FNP

Contents
5 The Standard Model 29
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2 Types of particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.1 Leptons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.2.2 Quarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.3 The four forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
5.3.2 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.3.3 Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.3.4 Weak interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

6 The Quark Model 41

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.2 Quantum numbers of hadrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6.3 The SU(3) symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.4 Baryon and meson multiplets in SU(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.4.1 Irreducible representations of SU(3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.4.2 Baryons multiplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
6.4.3 Meson multiplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.5 Hadrons wave function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

7 Symmetries and conservation laws 47

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2 Relativistic invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.3 Charge conjugation C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.4 Parity P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.5 CP symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.6 Time reversal and T CP theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

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5 The Standard Model

5.1 Introduction
Particle Physics (also known as High Energy Physics or Subnuclear Physics), is the sci-
entific discipline which aims to determine the elementary constituents of matter and the
properties of the forces that are involved in their interactions.
In the last 25 years of the 20th century, the progress in the knowledge of the Particle
Physics (with the exception of gravity, which has little relevance in the particles world).
Actually, the Standard Model can be considered as a collection of related theories which
are: the Quantum Electrodynamics (QED), the Electroweak Theory and the Quantum
Chromodynamics (QCD). In addition, one can find a common principle to all the theories
of the Standard Model, which is the fulfillment of the “local gauge invariance”.

5.2 Types of particles

In the Standard Model, three kind of particles can be found:

• Leptons: spin 1/2 fermions and integer or neutral electric charge.

• Quarks: spin 1/2 fermions and fractional electric charge, +2

3
|e| or −1
3
|e|, with “e”
being the electron charge.

• Exchange particles: spin 1 bosons with or without electric charge.

Let us study some of these types of particles.

5.2.1 Leptons
Leptons are spin 1/2 fermions, they do not feel the colour interaction and they do not have
internal structure. There are six types of leptons, which are grouped in three generations,
written
 −  in pairs. Each pair consists of a charged and a neutral lepton:
e
, e− ≡ electron, νe ≡ electron neutrino;
ν
 −e
µ
, µ− ≡ muon, νµ ≡ muon neutrino;
ν
 −µ
τ
, τ − ≡ τ (tau) lepton, ντ ≡ tau neutrino.
ντ
The three charged leptons are: the electron, the muon and the τ lepton, and their
charge is −|e|. The electron, which is a familiar particle, is stable. The electron neutrino,
or rather, the electron antineutrino (ν¯e ), were not detected till 1956, through the reaction:

p+ + ν¯e −→ n + e+ (61)

where e+ denotes the electron antiparticle, the positron.

The muon behaves as a heavy electron, it is unstable and disintegrates, mainly, through
the following way:
µ− −→ e− + ν¯e + νµ (62)

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The tau lepton is the heaviest of all leptons. It was discovered in 1974 and presents nu-
merous disintegration channels.

As seen before, each lepton presents its corresponding neutrino, whose masses are zero
or very small. The charged leptons feel the electromagnetic and weak interactions, while
the neutrinos only the weak one. This fact makes the neutrinos very difficult to detect,
since they hardly interact with matter.

Apart from the aforementioned leptons, one must consider their corresponding an-
tiparticles or antileptons. The antiparticles of the charged leptons, instead of being with
the same symbol that the particles with a line above, which is the usual agreement, they
are denoted with the name of the same particle without any line and indicating the elec-
tric charge as superscript. The reason is historical and it is to keep using an established
agreement before the formal development of the theory. Antileptons are also grouped in
generations:
 +
e
, e+ ≡ antielectron or positron, ν̄e ≡ electron antineutrino;
ν̄
 + e
µ
, µ+ ≡ antimuon, ν̄µ ≡ muon antineutrino;
ν̄
 +µ 
τ
, τ + ≡ antitau lepton, ν̄τ ≡ tau antineutrino.
ν̄τ
Each generation of leptons has associated a conservation law. The named “lepton num-
bers” must be conserved in any process.
Three types of lepton numbers can be found, as much as lepton families: Le or electron
lepton number, Lµ or muon lepton number and Lτ or tau lepton number. The lepton
numbers are defined in the following way:

Le ≡ N (e− ) − N (e+ ) + N (νe ) − N (ν¯e )

Lµ ≡ N (µ− ) − N (µ+ ) + N (νµ ) − N (ν¯µ ) (63)
Lτ ≡ N (τ − ) − N (τ + ) + N (ντ ) − N (ν¯τ )

where N (l) indicates the number of the l-type leptons that there are in that state. If
there is only one lepton, for instance, the electron, then Le = 1.

It has been experimentally established the conservation of the three lepton numbers
separately, it is, that the values of Le , Lµ , and Lτ are equal before and after any observed
process. Therefore, leptons cannot be created or annihilated, but a lepton-antilepton pair
can be created at the same time. Moreover, as the electric charge is also conserved, new
restrictions appear. For instance, if an electron is created either a positron or an electron
antineutrino appears (in this case, a positive charge is also needed in the final state).
Some allowed and forbidden reactions are the following:

π + −→ µ+ + νµ allowed,
µ −→ e+ + νe + ν¯µ allowed,
+

µ+ −→ e+ + γ forbidden.

