On left bdry x is 0 and
Wtt / = 2y -h 8 for 0 < y 2;/'(y) = 2, never 0.
dt\dp) dtXdqJ
502 • Solutions to the Problems

Only candidates arey = 0, 2, i.e., points (0,0) Critical x is -i ends are -1, 0.
and (0,2) again. Candidates are (-1,0), (-1, —3), (0>3)^-^
For final decision find /(0,0) = 8, /(0,2) * For final decision find/(-2,0) = 4>
= 12, /(2,0) = 0, /(4tI) = f- Min value is 0, /(-I,-3) = 9, /(5,3) = 129, /(0,-2) = 4,
max value is x- /(0,3) = 9. Max at (5,3), min at (-i 0).
(c) (See fig.) bf/bx ^ 2, never 0; no criticals. On
bdry y ^ x\ f = 2x - 3x" for -2 < x < 2;
/'(x) = 2 — 6x, X - I is critical. Ends are -2, 2.
Candidates are (±2,4).
On boundary)! = 4,/ = 2x — 12 where
-2 ^ X < 2; /'(x) = 2 never 0. No criticals.
Candidates are ends x = ±2, points (±2,4).
Then/(ii) - i (MAX),
/(-2,4) = -16(MIN),/(2,4) = -8 (LOSER). (b) bf/bx = 2x + 1, bf/by = 4y. Solve 2x + 1 = 0,
4y = 0 to get critical point (—5,0). On bdry,
y^ — 1 — X^, f = —X^ + X + 2, —1 < X 1;
fix) — — 2x + 1, zero if x = |. Ends in the sub¬
problem are x = ±1. Then /(—2>0) = — 4)
fii±^V3) = |,/(1,0) = 2,/(-l,0) = 0. Maxis
at points (f, ±| v3), min at (—|,0)
PROBLEM 1(c) 3. (a) If (x,y) approaches bdry at <» then / —> -<» be¬
cause of terms —x^ — y^. Min is —“. Max will be
(d) (See fig.) bf/bx = 2x + 2xy, bf/by - x^ - 1.
at a critical point, bf/bx = —2 — 2x, bf/by -
Solve 2x + 2xy = 0, x^ - 1 = 0 to get criticals
6 — 2y. They are 0 when x = — 1, y = 3. Have
X = l,y = -l;x ^ -l,y = -1. On boundary,
/(-1,3) = 10, max value.
/ = 4 - 2)^ + (4 - 2y^)y - y
(b) If X = 0 andy —>• <» (i.e., point approaches bdry
= 4 + Sy - 2y^ -2y^ for < y < V2.
at infinity along positive y-axis) then / ^ If
Then/'(y) = 3 - 4y - 6y^zeroify = -1.1, .5
X = 0 and y —eo (approach bdry at infinity
approx. Ends are y = ±V2. Candidates are
along negative y-axis) then / —<». Max is
(1,-1), (-1,-1), (0,±V2), (±VL58,-1.1),
min is —<».
(±V3.5, .5). Max value (at ±V3.5, .5) is 4.75;
(c) On any path to bdry at <»,/ oo. For crit points,
min value (at (0, V2)) is -V2 = -1.414.
bf/bx = 2x — y + 2, bf/by = —x + 2y + 2.
They are 0 when x = —2, y = —2. Min value is
fi-2,-2) = -8, max is =».
(d) Walk up the y-axis, get/ —> -0°. Walk east on the
x-axis, get/ -^ °°. Max is <», min is —<».
-nTz
4. Typical point on plane is (x,y, 14 - 3x - 2y). Its dis¬
PROBLEM l(<i)
tance to origin is i(x,y) = Vx^ + y^ + (14 — 3x — 2yf,
the function to be minimized over all (x,y), i.e., the region
2. (a) (See fig.) bf/bx = 2x + 3y + 10, bf/by -
is the entire x, y plane. On the boundary at <», s is oo, the
2y + 3x. Solve 2x + 3y + 10 = 0, 3x + 2y = 0
max (i.e., points (x,y, z) on given plane are far from origin
to get critical point x = 4, y = —6. Not in re¬
if X —> 00 or y ^ 00.) Expect min 5 at a critical point. As a
gion, ignore.
shortcut, minimize the radicand
On top boundary y = 3;
r(x,y) = x^ + y^ + (14 - 3x — 2y)^ over all (x,y).
/ = x^ + 9 + 19x, 0 X ^ 5;
This minimizes s too and is simpler.
/' = 2x + 19, zero if x == --y, not in interval.
br/bx = 2x + 2(14 — 3x — 2y) • —3,
Candidates are ends x = 0, 5, points (0, 3) and
br/by — 2y + 2(14 — 3x — 2y) * —2. Partials are 0 when
(5, 3).
X = 3, y = 2. Corresponding z from equ of plane is
On right boundary y = x - 2;
z = 1. Point on plane nearest origin is (3,2,1).
/ - 5x^ + 4, -1 < X < 5;
, , , |2(1) - 2(3) + 0 + 10| „
fix) - lOx, zero if x =0. 5. (a) -/---■ =-== 2
Candidates are x = 0 and ends x == —1, 5, V4 + 4 + 1
i.e., points (0, -2), (-1, -3), (5,3). (b) Typical point on plane is (x,y, —2x + 2y - 10).
On left boundary y = 6x + 3; Distance to (1,3,0) is/(x,y) ==
/ = 19x^ + (6x + 3)" + 19x, -1 < X < 0; V(x - 1)" +(y - 3)‘" + (-2x + 2y - 10)". Get
fix) = 38x + 12(6x + 3) + 19. max of 00 when x and/or y oo. Need critical
 Solutions to the Problems • 503

point for min. Let On liney = 20, A = 20x + W + 512/x,

r = (x - 1)^ + (^ - 3)^ + (-2x + 2y - 10)^ 0 < X 4; A'(x) = 20 - b\2lx'^ never 0
dr/dx = 2(x - 1) - 4(-2x + 2y - 10), if 0 < X ^ 4. Only candidate is end x = 4.
dr/dy — 2{y — 3) + 4(—2x + 2y — 10). Partials A(4, VT^) - 4Vm + ^ + ^,
are 0 when x = — |, )) = x. Corresponding z
A(4,20) = 80 -I- ^ -(- First is smaller; best
from equ of plane is z = — |. Distance from
tank has dimensions 4 by Vl28 by 256/4V128.
(“I.T. ~l) to (1,3,0) is 2, the min.
6. A typical point on the first line is
(2 + L3 — r,4 + 20 and a typical point on second
line is (1 + 5,2 + i, 7 + 3^) (must use different parame¬
ter letters). Distance between them is_
Section 11.6 (page 353)
/ = V(1 + t - 0" + (1 - « - sf + (-3 + 2t - 30".
Let r = (1 + < - i)2 + (1 - i - sf + (-3 + 2t - 2>sf,
1. V temp = (y^ + 6,2xy). At point (1,2), V< = (10,4).
all 5, t. Can work with r instead of/.
Vt-SW -14
dr/ds = -2(1 + t - s) - 2{\ - t - s) (a) SW - (-1,-1) so Dswtemp = ^
— &{—3 + 2t ~ 3i),
(temp is dropping by 14/V2 degrees per meter).
dr/dt = 2{l + t - s) - 2{l - t - s)
+ 4(-3 + 2t - 30- Vt
(b) PQ = (2, -6),
Partials are 0 when s = —i,t = |. Max value off (namely \\pQ\\ "y4o' ^
oo) comes when s ±<», t —*■ ±<». Min must be at (c) Direction is south, i.e., —j, Vt • (—j) = —4.
s = Plug into equations of line to get points of (d) ||V templl = Vl 16
closest contact (^,^,^) and (|,|,t) (e) WNW makes angle of 157.5° with x-axis (see fig.);
7. Let dimensions of base be x and y. Volume is 256 so a unit WNW vector is (cos 157.5°, sin 157.5°),
height is 256/xy. Surface area is DwAwtemp = Vt • WNW
„ 256 „ 256 512 512 = 10 cos 157.5° + 4 sin 157.5°.
= xy -I- 2x- -h 2y- = xy +- -I--
xy xy y X
> 0, y ^0 (see fig.).

W<
^GIONn PROBLEM 1(e)

2. V temp = (2xy,x^). At point A, V temp is (12,4).

PROBLEM
NE = (1,1), (V temp • A£)/|1A£|| == 16/V2. Both run¬
(a) If X and or y (i.e., on bdry at a>), A —> ners feel temp increase by 16/V2 degrees per meter.
Low tank, large base. If x —> 0-1- or y 0+ then 3. (See fig.) V/ = (y,x - 2y, 1) and at A, V/ = (2,1,1).
A —» =». Tall tank, small base. Both are worst
options. Between extremes is best tank.
(b) Part (a) showed that boundaries give max A.
Find critical point for min.
dA/dx - y - 512/x/ dA/dy = x - 512/y^
Partials are 0 when x^y = 512, y^x = 512,
x^y — y^x, X = y, x® = 512, x = 8, y = 8.
Dimensions of best tank are 8 x 8 x
(c) New region. (See fig.) Critical point (8,8) from
(b) isn’t in region. Must get min from bound¬
aries. Again, x-axis and y-axis give A — On (a) Away from z-axis is vector u — 5i + 2j ,
line X = 4 we have A = 4y -I- 512/y -t- 512/4, (V/-m)/||m1| = 12/V^.
0 < y < 20. Then A'(y) = 4 - 512/y^, zero if (b) Any arrow perp to V/ such as (—1,2,0),
y = Vl28. End is y = 20. (5, -8, -2), etc.
(c) At A, Vf = (2,1,1). Particle at A moves in direc¬
y=xo tion of AB ^(1,2,1) so feels temp changing by
(V/ • AB)/||AB|| = 5/V6 degrees per meter. At
B, V/ = (4, -2,1). Particle at B moves in direc¬
tion of BA = ( -1, -2, -1) so feels temp chang¬
problem ing by (V/• BA)/||BAl| = -1/V6. When they
504 • Solutions to the Problems

direction of Vg because the / levels jump by 10 among

meet midway at (t. ^)> ~ (3. “^l)- First
level sets in Fig. 13 while g jumps by only 1 for similarly
particle has direction AB so feels temp increasing
spaced level sets. So V/ is longer than Vg.
by (V/ • AB)/||ABll = 3/V6° per m. The other
9. At a rel max/min, partials are 0. So V/ = 0.
particle feels temp dropping 3/y6° per m.
10. Distance is never neg, no neg level sets. Line L is 0
(d) Direction of —V/ = -2i - j —k. In that di¬ level set. The 2 level set (points at distance 2 from line)
rection, pressure decreases by \\Vf\\ — Vb units is cylinder with axis L and radius 2, etc. (See fig.) Gra¬
per meter. dients are pcrp to level sets and point to higher levels, so
4. The direction of motion is tangent u. (See fig.) Makes point out of each cylinder. Each V/ has length 1 because
obtuse angle with V/ so component of V/ in u direction if you walk away from L in the direction of V/ (i.e.,
is neg. Particle feels temp dropping. perpendicularly away from L),f increases by 1 foot for
each foot you walk (since/is distance to L).

/vf
PROBLEM ^

5. V/ is^a positive multiple of 3 i -I- 2j so

V/ = c(3 i -I- 2j) where c > 0. Also ||V/|| = 2
so cVl3 = 2,^c = 2/VT3 and V/ = (b/VTs, 4/VT3).
Dnonhf = 4/VI3 degrees p^r m.

