MA2002 CALCULUS

Bao Huanchen / Wang Fei

huanchen@nus.edu.sg / matwf@nus.edu.sg

Department of Mathematics
National University of Singapore
Office: S17-06-17 / S17-06-16
Tel: 6601-2430 / 6516-2937

Chapter 0: Functions 2
Sets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Algebra of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Examples of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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Chapter 0: Functions 2 / 29

Sets
✔ A set is a collection of objects.
✘ A set is usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, . . . .
✘ The objects a, b, c, . . . in A are called the elements of the set A.
✔ Let A be a set.
✘ We can write A by listing all its elements regardless of order:
✓ A = {a, b, c, . . . }.
For example, {1, −1}, {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, . . . }.
✘ We can also write A using description:
✓ A = {x | properties of x}.
For example, {x | x2 = 1}, {x | x is a prime number}.

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Sets
✔ Let A be a set.
✘ If a is an element of A, write a ∈ A; otherwise, write a ∈
/ A.
Example: 1 ∈ {1, 2}, 0 ∈
/ {1, 2}.
✔ Let A and B be two sets.
✘ If every element of A is also an element of B, A is a subset of B, denoted by A ⊆ B;
otherwise, A * B.
Example: {1, 2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}, {0, 1} * {1, 2, 3}.
✔ Let A and B be two sets.
✘ They are equal if they have the same collection of elements, regardless of order. In
order words, A = B if “A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A”.
Example: {1, 2, 3} = {3, 2, 1}, {x | x2 = 1} = {1, −1}.

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2
Operations on Sets
✔ Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.
✘ Union: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.

A B

✘ Example. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}.

✓ A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}, B ∪ A = {1, 2, 3}.

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Operations on Sets
✔ Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.
✘ Intersection: A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.

A B

✘ Example. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}.

✓ A ∩ B = {2}, B ∩ A = {2}.
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3
Operations on Sets
✔ Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.
✘ Difference: A \ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B}.

A B

✘ Example. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}.

✓ A \ B = {1}, B \ A = {3}.

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Operations on Sets
✔ Let A and B be two sets. We can define set operations.
✘ Product: A × B = {(x, y) | x ∈ A and y ∈ B}.

B
b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b b

b b b b b b b
A

✘ Example. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {2, 3}.

✓ A × B = {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 2), (2, 3)}.

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Some Notations of Sets
✔ We use the following notations for some special sets:
✘ Z = {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, . . . }: the set of integers.
✘ Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . }: the set of positive integers.
✘ N = Z+ , the set of natural numbers.
✘ Q = {m/n | m, n ∈ Z, n 6= 0}: the set of rational numbers.
✘ R: the set of real numbers.
✘ ∅: the empty set, the set containing no element.
✘ Similarly we can use Z− , Q+ , Q− , R+ , R− , . . . .
✘ Intervals:
✓ Closed intervals: [a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}, (a ≤ b);
✓ Open intervals: (a, b) = {x | a < x < b}, (a < b);
✓ (a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}; [a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b};
✓ (a, ∞) = {x | a < x}; (−∞, b] = {x | x ≤ b}.

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Functions
✔ Let A and B be two sets.

f
a x
b y
A c z B
d w
.. ..
. .

✘ A function f : A → B (or simply f ) is a rule which assigns each element in A to a

unique element in B.
✘ For a ∈ A, the unique element in B that is assigned by f called the image of a,
denoted by f (a).

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5
Functions
✔ Let f : A → B be a function. Note the following key points.
✘ Existence: For each a ∈ A, f (a) is an element of B.
✘ Uniqueness: Each a ∈ A has only one image in B.
✔ Example. Let A be the set of students participating a competition. For each student
a ∈ A, consider the rule


 gold medal, if a scores ≥ 80,
silver medal, if a scores ≥ 70 but < 80,

✘ f (a) =

 bronze medal, if a scores ≥ 60 but < 70,
certificate, if a scores < 60.


✘ Each student in the competition gets exactly one from “gold medal”, “silver medal”,
“bronze medal” or “certificate”.
✓ Therefore, the rule f defined above is a function.
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Domain and Range

✔ Let f : A → B be a function. Then we say
✘ A is the domain of f ,
✘ B is the codomain of f .
In this course, A and B are subsets of the set of real numbers R.
✔ We make the following conventions:
✘ If A is not stated, the domain of f is taken to be the domain of definition, i.e.,
largest subset of R on which f is defined.
✘ If B is not stated, take B = R.
✔ The range of f : A → B is the set of images:
✘ {f (x) | x ∈ A}.
Note that for any x ∈ A, f (x) ∈ B.
✘ The range of a function is always a subset of the codomain.
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Example
2x
✔ Find the domain and range of f defined by f (x) = .
3x − 1
✘ As a fraction, the function f is defined at every x ∈ R except when the denominator
3x − 1 = 0, i.e., except when x = 31 .
✓ Then domain = R \ { 31 }.
✘ y is in the range of the function f if and only if y has the form f (x) for some x in the
domain, i.e., x 6= 31 .
✓ Let y = 2x/(3x − 1) and solve for x:
✗ y(3x − 1) = 2x ⇒ x(3y − 2) = y ⇒ x = y/(3y − 2).
There is always an x in the domain such that y = f (x) except when 3y − 2 = 0,
i.e., except when y = 23 .

✓ Then range = R \ { 32 }.

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Graph of Functions
✔ Let f : A → B be a function. The graph of f is the set
✘ G(f ) = {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ A}.
Suppose that A ⊆ R and B ⊆ R. Then
✘ G(f ) ⊆ A × B ⊆ R × R = R2 .
✓ The graph G(f ) is a subset of the Cartesian plane R2 .
✔ Example. f (x) = sin x:
y

−2π −π O π 2π x

−1

✘ domain = R, range = [−1, 1].