The values of the lepton numbers in the forbidden reaction are: Le (before) = 0, Lµ (before) =
−1, Le (after) = −1, Lµ (after) = 0.

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Some magnitudes regarding the leptons are collected in table (3), such as their mass,
mean lifetime, charge and lepton numbers. Let us remind that the charge of a particle
is considered as its electric charge in |e| units, with “e” being the electron charge. These
quantities have changed the sign for antiparticles.

lepton M (MeV/c2 ) T (s) Q Le Lµ Lτ

e− 0, 511 ∞ −1 1 0 0
νe ≤ 3 eV ∞ 0 1 0 0
µ− 105, 7 2, 2 × 10−6 −1 0 1 0
νµ ≤ 0, 19 ∞ 0 0 1 0
τ− 1777, 0 2, 9 × 10−13 −1 0 0 1
ντ ≤ 18, 2 ∞ 0 0 0 1

Table 3: Some magnitudes regarding the lepton mass (M ), mean lifetime (τ ), charge (Q)
and lepton numbers (Le , Lµ , Lτ ).

Finally, to point out that leptons are usually observed isolated and they do not form
lepton aggregates. There exist combinations of them, but weakly bound and very unstable,
as for instance, the positronium: e− e+ .

5.2.2 Quarks
Quarks are spin 1/2 fermions, they do feel the colour interaction and they have not internal
structure.
  As leptons, quarks group in three generations, written in pairs:
u
, u ≡ up, d ≡ down;
d
c
, c ≡ charm, s ≡ strange;
s
 
t
, t ≡ top, b ≡ beauty.
b
Each generation consists of a quark with charge q = 32 |e|, which is that written in the
upper part (u, c and t), and another quark with charge q = − 31 |e|, which is that written
in the lower part (d, s and b).
Antiquarks are written in the following way:
d¯
     
c̄ t̄
, , ,
ū s̄ b̄
¯ s̄ and b̄) and q = − 2 |e| for those of the lower
with charges q = 31 |e| for the upper part (d, 3
part (ū, c̄ and t̄).
In the same way that there is a lepton number, one can define a “baryon number” (B),
where “baryon” means non-elementary particles consisting of three quarks. B is defined
as:
1
B = (N (q) · N (q̄) ≡ N (q) − N (q̄) (64)
3
where N (q) and N (q̄) represent the number of quarks and antiquarks, respectively, which
can be found in the system. The conservation of the baryonic number in any process has
experimentally been established. Let us remind that a “meson” number is not defined due
to the fact that mesons consist of a quark-antiquark, and that number is 0.

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Some quantum numbers associated with the quarks are introduced, it is, not related
with any spatial variable. These quantum numbers are named “flavours” and are the
following: S or strangeness, C or charm, B or beauty and T or truth. For each quark its
values can be found in table (4) and for a baryon they are defined in the following way:

• strangeness: S = −(N (s) − N (s̄))

• charm: C = −(N (c) − N (c̄))

• beauty: B = −(N (b) − N (b̄))

• truth: T = −(N (t) − N (t̄)) (DUDA: ¿AÑADIR 1/3 A TODOS?)

where N (k) − N (k̄) denotes the number of quarks with the k and k̄ flavours, respectively.
These quantities, as well as the third component of isospin, I3 , are collected in table (4)
for quarks. The corresponding values for antiquarks are the opposite.

symbol name charge mass (MeV/c2 ) I I3 S C B T

u up 2/3 2, 5 1/2 1/2 0 0 0 0
d down −1/3 4, 9 1/2 −1/2 0 0 0 0
s strange −1/3 101 0 0 −1 0 0 0
c charm 2/3 1270 0 0 0 1 0 0
b beauty −1/3 4430 0 0 0 0 −1 0
t top 2/3 172000 0 0 0 0 0 1

Table 4: Some properties and quantum numbers for quarks.

It is worth taking into account that the following notation, which will be hereafter
employed, to not confuse the baryon number with the beauty quantum number and the
spin with the strangeness quantum number:

baryon number ≡ B, beauty quantum number ≡ B

spin ≡ S, strangeness quantum number ≡ S

The conservation of the baryon number is linked to the conservation of the number of
quarks. Both numbers are conserved in all the interactions. However, only the electro-
magnetic interactions conserve even the flavour of the quarks, it is, the weak interaction
can change the flavour of the quarks. For instance, in the reaction:

d −→ u + e+ + ν¯e (65)

it can be appreciated, as the quark d changes to the u flavour and this is only possible
through the weak interaction.
A A
Z XN −→ Z+1 Y N−1 + e− + ν¯e

n −→ p + e− + ν¯e
d −→ u + e− + ν¯e
 p=uud
n=udd

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The electric charge Q for hadrons is:

2 1
Q = (U + C + T ) − (D − S − B) (66)
3 3
¯
where U ≡ N (u) − N (ū) and D ≡ N (d) − N (d).

