2 Fundamental particles Answers

Page 18 Test yourself on prior knowledge

1 a) ZNa= 11  Q = 11e
= 11  1.6 x 10-19 C
= 1.76  10-18 C
b) Sodium-23 nucleus contains 23 nucleons (protons + neutrons); each nucleon has a mass
approximately 1 800 times that of the electron so:
mNa = 23  1800  9.11 x 10-31 kg
= 3.77 x 10-26 kg (3 sf)
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
2 a) 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑁𝐴

12.0×10−3kg
= 6.02×1023

= 1.99 × 10−26 kg (3 sf)

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
b) 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
⟹ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦

1.99×10−26 kg
= 3500 kg m−3

= 5.69 × 10−30 m3 (3 sf)

This calculation assumes the atoms completely fill the space (they are cubes). However, if we
assume atoms are spheres, as in the next calculation, some of the bulk volume will be empty
space. This means the density of an atom will be greater than the density of the material so
the volume – and thus the radius – of an atom is less than the value calculated here.
4
c) 𝑉 = 3 π𝑟 3

3 3𝑉
⟹ 𝑟 = √4π

3 3×5.69×10−30 m3
=√
4π

= 1.11 × 10−10 m (3 sf)

1⁄
d) 𝑟 = 𝑟0 𝐴 3

1⁄
= 1.25 × 10−15 m × (12 3)

= 2.86 × 10−15 m (3 sf)

𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
e) 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

1.11×10−10 m
= 2.86×10−15 m

= 38 811 = 38 100 (3 sf)

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

Page 20 Test yourself

1 The Standard Model is a theory explaining the relationships between the fundamental particles
and forces that make up the universe. It describes interactions between quarks, leptons,
exchange particles and the fundamental forces.

2 Particles and their antiparticles have the same mass-energy but opposite charge.

3 1 MeV = 1.6  10-13 J

4 Leptons: electron; electron-neutrino; muon; muon-neutrino; tau; tau-neutrino.

Quarks: up; down; strange; charm; bottom; top.
5 a) -1e

b) 0

c) + 2⁄3 𝑒

d) +1e

e) − 1⁄3 𝑒

f) − 1⁄3 𝑒

6 up quark; down quark; electron; electron-neutrino

7 A particle that cannot be broken up into smaller particles / a particle with no structure.

8 3

Page 21 Test yourself

9 up; down; strange; charm; bottom; top.
They all have different masses.

10 C – protons and electrons

11 Current observations show that quarks cannot be broken down into simpler building blocks, they
do not have internal structure.

12 Bottom quark; proton; down quark; up quark; electron

13 Deep inelastic scattering involves firing very high energy electrons at protons. The electrons have
enough energy to penetrate the proton and may be scattered or produce a shower of other
particles so revealing the proton structure.

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

Page 24 Test yourself

14 Strong nuclear force – gluon

Electromagnetic force – photon

Weak nuclear force – W, Z0 (W and Z bosons)

Gravity – graviton (not yet detected)

15 On the quantum scale, forces act by particles exchanging exchange particles – that is, they act
when one particle interacts with another.

16 Exchange particles have extremely short lifetimes, effectively existing only during the actual
interaction – hence virtual.

17 Alpha emission

Page 26 Activity
Drawing Feynman diagrams

1 𝜇 + → 𝑒 + + 𝜈𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝜇

2 𝐾 0 → π− + π+

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2 Fundamental particles Answers

3 𝜈𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝑒 → 𝛾

4 𝜐𝑒 + 𝑛 → 𝑒 − + 𝑝

5 𝑒− + 𝑒+ → 𝑒 − + 𝑒 +

Page 27 Test yourself

18 a) muon

b) proton; pion; neutron

c) muon; photon

d) pion

e) photon

19 A meson is made up of a quark–antiquark pair, whereas a baryon contains three quarks.

20 All the leptons plus the W and Z0.

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2 Fundamental particles Answers

21 a) hadron; baryon

b) hadron; meson

c) exchange particle

d) lepton

Page 29 Test yourself

22 Total lepton number before interaction = total lepton number after interaction.

23 9.11 x 10-31 kg  200 = 1.82  10-28 kg

24 Lbefore = (+1) + (-1) = 0

Lafter = (-1) + (-1) = -2

The reaction cannot occur as it would violate the law of conservation of lepton number.

