National Guidelines for Small Scale Irrigation Development MOA

Diversion Recommended
SN Site condition
Function Crest Design Construction
foundation bearing capacity masonry/
Same as above but bad foundation Gravity/Non- Cyclopean concrete/
5 Pick up Weir
bearing capacity Gravity reinforced concrete/
Source: As adopted from MoWR, PART I-G Diversions, 2002

Table 2-2: Summary to select type of diversion weirs

Criteria\Weir
Broad Crested Ogee Barrage Glacis
Type
Nature of the Preferred for narrow river Preferred for narrow Preferred for the case of Preferred for the case
river and flow section and When flow in river section and diversion from wide of diversion from
condition the river is not dangerous when flow in the channel with large flow wide channel with
and carries small river carries large andwhen expected large flow
boulders flow and boulders backwater effect is high
Construction When quality stone is When there is not When there is not When there is not
material available in the nearby enough quality enough quality stone is enough quality stone
availability area of the project stone is available in available in the site is available in the site
the site
Easiness of This is the simplest and This is a bit harder Needs huge number of Needs huge number
construction preferred where there is and preferred where skilled manpower of skilled manpower
no skilled manpower is there is enough
limited skilled manpower
Foundation Preferred when Needs stronger Preferred in case of Preferred when the
condition foundation condition is foundation alluvial channel channel bed is
not complicated condition alluvial
Hydraulic This has the lowest The best Better performance Better performance
performance performance performance
Investment The cheapest Relatively Very expensive Very expensive
Cost expensive
Source: As compiled from own experience

2.6 TYPES OF STILLING BASIN

2.6.1 General

The stilling basin also called downstream impervious apron is an integral part of the diversion
headwork structure to its downstream side. It is used for the purpose of resisting uplift pressures
exerted from the bottom of the structure and to dissipate the incoming energy from over the
diversion headwork. There are different types of stilling basins, but the most commonly used types
are USBR Standard and Indian Standards. The USBR standard recommend lengths and depths
of basin, based on calculated specific energy, velocity and Froude number.

2.6.2 USBR standard stilling basin

Types of stilling basins as per Design of Small Dam, USBR, 1987, are divided in to the following.

2.6.2.1 Stilling basin type-I

For Froude numbers ranging between 1.0 to about 1.7, the incoming flow is only slightly below
critical depth, and the change from this low stage to the high stage flow is gradual and manifests
itself only by a slightly ruffled water surface. As the Froude number approaches 1.7, a series of
small rollers begins to develop on the surface, which intensifies as the value increases. Therefore,
no special stilling basin as well as baffle or other jump enforcing structure is needed to stabilize the

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flow. However, the length of the stable channel (or simply basin) from the location where depth
starts to change up to its end should not be less than 4 times the conjugate depth (USBR, 1987).

Relatively smooth flows prevail throughout the Froude number ranging between 1.7 and 2.5. The
phenomena under this range designated as the pre-jump stage because flows are not attended by
active turbulence. Therefore, baffles or sills are not required. This type of basin is used where
hydraulic jump occurs on a horizontal apron thus energy dissipation is very low. Incoming velocity
is less than 15m/s, thus it is the weak jump zone. Such flows are not appeared by active
turbulence. Thus, in such case, the basin is plain horizontal and jump occurs on the floor with no
chute blocks, baffle piers or end sill provided thus simple for construction. Usually this is not
recommended because of need for excessive length, but discussed here since it provides a
grounding in the basic hydraulics of all stilling basins.

Figure 2-13: USBR Stilling Basin, Type-I

Source: S.K. Garg, 2006

2.6.2.2 Stilling basin of type-II

This type of basin is used for spillways of high concrete dam and embankment dams. Its incoming
velocity exceeds 15m/s and Froude number, Fr varies from 4.5 to 9.0. It is a range of well-
balanced jump and its performance is at its best and least affected by tail water variations. In this
case length of the basin can be shortened by introducing devices like baffles and chute blocks.
Such jump is called a steady jump.