With all these definitions, it can be checked that both at quark and hadron level the
generalized Gell-Mann and relation is fulfilled DUDA:¿?:
B+S+C +B+T
Q = I3 + (67)
2
The addition Y = B + S was originally named “hypercharge”.

However, the interaction that keeps the quark bound in hadrons is the “colour” in-
teraction and each quark can be found in three “colour states”, named “red”, “blue” and
“green”. In this way, a red quark is a state with a unit of red colour, and zero of blue
and green colours. To carry out a unit of colour (red, blue or green) is akin to have a
unit of electric charge, except for the fact that in this case there are three kinds of charges.

Finally, let us mention that in the same way that the Van der Waals forces can be
considered as a residue of the electromagnetic interaction, the strong force can be consid-
ered as a residue of the colour interaction.

As the electromagnetic charge is conserved in the electromagnetic processes, the colour

charge is also conserved in the processes in which the colour interaction is involved, it is,
the colour is a symmetry of the colour interaction.
From the experimental point of view, only “without colour” hadrons, hadrons with “zero
total colour” or “singlets of colour” are observed, and this fact is called “colour confine-
ment”. It is worth pointing out that, as a consequence, quarks are never observed isolated,
but forming hadrons (all of them “colourless”).

5.3 The four forces

5.3.1 Introduction
As far as it is known, there exist four fundamental forces in the Universe: colour, elec-
tromagnetic, weak and gravitational force. Each of them, possesses its own theory, which
describe and explain them.

The classical theory of gravitation is the Newton’s law of universal gravitation. Its
generalization is the General Theory of Relativity of Albert Einstein, although “Geometro-
dynamics” would be a more appropriated name. There is not yet available a gravity quan-
tum theory, but that force has an irrelevant role in Particle Physics.
The physical theory which describes the electromagnetic forces is the Electrodynamics. It
had first a classical formulation developed by Maxwell and subsequently a quantum for-
mulation by Tomonaga, Feynmann and Schwinger. It is the Quantum Electrodynamics,
whose initials are “QED”.
The weak force, which intervenes in several types of disintegrations (beta decay, “strange”

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particles, etc.), was developed from its onset within the quantum theory framework and
there was not a classical version. Numerous authors have contributed to its development,
as for instance Fermi, Lee, Yang, Feynmann, Gell-Mann, Glashow, Weinberg and Salam.
Sometimes this theory is called “Flavourdynamics” or simply Glashow-Weinberg-Salam,
GWS, theory. Let us mention that in the GWS theory the electromagnetic and weak
interactions are treated as one only manifestation of the “electroweak” force. In this way,
the fundamental forces would be reduced to three.
Regarding the colour interaction, the pioneering work of Yukawa describing the strong
nuclear force can be highlighted, although there was not a proper theory until the advent
of the Quantum Chromodynamics, whose initials are “QCD”.

Each of these forces possesses its exchange boson. For the colour interaction is the
“gluon”, for the electromagnetism if the photon, for the weak force are the W± and Z0 bo-
son and for gravity is the “graviton”. These mediators transmit the force between quarks
and leptons.

In table (5) are collected some properties of the mentioned interactions. As it can be
checked, the colour force is the most intense of all of them, fact which explains why it was
called “strong” in the beginning.

Interaction Intensity Theory Mediators

Colour 1 Chromodynamics Gluon
Electromagnetism 10−3 Electrodynamics Photon
Weak 10−14 Flavourdynamics W± and Z0 bosons
Gravitational 10−43 Geometrodynamics Graviton

Table 5: Some properties of the fundamental interactions.

A proper description of these four interactions requires the study of many mathemat-
ical concepts, so that only a qualitative vision of them will be provided in these notes.

5.3.2 Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)

Quantum Electrodynamics was the first and the simplest of all the dynamic theories, in
fact, it serves as a model of the others. Let us begin by studying the simplest electromag-
netic process and the one to which many others can be reduced:

Figure 8: An electron emitting a photon.

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In figure (8) the following process is described: an electron “comes in” and emits a
photon. As it is established that the time moves from left to right, it is observed that
there is an e− which “comes out” too. This kind of representation is called “fundamental
vertex”. Any fundamental vertex is forbidden in Physics and only by joining two or more
of them one can obtain physically allowed processes. In these kind of plots, to represent
a particle moving in one direction is equivalent to represent its antiparticle moving in the
opposite direction. In the case that a particle was its own antiparticle, no arrow is plotted
in this line as for instance, the photon. Therefore, the fundamental vertex in figure (8) is
equivalent to the following: In figures (8) and (9) electrons, positrons and photons have

Figure 9: Fundamental vertex of the annihilation electron-positron.

been represented, but this kind of plots can include any type of particle (fundamental or
not). Moreover, as it has been established that time moves from left to right, the arrows
that appear in the lower part of figures (8) and (9) will be omitted hereafter.
To describe real processes two or more fundamental vertices are joined, so that a called
“Feynmann-diagram” is obtained. Taking into account figure (8), the process in which
two electrons interact exchanging a photon can be represented in the following way:

Figure 10: Feynmann-diagram, two electrons exchanging a photon.