6. Direction toward (1,1) is u = —j and direction to¬

ward (7,10) is u = bt + 8j. Let Vf at A be (a, b). Given
(V/ • u)/|1m11 = 2so-b =2,b = -2. Also (V/ • ?)/||v|| = 11. (a) 1 X 2 X b does equal 12.
—4 so ^(ba + Sb) = —4, a — —4. Then V/ = (“4, —2) (b) z = 12/xy, Vz = (-12/x^y,-12/xy^),
at A. This is direction in which temp rises maximally. Max Vzlx:=i.,=2 = “bi - Sj (more west than south).
rate is \\Vf\\ = deg per m.
The path in direction —6i — 3/ is steepest.
7. (a) /(-1,2) = 2 so P is on 2-level set x^y - 2,
Slope on path at P is l|Vz|| = V45.
y = 2/x^. (See fig.)
(c) SE =1 - dz/dSE = (Vz • SP)/||S£l| =
V/ = {2xy,x^) which is (-4,1) at P.
-3/V2. Path descends. Slope is^—3/"'^.
(d) V(xyz) = (yz,xz,xy); at P it is 12? + 6j -P 2k, a
normal to the surface at P. Tangent plane is
12(x - 1) + b(y - 2) + 2(z - b) = 0,
bx + 3y -P z = 18. Normal line is
X = 1 + \2t, y = 2 + bi, z = b -P 2E
12. (a) Graph has equation z - 5x^ — 2y^. P is on
graph since 1 = 3 — 2.
PROBLEM 7W
(b) Vz = bx? — 4yj, Vz|,:=i,5,=-i = b? -P 4j (more
east than north). Steepest path is in direction of
b? + 4j. Slope at P on steepest path is ||Vz|| =
(b) /(1,2,1) = 12 soP is on 12-level setx^ + 2y^ - V52.
+ 4 = 12, + 2y^ - z^ = 8. (See fig.) (c) dz/dSE = (Vz - S£)/llS£l| = 2/V2. So path as¬
V/ = (2x,4y, -2z) which is (2,8, -2) at P. cends; slope is 2/V2.
8. The gradients are perp to level sets and point to (d) Surface is z - 3x^ -P 2y^ = 0, V(z - 3x^ -P 2y^)
higher levels. (See fig.) The function / is changing more = (-bx,4y,l), V = (-b,-4,1) at P. This is
per meter in direction of V/ than g is changing in the normal vector to surface. Tangent plane is
-b(x - 1) - 4(y + 1) + (z - 1) = 0,
bx + 4)1 — z = 1. Normal line is
X = 1 — b<, y = — 1 — 4t, z = 1 -P E

13. (See fig.) (a) V/ = (4x,2y), V/l„=i,y=3 = 4? -P by. It is

perp to level set of / through point (1,3). Since
/(1,3) = 11, it’s the 11 level set, ellipse
PROBLEM g 2x^ + y" = 11.
 Solutions to the Problems • 505

xdy — ydx

IFI^
\x/ \x/
_ —ydx + xdy
x^ + y^
2. X = r cos 6 so by (1), dx — cos 6 dr — r sin Odd.
y - r sin 6 so dy - sin 6 dr + r cos Odd.
3. (a) p = 2xy, q — y, dq/dx = 0, dp/By = 2x; not
equal so form not exact.
(b) Bq/Bx = Bp/By = 3x^; exact. Antidiff/> w.r.t. x
to get terms |x^ + x^y. Diff this temporary an¬
swer w.r.t. y to get x^. Compare with q and see we
problem 13 must tack on \y'^ to get final answer
f{x,y) = \x* -L x*y + \y* + C.
(b) V(2x^ + — z) — (4x,2y, —1) which is (c) /(x,y) = -y/x + 5y + C
4i + 6j — k if x = l,y - 3. It is perp to graph 4. 'Hted Bq/Bx = Bp/By, Bq/Bx - 3xy^,q - fx^y^ + any
of/, z = 2x^ + y^, at point (1,3, 11). /(y), e.g., q could he fx^y^ + y* siny + 7.
14. (a) V(x^ + 2y^ + 3z^) = {2x,4y,&z) which is 5. (a) d{2x^ -t- xy^ -I- y®) = 0,
(2,4,12) at P. This is perp to the earth. From a implicit sol is 2x* 4- xy^ + y^ - C.
rough sketch can tell it is OUT not in. (b) d(x® -I- xy) = 0, implicit sol is x® -I- xy - C, ex¬
(b) Vtemp = V(2xz + + 6) = (2z, 2x) which is plicit sol is y = (C - x®)/x.
(4,2,2) at P. Takeoff direction is n = (2,4,12). (c) (x — y cos x)dx — (y + sin x)dy — 0,
Then 3temp/3w = (Vtemp • n)/llnl| = d{^x^ — y sin X — ^y^) = 0,
40/V164 degrees per meter. implicit sol is jx^ — y sin x — \y^ = C.
(c) Choose any direction perp to V temp such as (d) dx — dy - 0, not exact since Bq/Bx - 0,
(1,-1,-1), (-3,2,4), (0,-2,2), etc. Bp/By = xe’°^ (not equal).
(d) Nonburrowing directions must make acute an¬ (e) (2r cos 0 — \) dr — r^ sin Odd = 0,
gles with the OUTWARD normal n. d{r^ cos 6 - r) — 0, implicit sol cos 0 - r = C.
But (1, —1, —!)• n is negative so (1,-1,-1) (f) Not exact.
burrows. Change it to (—1,1,1). Fortunately, (g) Can move everything to left side of equation or
(—3,2,4) • n is positive so (—3,2,4) is OK, etc. better still, each side is an exact differential as it
(e) On northern hemisphere (where P is), stands, namely d(sinx cosy) = tl^x"*). Implicit sol
is sin X cos y = ^x^ + C.
z = V-5(15 - x^ - 2y'^). Then Vz
(h) {ye~’‘ — sinx)dx — {e~’‘ + 2y)dy = 0,
(-fx/^,-|y/V~), Vz|*=i.,= i = - Ij.
d{-ye~'‘ + cos x — y^) = 0,
Mother’s slope = dz/dNE implicit sol is —ye~’‘ + cos x — y^ = C.
- (Vz •N£)/|^N£|| = -I/2V2. 6. (a) d{x^y + |y^) = 0, implicit sol is x^y + iy^ - C. If
X = 1, y =4 then C = 12 so implicit particular
sol is x^y + ly^ = 12.
(b) d(-cos(2x + 3y)) = 0, implicit solution is
— cos(2x + 3y) = C. If X = 0, y = fir then
C = -cos §77, C = 0. So particular sol (still
Section 11.7 (page 361) implicit) is cos(2x + 3y) = 0.
(c) Each side is exact, d ln(x + y) = d{x), so
1. (a) d{y/x) is found immediately by quotient rule. ln(x -H y) = X + C. If X = 0, y = 1 then C = 0;
(b) d{x^ -H y^)“‘ - -(x^ + y^y^d{x^ + y^) (chain) implicit sol is ln(x -I- y) = x. Then x + y = e’',
= -(x^ + y^y^{2xdx + 2ydy) explicit sol is y = e’‘ — x.
_ -2xdx 2ydy
- 7. (a) d(ix^ + 2x + ly^) = 0, jx^ -L 2x + |y^ = K
(b) (x^ + 2)dx = —3ydy, |x® 4- 2x = —4- K
+ y^f
(c) i{±Vx^~r^) = ±|(x^ + y^) ^'^d{x^ + y^) 8. (a) See (22). Use integrating factor ^2 ^ ^2- Then
2xdx + 2ydy xdx + ydy
chain rule) = ^
tan ' —
X 4- y‘' \ X
1 ..9,9, 2xdx + 2ydy
(d) -5-gd{x + y ) —-2
X = tan ^ — + K.
X
506 • Solutions to the Problems

(b) See (17). Use integrating factor \/y'^,

y y (x + K)
1
(c) See (20). Use integrating factor

xdx + ydy
dy — , y — Vx^ + y^ + K.
Vx^ + y'^

(d) See (21). Use integrating factor +'^'

-5-= ^dy, ln(x^ + y^") ^ 2y + K.

x + y

Chapter 11 Review Problems (page 361)

1. (a) (See fig.) The 6 level set for example is the line
2x + 331 - 6. The graph is the plane
z = 2x + 3)1 (which passes through the origin).
PROBLEM Z(b)

3. (a) y
(b) 0
dz dz dx dz dy dz n , ■ a
4. (See fie.) — =-+-- = — cos 0 -h — sin 0,
dr dx dr dy dr dx
dz _ dz dx dz dy
'dd~~dx dd dy dd
dz . ^ dz
=-r sin 0 H-r cos 0,
dx dy
9^
drj r^Xdd.
(b) (See fig.). The 3 level set for example is dz dz
= — cos^0 +
— sin 0 0
Vx^ + )i^ = 3, a circle with radius 3. There are 0X dy
PROBLE/M ^
no neg level sets. Graph is z = Vx^ + y^, top dz dz .
+ 2-cos 0 sin 0
half of cone z^ = x^ + y^. 0x dy
1 dz dz
+ ^ — r" sin"0 + — r" cos"0
dx dy
LEVrt SEB „dz dz
— 2r-cos 0 sin 0
dx dy
dz dz
- (cos^0 + sin^0) + (sin^0 + cos^0)

(by canceling and factoring)

PROBLEM 1(b)
^ (S)' ^ (I)’
2. (a) (See fig.) The 6 level set is )i^ + z^ = 6, a cylin¬
der. There are no neg level sets. The 0 level set
is y^ + - 0, the x-axis where y = z = 0.
(b) (See fig.) The -3 level set is 5 - x^ - 2))^
- 3z^ = -3, ellipsoid x^ + 2y^ + 3z^ = 8.
Highest level possible is 5, a point ellipsoid. PROBLEM 5^
 Solutions to the Problems • 507