25 An anti-electron neutrino must be produced to conserve lepton number.

The neutron that decays and the resulting proton both have L = 0; the electron (β particle) has L =
1 – so an anti-lepton must be produced alongside it so that the total lepton number after
emission is zero.

Page 31 Test yourself

26 Protons are made up of quarks: hadrons contain quarks.
A proton consists of two up quarks and one down quark: baryons are made of three quarks.

27 udd

28 One up quark changes into a down quark (producing a W+ particle at the same time).

29 11𝑝 → 10𝑛 + +10𝑒 + 𝜈𝑒

𝐵: + 1 ⟶ +1 + 0 + 0 ✓conserved

Page 33 Test yourself

30 a) proton: q = +1e; B = +1

b) antiproton: q = −1e; B = −1

c) neutron: q = 0; B = +1

d) electron: q = −1e; B = 0

e) antineutron: q = 0; B = −1

f) positron: q = +1e; B = 0

g) uds baryon: q = (+ 2⁄3 𝑒 − 1⁄3 𝑒 − 1⁄3 𝑒) = 0; B = +1

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

h) 𝑢̅ 𝑢̅𝑠̅ baryon: q = (− 2⁄3 𝑒 − 2⁄3 𝑒 + 1⁄3 𝑒) = −1e; B = −1

i) dss baryon: q = (− 1⁄3 𝑒 − 1⁄3 𝑒 − 1⁄3 𝑒) = −1e; B = +1

31 a) baryons (D)

b) baryons (D)

c) leptons (A)

d) exchange particles (C)

e) leptons (A)

f) mesons (E)

g) quarks (B)

h) baryons (D)

32 b, c, d, e, f and g

33 a, d, and e

34 a) 21𝐻 – 2 baryons and 1 lepton: 1p; 1e; 1n

b) 42𝐻𝑒 – 4 baryons and 2 leptons: 2p; 2e; 2n

14
c) 6𝐶 – 14 baryons and 6 leptons: 6p; 6e; 8n
23
d) 11𝑁𝑎 – 23 baryons and 11 leptons: 11p; 11e; 12n
238
e) 92𝑈 – 238 baryons and 92 leptons: 92p; 92e; 146n
294
f) 118𝑈𝑢𝑜 – 294 baryons and 118 leptons: 118p; 118e; 176n

Page 35 Activity
1 𝑝 + 𝜋 − → Σ− + 𝐾 +

Before interaction After interaction Quantity

Conservation
conserved?
Quantity p − Total Σ− K+ Total ✓ or 
Q +1 −1 0 −1 +1 0 ✓
B +1 0 +1 +1 0 +1 ✓
L 0 0 0 0 0 0 ✓
S 0 0 0 −1 +1 0 ✓
Possible: all quantities conserved

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

2 𝑝 + 𝜈̅𝑒 → 𝑒 + + Σ0

Before interaction After interaction Quantity

Conservation
conserved?
Quantity p 𝜈𝑒 Total e+ Σ0 Total ✓ or 
Q +1 0 +1 +1 0 +1 ✓
B +1 0 +1 0 +1 +1 ✓
L 0 −1 −1 −1 0 −1 ✓
S 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 
Possible: strangeness is not conserved in a weak interaction

3 𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 + + 𝜈𝑒

Before Quantity
Conservation After interaction
interaction conserved?
Quantity
n Total p e+ 𝜈𝑒 Total ✓ or 
Q 0 0 +1 +1 0 +2 
B +1 +1 +1 0 0 +1 ✓
L 0 0 0 −1 +1 0 ✓
S 0 0 0 0 0 0 ✓
Not possible: it violates conservation of charge