It is necessary to have in mind that there is no need to say which electron emits the
photon and which electron absorbs it, because both possibilities are already included in
the own diagram. This representation, which describes the exchange of a photon between
two electrons, is what in classical theory is known as “repulsion of the same sign” charges
or in QED “Møller scattering”.

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Any process between particles can be represented with a Feynmann diagram. In the
following example an electron and a positron annihilate each other to produce a photon
which, in turn, gives rive to a new electron-positron pair. This process can be represented
with two diagrams, which are in reality the same, it is, only one of them must be taken
into account to carry out calculations. It is worth clarifying that no temporal arrow
appears in the photon because it is its own particle.

Figure 11: Equivalent Feynmann diagrams.

5.3.3 Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)

In Chromodynamics the colour is the charge of interaction, in the same way that the elec-
tric charge is the charge in Electrodynamics. The analogous process to e− −→ e− + γ in
Electrodynamics is quark −→ quark + gluon, or making simple the notation q −→ q + g.
Its fundamental vertex is the following:

Figure 12: Fundamental vertex of a quark emitting a gluon.

As it can be observed, gluons are represented by springs, while photons by undulating

strokes. It is also necessary to take into account that in the fundamental vertices and,
therefore, in the Feynmann diagrams, no lepton can appear because the only interaction
that appears is the colour force and leptons do not feel this kind of interaction.

To obtain physical processes, two or more fundamental vertices can be joined, as it

has been done before. For instance, the force between two quarks, which is responsible for
their binding in hadrons, and ultimately, of the existence of protons, neutrons and nuclei,
can be represented at first order with the following Feynmann diagram (figure (13).

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Figure 13: Two quarks exchanging a gluon.

So far it has been seen that Chromodynamics and Electrodynamics are similar. How-
ever, they are different and the first difference between them is that, while the electric
charge is of one type (being its value positive or negative by agreement), there exist three
kind of colour charges, which in turn can take a positive or negative value.
The three colour charges are called “r” from red, “g” form green and “b” from blue. In
the process q −→ q + g the colour of the quark can change, but not the flavour. Let us
remind that the flavours of the quarks are frequently referred to as: u, d, s, c, b and t.
Clarified this point, the process in which a blue up quarks becomes a red up quark can be
considered. As the charge is always conserved and in this case the charge is the colour,
it is inferred that the gluon must transport the “difference in colour”, which in this case
is “blue minus red” or “blue plus antired”, or rather, a blue charge minus a red charge or
a blue charge plus an antired charge. This process can be represented in the following
fundamental vertex:

Figure 14: Fundamental vertex of a blue quark changing to red by emitting a gluon.

Gluons are “bicoloured” and transport one positive unit of a colour and one negative unit
of another colour.

A second difference between Electrodynamics and the Chromodynamics is that, while

photons do not have electric charge, gluons do have colour charge or, in other words, pho-
tons do not feel the electromagnetic interaction, but gluons do feel the colour interaction.

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5.3.4 Weak interaction

There is no specific name for the source that produces the weak interaction, in the same
way that the electric charge gives rise to the electromagnetic interaction or the colour
charge to the colour interaction. Irrespectively of how it is interpreted, one can say that
leptons and quarks feel this interaction. Let us remind that:

• leptons do not have colour, so they do not feel the colour interaction;

• neutrinos do not have electric charge, so they do not feel the electromagnetic inter-
action;

• but leptons, neutrinos and quarks feel the weak interaction.

As in the weak force, there exist charged and neutral mediators, from the electric
point of view, two kind of weak interactions can appear: those charged, created by the
W± bosons, and those neutral, created by Z0 .

Due to the fact that the weak force is easier to describe in the case of leptons as
compared to quarks, its study will commence with the former case.

Leptons:
The charged fundamental vertex describes the process in which a lepton, which can be
e− , µ− or τ − , emits a W− boson or absorbs a W+ boson, and its corresponding neutrino
νe , νµ , ντ . If this generic lepton is represented by “l” and the generic neutrino by “νl ”, the
process would be l− −→ νl + W− , and its representation:

Figure 15: Fundamental vertex of a charged u blue leton changing to its neutrino by
emitting a boson W− .

From now on, in the fundamental vertices and in the Feynmann diagrams, the W+ , W−
and Z0 bosons will be represented by a dashed line, as in figure (15).
As always, two fundamental vertices can be combined to describe any process. For in-
stance, the reaction µ− + νe −→ e− + νµ can be represented with the following
Feynmann diagram (16).

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Figure 16: Feynmann diagram, leptons exchanging a W− boson.

