Scaling limits and opportunities: a review of

technology beyond 1nm

Future Perspectives on Sub-Nanometer Semiconductor Technology

1st Sayan Sarkar 2nd Shubham Mishra

M.Tech, SoCD, IIT Palakkad M.Tech, SoCD, IIT Palakkad
Palakkad, India Palakkad, India
152402011@smail.iitpkd.ac.in 152402013@smail.iitpkd.ac.in

Abstract—The continuous scaling of transistors has driven IV-C Let Us See the Approach of Three Tech
remarkable advancements in semiconductor technology, enabling Giants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
unprecedented improvements in computational power and energy IV-D Challenges in CFET Manufacturing . . 7
efficiency. This paper explores the evolution of transistor archi-
tectures from planar MOSFETs to FinFETs, Gate-All-Around IV-E Future Outlook for CFETs . . . . . . . 7
(GAA) FETs, and Vertical Integration FETs (VIFETs), highlight-
ing their structural innovations and performance enhancements. V PowerVia Technology 7
As traditional scaling approaches physical limits around the
1nm node, emerging technologies like Complementary FETs VI 2D Materials 7
(CFETs) and quantum computing are gaining prominence. These VI-A Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
advancements address critical challenges such as short-channel
effects, power efficiency, and integration density. The motivation
VI-B Advantages of 2D Materials . . . . . . 9
for scaling beyond 1nm extends beyond miniaturization, driven VI-C Challenges of 2D Materials . . . . . . . 9
by the need for higher performance in data-intensive applications VI-D Applications of 2D Materials . . . . . . 9
like artificial intelligence and IoT, as well as sustainability VI-E Future Impact of 2D Materials in Tech-
concerns. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the nology Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
current state of transistor technology, future prospects, and the
technological and economic motivations for advancing semicon-
ductor research beyond 1nm. VII 3D Stacking and Chiplets 10
Index Terms—Transistor scaling, FinFET, GAA FET, CFET,
VIFET, quantum computing, semiconductor technology, Moore’s VIII Photonic Interconnects 10
Law, 1nm node, emerging technologies VIII-A Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
VIII-B Applications of Photonic Interconnects . 10
C ONTENTS
IX Quantum Computing 11
I Introduction 1 IX-A Quantum Computing Elements . . . . . 11
IX-B Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
II Importance, Need, and Motivation for Technol- IX-C Challenges and Future Directions . . . . 11
ogy Beyond 1nm 2
II-A Importance of Technology Beyond 1nm 2 X The Future 12
X-A The Future of Technology Scaling . . . 12
II-B Need for Scaling Beyond 1nm . . . . . 2
X-B Future products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II-C Motivation for Advancing Beyond 1nm 2
XI Conclusion 13
III Transistor Evolution so far 2
III-A Importance of Innovation in Transistor References 13
Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
III-B Planar Transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 I. I NTRODUCTION
III-C FinFETs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The relentless drive towards miniaturization has been a
III-D Gate-All-Around (GAA) Transistors . . 3 defining characteristic of the semiconductor industry, follow-
ing Moore’s Law, which predicted the doubling of transistor
IV CFET - A Vertical Revolution 3 density approximately every two years [1]. This trend has not
IV-A Complementary FET (CFET) Transistors 3 only facilitated exponential growth in computational power but
IV-B Advantages of CFETs . . . . . . . . . . 3 has also led to innovations that underpin modern technological
advancements. However, as transistor dimensions approach • Enabling Advanced Applications: Applications like ar-
the 1nm scale, traditional planar MOSFET architectures face tificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, autonomous
significant challenges, including short-channel effects, leakage systems, and data centers demand ever-increasing compu-
currents, and reduced gate control [2]. These limitations have tational power. Scaling beyond 1nm provides the neces-
necessitated the development of new transistor architectures sary performance and energy efficiency required for these
and materials to sustain performance improvements. data-intensive applications [3].
• Enhanced Power Efficiency: With smaller transistors,
The transition from planar transistors to FinFETs marked power consumption can be significantly reduced due to
a significant milestone in addressing these scaling challenges. lower switching energy and reduced leakage currents,