du _ du dy du dz du du _8. V/ = (2xyz,x^z,x^y), V/|p = (12,3,2), Q_P - (1,3,2),

5. (See fig.) — — = 4_ + a— ,
dc dy dc dz dc dy dz PR = (1, —5,2). Arriving at P from Q, dir deriv is
d / du\ du df V/p • ^ 25
+ a— + (prod rule) — = —^ „— = -Departing P for R, dir deriv
a dc da\ dy da \dz dz dQP llQPlI VTi ^ ®
0
d^u d^u
2 + . Jf_ _ Vf-PR _
dx dy dz dy IS
dP^ li^ll ~ V^'
d^u du
+ a H~ — 9. (a) T(-2,2) = 4 — 2 = 2 so point is on the 2 level
dx dz dz^ dz set which is x^ — y = 2, y = x^ — 2, parabola.
d^u d^U „ -d^u„ „d^u
„ du
■■ 8 + 4c + Za- + ac—5 H- (See fig.) VT = (2x, -1),
dx dy dz dy dx dz dz^ dz — ~Ai — j, a perp vector.
5. Let fix,y) = xy + 2y^ — \2y. Then df/dx - y,
^/dy — X Ay — \2. Partials are 0 when)i = 0, x = 12
ritical point); NOT IN REGION, ignore.
On bdry y - x, f = y^ + 2y^ - 12y = 5y^ - \2y
here 0 ^ y <4. Then/'(y) — 6y — 12, zero if y = 2.
nds are y = 0, 4. Candidates are (2,2), (0,0), (4,4).
On bdry x — A, f = 2y^ — 8y where 0 y 4. Then
'(y) = 4y — 8; zero ify =2. Ends arey = 0, 4. Candi-
ates are (4,2), (4,0), (4,4).
On bdry y = 0,/ is always 0. (b) (i) Graph is z = x^ — y. Point Q satisfies equa¬
b make final decision find /(2,2) = —12,/(4,4) = 0, tion SO is on graph.
(4,2) = —8,/(lower bdry) = 0. (ii) Surface is x^ — y — z =0, V(x^ — y — z) =
lax is 0, min is —12. (2x,-l,-l). At Q get V = (-4,-1,-!)
7. V/ = (6x, 8y). At any point, max directional deriv is which is perp to surface at Q.
1 direction of V/ and has max value |1V/||. So problem (iii) (2x,-1), Vz|;c=-2.y=2 = (-4^-1).
'ants to know at what point on circle ||V/|| is largest. ||V/1| NW = (-1,1). Slope at Q on NW path
= V36x^ + 64y^ and y^ is 1 — x^ on circle, so on circle, is dz/dNW = (Vz •NW)/\\NW\\ = 3/V2.
7/1 = V36x" + 64(1 - x'') = V64 - 28x" for 1 X Slope is 3/V2. ^ ^
; 1. By inspection, max occurs at x = 0 (value is 8) which (iv) Path in direction of Vz = —Ai — j (more
orresponds to points (0,±1) on circle. At (0,1), west, some south) rises most steeply.
/= (0,8), at (0,-1), V/ = (0,-8). 10. dS — 27r{rdh + hdr) + ATrrdr (product rule)
Answer is that max dir deriv on circle has value 8. It = {2'nh + A7Tr)dr + 2Trrdh.
ccurs at (0,1) in north direction and at (0,-1) in south 11. (2x — y)dx — xdy — Q, d(x^ — xy) — 0, x^ — xy - C.
irection (Note that the circle is not and never was in- If X = 1, y = 2 then C = — I. So sol is x^ — xy = — 1,
2nded to be a level set of /.) explicit solution isy = (x^-l- l)/x, y = x -I- 1/x.

12/MULTIPLE INTEGRALS

ection 12.1 (page 369)

1. Jr 5dA = 5 JndA - 5 x area of R

- 5 X 47r = 2077
2. (See figs.) (a) Gonsider hemisphere which is top half PROBLEM Z(b)
PROBLEM Z(a)
of x^ + y^ + z^ = 9. It is under graph of
z = V9 - x^ — y^ and over the circular (b) Indicated cyclinder is under plane z = 5 and
region R with radius 3. So _^ over circular region R with radius 2 so
hemisphere volume = V9 — x^ - y^dA. cyl volume = fnbdA.
 508 • Solutions to the Problems

* 3. (a) Roof of solid is plane z - 5. The floor is the (c) False. Even if x and y are positive, it may be that
/(x,y) is negative at all or some points (e.g.,
region Ri. Solid is box in fig.
f{x,y) = -xy, f{x,y) = x + y - 100) in which
P/,ANE Z-^S case the integral can be neg.
(d) True, since the integrals are the areas of and
// SOUP
i?2.
“^(e) True. If/(x,y) > 0 then f{x,y)dA > 0 and
'^f{x,y)dA > 0.
8. Rearrange (3) to get /«xdA =
(av value of x in i?) X area of R = 4 X Qtt — 36ir.
/pROBUM 9. No. /xdA on the entire region is 0 (since SxdA on
(b) Roof of solid is paraboloid z = + y^. Floor is the right half cancels 2 x dA on the left half) but 4 / x dA
region Solid lies under roof and over floor as on region I is positive.
indicated in fig.

Section 12.2 (page 376)

Each problem has a diagram.

.
1 (a) /x=o /^=Lx®dydx and /pS dxdy.
With second version, inner = — 'hy'^>
outer = /owy'‘dy = ^ • iy®|o = 243/320.
4. (a) Each xydA in III is positive (since x < 0,> < 0)
so 2x))dA is pos, SiiixydA is positive. Alterna¬
tively, integral is positive because graph of
z = xy is a surface in space above region III in
X, y plane.

(b) (See fig.) For each subregion in I where xydA is

positive there is a corresponding subregion in II PROBLEM IM
where xydA has the negative value (because
X < 0). So 'LxydA = 0 and JiandiixydA = 0.
(b) /j=o /y-x3 3dy dx and J,=o 3 dx dy.
With first version, inner = 3y = 3(x - x®);
outer = 3(|x^ — 5X^)|i = |.

PROBLEM if(b)

(c) Same answer as (b).

(d) Negative because each xy^dA is neg.
(e) Pos. In fact the integral is the area of region IV.
5. Not necessarily. If/(x,y) is neg in the extension then
the extra/(x,y)dA’s being added make the sum smaller,
(c) /^VTO2xydydx; and f^-^2xydxd;)
not larger.
6. The sum of 0 dA’s is 0. Integral is 0. = fy%(x^y l:^-v;)dy = fi^Ody = 0. (The an¬
7. (a) True. If /(x,y) > g{x,y) then for any subregion, swer 0 is predictable since 2xy dA’s in the left hall
f{x,y)dA > g{x,y)dA and 'Ijf{x,y)dA > of the region are the negatives of 2xy dA’s in the
'Zg{x,y)dA. Alternatively, graph of / is higher right half, so sum is 0.)
than graph of g so more volume (above -
below) is caught by the / graph.
(b) False. If/ is larger on the smaller region it is
possible for the integral on R^ to be larger. In
particular, it will happen if / is positive on the
\/lo
smaller region R^ and negative on the larger
region Ri. PROBLEM 1(c)
 Solutions to the Problems • 509

(a) fx-o ry2^a/(x,y)dydx and pyZo f{x,y)dxdy

problem Z(e)

(f) /U-2 pyZo’‘fix,y)dydx. For other order of inte¬

(b) /::!)"" py-J,xf(x,y)dydx and JfJ, fix,y)dxdy
gration note that right boundary is two curves so
divide up region:
/ftf. 2 fi + III = fy-o^ fxZl fix,y)dxdy
+ PyZvs pZp fix,y) dxdy.

PRO ?LEM Z(b)

(c) Note that for dydx order of integration, upper

boundary is two curves so use / left part J
right part

=/::§ PyZ%f{x,y)dydx+j:Zl fix,y)dydx.

Note that for order of integration dxdy, right z(f)
boundary is two curves so use /top + / bottom
= P-1 fix.y) dxdy (g) “Top” of region is boundary at infinity:
+ //-o S:Z%f{x,y)dxdy.
P^Z-o. pyZ“2 fix,y)dydx and
/^lo pZ^ fix,y) dxdy.

problem 2(9)

(h) Region is enclosed by xy = 1 and boundary at

infinity. Each boundary consists of two curves;
e.g., the left boundary is parUy lower branch of
(d) /^lo /^-2 fix,y)dxdy and pZl pyZlf{x,y)dydx hyperbola and partly boundary at infinity.
For one method, / lower half/upper half

= pyZ-00 pZly fix,y)dxdy

+ PyZo pZ-lfix,y)dxdy.
5
Also / left half J'right half

= pZ-o. pZT/xfix,y)dydx
2 1
+ pZo pyZ'-^o.fix,y)dydx.
fROBLEM 2(cl)

(e) Solve 4y = * - 2y + 4 = 0 to get points of

intersection. One set-up is
Px'Z-2 fix, y) dydx. To use the other order
of integration note that left boundary consists of
two curves so divide up region to get

/l + /ll = Py-O P,,Z^XVy fix,y) dxdy

+ PyZt pZ04fix,y) dxdy.
510 • Solutions to the Problems

(i) py^o f (jc. y)dxdy. To use other order of in¬ (b) Lower bdry is line y = —x, upper is parabola
tegration must divide up region into three parts; y — x^. Extremes are x == 0, 1. For reverse or¬
der, divide up region:
JLo py=of{x,y)dydx + Py=o f{x,y)dydx
+ pZs pyZ^-3 f(x,y)dydx. /upper part "L /lower part

= pyZl pZp-y f {x,y) dxdy+pyZ°-i pzly f{x,y) dx dy.

PROBLEM 2(i)

(j) PySft^S^fix,y)dydx md

/>=-2 !lZ-V^^fix,y)dxdy

2.
(c) Lower boundary isy = —Vl — x^, lower half of
-n:f r circle x^ + y^ = 1, upper boundary is parabola
V y = 1 - x^. For other order of integration di¬
vide up region:
PROBLEM 2(j)
/top + /bottom = p^o P=0^ f{x,y)dxdy
+ /?=-! PxZf^f{x,y)dxdy.
3. (a) Lower and upper boundaries each consist of two
curves so divide up:

Sleft part "L J*right part

- pyZtV-i/dydx + pzipy:-j:r'/dydx.

\ /
Ax \ /

/f

PROBLEM 3(«)
(d) //=o Px=t^ f{x,y)dxdy
(b) It depends on /. If/(x,3i) takes on the same val¬
ues in quads II, III, IV as it does in I then yes.
But usually no. For example if /(x,y) = x then
NO since /whole = 0 but 4/quad i pan is positive.
4. (a) Left boundary is line x = jy, right boundary is
line X = 1, extreme y’s are 0 and 1. For reverse
order, divide up region since upper boundary is
two curves:

p:o^ py:!^f(x,y)dydx + PyZlf(x,y)dydx. PROBLEM

(e) Lower boundary is y - sin“*x, upper is y = 2.

Note that the two boundaries don’t actually meet
since sin“*x doesn’t get that high. Extremes are
x = 0 and x = 1. Eor other order divide up re¬
gion since right boundary is two curves:

/i + /ii = /j=l/2 px^of{x,y)dxdy

PROBLEM ^((X) + PyZ^'^ p.zr^ fix, y)dxdy.
 Solutions to the Problems *511

3. Lower boundary of region is x-axis, upper boundary

X
y::5in-'x,X=SIMy
is top half of circle = 9, extreme x’s are 3, -3
‘7
(see fig.); /0=o /r=o ln(l + r^)rdrd9. Let u = 1 + r^,
1 1
1
/] du = 2rdr. So inner integral is |/'i° In udu (now use in¬
/
tegral tables) = |(u In m — M)li° — 1(10 In 10 — 9).
PROBLEM 4(e) Outer = |Tr(10 In 10 — 9).

(f) Left boundary is y -axis, right boundary is x - e\

For other order, divide region since lower
boundary is two curves;
fix,y)dydx + jiz- py-T..f{x,y)dydx. PROBLEM 3
(2tt f4
4. (a) J 9=0 J r=3
r2n
(b) J 9=0 Jr=2

(c) Inner boundary is r = 0, outer is line x + y = 2

which in polar coords is r cos 0 + r sin 0 = 2,
r = 2/(cos 6 + sin 0); get j9=o Jr=o
(d) Inner boundary is r = 0. Outer is circle
(x - 2)^ -L = 4, x^ + == 4x, = 4r cos 0,
r = 4 cos 0. Extreme 0’s are —7r/2 and tt/2 so
f7r/2 rr=4cos9
get J s=_W2 Jr=0

(e) /9=0 /r=5

5. fx=o dydx and jy=o dxdy. With first Inner boundary is r = 0. Outer boundary is two
(f)
set-up we have to antidiff w.r.t. y; hard. For second curves, line AB and line BC. (See fig.) Divide up
set-up, region. Line AB has equ y = 3, r sin 0 = 3,
r = 3 CSC 0. Line BC has equ x = 6, r cos 0 = 6,
inner integral = dx = xe^^ |^=o’' =
r = 6 sec 0.
outer integral = /po 2ye^^ dy = - e - I •■it/2 3 CSC 6
/square = Jl + Jn " /e = 0 Jr®=T ® + =
60
!e=%o /’- 0
(get antiderivative of 2ye^^ by inspection or substitute
where 0o is in diagram, can be called tan"^ 5
u = y^, du = 2ydy).