Quarks:
Leptonic vertices connect members of the same generation: e− gives rise to νe , figure (15),
for example. An e− never becomes a µ− or a µ− never becomes a ντ .
In this way, the theory reinforces the conservation of the electron lepton number, the
muon lepton number and the tau lepton number. It could be thought that the same rule
is applied also in the quarks, in such a way that the fundamental charged vertex is:

Figure 17: Fundamental vertex of quark with charge −1/3 changing to another quark of
charge 2/3 by emitting a W− boson.

A quark with charge −1/3, it is, d, s or b, becomes another quark with charge 2/3, namely,
u, c or t, with the emission of a W− boson. The outgoing quark has the same colour that
the in-going quark, but a different flavour. It is impossible for the W− boson to carry the
“lost” flavour because W− bosons also couple with leptons and leptons do not have flavour.
The simple explanation is that the flavour is not conserved in the weak interactions. In
the same way that a quark changes of colour in a colour vertex and its theory is called
“Chromodynamics”, when a quark changes of flavour in a weak vertex, its theory is called
“Flavourdynamics”.

The end of the stroke corresponding to the W− boson in figure (17) may finish in a
lepton vertex, figure (18), in whose case one would have a “semileptonic” process, or in a
colour vertex, figure (19), which gives rise to a hadronic process.

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Figure 18: Neutron disintegration: n −→ p + ν¯e + e− (d −→ u + ν¯e + e− , n ≡ udd, p ≡

uud).

Figure 19: ∆0 −→ p + π − (d −→ u + ū + d; ∆0 ≡ udd, π − ≡ ud).

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6 The Quark Model

6.1 Introduction
In the 1960s a large number of hadrons were detected and studied (then known with the
name “elementary” particles), due to the development of large particle accelerators.
The quantum numbers of hadrons are explained in the Quark Model and from the exper-
imental point of view it is known as “hadrons spectroscopy”.

The complexity due to the large number and properties of the hadrons was overcome
when the quarks constituents model was proposed by Murray Gell-Mann, Yuval Ne’eman
and George Zweig, object of study in this section. The general consistency that exits be-
tween the quantum numbers of hadrons and the predictions of the Quark Model provides
every solid reason to believe this model and, ultimately, in the existence of quarks. The
suspicion generated after several years of unsuccessful quest of quarks in a free state was
finally overcome with the arrival of the “partons” model or fundamental constituents of
the hadrons, which quickly were identified with quarks.
The first quark model of Gell-Mann, Ne’eman and Zweig is based in the unitary symmetry
of SU(3) and postulates the existence of three basic constituents, which Gell-Mann called
with the name of “quarks”. These three quarks are distinguished by their flavour and they
are named “u”, “d” and “s”.

The SU(3) symmetry includes the symmetry SU(2)I ⊗ U(1)Y , which collects isospin
and strangeness conservation separately. The intuitive interpretation of the former ex-
pression is that there exist two quarks invariant under isospin, u and d, and a third quark,
the s quark. It is worth pointing out that the subscript of U(1) is not S of strangeness,
but the hipper-charge Y . Using one over the other is irrelevant because both magnitudes
are related Y = B + S, being B the baryon number. The symmetry is SU(3) because it
is the most simple symmetry which contains these two underlying symmetries.

According to the Quark Model, hadrons are bound states of quarks, and the most
elementary structures are:

• baryons, states of three quarks qqq;

• mesons, quark-antiquark states q q̄.

The quantum numbers in table (6) are assigned to the first three quarks. All of them are
fermions with 1/2 spin and they have a baryon number B = 1/3 so that baryons have
a baryon number B = 1 and mesons have a baryon number B = 0. There also exists
the antiquark of each quark in table (6). Antiquarks have a baryon number B = −1/3,
in addition to all the charges changed in signed. In this way, the model is generalized
to all antiparticles. It assumes that antibaryons consist of three antiquarks q¯1 q¯2 q¯3 , and
mesons q1 q¯2 will have antimesons q¯1 q2 , so that the existence of mesons that are its own
antiparticle will be possible.

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quark charge mass (MeV/c2 I I3 S C B T

u 2/3 2,5 1/2 1/2 0 0 0 0
d -1/3 4,9 1/2 -1/2 0 0 0 0
s -1/3 101 0 0 -1 0 0 0

Table 6: Properties of the first three quarks. All of them have s = 1/2, B = 1/3 and
parity = ±1 (by agreement).

Let us remind that no free quarks have been yet discovered and that they only exist
confined inside the hadrons.

In the Quark Model the generalised Gell-Mann and Nishijima relation, expression (67):
B+S+C +B+T
Q = I3 +
2
becomes simplified:
B+S Y
Q = I3 + = I3 + (68)
2 2
which is the Gell-Mann and Nishijima relation.