Introduced at the 22nm node, FinFETs improved electrostatic which is crucial for portable devices and Internet of
control by introducing a three-dimensional (3D) structure, Things (IoT) applications [4].
reducing leakage and enhancing performance [3]. As de-
vice dimensions continued to shrink, Gate-All-Around (GAA) B. Need for Scaling Beyond 1nm
FETs emerged as a successor to FinFETs, offering even better • Physical Limits of Traditional Transistors: As transis-
control by surrounding the channel with the gate on all sides. tors shrink below 5nm, traditional architectures like Fin-
GAA FETs, implemented at the 3nm and 2nm nodes, represent FETs encounter significant issues such as short-channel
a critical step in maintaining scaling trends and improving effects, leakage currents, and difficulties in maintaining
energy efficiency [4]. electrostatic control [2]. These challenges necessitate the
exploration of new transistor architectures like GAA and
Looking beyond GAA technology, Vertical Integration FETs CFETs.
(VIFETs) and Complementary FETs (CFETs) are being ex- • Demand for Higher Integration: Beyond 1nm scaling
plored to overcome the limitations of horizontal scaling [5]. allows for greater integration of functionality within a sin-
VIFETs stack transistors vertically, increasing density without gle chip, enabling more powerful system-on-chip (SoC)
reducing horizontal dimensions, while CFETs combine n-type designs. This is critical for reducing the overall footprint
and p-type transistors in a vertical configuration to optimize of electronic devices while boosting their functionality
performance and area efficiency [6]. These advanced architec- [11].
tures are essential for sustaining Moore’s Law and meeting • Thermal Management: Smaller transistors generate less
the performance demands of emerging applications such as heat, which is beneficial in terms of cooling require-
artificial intelligence, autonomous systems, and IoT devices ments and overall energy consumption. Efficient thermal
[7]. management is especially important in high-performance
computing environments where power density can be-
Moreover, the push beyond 1nm is not solely about tran- come a limiting factor [7].
sistor miniaturization but also involves exploring new com-
C. Motivation for Advancing Beyond 1nm
putational paradigms. Quantum computing, with its potential
to solve problems intractable for classical systems, represents • Economic Benefits: Continuing to scale down transistor
a significant frontier in this regard [8]. Integrating quantum sizes enables more transistors per wafer, thereby reducing
devices with conventional semiconductors could unlock new the cost per transistor. This helps maintain economic via-
levels of performance and efficiency, driving the next wave of bility and supports the competitiveness of semiconductor
technological innovation [9]. companies [5].
• Expanding Technological Frontiers: The push beyond
This paper examines the evolution of transistor architectures 1nm is not just about miniaturization but also about
from planar MOSFETs to advanced structures like FinFETs, exploring new paradigms like quantum computing and
GAA FETs, VIFETs, and CFETs. It also explores the moti- neuromorphic computing. These technologies promise to
vations for continuing to scale beyond 1nm, the challenges revolutionize computing power and efficiency far beyond
associated with this progression, and the potential impact of the capabilities of classical systems [6].
quantum computing on future semiconductor technologies. • Sustainability and Energy Efficiency: Energy-efficient
computing is a critical goal in the context of climate
II. I MPORTANCE , N EED , AND M OTIVATION FOR change and rising global energy consumption. Tech-
T ECHNOLOGY B EYOND 1 NM nology beyond 1nm enables energy-efficient processors,
A. Importance of Technology Beyond 1nm which is crucial for data centers, consumer electronics,
• Sustaining Moore’s Law: As technology nodes approach and environmental sustainability [9].
atomic scales, maintaining the pace of Moore’s Law III. T RANSISTOR E VOLUTION SO FAR
becomes more challenging. Innovations beyond 1nm help
to continue the trend of increasing transistor density, A. Importance of Innovation in Transistor Architectures
thus enabling further performance improvements and cost The evolution of transistor technology has been a critical
reductions [10]. driver of advancements in semiconductor devices. This section
provides an overview of how transistor architectures have B. Advantages of CFETs