PROBLEM 4(f)

Section 12.3 (page 381) Section 12.4 (page 386)

1. (a) !e=-Tr/2 iUor cos 0 rdrdd. Inner = cos 0|r=o All problems except 1(d), 2(c), and 4 have diagrams.
== ^ cos 0. Outer = ^ sin 0|-w2 = ^ • 1. (a) Method (B): Upper curve is line and parabola;
(b) /?=o /r=o(r cos 0)(r sin 0) rdrdd divide up region. For left part, u(x) = Vx + 1,
= je=o jt=o'r^ cos 0 sin 0 drdd l{x) = -Vx + 1. For right part, m(x) = 1 - x,
- Se^oir* cos 0 sin d\t=od6 l{x) = -Vx + 1.
= /o'^64 cos 0 sin Odd — 64 • ^ sin^0 = 32 Area = /-i (Vx + 1-Vx + l)dx
(c) /1=0 f4o ^ ^-—rdrdd. Antideriv of r/(l + r^) + /o(l - X-Vx + l)dx_
= 2/P-i Vx •+- Idx + Jo(l - Jc + Vx -L l)dx
is i ln(l + r^) (sub u = I + r^, du = 2rdr)
= 2 • |(x + l)*^4-i + (^ -
so getf9^o(|ln 17 - I In \)dd 9
= f In 17 Po"de = 5 In 17 X 277 = TT In 17.
= 1-
Method (C): Area = / region dA
2. /?=o /r=o^"’'Vdrd0 = = SZ'^\de
= 4=-2 Px^^y^-idxdy =•••=!.
= I X ItT = 577
512 • Solutions to the Problems

(b) Method (A'): Find vol of top hemispherical re¬

gion and then double. Sphere isx^ + “
R^. Hemispherical region lies under graph of
f{x,y) = VR^ - x^ - y^ and over circular re¬
gion of radius R in x, y plane so_
hemisphere vol = fare region VjR^ - x^ - y'‘‘dA
= /i-o - r^rdrdd. (To get antideriv
of - r\ let u = R^ - r^, du = -2rdr.)
(b) To get points of intersection solve x(5 - x) = 4
to get X = 4, 1. Inner = - rT" |f.o =
Method (B): u{x) = 5 — x, l{x) = 4/x. outer = flZo^R^dd = 2tt •!/?*;
Area = ft (5 - x - A/x)dx sphere vol = 2 • 27r • |i?® = IttR^.
= (5x — |x^ — 4 In x) |t = — 4 In 4.
Method (C): Area = f region dA
= ft-1 dydx = ft (5 - X - 4/x) iix, as above.

PROBLEM 2(1^)

Method (B'): u{x,y) — V/?^ — x^ — y^,

l{x,y) =
problem sphere vol = fpmj in x.y plane (u(x,y) - l(x,y))dA
/circ region 2 R^ X y ^ dA, etC.
(c) Method (B): u{x) = 4, /(x) = x^.
(c) Find vol of top half and double. Use (A'). Solid
Area = fUi^ - x^)dx = (4x - 5x")|?.2 = 32/3.
lies under sphere x^ + y^ + — 36, i.e., under
Method (C): Area = f region dA
graph of/(x,y) = V36 — x^ — y^, and above
= fyZt^dydx = /-2(4 - x^)dx, as above.
circ region R of radius 3.
Volume = 2/« V36 - x^ - dA
= 2flZo ft-oV36 - rdrdd-,
inner = -|(36 - = |(216 - 27^%
outer = 2 • 27r -1(216 - 27^%
(d) Use (B'). Upper surface is plane z = h, lower
surface is the cone. Projection in x, y plane is
circular with radius R. Will use polar coords so
(d) By (C), area = fregiondA = /iJo fr-ordrdd. need cone’s equ in terms of z, r, 6. By similar
Inner = 5r^l?=o = ^6^', triangles zfh = r/R so z - rh/R.
outer = fl^'id^dd = = Itt®. Volume = flZo f^oih - rh/R)rdrdd
2. (a) Use (A')- Solid lies under graph of f{x,y) = = PeZoiihr^ - ihryR)\Ude
6 — |x — 3y and above circular region R with = flZoihR^e = 27r ■ ihR^ = ^TrR^h.
radius 2; volume = /« (6 - jx - Zy)dA
= fe-o /r=o(6 - ir cos 6 - 3r sin 9)rdrd6;
inner = (3r^ - gr* cos 6 - sin 6) |o
= 12 - I cos 0 - 8 sin 6 ;
outer = /|lo 12d0 - I/o’' cos ddd
- 8/H^sin ddd = 247r + 0 + 0 = 247r.

problem 2(d]

(e) Use (A'). Solid lies under graph of/(x,y) = h

and above circ region with radius R.
Volume /circ region ^ dA /d^o fr—0 hvdv dS
= flZoUr^\^-odd = flZoihR^de = 2tt - khR^
problem 1{^) = TTR^h.
 Solutions to the Problems *513

4. Use (A'). Half-solid lies under cylinder x^ + = 9,

i.e., under graph of f{x,y) = V9 - x'"^, and above a circ
region R of radius 3 in x, y plane._ _
|vol = /fl V9 - x'-'dA = - xUydx-,
inner = V9^(V9^^ - -V9^^) = 2(9 - x");
outer = 2/is(9 - x^)dx = •■• = 72;
total volume = 2 x 72 = 144.
3. (a) Plane intersects parabola in circle 2x^ + 2y^ = 5. See (A'). Integral is vol of solid with floor R and roof
12 so projection is circle = 6. Use (B'). z = Vx^ -t- y'^ (top half of cone z^ = x^ -t- y^). (Note that
Volume = ;proj[12 - (2x' + 2y^)\dA integral is not the volume inside cone since that volume
= J^:o/^o(12 - 2rydrdd. lies above the cone, not under it.)

PROBLEM 3(^)

(b) Use (B'). To get projection use

8 - 3x^ - 3y^ = x^ + y^, i.e., + y^ = 2.
Volume = /proj(8 - 3x^ - 3y^ - [x^ + y^dA
Section 12.5 (page 390)
= JlZo J75)(8 - 4rydrdd.
All problems have diagrams.
1. (a) Distance from (x,y) to longer side is x.
^ . . /region xdA
Av value of « m region - is 25)’

/region xdA = /Lo /,-0^ »

- /gx(10 - 2x)dx = (5x^ - hyi = ¥

so average value = ^ x = f.
(b) Distances to legs are x and y so
dmass = mass density x area = xydA;
total mass
= /region xydA = /Lo Py2.P’‘xydydx

(c) Can use (B')- Upper surface is sphere x^ + = pojxy^lPo^dx = /Ux(10 - 2xfdx
y^ + = 25 so u{x,y) = Lower = /^f(100x - 40x^ -I- 4x*)dx = ••• = 625/6.
surface is plane z = VTi. Projection is circ re¬
gion with radius 2._
Volume = Jproi(V25 -x^ - Vn)dA
= jlZo Pr=o (V25 - r'‘‘ - Vziydrde.
Or can find volume of a “half apple core and
subtract vol of cylinder with radius 2 and height
V2T (which is essentially what the preceding 5
double integral does anyway). PROBLEM 1
2. Method 1: Consider sand in strip at distance 150 - x
from desert. Area is 500 dx, sand density in strip is
1/(150 - x) so
500 dx
dsand = density X area = „ _ .
PROBLEM 3P)
 514 • Solutions to the Problems

500 die Method 2: Consider circular ring of radius r,

* total sand - = -500 ln(150 - x) ir thickness dr. Then density in ring is r, area is
Jo 150 — X
•2Trrdr, dcost = r • 27rrdr = ^Trr^dr,
= -500(ln 50 - In 150) = 500 In 3.
total cost == /r=o27rr^dr.
Method 2: Consider small subregion containing point (b) Consider small subregion with area dA contain¬
{x,y) with area dA. Its distance to desert is 150 — 31 so ing point (x,y): dcost == ;
dsand = dA/(150 - y), V cost = /land’Vx^ + y^ dy dx
r noo poo
2 ^
total sand = --dA = I I --dx dy
•^town 150 y ^y=o ■^x=o 150 y
500
= I --dy — — 500 In 3 as above.
Jy^o 150 -y

too
%
5. (a) The small number of people (i.e., dpeople) liv¬
0
r—fOO- ing in a little subdivision containing point (x.y)
and with area dA.
MEfMOD MEfMOD Z

PROBLEM Z
3. Method 1: Consider small subregion with area dA
containing point with polar coords r, 6. Then
dwater = density X area = r^dA,
total water = fg=o ff=or^rdrd0
(b) f{x,y) is people per unit area, i.e., population
= fUk^lf^odd = 6V/5. density. If/(2,3) = 8 it does NOT mean that 8
Method 2: Consider semi-ring of radius r and thickness people live (all squashed together) at point (2,3).
dr. By (8), Section 4.8, its area is TTrdr\ its density is r* so It means that the pop density at (2,3) is 8 people
dwater = r^irrdr = Trr*dr, per (say) square mile.
total water = /oTrr^dr = 6®7r/5. 6. Consider small subregion containing point (x,y) with

area dA. Density is f(x,y) people per square mile so num¬

ber of people in small region is f{x,y)dA and

disease
V(x - 8)^ + y"
METIIOD I METHOD Z
f{x,y)dA
total disease
V(X 8)‘" + y"
PROBLEM 3 'x=8-3y2
region -

dxd,.
4. (a) Method 1: Consider small subregion of area dA =r / '=y2
Jy^O •'* V(x — 8)^ -H y'
containing point r, 6. Then dcost — rdA,
total cost = /landrdA = /i=o ff=orrdrd6
= SUr^ dr de.

Method I 7. Method 1: Consider a strip. By similar triangles,

strip height 5
—= -g-: strip height = 5 - X,
PROBLEM ^(a)
 Solutions to the Problems • 515

(b) Like part (a), but dist to heat source is V25 + r^

P 2'Trrdr
not r so heat = —, , also
Jo V25 +
f2n p 1
—===rdrdd.
J 9=0 Jr=0 ’\/25 + r^

MErH0t> I METHOD 2

PROBLEM 7

{5 - x)dx
area of strip = (5 — x)dx-, oheat = —^ ^ ;

total heat = [ -- dx = [ (1 - —) dx
Jo 8 - X Jo\ 8 - X/
(divide out) = (x + 3 ln(8 - x)) jo
= 5 + 3 In 3 - 3 In 8.
Method 2: Consider a small subregion with area dA,
containing point (x,))).
dA dA
dheat = , heat 10. Consider a small subregion containing (x,y) with area
8 — X •^egion 8 — X dA. Height above ground is y, distance to ladder is x,
j'y=5-xj rs 5 _
= -dydx = --dx etc. (as above). dcost = xy^dA, cost = /*£o ^y^loxy^dydx
■^x=o ■'j=o 8 X Jq 8 X
= /f ixy®^^£iodx= i(25^ - 1000)
8. Consider a small subregion containing point (x,y)
with area dA. Distance to tracks is x + 2, distance to TD = ^(25^ - 1000).