6.2 Quantum numbers of hadrons

The aim of the Quark Model is to describe the quantum numbers of all hadrons. The most
representative quantum numbers are: mass, spin-parity and charge conjugation, denoted
as J P C , and the Q, B, S, C, B and T charges.
Considering some of these magnitudes, the values for S, Q and I are collected in table
(7).

baryon meson
S Q I S Q I
0 2, 1, 0, -1 ,
3 1
2 2
1 1, 0 1
2
-1 1, 0, -1 1, 0 0 1, 0, -1 1, 0
-2 0, -1 1
2
-1 0, -1 1
2
-3 -1 0

Table 7: Values for charge Q and isospin I, according to the value of strangeness S, for
baryons and mesons, in the Quark Model.

All quantum numbers of hadrons are conserved by the strong interaction and this
serves to deduce unknown quantum numbers. The following two reactions illustrate this
idea, where the composition of each of the hadrons is shown.
Reaction #1: p + p −→ p + p + π 0
1 ¯ (69)
uud + uud −→ uud + uud + √ (uū + dd)
2
Reaction #2: p + K− −→ ∧0 + π 0
1 ¯ (70)
uud + ūs −→ uds + √ (uū + dd)
2

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On the other hand, the isospin symmetry is a consequence of the equality of the colour
force between the u and d quarks. Werner Heisenberg introduced the isospin (1932) to
characterise the nucleons, which present two possible isospin states: p and n. Both behave
in the same way under the strong interaction. The invariance of the strong Hamiltonian
under rotations in the isospin space has as a consequence the conservation of the modulus
of I Quarks (u, d) form and isospin doublet, I = 1/2. The other quarks are isospin
singlets, I = 0.

6.3 The SU(3) symmetry

Until now, the product SU(2)I ⊗ U(1)Y has been considered, where the quarks u and
d are separated from the s quark. However, Gell-Mann observed that the three quarks
can be grouped in only one ensemble described by a larger symmetry, which contains
SU(2)I ⊗ U(1)Y and is SU(3). It is a flavour symmetry in which each hadron represents
a member of a certain multiplet. As the Hamiltonian of SU(3) is relativistic invariant,
all hadrons of the same SU(3) multiplet have the same quantum numbers of J P spin parity.

Figure (20) displays the fundamental representation of the flavour group SU(3). The
quantum number of interest of this model can be seen: the third component of isospin I3
and the strangeness S (which is equivalent to Y ). The 1/2 isospin doublet, formed by the
u and d quarks, and the isospin singlet, the s quark, with S = −1, can be observed.

Figure 20: The three quarks that form the fundamental representation of the flavour
model.

There also exits a fundamental multiplet of antiquarks, in which ū, d¯ and s̄ have a change
in the signs of I3 , S, B and Q.

6.4 Baryon and meson multiplets in SU(3)

The way in which hadrons multiplets are generated in SU(3) is based in the products of
the irreducible representations of the groups following the scheme qqq for baryons and
q q̄ for mesons. The graphical method employed is that of “weights”, where “weight” is
understood as the coordinates of a certain particle in the (I3 , S) plane (see figure (20),
for example).

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6.4.1 Irreducible representations of SU(3)

The importance of the flavour group SU(3) lies in the postulate that hadrons are the
states of its irreducible representations, all of them having the same J P spin-parity.
To obtain the graph of any irreducible representation of SU(3), the following rules must
be taken into account:

• One state can be found, at least, for each point (I3 , Y ) of the representation.

• The obtained diagrams have triangular or hexagonal symmetry.

The following results for baryons and mesons are obtained applying these rules:

Baryons:
Baryons are states of three quarks, qqq, and its irreducible representation is:

3 ⊗ 3 ⊗ 3 = 10S ⊗ 8MS ⊗ 8MA ⊗ 1A (71)

The meaning of this expression is the following. Starting with the three quarks u, d and
s, and combining them into trios as the symmetry group of SU(3) of flavour imposes, 27
baryons are obtained. Such baryons are grouped in 1 decuplet, 2 octets and 1 singlet with
respect to SU(3). The subscripts S and A mean that the multiplets are totally symmetric
or antisymmetric under exchange, respectively. The two octets are not equal and they
are distinguished for the exchange symmetry of the first two quarks, MS and MA denote
symmetry and antisymmetry under that exchange, respectively.

Mesons:
Mesons are states of two quarks, q q̄, and its irreducible representation is:

3 ⊗ 3̄ = 1 ⊗ 8 (72)

which means that a singlet and an octet are obtained, that is globally referred as a nonet,
with respect to SU(3).

6.4.2 Baryons multiplets

To think that the baryon state of the lowest energy is formed by quarks with relative angu-
lar momentum l = l′ = 0 is reasonable, being l the orbital angular momentum between the
q1 and q2 quarks, and l′ the orbital angular momentum between the q3 quark and the mass
′
center of the q1 and q2 quarks. Parity is P = (−1)l+l = [Considering the ground state] =
(−1)0+0 = +1. There exist two baryon multiplets that fulfil the condition: the octet with
+
J P = 21 , among which are the proton and the neutron, figure (21a), and the decuplet
+
with J P = 32 , figure (21b).

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1+ 3+
(a) SU(3) octet with baryons J P = 2 . (b) SU(3) decuplet with baryons J P = 2 .