4 𝑝 + 𝑒 + → 𝑒 − + Σ0 + 𝐾 +

Before interaction After interaction Quantity

Conservation
conserved?
Quantity p e+ Total e− 0 K+ Total
✓ or 
Q +1 +1 +2 −1 0 +1 0 
B +1 0 +1 0 +1 0 +1 ✓
L 0 −1 −1 +1 0 0 +1 
S 0 0 0 0 −1 +1 0 ✓
Not possible: it violates conservation of charge and lepton number

5 𝑛 → 𝑝 + 𝑒 − + 𝜈̅𝑒 –

Before interaction After interaction Quantity

Conservation
conserved?
Quantity n Total p e− ν̅e Total
✓ or 
Q 0 0 +1 −1 0 0 ✓
B +1 +1 +1 0 0 +1 ✓
L 0 0 0 +1 −1 0 ✓
S 0 0 0 0 0 0 ✓
Possible: all quantities conserved

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

6 𝜋 − + 𝑝 → 𝑛 + 𝜋 0 + 𝜈̅𝑒

Before interaction After interaction Quantity

Conservation
conserved?
Quantity 𝜋− p Total n 𝜋0 𝜈̅𝑒 Total
✓ or 
Q −1 +1 0 0 0 0 0 ✓
B 0 +1 +1 +1 0 0 +1 ✓
L 0 0 0 0 0 −1 −1 
S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ✓
Not possible: it violates conservation of lepton number

Page 36–37 Test yourself

35 𝜋 0 = 𝑢𝑢̅ (or 𝑑𝑑̅, although this not given in the question)
𝜋 + = 𝑢𝑑̅
𝜋 − = 𝑑𝑢̅

36 d) π+ → μ+ + μ− (charge is not conserved)

37 a) R

b) S

c) Q

38 a)

Quark pair 𝒔𝒔̅ ̅

𝒔𝒅 𝒅𝒔̅ ̅
𝒅𝒅
0 0 0
Name phi kaon (anti-symmetric) kaon (symmetric) rho
Baryon number 0 0 0 0
Charge/e 0 0 0 0
Strangeness 0 -1 +1 0
b) They will have different mass-energies.

39 a) The existence of the top quark can be predicted from the Standard Model by symmetry: if
there are 6 leptons, it would be odd to have only the 5 observed quarks.
The large mass-energy of the top quark meant it could only be observed when particle
accelerators with enough energy to produce them had been built.

b) The detectors have a magnetic field at right angles to the path of the collision. The top quark
and antiquark have opposite charges that travel in opposite directions inside the magnetic
field.

c) X = W−
Y = 𝜈̅𝑒

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

40 J/ψ → e+ + e−

𝑱⁄𝝍 𝒆+ 𝒆− Conserved, ✓or 

(Rest) Energy, E 3.1 GeV 0.51 MeV 0.51 MeV ✓ – excess energy is transferred to
kinetic energy
Momentum, p 0 +p –p ✓ – electron and positron emitted
in opposite directions
Charge, Q 0 +1e –1e ✓
Baryon number, B 0 0 0 ✓
Lepton number, L 0 –1 +1 ✓

𝑱⁄𝝍 𝝁+ 𝝁− Conserved, ✓or 

(Rest) Energy, E 3.1 GeV 105.7 MeV 105.7 MeV ✓ – excess energy is transferred
to kinetic energy
Momentum, p 0 +p –p ✓ – muon and antimuon
emitted in opposite directions
Charge, Q 0 +1e –1e ✓
Baryon number, B 0 0 0 ✓
Lepton number, L 0 –1 +1 ✓

Pages 38–40 Practice questions

1 a) Hadrons are subject to the strong force. [1]

b) Quark–antiquark pair, 𝑞𝑞̅ [1]

c) Three quarks, qqq [1]

d) Similar: same mass-energy [1]

Different: opposite charge; opposite baryon number [1]

e) i) Q = -1e [1]

ii) B = -1 [1]

iii) 𝑢̅ 𝑢̅𝑑̅ [1]