X ~h 2
is 7 — y; dcost = — dA; Z5
f x + 2^^ r(6-)/2^ + 2 m
total cost = —-dA - -z dydx. 10
Jiand 7 - y ■'x=o ■'>=0 7 -y
20

PROBLEM 10

Section 12.6 (page 397)

All problems have diagrams except 2(a), 3(d), and (5).

1. (a) Lower boundary is plane z = 0, upper is plane
9. (a) Method 1: Consider a circular ring with radius r,
z = 1. Use X, y projection.
thickness dr. Area is 2TTrdr; d(energy) =
S x^dV - Jxio h=7>'~’‘ /- = o x^ dzdy dx .
2TTrdr/r = 2Trdr; total energy = /o277dr = Gtt.
Left boundary is plane y = 0, right is
Method 2: Consider a small region with area
X+ y - 1. Use X, z projection.
dA containing point r, 8; d(energy) = dA/r,
Jx^dV - /i=o /f=o Sy=ox^dydzdx.
energy = /region (1/j')^-^ = /e=0 /r-o(l/^)’"<^’"^^ Rear boundary is plane x = 0, forward is
= Gtt. plane x + y = 1. Use y, z projection
/x^dV = /f=o /y=o Jl=lx^dxdydz.
We used version dydzdx and got answer 1/6.
KlETHOD 1

Z. z.=l
/ I
/I K.ty=i
^ ' < icy PROjecnoN
ic,t ftoECTiorJ
problem

PROBLEM I W
PROBLEM
516 • Solutions to the Problems

(b) Lower boundary is plane z = 0, upper is z = 5.

Use x,y projection.
^x'^zdV — /r=o /f=or^ cos^0 • z • rdzdrdO.
Left and right boundaries are the cylinder. Use
X, z projection.

jx^zdV = fz=o fx=-2 fyZ^:^^^;^x^zdydxdz. Also

fxhdV = /f=o fy=-2 f^Z'^^^^^x^zdxdydz.

Use version dzdrdd (antiderivative of cos^0 is
+ 5sin 26 from tables) to get answer 50tt.
Rear boundary is x = —VR^z^/h^ - y^,
forward boundary is x = VR^z^/h^ - y^.
L 1 fLo f::-v/2%;ty2/(x,y, z) dx dy dz.
-1 1 z V (d) Lower boundary is plane z = 0, upper is plane
pmecwN
z - h. Project into x, y plane.
/r^o Sz=o f(r cos d,r sin 6, z)rdzdrdd.
PROJECTION
Also, rear boundary is plane x = 0,
forward boundary is
X = y/R^ - y^. Project into y, z plane.
/*=0 /f=o f{x,y,z)dx dy dz.

y
XiB projection
PROJECnoN
M
2. (a) Lower boundary is plane z = 0, upper is plane R-V
y
ABC which has equ x/2 + y/3 + z/4 =1,2 = PROJ&nON
1(12 — 6x — 4y). Use projection in x, y plane. Pl^OBLEM 2.((i)
Line BC is x/2 + y/3 = 1, 3x + 2y = 6.
fx=o f {x,y, z) dz dy dx. (e) Upper boundary is not clear (two surfaces are
Also, rear boundary is plane x = 0, forward is involved). Instead, rear boundary is plane x -- 0,
plane ABC. Project intoy, z plane where line AB forward is cylinder x^ + z^ = 9, x = V9 — z^.
has equation y/3 + z/4 = 1. Can use polar coords for projection in y, z plane
/,^=0 ;::^'"-^>-^^>'V(x,y z)dxdzdy. so that y = r cos 6, z = r sin 6.
(b) Can use polar coords and z. Lower boundary is /e=o fr=o f{x, r cos 6, r sin 6)rdxdrdd.
lower half of sphere where
z = -VR'^ - x^ -y^ =
upper boundary is z = - r^. Projection in
x,y plane is circular with radius R.
JlZo fr=o /(t cos 6,r sin 6,z)rdzdrdO. PROBLEM 1(£\
(f) Left boundary is plane y = 0, right boundary is
plane y h. Use polar coords for circular
projection in x, z plane so that x = r cos 6,
z = r sin 6.
/e=o /f=o fy~o fir cos d,y,r sin d)rdydrdd.
Also, lower boundary is lower half of cylinder
~ upper is
z = Vi?‘^ - x^. Use projection in x, y plane:

(c) See Example 2. /J-o f{x,y,z)dzdxdy.

/e^o/f=o//=rA//?/(r cos d,r sin 6, z)rdzdrd6.

Can also project into y, z plane. Cone has
equation
rh _ h
= — = — Vx^ + y^.
R ~R Problem 2(f)
 Solutions to the Problems *517

(g) See Example 3 of Section 12.4. Lower boundary (j) Lower boundary is plane z — 0, upper is plane
is z - 2x^ + y^, upper is z = 4 - Can use z = X. Project into x, y plane.
polar coords for projection. /,^=o /i=0 /z^o /(x,y, z) dz dx dy.
Also, rear boundary is plane x = z, forward is
PeZo /^O PZt7cofetr^sin^efir COS d,r sin 0, z) plane x = 1.
• rdzdrdd.
jri=o P^o /i=z f{x,y,z)dx dy dz.
Also, rear boundary and forward boundary are
Also, left boundary is plane y == 0, right is plane
both z = 2x^ + y^. Use proj iny, z plane.
y = 2.
Ji=0 /z=o Py'^of{x,y,z)dydzdx.

•v

T
PKOMTIOU
X, y

Z:

PROBLEM li<^) tC=2-

(h) Lower boundary is z = x^, upper is z = 5.Usex,

y projection; J^-V5 P—2 /z=^ f{x,y,z)dzdydx.
7 y,£ PROl&T/oN

PROREM Z(j)
Also, rear boundary and forward boundary are
z = x^. Use y, z projection.
/*= -2 /z=o f{x,y, z)dxdzdy.
Also, left boundary is plane y - - 2, right is
plane y = 3. Usex,z projection.
!^-V5 /z=^ /P-2 f{x,y, Z) dy dzdx. (k) Lower boundary is plane z - 0, upper is plane
y + z = 5. Can use polar coords for x, y
projection.
PeZo P=0 /z=o"”‘"®/(^ COS 0,r sin 0, z)rdzdrdd.
Also, rear and forward boundaries are the cyl
x^ + y^ = 1.
/5S-’ L'SW

Lower and upper boundaries are the ellipsoid.

Projection in x, y plane is bounded by ellipse
+ 2y" = 12.
fVe _ fVi2-2vi! .z-x2-2v~'i)/3
fV(TF
-V(12-*i!-2yi!)/3
Jj,= -V6 J;c=-Vl2-2>i! Jz--V

(1) Lower boundary is plane z = 0, upper is plane

z - X. Can use polar coords for projection in x,

y plane
pr-o Pz^°Pf{r cos 0,r sin d,z)rdzdrde.
PROBLEM Hi)
518 • Solutions to the Problems

mjEcriON

PROBLEM 3W

(Problem can also be done with a single inte¬

gral and cylindrical shells.)
(ii) Density is z, dmass = zdV.
mass = /e=o /f=o jt=ozrdzdrd0 = jirh^R^.
(Can also use a single integral and slabs.)
(b) Use cyl coords. Consider a small piece with vol¬
ume dV containing point r, 0, z. Distance to line
of revolution is r, mass is 8dV, dmoment =
8dV • r^. Lower boundary is cone surface where
z = rh/R (see Example 2), upper is z = h.
Also, left boundary is plane y = 0, right is cyl total moment
- 1; = /solid = PeU /f=o /z=U drhdzdrd0

/i=0 fz^o f{x,y,z)dydzdx. = -^irhR'^ 8. ■

(Problem can also be done with a single integral
Rear boundary is plane z - x, forward is cyl.
using cyl shells.)
Projection iny, z plane is not obvious. Plane and
cyl intersect to give z^ — 1 — y^. So projection is
bounded by circle y^ + = 1. Can use polar
coords with y = r cos 6, z = r sin 0.
r'7r/2 ri rx=V' l—y2 = Vl—r2 cos^O
J 0=0 J r=0 Jx=z=rsin f{x,r cos 0, r sin 0)
rdxdrd0.
T , ■ . , H H - h
(m) Let cone height be H. Then — =-,
Rl i?2
Rih (c) Consider a little blob of liquid of volume dV at
H . See Example 2. Equation of cone
Rl -R. point r, 0, z. It has weight 2 dV and must move up
20 — z feet so
is z = rH/Ri in cyl coords and z^ = + y^)
dwork == (20 - z) • 2 dU = (40 - 2z) dV,
in rect coords. Lower boundary is two surfaces, total work = /haif-cyi(40 - 2z)dU
plane z = H — h and the cone, so with this ap¬ = fe"ofr=oP=o(40 — 2z)rdzdrd0 = TSOOtt.
proach must divide up solid. Instead, rear and (Problem can also be done with a single integral
forward boundaries are the cone surface. Use using slabs of water.)
projection in y, z plane.
fz=H ry=RizJH \ J J J
J z=H—h Jy=-R \zJH J x=-\/R''i\zVH'^-y'i J (^>y> H dX dy flZ.

problem zM (d) Volume is /soUddV. Lower boundary is

z = 2x^ -I- 2y^, upper is z = 12. When they in¬
3. (a) Use cyl coords. Consider a small subregion with tersect, 2x^ -h 2y^ = 12, x^ -h y^ = 6; x, y
volume dV, at point r, 0, z. projection is circular with radius V6. Use polar
(i) Density in subregion is r, dmass = rdV, coords; vol = /|=o f^o fz=2r^rdzdrd0. (Problem
can also be done with a double integral.)
mass Xsoiid cyl r dU
4. Vol = /solid dV. Lower boundary is two surfaces,
=/eIo /f=o /z=o rrdzdrd0 - ^ttR^L plane z = 0 and hyperboloid. Don’t use this version.
 Solutions to the Problems *519

H.
3. Let origin be center of sphere. Density is 1/p^ so
mass = / {\/p^)dV
~ fe=o /j=o /p=o(l/p^)p^ sin (pdpdcpdO — 47tR.
4. (a) Like Fig. 9 but with “radius” po =
(b) PeZofl%f;^o
(c) Se^oSUS;-o.
PROBLEM ^ 5. (See fig.)

Rear and forward boundaries are the hyperboloid. Use

y, z projection. Then volume is
dv = iu <kd,dz.
5. Not necessarily. It depends on the/. If the values of
/ in the missing hemisphere match the values of/ in the
hemisphere used, then OK. But otherwise NO. In other
words, the sum of 100 terms of the form/(x,y,z) dV is not
the same as twice the sum of the first fifty terms unless
the last fifty match the first fifty. For example, with
sphere centered at origin, /^oiid sphere is 0 but Volume = jdV ^ jlZo /S=o /p=oP^ sin 4>dpd<f)dd.
^Xtop hemi Z IS UOt 0. Inner - |o = 9; middle = -9 cos <p |^o =
9(1 — cos (po) = 9(1 — iVS); outer = 187r(l — iV5).
6. (See fig.) Inner boundary is p = 0; outer is plane
z = h, p cos <p — h, p = h sec (p. For any point, distance
to z-axis is r = p sin (p.
Moment = S /l^o P=o"^'^(p sin (Pfp^ sin <pdpd<pdd.
Section 12.7 (page 404)

1* Vol — /spheret^U — fffZo /j=0 /p=0p^ siu (f) dp d(f> dO.