Figure 21: SU(3) multiplets with baryons.

6.4.3 Meson multiplets

Mesons are formed by a q q̄ pair and the state of the lowest energy is that with l = 0
orbital angular momentum. As the parity is P = (−1)l+1 , it is obtained that P = −1.
The quark and the antiquark are ferminos, so that they can couple to give rise to a S
total spin equal to 0 or 1.
Therefore, two nonets will be obtained, expression (72), with J P = 0− , pseudoscalar
mesons or J P = 1− , vector mesons.
Pseudoscalar mesons of the nonet are represented in figure (22a), while vector meson can
be found in figure (22b).

(a) Nonet of pseudoscalar mesons, J P = 0− . (b) Nonet of vector mesons, J P = 1− .

Figure 22: SU(3) nonets with mesons.

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As it can be seen in figure (22a), mesons associated to the SU(3) pseudoscalar nonet
are the following:
• in the SU(3) octet is found an isospin triplet (π − , π 0 , π + ), two isospin doublets (k 0
and k + , k − and k̄ 0 ) and one isospin singlet (η);
• in the SU(3) singlet only a isospin singlet can be found (η ′ ).
On the other hand, mesons associated to the SU(3) vector nonet are the following,
figure(22b):
• in the SU(3) octet is found an isospin triplet (ρ− , ρ0 and ρ+ ), two isospin doublets
(k ∗0 and k ∗+ , k ∗− and k̄ ∗0 ) and one isospin singlet (ω);
• in the SU(3) singlet only a isospin singlet can be found (φ).

6.5 Hadrons wave function

The total wave function of one hadron can be written in the following way:
ψtotal = ψspatial ψspin ψflavour ψcolour (73)
In this expression all the wave functions refer to 2 or 3 quarks, depending whether the
hadron is a baryon or a meson, respectively. Moreover, each of them will contain the
arguments associated with the described space.

In the case of baryons, the three quarks which form a baryon are considered indistin-
guishable (qqq), although they are distinguishable actually. For this reason the antisym-
metrization principle is applied to baryons and the total wave function ψtotal in (73) must
be antisymmetric under the exchange of two quarks. In the case of mesons, consisted
of distinguishable particles (q q̄) this rule is not applied and the character of the wave
function must be determined case by case.

Let us now analyse each part of the total wave function. The form of ψspatial is
unknown. ψspin and ψflavour depend on the spin and flavour quantum numbers, so that a
general rule cannot be given. With respect to ψcolour , Nature only permits the existence of
particles without colour charge (it is, colourless particles) and that turns into the fact that
ψcolour is a singlet both for baryons and mesons. In the case of baryons an antisymmetric
singlet.
• Baryons:
1
ψcolour (1, 2, 3) = √ (|rgb⟩ + |gbr⟩ + |brg⟩ − |brg⟩ − |bgr⟩ − |rbg⟩) (74)
6
• Mesons:
1
(75)


ψcolour (1, 2̄) = √ |rr̄⟩ + |gḡ⟩ + bb̄
3

SU(3) SU(4) SU(5) SU(6)

2dim 3dim 4dim 5dim
uds udsc udscb udscbt

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7 Symmetries and conservation laws

7.1 Introduction
Symmetries and conservation laws appear in Physics constantly. The theorem of (Amalie
Emmy) Noether states that each symmetry in Nature is associated to a conservation law
and viceversa. This is why symmetries are so important: because they inform of conserved
magnitudes.
From the mathematical point of view, a symmetry is associated to a transformation which
maintains invariant the wave function of the physical system. Therefore, it is a property
that may fulfil any kind of interaction.
Conservation laws are matched with the existence of quantum numbers that are con-
served, it is, they are unaltered before and after an interaction.
In Physics, the most interesting groups are the matrices. For example, the Lorentz group
consists of 4 × 4 matrices. In Particle Physics, the most usual groups are called “U (n)”:
unitary n × n matrices. Let us remind that a matrix U is unitary if its inverse is equal to
its complex conjugate transpose: U − 1 = U † . Moreover, if the determinant of the matrix
is equal to 1, they are called “SU(n)”, where the “S” comes from “special”. If it is required
that the matrices in U (n) where real, the group is denoted by “O(n)”, where “O” comes
from the fact that the matrices are orthogonal, namely, they are matrices whose inverse is
equal to its transpose: O− 1 = Ot . Finally, if it is demanded in O(n) that the determinant
was 1, the SO(n) group is obtained. SO(n) can represent the group of rotations in a
space of n dimensions. Therefore, SO(3) describes the symmetry group of rotations in
our world, symmetry related with the conservation of the angular momentum, according
to that established in the Noether theorem. SU(2), for its part, is the most important
group of internal symmetries in Particle Physics (isospin), being SU(2) and SU(3) very
similar from the structural point of view.
Let us now study some symmetries and conservation laws.