2 a) Lepton: electron OR muon [1]

Hadron: proton OR neutron OR pion [1]

b) Hadrons are subject to the strong force (leptons are not) OR

hadrons are composed of quarks (leptons are not) [1]

c) Baryons are composed of three quarks (or three antiquarks) and mesons are composed of a
quark–antiquark pair. [1]

d) Baryon: proton OR neutron [1]

Meson: pion [1]

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

3 a) [1 mark per correct row]

Sub-atomic Quark Baryon OR Relative Baryon Strangeness

particle structure Meson charge number
𝛑+, pion+ 𝑢𝑑̅ meson +1 0 0
n, neutron udd baryon 0 +1 0
Σ + , sigma+ uus baryon +1 +1 -1

b) e.g. proton: uud; and antiproton: 𝑢̅ 𝑢̅𝑑̅ [1]

c) Same: mass-energy (OR strangeness OR baryon number) [1]

Different: charge OR lepton number [1]

4 a) electromagnetic [1]
photon [1]

b) Charge OR lepton number OR baryon number OR strangeness [1]

c) A: neutron [1]
B: electron-neutrino [1]
C: W+

d) Electron capture [1]

e) Charge OR baryon number OR lepton number [any 2]

Conservation Before interaction After interaction Quantity

Quantity p e -
Total n e Total conserved?
Q +1 -1 0 0 0 0 ✓
B +1 0 +1 +1 0 +1 ✓
L 0 +1 +1 0 +1 +1 ✓
[1 mark per correct row]

f) [Any 3 from the following:]

• Models can make predictions about (as yet) unobserved physics.

• Experiments can be set up to test the predictions of a model.

• Observations from experiments can support/disprove model (or lead to further
experiments)
• If the model makes predictions that do not match reality, it is incorrect (or incomplete).
• Experimental observations that match the predictions support (or confirm) the model.

5 a) Weak interaction, as it involves leptons (and is mediated by W- exchange particle). [1]

b) Charge and lepton number (or baryon number) [2]

c) Strange particles experience the strong interaction but decay via the weak interaction OR
strange particles contain the strange quark. [1]

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2 Fundamental particles Answers

d) Κ + → 𝜇+ + ̅̅̅𝜈𝜇 is not possible

as it violates law of conservation of lepton number. [2]

e) Weak interaction [1]

f) X must have lepton number = 0 as - has L = +1 and 𝜈̅𝜇 has L = -1 [1]

X cannot be a baryon as that would violate baryon conservation (all the other particles have B
= 0). [1]
Therefore, it must be a meson.

g) Zero charge. [1]

6 a) 10𝑛 → 11𝑝 + −10𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝑒

b) In order for lepton number, L, to be conserved, [1]

since the electron emitted has L = +1, the other lepton must have L = -1. [1]
Therefore it must be an antineutrino, rather than a neutrino.

c)

OR

Correct particle symbols [1]

correct exchange particle [1]
correct connections of diagram [1]

d) electron-neutrino [1]

e) Na-23 nucleus – made of baryons OR daughter neutron (in Na-23 nucleus) – baryon [1]
positron – lepton [1]
electron-neutrino – lepton [1]

f) neutron – udd [1]

proton – uud [1]

g)

Correct particle symbols [1]

correct exchange particle [1]
correct connections of diagram [1]

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

7 a) [1 mark per correct row]

Conservation Before interaction After interaction Quantity

Quantity conserved?
p e- Total n e Total
Q +1 -1 0 0 0 0 ✓
B +1 0 +1 +1 0 +1 ✓
L 0 +1 +1 0 +1 +1 ✓

b) Electron capture: 40 0
19𝐾 + −1𝑒 →
40
18𝐴𝑟 + 𝜈𝑒 [1]

Positron emission: 40
19𝐾 →
40
18𝐴𝑟 + +10𝑒 + 𝜈𝑒 [1]

Beta minus decay: 40

19𝐾 →
40
20𝐶𝑎 + −10𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝑒 [1]

8 a) Similarity: same charge [1].