changed over time to meet the demands of miniaturization and With every successive manufacturing node, scaling a tran-
enhanced performance, especially as technology nodes shrink sistor becomes ever more difficult. For the majority of the
beyond the 1nm scale. industry giants, it even becomes difficult to define. Device
density used to increase as gate length and metal pitch
Continuous innovation in transistor architecture is essential decreased. For a number of reasons, this is far more difficult
for maintaining the trajectory of Moore’s Law and meeting now.
the computational demands of emerging technologies such as • Short channel effects limit gate-length scaling
AI and quantum computing [10]. • Parasitic effects limit device density
• Metal resistance limits metal pitch.
As shown in the Moore’s Law timeline figure 1 [12] and
Therefore, in order to maximize total circuit performance,
the transistor technology roadmap figure 2 [13], the evolution
new device designs that balance these elements should be
of transistors has been pivotal to technological advancements.
required rather than just lowering all circuit dimensions. The
minimum distance between transistors is become increasingly
B. Planar Transistors significant as a barrier to further advances in device density
as transistors get smaller.
Planar transistors were the standard for several decades, en-
abling scaling according to Moore’s Law. However, as feature This is where CFET comes in.
sizes approached sub-20nm nodes, controlling leakage currents • CFETs allow for reduced footprint by vertically stacking
and short-channel effects became increasingly challenging [2]. transistors, leading to a smaller area and lower capac-
itance, which enhances switching speed and reduces
C. FinFETs
power consumption [9].
FinFETs, or Fin Field-Effect Transistors, were introduced • The compact design of CFETs enables more efficient
to improve electrostatic control over the channel by using a routing of interconnects, which is particularly valuable
thin, vertical fin as the channel, allowing better gate control as device complexity increases with advanced nodes.
and reduced leakage [3]. Stacking of CFET: CFETs stack nFETs and pFETs in a
3D configuration, utilizing both the upper and lower regions of
The adoption of FinFETs at the 22nm node marked a the stack for different transistor types. This stacking enables
significant shift in transistor design, enabling continued scaling a more efficient use of space and contributes to the potential
and performance gains [11]. for higher transistor density.
D. Gate-All-Around (GAA) Transistors
Design Structure of CFET: CFETs, adopt a 3D-stacked
As technology approached the 5nm and 3nm nodes, Gate- structure. They stack both n-type and p-type transistors on
All-Around (GAA) FETs emerged as the next evolutionary top of each other in a single, integrated process. CFETs aim
step, where the gate fully surrounds the channel, offering even to achieve nearly double the transistor density compared to
better control over leakage and short-channel effects [4]. FinFETs by combining both types of transistors in a more
compact design.
GAA structures such as nanosheet transistors are being
C. Let Us See the Approach of Three Tech Giants
explored by major semiconductor manufacturers to extend
scaling limits [14]. • Intel’s Approach
[15] – As one of the first companies to use CFET technol-
ogy, Intel demonstrated a number of noteworthy im-
IV. CFET - A V ERTICAL R EVOLUTION provements in CFET design. A novel backside power
A. Complementary FET (CFET) Transistors supply approach allowed the business to demonstrate
a significant decrease in size in their inverter circuits,
Complementary FET (CFET) technology represents a novel allowing interconnects to be made both above and
approach to transistor scaling, aiming to further enhance below the silicon surface.
performance and density as the industry pushes beyond the – The advancements made by Intel included a decrease
limitations of traditional architectures. in the distance between devices, an increase in the
• CFETs integrate n-type and p-type transistors vertically, number of nanosheets per device, and an optimized
stacking them to achieve a more compact design com- design for improved electrical properties.
pared to lateral configurations [18]. • Samsung’s Approach
• This vertical integration enables improved transistor den-
– Samsung demonstrated CFET prototypes with re-
sity, making CFETs a promising candidate for scaling duced contacted poly pitch (CPP) values of 48 and
beyond the 1nm node [5]. 45 nm, adopting a novel strategy. The business
 Fig. 1. Moore’s Law timeline