Inner = ip ® |o = i/? middle = - ^ cos |o =
fi?*; outer = §/?* • 27r =
2. (See fig.) Vol = fconedV. Inner boundary is p = 0,
outer is plane z — h, p cos (f) = h, p = h/cos (p so
vol = Sl-o St=o Sp=o*P^ sin (f> dpd(f>de.
T 1 3 lA • 1 11 113 sin (f> ,
Inner = 3p |p=o = i;-rr; middle = 3/1'’ —rr
o cos <f) J0=o cos <p
To get antideriv, substitute u = cos <t>, du — —sin (f)d<f).
_J_ _ 173/ ^
Get jh^ —
2 COS^(p <f> = 0 ® \COS^(f)0
h
From right triangle, cos <po = so
VA" + ft"
7. (See fig.) Inner boundary is z = 3, p cos 0 = 3,
middle = " - ij = \R^h.

Outer = \R'^h ’ 2tt = jv-R^h.

problem 7
•X Problem Z
520 • Solutions to the Problems

p = 3/cos (f>; outer is p — 6/cos (f>. Mass of a small piece 3. (a) Centroid lies on segment AB. (See fig.) Use AB
is'(l/p)tiy so total mass is as z-axis. Then x = y — 0, and (see Example 2,
!{l/p)dv = SIZo (1/p)p" sin <i>dpd<}>dd-, Section 12.7) z = where fzdV
vol
inner = 27/2 cos^(f); antideriv of is-- so
cos <p cos (p = /e=0 J$Zo /?=tv2sec<j.p cos 0 p^ sin <f)dpd<f>de,
vol = f dV
middle = ?(—V - 0 = fdVTs - 1);
2 \cos 00 / ' = /e=o ft=o fpZtv2sec4> sin (f)dpdd>de.
outer = 277r(|vT3 — 1).
B

Section 12.8 (page 408)

1. By physical considerations, the centroid lies on seg¬

ment AB. (See fig.) Insert axes so that AB is the z-axis.
Hemisphere volume = J zdV
- /e=o fl=o /p=oP COS 0p^ sin (I)dpd<f)d6 =

So z = -—^ The centroid is on AB, fths o*^ the

vol
way from A to B. (b) (See fig.) X = ^ ^/x=o xdydx,
area

y = ^ = ifUS;:r’ydydx

PROBLEM I

2. (a) Centroid is on segment CD. (See fig.) Insert axes

so that CD is z-axis. Cone vol is jirR^h.
fzdV = fIZo f^o S^-r>,Rzrdzdrde = ^Tth^R^
(See Example 2, Section 12.6 for limits.)
r _
z = _
= |/i.
4' Centroid is on CD,
vol
fths of the way from C to D. 4. (a) With indicated axes (see fig.), x = 0,
_ _ /y X density dA
^ / density dA
_ J?=o /r=o(r sin 6){r'^)rdrdd
iZ^oiUrSdrdd

PROBLEM 2(a)
(b) Centroid lies on segment AB. (See fig.) Insert
axes so that AB is y-axis. Area of semicircle is
JydA = fZ=o ff=or sin Ordrdd - \R^,
JydA 4i? 4 (b) With indicated axes, (see fig.) x = y = 0,
—. Centroid is on AB, |7r-ths of
area OTT / z X density dV
z-jr--^——— . For each integral, limits
the way from A to B. J density a V
B are f»Zo fr=o fz=o and dV — rdzdrdO. At an ar¬
bitrary point P in the solid cylinder, with cylin¬
drical coords r, 6, z, the distance to the top of
cylinder is h - z and distance to z-axis is r. So in
PROBLEM 2(b) (i) density is h — z, in (ii) density is r.
 Solutions to the Problems • 521

2. Not necessarily. It depends on the values of /. If

values of / are higher in then ^R^f{x,y)dA will be
problem larger.
3. Area - fa (u{x) - l{x)) dx = f-i (x + 2 - x^) dx.
Also area = / region dA = fU-, f]ZTdydx. (See fig.)

Chapter 12 Review Problems (page 408)

1. (a) (See fig.) Left and right boundaries are the cir¬
cle; fyZl.y/2 fZZ-v^^x^ydxdy. Lower boundary
is circle, upper is partly circle and partly line,
divide up region (into three parts);
+ fl-1 fy=-V2^

4. (See fig.) fe-’^^-^^dA = fe=o f%se-^\drd9

- ;i-o - \e-^"\:=ide = Psloie-US = • 277
= ttA®.

f
(b) (See fig.) Outer boundary is line and circle. Di¬
4 n\\

PROBLEM ^
vide up region. Line is
y = 1, r sin 0 = 1, r = CSC 0;
f 9=^/4 fr=o(r COS 0)®r sin 9 r dr dd 5. (See fig.) Consider a small piece of land with area dA
containing point (x,y). Then ((cost = xydA,
+ f^o(r COS 0)V sin 0 rdrd0
cost = /iandX)i<(A = fe=o /r=o (r COS 0)(r sin e)rdrdd.
Warning: For the second integral you can use
but NOT ftX

6. (See fig.) Lower boundary is z = 0, upper is cyl

z = 16 - y^. Use x, y projection; /x=o />=-4 ■
Rear is plane x = 0, forward is plane x = 3.
Usey, z projection; />^=-4 /i=o^ /x=o.
(c) (See fig.) x^ydA's are positive in I and III and
Left and right boundaries are the cyl. Use x, z proj.
take on precisely the negatives of those values in
73 716 7V16-Z
II and IV so the sum of x^ydA’s is 0. Jx*0 J 2 = 0 J^=—V16 —2*
522 • Solutions to the Problems
V

10. (See fig.) Consider small piece of solid with vol dV

at point with cyl coords r, 6, z and spher coords p, (f), 6.
‘r
y PRojecr/oN Its distance to z-axis (around which solid revolves) is r.
projection
Mass of small piece is 8dV so <fmoment = r^SdV.
In cyl coords, lower and upper bdries are the sphere
problem 6
where z = ±Vi?^ — - ±Vi?^ — r^. Projection
7. (See fig.) The only obvious projection is iny, z plane. in X, y plane is circular with radius R. So
Rear and forward boundaries are the paraboloid. moment = /soUdf^SrfT
f2 r z=4—>2 f V4—>2—X
Jy=0 Jz=4-2> J*»-V4->2-z'
= 5 /e=o /f=o dzdrde.
In spher coords, distance from small piece to z-axis is
p sin (f> (see right triangle), ^/moment — p^ sm^(f>8dV,
moment = 8 JeZo f^=o fp=oP^ sin^c/) p^ sin (f)dpd(f)dd.
The integration is easier in spherical coords. Use
tables for / sin^(f)d(f) or use sin^(f> — sin <^(1 — cos^(f>)
= sin (f) — sin (f> cos^<f>. To find f sin 4> cos^(/> let
u = cos (f), du = —sin 4>d4>. All in all,
/ sm^(f)d(f> — —cos (f) + 5 cos®<^.
Final answer is -^ttR^8.

8. 3 JiM = 3 X area of region = 3 • SItt = 2437r.

9. (See fig.) (a) Region lies under z = 10-3x^ — 3y^
and over circular floor.
VOl Xcirc region (10 3y ) dA
- /i^o /r=o(10 - Srydrdd.
(b) vol = dv
/solid
= PeZo SU pzh^-^’‘^-^^=^^-^^\dzdrde. PRO&fEM 10
 Solutions to the Problems • 523

APPENDIX
0

Solutions Section A1 (page 410)

1. (a) m =\, dist = V36 + 4 = ViO.

(b) m = 0, dist is 2._
(c) m = {, dist = V4 + 1 = V5.
2. Slope of AB = —2, slope of CD = ^^

(a) Need = -1,3> = -3.

PROBLEM Z

(b) Need^^ = -2,:y = 17.

”0
4.

Section A2 (page 411)

PROBLEM 4-
1. (a) m = -7/6, y - b = -|(x - 1), lx + = 37
(b) Given line is)) = 3x + 112, m - 3. Parallel line PROBLEM 3
is )) — 1 — 3(jc — 1), 3x — 3; + 4 = 0.
(c) Given line has to = 3. Perp line has to = -1/3,
3' - 8 = -|(x + 2).
2» (a) 3/ = fx + I, TO = I. (b) y = -|x + 4, to =
3. (See figs.) (a) If x = 0 then 3 = —4/3. If^ = 0 then
X = 4.

PROBLEM 5

PROBLEM 3(a)

(b) TO = 2, 3-intercept 1

problem 7

Section A4 (page 413)

1. Next two lines in Pascal’s triangle are

PROBLEM 3(b)
1,6,15,20,15,6,1 and 1,7,21,35,35,21,7,1;
(x + 3)^ = x’ + 7x®3 + 21x^3^ + 35x^3^
+ 35x*3^ + 21x^3® -l- Ixy^
524 • Solutions to the Problems S

2. {2py = 4i2pTq + 6i2p)Y + A{2p)q^ + {2p)q'^ 2. (a) r = V4 + 16 = V^, tan 'y/x = tan '2 = 63°
approx. Fig. shows that 6 is in quad I so 0 is 63 .
= 16/?'' + ?>2p^q + 2ApY + + 2/?9'‘
14xl3xl2xllx---x4 (eleven factors)
3. —

14 X 13 X 12
= 364. Alternatively, can use coeff of
1x2x3 problem 2 (a
14 X 13 X 12
to get directly.
3! (b) r = V20, tan *y/x = 63° again. This time 0 =
4. Use Pascal line 1,6,15,20,15,6,1; 63° + 180° = 243° because fig. shows 6 in the
1® + 6(l)"(-x) + 15(l)"(-x)" + 20(l)"(-x)' + third quad.
15(l)''(-x)^ + 6(1) (-x)^ + i-xr
= 1 - 6x + 15x'' - 20x® + 15x'' - 6x® + x®.
, 11 X 10
55
1 X 2 7r
PROBLEM 2(t)

(c) r = Vis = 3V2, 6 = 225° by inspection (the

ray bisects quad III).
Section A5 (page 415) (d) (See fig.) r = 3, 0 = 37r/2 (or -Tr/2) by
inspection.
.
1 10 - (-12) = 22
2 3 10 10 2
2. (a) -4 + 5 - -6
-3 7 1 1 -3
= -4(23) + 5(67) + 6(-32) = 51 PROBLEM Z(<^)
45 , 10 2 10
(b) 3 + 7
1-3 ® 1 -3 4 (e) r = V^, tan~'y/x = tan“'(—2) = —63°. Point
= 3(-l7) + 6(-32) + 7(42) = 51 is in quad II so 0 is not —63° but is
0 3 1 1 -1 4 -63° + 180° = 117°.
3. r cos 0=3
3. 3 2 1 3 - -1 0 3 1
1 1 2 2 1 3

= 3(-2) + (-18) = -24

PROBLEM 4(a)
Appendix A6 (page 418)

1. (a) X = 3 cos 60° = 3/2, y = 3 sin 60° = fVs

(b) By inspection (see fig.), X = 0,y = 2 (it’s OK but
overkill to use the formulas).