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Algebra of Functions
✔ Let f be a function with domain A, and g a function with domain B.
✘ Addition: (f + g)(x) := f (x) + g(x).
✓ Domain of f + g: A ∩ B.
✘ Subtraction: (f − g)(x) := f (x) − g(x).
✓ Domain of f − g: A ∩ B.
✘ Multiplication: (f g)(x) := f (x)g(x).
✓ Domain of f g: A ∩ B.
✘ Division: (f /g)(x) := f (x)/g(x).
✓ Domain of f /g: A ∩ B ∩ {x | g(x) 6= 0}.
✔ Warning!
✘ f g = f · g is the product, it is not the composite.
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Algebra of Functions
✔ Let f be a function with domain A, and g a function with domain B.
✘ The composite of f by g (or g to f ) is the function
✓ (g ◦ f )(x) := g(f (x)).
g◦f

x f (x) g(f (x))

f g

✓ Domain of g ◦ f : {x | x ∈ A and f (x) ∈ B}.

✔ Note. In general, f ◦ g 6= g ◦ f .
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Example
√ √
✔ Let f (x) = x, g(x) = 2 − x and h(x) = 1/x. Find the following composites and their
domains.
✘ domain of f : {x | x ≥ 0};
✘ domain of g: {x | 2 − x ≥ 0} = {x | x ≤ 2};
✘ domain of h: {x | x 6= 0};
√ p√ √
✘ f ◦ g(x) = f (g(x)) = f ( 2 − x) = 2 − x = 4 2 − x,
√
✓ domain = {x | x ≤ 2 and 2 − x ≥ 0} = {x | x ≤ 2};
√ p √
✘ g ◦ f (x) = g(f (x)) = g( x) = 2 − x,
√
✓ domain = {x | x ≥ 0 and x ≤ 2} = {x | 0 ≤ x ≤ 4};
1
✘ h ◦ h(x) = h(h(x)) = h(1/x) = = x,
1/x
✓ domain = {x | x 6= 0 and 1/x 6= 0} = {x | x 6= 0}.

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Examples of Functions
✔ The absolute value function f (x) = |x| is defined by

x, if x ≥ 0,
✘ |x| =
−x, if x < 0.

x
−2 −1 O 1 2

✘ domain = R;
✘ range = {x | x ≥ 0} = R+ ∪ {0} = [0, ∞).
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Examples of Functions
✔ A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai ∈ R) of the form
✘ P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .
✓ If an 6= 0, then n is the degree of P (x), denoted by deg P (x).
✘ A polynomial of degree 1 is a linear function.
A polynomial of degree 2 is a quadratic function.
y
P (x) = 1 − 2
3
x

Q(x) = 2x2 + 2x

x
O

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Examples of Functions
✔ A polynomial (over R) is a function (ai ∈ R) of the form
✘ P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .
✘ A polynomial of degree 3 is a cubic function.
A polynomial of degree 4 is a quartic function.
A polynomial of degree 5 is a quintic function.
y
5 4 3 2
R(x) = x + 0.3x − 2.8x − 0.3x + 1.8x
P (x) = x3 − x + 1

O x

Q(x) = x4 − 3x2 + x

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Examples of Functions
✔ A rational function is a function of the form
P (x)
✘ R(x) = ,
Q(x)
where P, Q are polynomials, Q(x) is not identically zero.
y

O x
2x x2
f (x) = g(x) = 2
x−1 x −1

✔ Every polynomial is a rational function (set Q(x) = 1).

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Examples of Functions
✔ An algebraic function is a function constructed from polynomials using algebraic
operations:
✘ addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
taking roots, composite.
√ x3 + 1 √
✘ Example. f (x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = + (x − 2) 5 x3 − 1.
x+2
y
y = f (x) y = g(x)

O x

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Examples of Functions
✔ The trigonometric functions
✘ sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.
are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.

tan x

sin x
x
O cos x 1

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Examples of Functions
✔ The trigonometric functions
✘ sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x.
are the ratios of the sides of a right angle triangle.
y

y = tan x

y = sin x y = cos x

x
O

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Examples of Functions
✔ A function f is said to be increasing on a set I if
✘ a < b ⇒ f (a) < f (b) for any a, b ∈ I.
✔ A function f is said to be decreasing on a set I if
✘ a < b ⇒ f (a) > f (b) for any a, b ∈ I.
y

f (x) = x3

x
O

g(x) = −x3 + 2

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Examples of Functions
✔ A function f is said to be an even function if
✘ f (−x) = f (x) for all x in the domain of f .
y f (x) = x2 − 10

O x

g(x) = x2 cos x

✘ The graph of an even function is symmetric about the y-axis.

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Examples of Functions
✔ A function f is said to be an odd function if
✘ f (−x) = −f (x) for all x in the domain of f .
y

O x
x3
f (x) = 8

g(x) = x2 sin x

✘ The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin O.

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Examples of Functions
✔ Let n be a positive integer. Then the power function

n an odd function, if n is odd,
✘ x is
an even function, if n is even.

y
y

y = x5

O x

O x
y = x6

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Examples of Functions
✔ Let n be a positive integer. Then the power function

n an odd function, if n is odd,
✘ x is
an even function, if n is even.
✔ Example. Let P (x) = 3x6 + x5 − 2x4 + 7x3 + 2x2 − x − 1.
✘ Let f (x) = 3x6 − 2x4 + 2x2 − 1.
✘ Let g(x) = x5 + 7x3 − x.
✓ Then P (x) = f (x) + g(x), such that
✗ f is an even function and g is an odd function.
✔ Exercise. For any function whose domain is symmetric about 0,
✘ it can be uniquely decomposed as the sum of
✓ an even function and an odd function.
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