Figure 2-14: USBR Stilling Basin, Type-II

Source: S.K. Garg, 2006

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National Guidelines for Small Scale Irrigation Development MOA

2.6.2.3 Stilling basin of type-III

This can be more economical than basin II. Here a row of baffle piers is placed downstream from
the chute blocks. This basin relies on dissipation of energy by the impact blocks and also on the
turbulence of the jump phenomena for its effectiveness.

For Froude numbers range between 4.5 and 9, a stable and well-balanced jump occurs.
Turbulence is confined to the main body of the jump, and the water surface downstream is
comparatively smooth. Basin designated as USBR type III basin, can be adopted for this case if
incoming velocities do not exceed 18.2 m/s and the specific discharge do not exceed 18.6 m3/s/m
(USBR, 1987; Novak et al, 2007). The basin uses chute blocks, impact baffle blocks, and an end
sill to shorten the jump length and to dissipate the high-velocity flow within the short basin length.
This basin relies on dissipation of energy by the impact blocks and on the turbulence of the jump
phenomena for its effectiveness.

The large impact forces to which the baffles are subjected to by the impingement of high incoming
velocities creates the possibility of cavitation along the surfaces of the blocks and floor. There is a
temptation to use this type of stilling basin outside of the velocity and specific discharge range
because of reduced length. However, the danger of cavitations damage in these cases is
substantial and great care must be exercised in the design and positioning of the blocks (Novak et
al., 2007). The USBR type III basin is similar to the Saint Anthony Fall (SAF) basin but SAF is
provided with a larger safety factor (French, 1985).

Figure 2-15: View of USBR stilling basin, type-III

Source: S.K. Garg, 2006

2.6.2.4 Stilling basin of type-IV

This type of basin is used for stilling basin design and wave suppressors for canal structures and
low head diversion weirs. Its Fr varies from 2.5 to 4.5 and is in the transition zone with incoming
velocity less than 15m/s. It has rough water surface with roller and oscillating jet. The jump is not
stable and waves are thus generated. This basin is a short basin, but complicated by floor and
chute blocks.

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Figure 2-16: USBR stilling basin, type-IV

Source: S.K. Garg, 2006

2.6.3 Indian standard stilling basin

Indian Standard Institution has also standardized certain stilling basins for uses under different
conditions in IS: 4997 - 1968. Stilling basin I and II (for Fr<4.5 and Fr> 4.5 respectively) with
horizontal aprons and stilling basins III and IV with sloping .aprons are described in detail in
standard. But the most commonly adopted basins are the above described USBR ones, if anyone
is interested in IS, it can be referred in the mentioned standard.

2.6.4 Appurtenant structures in stilling basin

2.6.4.1 Chute blocks

Chute blocks are a kind of ragged wedges (i.e. row of small projections like teeth of saw) and
provided at the entrance of the stilling basin i.e. foot of d/s sloping face. The incoming jet of water
is creased and partly lifted from the floor, producing a shorter length of jump than what would have
been without them. They also help in stabilizing the flow and thus improve the jump performance.
The dimension of the chute block and its spacing depends on the basin type as per the
recommendation.

Chute blocks: Height = d1 or d2/9, whichever is greater; and,

Width = spacing = 0.75 to 1.0 times height.

2.6.4.2 End sills and dentated siils

Sill or end-sill or more preferably dentated sill is generally provided at the end of the stilling basin.
The dentated sill diffuses the residual portion of high velocity jet reaching the end of the basin.
They, therefore, help in dissipating residual energy and to reduce the length of the jump or the
basin. The dimension of the end-sill and its spacing depends on the basin type as per the
recommendation.

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Baffle/Basin blocks: Height = d1 or d2/8, whichever is greater;

Width and spacing are same as for the chute blocks, but staggered;
Location = 0.4*Lb from start of basin.
End Sill: Height = d2/10.

Note: These dimensions are indicative only, as it is based on the type of the selected stilling basin.

2.6.4.3 Baffle block or friction piers

Baffle Block or Friction Piers are the blocks placed within the basin, i.e. across the basin floor.
They help in breaking the flow and dissipate energy mostly by impact. These baffle piers,
sometimes called friction blocks are very useful in small structures, such as low spillways and
weirs, etc. They, however, give way due to cavitation, under the influence of high velocity jets, and
hence are unsuitable for large works.