PROBLEM 4(b)

PROBLEM 1(b)

(c) X = 3 cos(—7r/4) = |V2.

y = 3 sin(—7r/4) = —|V2.
(d) X = 2, y = 0 by inspection. (See fig.) PROBLEM ^(c)

- —•— 1

PROBLEM ((«(]
 Solutions to the Problems • 525

5. (a) The rect coords are xi — r\ cos di, y\ — ri sin 6i and cos 62, 312 = T2 sin 62-
By distance formula for rect coords, distance is
V(ri cos 01 — r2 cos 02)"^ + (ri sin 6\ — r2 sin 62)^
~ Vr? cos‘^01 — 2rir2 cos 0i cos 62 + r\ cos‘^02 + sin*0i — 2rir2 sin d\ sin 62 + rl sin^02
~ Vri(cos^0i + sin^0i) + r2(cos^02 + sin'‘^02) “ 2rir2(cos di cos 62 + sin 0i sin 62)
^ ^ I < V__i

(b) (See fig. which assumes 02 > 0i.) By law of cosines,

distance^ = rf + ri - 2rir2 cos(02 - 0i).

PROBLEM

6. (See figs. )( a)
0 0 77/6 77/4 77/3 77/2 120° 135° 150° 180° 210° 235° 240° 270° 300° 315° 330° 360°
1 1 1
sin 6 0 2 |V2 fVs 1 IV3 IV2 2 0 2 -iV2 -IVs -1 -|V3 -IV2
1
2 0
r 2 1 2 - V2 2-V3 0 2-V3 2-V2 1 2 3 2 +V2 2 +V3 4 2 + V3 2 +V2 3 2

Using 0 < 0 or 0 > 360° doesn’t produce any new points. For instance 0 = —30°, r = 3
is just point 0 = 330°, r = 3 again. And point 0 = 390°, r = 1 is just point 0 = tt/G,
r = 1 again.

0
0 0 10° 15° 20° 30° 90° 100° 105° 110 120° 130° 140°
r 2 V3 V2 1 0 neg, no points 0 1 V2 V3 2 V3 1

150° 210° 220° 225° 230' 240° 250° 255° 260°

0 neg, no points 0 1 V2 V3 2 V3 V2 1

270° 330° 340° 345° 350° 360°

0 neg, no points 0 1 \/2 V3 2
Using 0 < 0 and 0 > 360° produces no new points in this problem.

e-120°
526 • Solutions to the Problems

71
e

00
o
o

O)
o
O
O
45° ^ 90° 180°^ 270° 270° ^ 360°

t
t

o
0^4 neg 0^ 4-^ 0 neg

t
r 0-^2 2-^0 impossible 0^ 2^ 0 impossible

e
o
00
O

0°- 180°^ 360° 360° ^ 720°

o

r 0-> 4 neg, no points

t

e 577/2 377 negative

r 57r/2(about 7|) 377 neg, no points
Note that 6 > 2tt DOES produce new points here while 0 < 0 produces negative r
produces non-points.
Abbreviations Used in the Solutions
/

abs conv absolutely convergent inf disc infinite discontinuity

abs value absolute value lim limit
alt alternating mag magnitude
antideriv antiderivative max maximum
antidiff antidifferentiate min minimum
av average neg negative
ccl counterclockwise 1-1 one-to-one
cond conv conditionally convergent orthog orthogonal
conv converges perp perpendicular
coord coordinate pos positive
cyl cylinder, cylindrical prod product
dec decreasing proj projection
denom denominator quot quotient
deriv derivative rect rectangular
det determinant rel relative
diff differentiate sol solution
dist distance sub substitute, substitution
div diverges tan tangent
eq, equ equation temp temperature
iff if and only if vol volume
inc increasing w.r.t. with respect to
indet indeterminate

527
LIST OF SYMBOLS

antiderivative /, 85

change A, 53

derivative DJ, Df,y', 57

differentials dx, dy, 123

df
directional derivative Dzf, 346
du

double integral //, 373

factorial n!, 224, 413

infinity <», 3, 42

integral /«*, 140

interval [a,b], {a,b), (-«>,6] etc., 3

limit limx-^a, 41

partial derivative d, 325

substitution I*, 146

sum S, 138

triple integral ///, 393

528

V
INDEX

A circle, equation of, 411

circular motion, 286
absolute convergence, 235 comparison test, 223
absolute extrema, 98—105, 339-346 completing the square, 196
acceleration, 59, 75—76, 291 component of a vector in a direction, 273-275
acceleration vector, 290-294 composition of functions, 27, 78
normal component of, 292 compound interest. 111
tangential component of, 291 conditional convergence, 235
alternating series, 232 concave (down, up), 60, 61, 113
test, 234 concavity, 60, 61
amplitude, 13 cone, equation of, 316
angle of inclination, 410 volume of, 164, 386, 396, 404
antiderivative formulas, 85—87 cone angle, 314
antidifferentiation (see also integration), 84-91, 146, constant functions, 3, 7, 63
191 ff. constant multiple rule, 71, 124
approximation, using differentials, 122, 355 continuous function, 6
arc length, 177 contraction, 33, 34
on a circle, 11 convergence, absolute and conditional, 235
arccos, 22, 69 convergent series, 217, 222 ff.
arcsin, 20, 69 cos“‘, 21, 69
arctan, 22, 69 cosecant, 16, 69, 75
area, between two curves, 176 cosine, 10, 13, 65
of a circular shell, 125, 172 cotangent, 16, 69, 75
of a region, 365, 382 critical numbers, 95
of a sector of a circle, 172 critical points, 338, 340
of a slab, 182, 183 critical values, 99, 338, 340
surface, 181—183 cross product of vectors, 276—282
under a curve, 139, 142-144, 382 cusp, 71, 95
asymptote, 41, 43, 44, 47, 113 cycloid, 178
average value, 137—138, 141, 364—365 cylinder, volume of, 386
cylindrical coordinates, 312—313
triple integration in, 395—398
B
cylindrical shell, 126
backward limits of integration, 186 cylindrical surface, 307
basic functions, 3, 63—70, 79
binomial series, 241 D
binomial theorem, 412—413
blow up, 44, 159 decresing function, 8, 58
degrees, 11, 66
C definite integral, 150
density, 166, 172, 365
calculus, differential, 56 dependence diagram, 331
fundamental theorem of, 146, 212 dependent variable, 2
integral, 137 derivative(s), 54
multidimensional, 319 of basic functions, 63—70, 79
second fundamental theorem of, 185-186 of a composition, 78
center of mass, 405—408 of constant multiples, 71
centroid, 173—176, 407-408 definition of, 56
chain rule, 78, 331, 334 directional, 327, 346
charge (and charge density), 172, 173, 187, 365, 372, of 67
392, 395 of functions “with two formulas”, 75

529
530 • Index

higher, 59 envelope, 15
of inverse functions, 68 error function, 184
of inverse trigonometric functions, 68-69 exact differential, 357
of In X, 68 criteria for, 358
partial, 325 ff. exact differential equation, 359
of power functions, 63, 75, 83 exp, 24
of products, 72-73 expansion, 33, 34
of quotients, 73-74 exponential functions, 3, 23-29, 67
second, 59, 60 exponential growth and decay, 131
of sums, 72 exponential-integral function, 184
third, 59 extrema, absolute, 98-105, 339-346
of trigonometric functions, 64-67, 69, 74-75 relative, 95-98, 113, 337-339
determinants, 413-416
cofactors of, 414 F
differentials, 122-127, 355-361
exact, 357 Fermat’s principle, 103
differential calculus, 56 first derivative test, 96
differential equation(s), 128 fixed point, 4
exact, 359 fractions, improper and proper, 197
general solution of, 130 function(s), 1 ff.
ordinary, 333 basic, 3, 63-70, 79
partial, 333 composition of, 27
particular solution of, 130 constant, 3, 7, 63
separable, 128-134 continuous, 6
differential form, 357 decreasing, 8, 58
differentiation, 56 discontinuous, 6, 44, 70
implicit, 81-83 elementary, 27, 63
logarithmic, 83-84 even, 10, 23, 62
direction cosines, 276 exponential, 3, 23-29, 67
directional derivatives, 327, 346 graph of, 4, 113-116
discontinuities, 44 greatest integer, 3
infinite, 44 increasing, 8, 23, 58
jump, 44 inverse, 19, 68
oscillatory, 48 inverse trigonometric, 3, 20-23, 68-70
point, 44 logarithm, 3, 25-29, 68
removable, 47 nondifferentiable, 70
distance, between two points, 260, 409 nonelementary, 186
from a point to a line, 301 odd, 10, 23
from a point to a plane, 300 one-to-one, 6
divergent series, 217 power, 3, 7, 63
domain, 2 trigonometric, 3, 10-18, 64-67, 69
dot product of vectors, 270-276 fundamental theorem of calculus, 146, 212
double integrals, 363 ff. second fundamental theorem, 185—186
applications of, 387-391
and areas, 365 G
and average values, 365
computation of, 370-377 geometric series, 220
in polar coordinates, 377-381 gradient, 348
and volumes, 366 graph(s), of <2 + be°‘, 46
dummy variables, 144, 183-184 of/(x), 4, 113-116
of /(x)'sin X and f{x) cos x, 15
of fix, y), 319-324
of inverse trigonometric functions, 21, 22
e, 3, 24, 68 of translations, reflections, expansions and sums,
e", 24, 67-68 32-38
elementary functions, 27 of trigonometric functions, 13, 16, 17
ellipsoid, 311 gravity, 89, 90, 293
elliptic cone, 311, 312 greatest integer function, 3
elliptic hyperboloid, of one sheet, 308, 311
of two sheets, 309, 311 H
elliptic paraboloid, 311
ellipse, 412 harmonic series, 224
 Index • 531

highest order of magnitude rule, 109 indeterminate, 48, 105-113

highest power rule, 49 infinite, 42
horizontal line test, 7, 20, 25
of as X ^ 0, 64-65, 107
hyperbola, 412 X
hyperbolic paraboloid, 311 one-sided, 41
hyperbolic sine and cosine, Sff limits of integration, 140, 186, 373, 379, 394, 396, 401
hyperboloid, see elliptic hyperboloid line(s), in 3-space, 301-307
in 2-space, 410-411
I intersection of, 303
intersection with a plane, 304
implicit differentiation, 81-83 parallel, 265, 303
improper integral, 157 skew, 303, 304
increasing function, 8, 23, 58 linear approximation, 123, 356
indefinite integral, 150 linear programming, 345
In X, 25, 68
independent variable, 2
logarithm (natural; with base e), 3, 25-29, 68
indeterminate forms, 48-51, 105-113
logarithmic differentiation, 83—84
inequalities, solution of, 29-31
infimum, 98
infinite limits, 42 M
inner product, see dot product
integral(s), 137 ff. Maclaurin polynomials, 250
applications of, 163 ff, 387-391 Maclaurin series, 248
and area, 142-144, 366, 382 magnitude of a vector, 266
and average values, 141, 365, 392 mass (and mass density), 166, 172, 390, 395, 398, 404
of a constant function, 147 center of, 404, 408
definite, 150 maxima and minima, see extrema
double, 363 ff. models, mathematical, 145, 166, 179
improper, 157 moment, 174, 405
indefinite, 150 moment of inertia, 168, 171, 172, 189, 398, 408
iterated, 371 motion, along a line, 9, 53, 59, 75
triple, 391 ff. circular, 286
with a variable upper limit, 183—186
and volume, 366—367, 383, 392
N
integral calculus, 137
integrand, 140
nth term test, 223, 233
integrating factor, 360
Newton’s laws of motion, 290, 294
integration, 140
Newton’s method, 120-122
limits of 140, 186, 373, 379, 394, 396, 401
nondifferentiable function, 70
numerical, 151
nonelementary function, 186
by parts, 203, 213
nonintegrable functions, 155
by substitution, 192, 212
norm of a vector, 266
by trigonometric substitution, 207
normal component of acceleration, 292
techniques of, 191 ff.
normal line, 354
interval of convergence, 239
normal vector, 298, 350, 352
interval of real numbers, 3
normalized vectors, 267
inverse functions, 19, 68
numerical integration, 151
inverse trigonometric functions, 3, 20—23, 68—70
iterated integral, 371
O
K
one-to-one function, 6
order of magnitude, 108—109, 224, 229
kinetic energy, 81, 172
orthogonal trajectories, 132