Fig. 2. Transistor technology scaling

 Fig. 3. Evolution1 of transistors

TABLE I
C OMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN PLANA AND FINFETS

Aspect Planar FinFET

Structure Planar structure Three-dimensional or ”fin” structure
Gate Control Voltage-controlled conductivity Voltage-controlled gate width
Leakage Current Relatively higher leakage current Lower leakage current
Power Efficiency Relatively lower power efficiency Improved power efficiency
Speed and Performance Moderate speed Faster switching speed
Transistor Capacitance Higher transistor capacitance Reduced transistor capacitance
Scalability Limited scalability in smaller process nodes Better scalability in smaller process nodes
Integration Limited integration capability Improved integration capability
Manufacturing Process Relatively simpler manufacturing process More complex manufacturing process
Cost Lower manufacturing cost Higher manufacturing cost
Applications Wide range of applications Similar range of applications as MOSFET
Future Trends Limited potential for future improvements Further potential for development

Performance Parameter planar FinFET % Change in FinFET Compared to Planar

Average Power in SRAM Read Operation 124 µW 8.76 µW 92.93% reduction
Average Power in SRAM Write Operation 896.17 nW 19.76 nW 97.8% reduction
Average Power in 45nm Inverter 12.8 µW 5.2 µW 59.38% reduction

TABLE II
C OMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN FINFET AND GAAF ET

Node Best Device Issue Solution

<0.1 µm Bulk MOSFET Short channel effect, low drive current Strained SiGe, Metal Gate, High K dielectric
0.1 µm-32 nm SOI MOSFET Power, leakage current Ultra-thin body SOI
32 nm-10 nm FinFET SCE are prominent Multi-gate material, Multi-channel, Stacked oxide
<5 nm GAA Power, Area, and Cost Multi-bridge channel
Reference Device Structure Device Dimensions Device Parameters / Performance
Das et al. [16] FinFET Lg = 7 nm, Tox = 1 nm, VDS = 0.5 V, T = 300 K ION = 0.192 mA, SS = 67.1 mV/dec, Gmpeak = 11.48 mS
Kumar [17] GAA FinFET Lg = 7 nm, Tox = 1 nm, VDS = 0.5 V, T = 300 K ION = 0.19 mA, SS = 105 mV/dec, Gmpeak = 0.037 mS

TABLE III
C OMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN GAAF ET AND CF ET
Feature FinFET CFET
Design Structure Fin-like structure with a vertical silicon fin. 3D-stacked structure, stacking nFETs and pFETs on top of each other.
Transistor Stacking Side-by-side on the same silicon wafer. 3D configuration, both types of transistors stacked in a single, integrated process.
- Higher transistor density.
Advantages of CFET over FinFET - - Simplified manufacturing process.
- Potential for improved performance.
Density Moderate transistor density. Aims for higher transistor density.
Integration Side-by-side transistors. 3D-stacked design simplifies manufacturing.
Performance Well-established, but potential limitations in future scaling. Potential for improved performance by reducing transistor distances.
Commercial Deployment In commercial use since around 2011. Still in the research and development phase, estimated commercial deployment in 7-10 years.

Fig. 6. GAAFET Transistor

Fig. 4. Planar transistor

Fig. 5. Finfet Transistor

Fig. 7. CFET Transistor

addressed possible concerns with current leakage

and stressed the importance of electrical isolation trially relevant pitch of 48 nm.
between the stacked pFET and nFET devices. – The business demonstrated its dedication to pushing
• TSMC’s Approach the limits of semiconductor technology by using
– TSMC presented a new technique for creating a silicon germanium for the isolation layer, with a high
dielectric layer between the top and bottom devices proportion of germanium.
while demonstrating its CFET device with an indus- The comparison shows that, although having the same ob-
 E. Future Outlook for CFETs
• CFETs are seen as a key technology for future scaling,
especially when combined with advanced materials like
2D semiconductors and high mobility channels [6].
• Ongoing research aims to address the fabrication chal-
lenges and improve the scalability of CFETs to make
them viable for high-volume manufacturing in the semi-
conductor industry.