Differences: protons are baryons, positrons are leptons OR different mass-energy OR protons
contain quarks, positrons do not [1]

b) Gravity – graviton
Strong – gluon
Weak - W, Z
Electromagnetic – photon [All correct = 3; 2 correct = 2; 1 correct = 1]

c) Best described by drawing the graph:

repulsion/attraction in correct place [1]

equilibrium position identified [1]
values (approx.) [1]

d) Strong force [1]

exists only between quarks, positron is not a quark [1].

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019
2 Fundamental particles Answers

9 [Any 6 from the following:]

• Pions are mesons.

• Muons are leptons.
• Other mesons e.g. kaon
• Other leptons: electron; electron-neutrino; muon-neutrino; (tau and antiparticles)
• Properties in common: charge; zero baryon number; interact via the weak interaction.
• Charged pions and the muon can interact with other charged particles via the
electromagnetic interaction.
• Pions and muons can interact with other particles via the weak interaction.
• Pions and muons are attracted to each other via the gravitational force because they have
mass.
• Pions can interact with other hadrons via the strong interaction.

Page 41 Stretch and challenge

10 a) Sigma+ = uus

b) + = pion+ = 𝑢𝑑̅
n = neutron = udd
c) Charge and baryon number (OR lepton number)

d) Strangeness

e) Weak interaction
1
f) 0𝑛 → 11𝑝 + −10𝑒 + 𝜈̅𝑒

11 a) Weak interaction

b) 1 – up quark, u

2 or 3 – electron anti-neutrino, 𝜈̅𝑒

3 or 2 – electron, e-

12 a) Weak interaction

b) W+

c)

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2 Fundamental particles Answers

d) Conservation of momentum gives that p1 = –p2

Multiplying both sides by c and squaring:

𝑐 2 𝑝1 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑝2 2 [1]
Using 𝐸 2 = 𝑐 2 𝑝2 + 𝑚0 2 𝑐 4 gives that:
𝑐 2 𝑝1 2 = 𝐸1 2 − 𝑚1 2 𝑐 4 [2]
and
𝑐 2 𝑝2 2 = 𝐸2 2 − 𝑚2 2 𝑐 4 [3]
Substituting [2] and [3] into [1] gives
𝐸1 2 − 𝑚1 2 𝑐 4 = 𝐸2 2 − 𝑚2 2 𝑐 4
Collecting terms and using the difference between squares:
𝐸1 2 − 𝐸2 2 = (𝐸1 + 𝐸2 )(𝐸1 − 𝐸2 ) = (𝑚1 2 − 𝑚2 2 ) 𝑐 4 [4]
Conservation of energy gives that:
𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝑀𝑐 2 [5]
Dividing [4] by [5] gives
(𝑚1 2 − 𝑚2 2 )𝑐 2
𝐸1 − 𝐸2 =
𝑀
Adding [5] to each side gives
2
(𝑀 2 +𝑚1 −𝑚2 2)𝑐 2
2𝐸1 =
𝑀

hence
2
(𝑀2+𝑚1 −𝑚2 2)𝑐 2
𝐸1 = 2𝑀
as required.

Taking the square root of each side of [2] gives

cp1 = E12 − m12 c 4 as required.

e) Taking M = Mπ =139.6 MeV/c2, m1 = mμ = 105.7 MeV/c2, m2 = mν = 0

2
(𝑀2 +𝑚1 −𝑚2 2)𝑐 2
and using 𝐸1 = 2𝑀
(139.62 +105.72−02)/𝑐 2
the total energy of the muon, E1 = 𝐸𝜇 = 2×139.6/𝑐 2
= 109.8 MeV

Hence the kinetic energy is:

105.7MeV
𝐸𝑘 = 𝐸𝜇 − 𝑚𝜇 𝑐 2 = 109.8 MeV − ( 𝑐2
× 𝑐 2 ) = 4.1 MeV

© Nick England, Jeremy Pollard, Nicky Thomas & Carol Davenport 2019