L
P
Laplacian, 334, 337
left-handed coordinate system, 260 j!?-series, 224
level sets, 320—324 parabola, 412
L’ Hopital’s rule, 106—113 parabolic cylinder, 307
limit comparison test, 228 paraboloid, 311
limits, 41 ff parallel lines, 265, 303
532 • Index

parallelogram law, 263 second fundamental theorem of calculus, 185—186

parametric equations, 90, 178, 285, 302 separable differential equations, 128—134
partial derivatives, 325 ff. series, 217 ff.
first order, 325 absolutely convergent, 235
higher order, 325 addition of, 219
mixed, 325 alternating, 232
partial fraction decomposition, 198 alternating harmonic, 233
pecking order for functions, 108 bincnnial, 241
period, 13 comparison test for, 223
perpendicular lines, 271 conditionally convergent, 235
plane(s), 298-302 convergent, 217
general equation of, 299 divergent, 217
intersection of, 305 factoring of, 218
point-normal equation of, 298 geometric, 220
point of inflection, 61 harmonic, 224
point-slope form of a line, 410 in powers of x — i, 254
polar coordinates, 416—418 integral test for, 226-227, 231, 232
double integration in, 377—381 limit comparison test for, 228
position vector, 286 Maclaurin, 248
power function, 3, 7, 63 nth term test for, 223, 233
power rule, 63, 75, 83 P-, 224
power series 238 ff. partial sums of, 217
interval of convergence of, 239 positive, 222
•Maclaurin, 247 power, 238 ff.
in powers of x - b, 254 ratio test for, 229, 239
radius of convergence of, 239 standard, 224
for sin x, cos x, and g*, 249—250 subseries of, 225
Taylor, 254 sum of, 217
product rule, 72-73, 124 Taylor, 254
projection of a vector in a direction, 275 Taylor remainder formula for, 252
signed, 274 shell, 125, 126, 169, 172, 173
signed projection, 274
simple harmonic motion, 14
Q
Simpson’s rule, 154
quadric surface, 307-312 sin~*, 20, 69
quotient rule, 73—74, 124 sine, 10, 13, 64
sine-integral function, 184
R slab, 164, 167, 170, 171, 172, 175, 182, 183
slope, 54, 56, 76, 328, 351, 352, 409
radians, 11, 66 slope-intercept form of a line, 410
radius of convergence, 239 speed, 53, 54, 56, 287
range, 2 sphere, equation of, 297
rate of change, 58, 59, 326 volume of, 170, 386, 404
ratio test, 229, 239 spherical coordinates, 313-317, 398-404
rectangular coordinate system, 259 spherical shell, 125, 173
right-handed, left-handed, 260 steepest ascent, 349, 352
recursion formulas, 204 steepest descent, 349
reference angles, 12 substitution, 192, 212
reflection, 34, 35 sum rule, 72, 124
related rates, 116—120 supremum, 98
relative extrema, 95-98, 113, 337-339 surface, cylindrical, 307
Riemann sums, 140 quadric, 307-312
right-handed coordinate system, 260 surface area, of a cone, 181
of a sphere, 183
S
T
scalar, 259
scalar triple product, 282-285 tan-', 22, 69
secant, 16, 69, 77 tangent, 10, 13, 74-75
second derivative test, 96 tangential component of acceleration, 291
 Index • 533

Taylor’s remainder formula, 252 normal, 298, 350, 352

Taylor polynomial, 254 normalized, 267
Taylor series, 254 parallel, 265
three-leaved rose, 418 perpendicular, 271
tractable and intractable problems, 108 position, 286
translation, 32, 34 / projection of (in a direction), 275
trigonometric functions, 3, 10-18, 64-67, 69 (scalar) component of (in a direction), 273-274
trigonometric identities, 17-18 scalar multiplication of, 265
trigonometric substitution, 207 scalar triple product of, 282-285
triple integrals, 391 ff. signed projection of, 274
and average values, 392 subtraction of, 264
computation of, 393 ff. vector component of (in a direction), 274—275
in cylindrical coordinates, 395—398 velocity, 285-290
in spherical coordinates, 398—404 zero, 261
and volumes, 392 velocity, 53, 56, 75—76, 287
average, 53
V instantaneous, 53
velocity vector, 285—290
vectors, 259 ff. vertical line test, 5
acceleration, 290-294 volume,
normal component of, 292 of a cone, 164, 386, 396, 404
tangential component of, 291 of a circular cylinder, 386
addition of, 263 of a cylindrical shell, 126, 169
angle between, 270, 271 by double integration, 366-367, 383
components of, 260 of a pyramid, 172
of a slab, 164, 167, 170-173, 175
cross product of, 276—282
of a solid of revolution, 171
direction of, 259
dot product (inner product) of, 270—276 of a sphere, 170, 386, 404
of a spherical shell, 125, 173
free, ^71-272
by triple integration, 392
i, j, k, 268
length of, 259, 266
magnitude of, 266 W
n-dimensional, 262
norm of, 266 work, 167, 398
 V

Carol Ash has an M.A. in mathematics from the University of Califor¬

nia, Berkeley, 1963. She is an instructor in the Department of Mathematics
at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, teaching courses in
calculus, computer calculus, advanced calculus, differential equations,
linear algebra, discrete mathematics, and engineering mathematics. She has
published several articles on the teaching of mathematics.

Robert Ash received his Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering in 1960

from Columbia University, and subsequently became a mathematician.
After teaching at Columbia and at the University of California, Berkeley, he
arrived at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1963, where
he is now a professor of mathematics. He has taught and written in many
areas, and is the author of textbooks on information theory, probability,
complex variables, real analysis and stochastic processes.

FI 6.
V
 (Continued from inside front cover)

Forms Involving ±

19
■I du
-ry-'r.2
Va^ -
^
. w
' — + C
a
_

20 j Vfl^ — du = -^Va^ —
a
+ — sin ->^ + c
2 a
+ Va' - u^
21. f — du = Va^ — u^ — a In + C
J u u
^ du _ 1 a + WaF—u}
22 In + C
J u\^a^ — u^ a u

9<l
^ ■I
’ VFTV^
= ln(M + Vfl^ 4-
_
+ C

24. J Va^ + rfw = ^u\FFT~F + \a^ ln(u + Va^ + F) + C

+ F + Va^ +
25
•I- u
du = Va^ + — a In
u
+ C

du 1 Va^ + F + a
26
I uvaF+F
In
u
+ C

Forms Involving — a

27. J[ 7---2
vu — a
- ^— a^l + C

28. J Vm^ F — du — Vm^

fM — <2^ — Inju + ViT^ a^l + C

29.
J
1r' Vm^ —u
du — Vm^- a ^ — a cos~* — + C
u

30. J\' uFF -

du 1
a
.a
u
+ C

Trigonometric Forms

31. /tan = —ln|cos u\ + C = Injsec u\ + C

32. /cot udu = ln|sin u\ + C
33. /sec udu = ln|sec u + tan u\ + C
34. /CSC udu = —ln|csc u + cot u\ + C = ln|csc u — cot u\ + K
35. / sec^M du = tan u + C
36. fcsFudu = — cot M + C
37. f sec u tan u du = sec u + C
38. /CSC u cot u du = —esc u + C
39. J sin^w du = 2(w - sin u cos u) + C = ju - i sm 2u + C
40. / cos^M du - l{u + sin u cos m) + C = | sin 2u
41. J tan^M du = tan u — u + C
42. J cot^udu = —cot u — u + C
43. J sec^udu — \ sec u tan u + \ ln|sec u + tan u\ + C
44. J csc^udu = —I CSC u cot M + I ln|csc u — cot u\ + C
r . • , , sin(a — b)u sin(a + b)u ^
45. J sin au sin bu du = -r--;--—f- C
•' ^ 2{a - b) 2{a + b)
c . , , cos(a — b)u cos(a + b)u ^
46.
•' 2{a - b) 2{a + b)
(. , , sin(a — b)u sin(a + b)u ^
47.
•' 2{a - b) 2{a + b)
48. j u sin udu = sin m — u cos m + C
49. /u cos udu = cos u + u sin u + C
50. Ju^ sin udu = (2 — m^)cos w + 2m sin m + C
51. JM^ cos udu = (m^ — 2)sin m + 2m cos m + C
r . , sin 'm cos m m — I f
52a. sin^M
sin M cos”udu
cos udu =-H-
= — sin” ^M cos^udu
J m + n m + n
nJ
sin™^*M cos”“*M n —
52b. I si,
sin^M cos”udu = — I sin”M cos" ^udu
m + n m + nJ
sin^'^'M cos”’^'m ra + n + 2
52c. J... .*
j sin^M cos"m6?m = n +
n + 1I + n + \ sin^M cos”'^^udu

f . , sin^^'M cos"^*M m + n + 2 r .
52d. sin^M cos"MaM
sin”M cos"m(/m =-;-1-;—
= sin”’^^M cos^udu
sii
J m + \ m -T \ J

53. j ‘udu
tan"M du = —Y ~ j tan””^M du 54. j no elementary antiderivative

55. f Vsin udu no elementary antiderivative 56. f sin u^du no elementary antiderivative

Inverse Trigonometric Forms

57. f sin”’ udu = u sin”’ u + Vl — m^ + C

58. /cos”’ udu = u cos”’ u — vl — u^ + C
59. /tan”’ udu = u tan”’ u — \ ln(l + m^) + C

Exponential and Logarithmic Forms

f 7 ^ e°'\a cos bu + b sin bu)

60. I a" du = -- + C
J In a 65. J cos
a^ + b^
+ C

61. fue“du = e“(u — 1) + C

62. JlnMC^M = MlnM — u + C 66. \-^du
J in u
r ,, r In M 1
63. J m" ■In udu = m"^’ + C
n + 1 (n + 1)^. 67.
JfiIn M
sin bu - b cos bu) no elementary antiderivative
64.
i. I
/, sin budu — + C 68. / du
a 2 + b^
mmmm
From the Preface

I
^sSSSsS^
Mathematicians and consumjers of mathematics (such as engineers) seem to
disagree as to what mathematics actually is. . .To an engineer, intuitive thinking,
geometric reasoning, and physical deductions are all valid if they illuminate a

I
problem, and a formal proof is often unnecessary or counterproductive. . .
Our approach uses informal language and emphasizes geometric and physical
reasoning. The style is similar to that used in applied courses and, for this reason,

I
students find the presentation very congenial. They do not regard calculus as a
strange subject outside their normal experience. . .

—Carol and Robert Ash

wmmmmmsmm