V. P OWERV IA T ECHNOLOGY
What it is: PowerVia is Intel’s backside power delivery
technology, which places power interconnects beneath the
silicon rather than above it.
Fig. 8. Evolution of CFET Why it matters: It frees up space for data intercon-
nects, reduces electrical resistance, and enables further scaling,
supporting continued advancements in chip performance and
jective of developing CFET technology, Intel, Samsung, and efficiency.
TSMC have all embraced unique approaches and advance-
• Backside Power Delivery: PowerVia technology by Intel
ments. While Samsung promotes electrical isolation, TSMC
relocates power interconnects to the underside of the
places emphasis on dielectric layer creation precision, Intel
silicon, freeing up space above for data interconnects and
concentrates on overall size reduction and backside power
enabling larger, less resistive power connections.
transmission. The cooperation and rivalry between these indus-
• Initial Setup: Transistors (FinFETs on the Intel 4 pro-
try titans promise to influence the development of electronic
cess) are formed at the silicon surface with deep, narrow
gadgets and computer systems in the future as the semicon-
holes, called nano-TSVs, filled with metal to support
ductor sector as a whole overcomes obstacles.
backside connectivity.
• Carrier Wafer Bonding and Flip: A blank carrier wafer
is bonded to the top interconnects, and the assembly
is flipped, allowing the original silicon surface to be
polished down until the ends of the nano-TSVs are
exposed.
• Backside Interconnect Formation: Chunky interconnect
layers are built up on the polished side, connecting to the
nano-TSVs to establish a robust power delivery network
on the chip’s underside.
• Resulting Chip Structure: The finished chip consists of
a support layer of silicon, data interconnects, a thin silicon
layer for transistors, and backside power interconnects
connecting to the package.

VI. 2D M ATERIALS
A. Overview
What it is: Materials like graphene and molybdenum
disulfide are atomically thin and can enable extremely small
transistors with superior electron mobility.

Fig. 9. Intel’s design of CFET

Why it matters: 2D materials can be used to create smaller,
more efficient transistors that overcome silicon’s physical
limitations at the atomic scale.
D. Challenges in CFET Manufacturing
• Despite their benefits, CFETs present challenges in terms 2D materials consist of a single layer (or sometimes a
of manufacturing complexity, particularly in aligning the few atomic layers) of atoms. The most famous example is
n-type and p-type layers [19]. graphene—a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a
• Thermal budget constraints and precise control over hexagonal lattice—but there are many other 2D materials with
doping and layer thickness are critical for ensuring the varied properties. [21]
performance and reliability of CFETs [20].
Fig. 10. comparison of different types of transistors

Fig. 11. PowerVia Technology

 Prominent 2D materials include: – Integrating 2D materials into existing manufacturing
• Graphene: Known for its excellent electrical conductiv- processes and combining them with other materials
ity, mechanical strength, and thermal properties. How- (like silicon) is still complex.
ever, it lacks a natural bandgap, making it challenging • Lack of Bandgap in Some Materials:
to use for digital electronics, where on/off states are – Graphene, despite its incredible properties, does not
essential. have a natural bandgap, which means it cannot fully
• Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMDs): These ma- switch off like silicon, limiting its use in digital logic
terials (e.g., molybdenum disulfide, MoS2 ) offer a nat- applications.
ural bandgap, which is critical for building transistors. – Some TMDs and other 2D semiconductors have
TMDs are semiconductors, making them more suitable bandgaps, but their electronic properties vary signifi-
for switching applications. cantly, and fine-tuning these properties is still a topic
• Hexagonal Boron Nitride (h-BN): Often used as an of research.
insulator in 2D electronic devices, h-BN has properties • Contact Resistance:
similar to graphene but acts as a good dielectric material.
– Achieving low-resistance, stable electrical contacts
between 2D materials and metal electrodes is diffi-
B. Advantages of 2D Materials cult, impacting device performance and scalability.
• Extreme Thinness for Scaling: – Innovations in contact engineering are being re-
– 2D materials can be as thin as one atom, making searched, but this is a critical barrier for mass pro-
them ideal for continuing Moore’s Law by scaling duction.
down transistors beyond the limits of silicon.
D. Applications of 2D Materials
– Their thinness reduces short-channel effects (where
current leakage becomes significant in smaller tran- • Transistors and Logic Circuits:
sistors), which silicon-based transistors face as they – 2D materials could enable ultra-thin, energy-efficient
shrink. transistors with minimal leakage, supporting contin-
• High Carrier Mobility: ued scaling beyond silicon’s limitations.
– Some companies and research labs are already de-
– Many 2D materials exhibit high electron mobility,
veloping 2D-based field-effect transistors (FETs) to
allowing for faster electron movement and thus faster
test this approach.
transistors.
– Graphene, for example, allows electrons to move • Sensors:
much more freely than silicon, potentially resulting – The high sensitivity of 2D materials to environmental
in faster circuits with lower energy dissipation. changes makes them ideal for sensors in applications
• Flexible and Transparent Electronics: such as gas detection, biosensing, and chemical anal-
ysis.
– Because 2D materials are flexible and often transpar- – For example, graphene-based sensors can detect sin-
ent, they open possibilities for flexible electronics, gle molecules, making them incredibly useful for
such as bendable displays and wearable sensors. medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring.
– Their transparency also makes them ideal for op-
• Optoelectronics:
toelectronic applications, like transparent solar cells
and touch screens. – The thinness and transparency of 2D materials make
them ideal for photodetectors, LEDs, and transparent
• Low Power Consumption:
solar cells.
– Devices made with 2D materials can operate at low – TMDs, in particular, have shown potential in pho-
voltages, which helps reduce overall power consump- todetectors that are both efficient and compatible
tion—a significant advantage for mobile and IoT with flexible electronics.
devices that require extended battery life.
• Flexible and Wearable Electronics:
– They have excellent control over electric fields,
which allows them to turn on/off with minimal – 2D materials’ flexibility allows for electronics that
energy loss. can be bent, stretched, or even worn on the skin,
opening new avenues for wearable health monitors
C. Challenges of 2D Materials and flexible displays.