2.7 RETAINING WALLS AND THEIR TYPES

2.7.1 General

Retaining wall is any structure that holds or retains soil, rock or other materials behind it. Such
walls are structures designed to restrain soil to unnatural slopes, thus provide a lateral support to
vertical slopes of soil that would otherwise collapse into a more natural shape. In general they are
used to bound soils between two different elevations often in areas of terrain possessing
undesirable slopes or in areas where the landscape needs to be shaped severely and engineered
for more specific purposes like hillside farming or roadway overpasses.

There are many types of materials that can be used to create retaining walls like concrete blocks,
poured concrete, masonry, gabions, treated timbers, rocks, or boulders. Some are easy to use,
others have a shorter life span, but all can retain soil.

Wing walls are short retaining structures and are used as a retaining wall and to stabilize the
abutment. They are short in section of walls used to guide a stream into an opening, such as at a
culvert or bridge inlet and/or outlet or diversion weir. A wing wall also named as "wingwall" or
"wing-wall" is a smaller wall attached or next to a larger wall or structure. In a bridge, the wing
walls are adjacent to the abutments and act as retaining walls. They are generally constructed of
the same material as those of abutments. The wing walls can either be attached to the abutment
or be independent of it.

There are four common types of Retaining walls as described in the following sections:

2.7.2 Gravity retaining wall

It is that type of retaining wall that relies on their huge weight to retain the material behind it and
achieve stability against failures. Gravity Retaining Wall can be constructed from concrete, stone
or even brick masonry. Gravity retaining walls are much thicker in section. Geometry of these walls
also help them to maintain the stability by their weight. Mass concrete walls are suitable for
retained wall heights of up to 3 m. For wall over 4.5m high the reinforced concrete cantilever wall
offers a substantial cost advantage over gravity masonry wall. The cross section shape of the wall
is affected by stability, the use of space in front of the wall, the required wall appearance and the
method of construction.

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2.8.4 Groundwater/drainage

Groundwater needs to be removed from behind the retaining wall to reduce hydrostatic forces.
Many types of wall are inherently porous while other types, like reinforced concrete, require weep
holes to be integrated into the design to relieve pressure from water behind the wall. In areas
where substantial groundwater and glaciation is expected, a sub-drain should be considered to
direct the runoff to drainage ditches or a piped storm drain collection system.

2.8.5 Utilities

Some types of retaining walls impact a considerable amount of soil behind the face of the wall.
The fabric behind the wall can impact existing utilities or limit future placement of utilities. Anchor
wall cables also extend into surrounding soils and affect utilities. Therefore, proper consideration
should be made for utilities, if any.

2.8.6 Aesthetics

Retailing walls are often very noticeable along a roadway corridor and they should be selected to
compliment the landscaping design and blend in with the surrounding zone. Sometimes retaining
walls are chosen to match existing walls on adjacent properties. However, such consideration shall
be taken in to consideration in urban areas.

2.8.7 Construction schedule

In some cases, the amount of time required to construct a retaining wall is very important since it
can affect impacts to adjacent property owners or the environment. Reinforced concrete headwalls
take a considerable amount of time to construct. They are typically not a good option for stream
culvert headwalls that need to be completed quickly to reduce environmental impacts.

2.8.8 Maintenance

Retaining walls and associated fences or handrails should be designed to require little if any
maintenance. Concrete surfaces can be provided with coatings to facilitate removal of spray paint
vandalism.

2.8.9 Cost

The estimated installed cost for retaining walls varies considerably from nature of surrounding
topography and height of the exposed vertical face and its stability. Some of the biggest factors
include soil conditions, wall height, tiebacks, construction access, type of fence and the amount of
soil to be removed behind the wall for construction.

As a generally guide, a stone masonry is commonly used for gravity retaining walls around
diversion structures for a height not in excess of 4.5m high. However, concrete with nominal
temperature and shrinkage reinforcing could be used. The base is typically constructed of
reinforced concrete. The factor of safety for structure stability (the ratio between stabilizing to
destabilizing forces) should be at least 1.5 to ensure long term sustainability. For gravity retaining
walls constructed on sound bedrock and adequately interlocked to the bedrock, stability should not
be a problem.

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