7.2 Relativistic invariance

In Particle Physics, the idea of relativistic invariance is very important, concept which
derives from the Theory of Special Relativity. This theory has two basic principles:

1. Principle of relativity: the laws of Physics are the same for any inertial reference
system.

2. Principle of the constancy of speed of light: light travels with the same velocity in
any inertial reference system.

The collisions between particles are the most important processes in which the rel-
ativistic invariance is applied. To study such processes, the four-vector formalism is
commonly employed. In a relativistic collision, the energy and the momentum vector are
always conserved, and, as a consequence, the energy-momentum four-vector is conserved
too. Then, if two particles A and B collide to give rise to C and D particles, according
to the scheme:
A + B −→ C + D (76)

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The following conservation laws are fulfilled:

o
energy is conserved: EA +EB =EC +ED
momentum vector is conserved: p⃗A +p⃗B =p⃗C +p⃗D
⇒ pµA + pµB = pµC + pµD

7.3 Charge conjugation C

The charge conjugation operator C transforms a particle a in its antiparticle ā, leaving
their momentum p⃗ and spin ⃗s unaltered (Ca is a number):

Cψa (⃗p, ⃗s) = Ca ψā (⃗p, ⃗s) (77)

7.4 Parity P
Parity transformation P is defined in the following way:

⃗x −→ P ⃗x = −⃗x (78)

where ⃗x is a vector in space.

It is important to introduce now the concept of “helicity” λ, which is essentially the

projection of the spin ⃗s over the momentum p⃗. It is also known as “spin polarisation”.
⃗s · p⃗
λ= (79)
|⃗s| · |⃗p|

Helicity is conserved in the electromagnetic and strong interactions and, in this case,
it is a well defined quantum number. Moreover, it is a Lorentz invariant for massless
particles. Photons with λ = +1 and λ = −1 are called “right-handed” and “left-handed”,
respectively. Photons with λ = 0 are virtual.
Parity violation in weak processes was first discovered in the beta disintegration of 60 Co.
However, conclusions can be drawn about the values of the helicity. For example, let us
consider the pion π + disintegration, according to the scheme:

π + −→ µ+ + νµ (80)

It has been experimentally obtained that the neutrinos of this reaction are left-handed
(λ = −1). In the analogous reaction:

π − −→ µ− + ν¯µ (81)

it was found that the antineutrinos are right-handed (λ = +1). However, experiments
permit to go beyond and state that all neutrinos are left-handed and all antineutrinos are
right-handed. On the other hand, as shown in figure (23), the mirrored image of a left-
handed neutrino is a right-handed neutrino. The problem is that right-handed neutrinos
do not exist and this fact implies a parity symmetry violation.

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Figure 23: Parity symmetry violation.

7.5 CP symmetry
The fact that the parity was not a symmetry of Nature caused a great confusion. In
reality, until the experiment of the 60 Co beta disintegration any test had been carried
out to this symmetry because it was supposed to be true. It is like some processes did
not have a mirrored image. Parity violation imposes that neutrinos were left-handed and
antineutrinos right-handed. However, if this fact is considered and it is taken into account
that matter and antimatter cannot be distinguished neither, one arrives to the certainty
that the symmetry operation that we could call “mirrored image” is a combined action
of parity transformation and charge conjugation. In this way, the mirrored image of a
left-handed neutrino is a right-handed antineutrino and both of them exist. Following
with this reasoning, reaction (80) can be interpreted as the “mirrored image” of reaction
(81) (or viceversa). To understand it, parity to (80) must be first applied, followed by
charge conjugation.
It is worth reminding that when the parity operator is applied on a particle, its momen-
tum changes, but not its spin, so that the opposed λ helicity is obtained (λ is defined in
(79).
The scheme describing all this process would be:

Due to this fact, it was thought that although neither parity nor charge conjugation
are symmetries of the weak interaction, the CP transformation, that is, parity followed by
charged conjugation; was indeed the conserved symmetry. But it is only approximately
true, because the weak interaction violates the CP symmetry too. However, in a minimum
way, as opposed to the P violation, which is maximum.

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7.6 Time reversal and T CP theorem

The T yime reversal operator acts in the following way:

T ψ(t) = CT ψ(−t) (82)

it is, the sign of t is changed. As there are not eigenvalues for T (CT ), it cannot be defined
quantum numbers associated to this symmetry.
Considering the violation of the CP symmetry, designing experiments in which the weak
interaction also violated the time reversal would be interesting. However, as for now, it
has not been achieved because strong and electromagnetic interactions completely obscure
the effect of the weak force.

In any case, there exists a solid reason to think that time reversal is not a perfect sym-
metry of Nature: the T CP theorem. Such theorem states that the combined operations
of time reversal, charge conjugation and parity, in any order, are on exact symmetry of
any interaction. As a consequence of this theorem, it is impossible to build a quantum
field theory which violated T CP . Namely, if CP is violated, a “compensating” violation
of T must appear in order to be coherent with the final results. The T CP theorem is
not all an improvised statement, but one based in arguments of Quantum Mechanics and
relativistic invariance, among others.

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