• Material Synthesis and Integration: E. Future Impact of 2D Materials in Technology Scaling

– Producing high-quality, uniform 2D materials at 2D materials have the potential to address several of the
scale is challenging. Techniques like chemical vapor limitations of silicon at the atomic scale and to enable appli-
deposition (CVD) are improving, but issues like cations that silicon is not suited for. While challenges remain
defects, contamination, and layer uniformity remain. in production, integration, and material consistency, advances
in 2D materials may be essential for further scaling and demands of high-performance computing (HPC),
for emerging technologies like flexible electronics and high- data centers, and AI applications.
performance, low-power devices. They represent an exciting • Reduced Power Consumption:
alternative as the industry seeks to continue performance – Optical signals consume less power compared to
improvements without relying on traditional scaling alone. traditional electronic signals, especially over long
VII. 3D S TACKING AND C HIPLETS distances, reducing the energy required for data
communication within systems.
What it is: 3D stacking enables chips to be built in
– This reduction in power consumption is crucial for
multiple vertical layers, integrating memory, logic, and other
large-scale data centers and HPC applications where
components in one stack. Chiplets are smaller dies that can be
power efficiency directly impacts operational costs
combined in a modular approach.
and sustainability.
Why it matters: 3D stacking and chiplets allow for per- • Minimized Thermal Effects:
formance improvements without shrinking transistor size, also – Since photonic interconnects do not generate as
reducing power consumption by shortening data paths. much heat as electronic interconnects, they can
reduce the cooling demands in dense computing
environments.
– Lower heat generation also allows for closer packing
of components, supporting further miniaturization
and integration in chip and system design.
• Improved Bandwidth Density:
– Photonic interconnects allow for multiple wave-
lengths of light (channels) to transmit data simulta-
neously over the same physical medium, a technique
known as wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM).
– This improves bandwidth density, enabling higher
data throughput without requiring additional physical
space, which is valuable in high-density computing
environments.
• Scalability for Future Technologies:
VIII. P HOTONIC I NTERCONNECTS
– As computing needs continue to grow, traditional
What it is: Using photons (light) instead of electrons for electronic interconnects face scaling challenges due
data transmission in interconnects. to increased resistance and heat.
– Photonic interconnects provide a scalable solution
Why it matters: Optical interconnects can dramatically for future technologies, enabling advancements in
increase data transfer speeds and reduce power consumption fields like quantum computing, AI, and other data-
in high-performance computing applications. intensive applications.
B. Applications of Photonic Interconnects
• Data Centers and High-Performance Computing
(HPC):
– Photonic interconnects enhance data transfer speeds
and energy efficiency in data centers and HPC envi-
ronments, where rapid data exchange is critical.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) Workloads:
– In AI and machine learning, where data-intensive
tasks require high-bandwidth and low-latency com-
A. Advantages munication, photonic interconnects support faster
• Higher Data Transfer Speeds: processing and reduced bottlenecks.
– Photons travel at the speed of light and can carry • On-Chip and Chip-to-Chip Communication:
data much faster than electrons, which are limited – Photonic interconnects are increasingly considered
by resistive losses and capacitance in traditional for on-chip and chip-to-chip communication, ad-
conductors. dressing the limitations of metal interconnects and
– Photonic interconnects enable faster data transfer enabling higher integration density in advanced com-
rates, allowing systems to handle the increasing data puting systems.
 IX. Q UANTUM C OMPUTING leakage currents become more prominent, hindering
What it is: Quantum computing elements are emerging reliable operation.
components, including qubits and quantum gates, that rep- – Quantum computing elements are inherently de-
resent a shift from traditional transistor-based computation. signed to operate at quantum scales, allowing contin-
Unlike classical transistors, these elements leverage quantum ued advancements in computation beyond the limits
properties like superposition and entanglement to process of miniaturized transistors.
information. In the context of nanoscale transistor technology, • Higher Computational Efficiency:
they allow for fundamentally new forms of data processing – With the ability to represent and process informa-
beyond binary limitations. tion in superposition states, quantum elements can
perform many calculations in parallel, drastically
Why it matters: As conventional transistors reach physical reducing the time required for specific tasks.
scaling limits below 1 nm, quantum elements offer a pathway – This efficiency is particularly beneficial for complex
for continued progress. By enabling computation in entirely applications such as cryptography, optimization, and
new ways, quantum computing elements could surpass the simulating quantum systems in material science.
performance boundaries of traditional transistor technologies, • Reduced Energy Consumption for Certain Tasks:
particularly for tasks that require immense parallel processing, – Quantum gates manipulate qubits using quantum
such as complex simulations, cryptographic algorithms, and principles, often requiring less energy than classical
large-scale data analysis. transistors for complex operations.
– Reduced power requirements align well with the
A. Quantum Computing Elements
growing demand for sustainable and energy-efficient
Quantum computing elements consist of qubits and quantum technologies in high-performance computing.
gates:
• Qubits: Unlike classical bits, which are limited to binary
states (0 or 1), qubits can exist in a superposition of states.
This property allows qubits to represent both 0 and 1 si-
multaneously, exponentially increasing the computational
potential as more qubits are added.
• Quantum Gates: Similar to logic gates in classical
computers, quantum gates operate on qubits. Quantum
gates use entanglement and other quantum properties to
perform operations on multiple qubits in parallel, en-
abling complex computations that classical gates cannot
achieve as efficiently.

B. Advantages C. Challenges and Future Directions

Quantum computing elements offer several advantages over While quantum computing elements hold great promise
traditional transistors: for the future of transistor technology, there are still several
• Overcoming Scaling Limitations: challenges that need to be addressed:
– As conventional transistors approach atomic-scale • Qubit Stability and Error Rates: Quantum states are
dimensions, issues such as quantum tunneling and sensitive to environmental disturbances, leading to high
 error rates in qubit manipulation. Advances in error cor- in neuromorphic computing, devices may one day per-
rection are critical to make quantum computing reliable form complex cognitive tasks with unparalleled energy
at scale. efficiency. This would unlock vast new capabilities in
• Integration with Classical Systems: Developing hybrid robotics, personalized medicine, and intelligent assistants.
systems that combine classical transistors and quantum • Ultra-Secure Quantum Communication: Quantum
elements is an ongoing area of research. Effective in- cryptography, enabled by advancements in quantum in-
tegration will be necessary to apply quantum elements terconnects, may make unbreakable security a reality.
practically within existing computing architectures. This would protect sensitive data transmissions, finan-
• Scalability: Building and controlling large numbers of cial information, and personal communications from any
qubits is challenging due to their fragile quantum states. foreseeable cyber threats.
Research is focused on finding scalable methods to in- • Environmental Sensors Embedded Everywhere: Pow-
crease the number of qubits in a quantum system. ered by tiny, low-power transistors, microscopic environ-
mental sensors could become ubiquitous, monitoring air
X. T HE F UTURE
and water quality, structural health, and even tracking
A. The Future of Technology Scaling wildlife. Such devices would be instrumental in managing
As we continue to scale technology beyond today’s limits, and preserving our environment.
the possibilities for innovation expand dramatically. Here are
some remarkable advancements we may witness in the coming B. Future products
decades:
• Sub-Atomic Transistors: With advancements in atomic-
As technology scaling pushes the boundaries of the possible,
scale fabrication, transistors may one day reach sub- here are some futuristic products and applications that could
atomic levels, approaching the fundamental limits of turn science fiction into reality:
matter. These sub-atomic devices could enable processing • Mind-Responsive Wearable Devices: Ultra-low-power,
speeds many times faster than current chips, allowing for brain-computer interfaces that allow users to control de-
truly revolutionary computing capabilities. vices—like augmented reality (AR) glasses, smart home
• Ultra-Low Power AI Chips: Through continued scaling systems, or even vehicles—through thought alone, en-
and material innovation, AI chips could achieve near- abling seamless interaction and accessibility.
zero energy consumption. This would enable always- • Self-Powered Health Monitors: Tiny, flexible health
on, real-time AI processing in wearable devices, smart sensors that monitor vital signs, detect diseases, and even
home systems, and implantable medical devices without administer treatments in real-time. These devices could be
frequent recharging. embedded in clothing, worn as patches, or even implanted
• Quantum-Enhanced Supercomputing: Combining for continuous, unobtrusive health tracking.
ultra-scaled transistors with quantum computing • Immersive Holographic Displays: Photon-based dis-
elements could result in hybrid processors capable of plays that project holographic 3D images into any space,
solving complex simulations in minutes—such as climate making virtual meetings, immersive gaming, and remote
modeling, pharmaceutical research, and cryptographic collaboration feel as real as in-person experiences. No
challenges—that are impossible to tackle today. screens or headsets required!
• Flexible, Transparent Electronics: As 2D materials and • Augmented Vision and Contact Lenses: Advanced
flexible substrates evolve, we may witness the rise of AR contact lenses that overlay digital information—like
fully flexible and transparent devices. Imagine foldable directions, notifications, or translation—directly onto a
displays, smart contact lenses, and ultra-thin medical user’s field of vision. This technology could revolutionize
sensors seamlessly integrating into daily life. how we interact with information and environments.
• Photonics for Instantaneous Data Transfer: Photonic • Smart City Infrastructure with Environmental Aware-
interconnects may replace traditional electronic pathways, ness: Microscopic, solar-powered sensors embedded
enabling data to be transmitted at the speed of light throughout urban environments to monitor air quality,
within processors. This could eliminate latency, providing noise levels, and structural health, optimizing city man-
instantaneous data transfer for tasks like VR/AR, real- agement and enhancing quality of life.
time medical imaging, and immersive remote work. • Personal Quantum Assistants: Ultra-fast, quantum-
• Self-Repairing, Long-Lived Electronics: Leveraging enhanced AI that can solve complex problems, pre-
nanotechnology, electronics of the future may be able to dict market trends, or personalize learning and health
self-repair minor damages or defects at a molecular level, strategies instantly. These assistants could help manage
extending their lifespan and minimizing electronic waste. daily life, anticipate needs, and act with unprecedented
Such devices could remain operational and efficient for precision.
decades. • Automated Medical Diagnostics at Home: Devices that
• Neuromorphic Computing at Scale: By mimicking combine quantum computing with advanced sensors to
the human brain’s neural networks with massive scaling analyze blood, saliva, or breath samples and diagnose
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anywhere. and insights,” IEEE Access, vol. PP, pp. 1–1, 01 2024.
• Transparent Solar Panels for Clean Energy Every- [16] A. Das and Others, “Study of finfet performance at nanoscale,” IEEE
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[17] S. Kumar and Others, “Analysis of gaa finfet at 7nm node,” Journal
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buds: Tiny, AI-driven earbuds that provide real-time lan- nodes,” IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Circuits and
Systems, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 287–295, 2023.
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munication between people anywhere in the world, bridg- for cfet manufacturing,” Solid-State Electronics, vol. 198, p. 107929,
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and air. These devices could revolutionize environmental
protection by enabling autonomous cleanup of pollution
and waste on a molecular level.
XI. C ONCLUSION
Through relentless innovation in scaling and material sci-
ence, technology is positioned to transform our daily lives
with products that once seemed possible only in science
fiction. From mind-controlled devices to self-sustaining en-
ergy sources, the future promises a world where technology
seamlessly integrates into our lives, making the extraordinary
possible.
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