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Introduction
Machine vs Machine Tool?

Machine- essentially is a means of converting the source of power from one form to
the other while
Machine Tool- defined as one which while holding the cutting tools would be able to
remove metal from a work piece in order to generate the requisite product of given
Machine Tools size, configuration and finish.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Vertical Milling Drilling

machine Machine

Horizontal
Milling Machine

Lathe Machine

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Types of Lathe machines

Classification of Machine Tools

General Purpose designed to perform a variety of machining Lathe, Shaper,

Machine Tools operations on wide ranging types of components Milling

a number of functions of the machine tools are

Production Capstan &
automated such as operator skill required to
Machine Tools Turret Lathes
produce the component is reduced

Machine Tools

Special Purpose setting operation is practically eliminated and Cam shaft

Machine Tools complete automation is achieved grinding machine

Single Purpose designed specifically for doing a single operation on Transfer lines
Machine Tools a class of jobs or on a single job. with unit heads

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Classification of Machine Tools Basic Elements of Machine Tools

1. Work holding device- To hold the work piece in the correct orientation to achieve the
Every industry has different requirements required accuracy in manufacturing, e.g. chuck
and thus there is trade-off between rate
of production and variety of production 2. Tool holding device- To hold the cutting tool in the correct position with respect to the
in each. work piece and provide enough holding force to counteract the cutting forces acting on
the tool, e.g. tool post
For example, a factory which has to
3. Work motion mechanism- To provide the necessary speeds to the work piece for
manufacture a large amount of single
type product may prioritize rate of generating the requisite surface,
production and would prefer single 4. Tool motion mechanism- To provide the various motions needed for the tool in
purpose machine tool. conjunction with work piece motion in order to generate the different surface profiles as
desired, e.g. carriage
5. Support structure- To support all the mechanisms and maintain their relative position
with respect to each other and also allow for relative movement between the various
Application of machine tools based on the
parts to obtain the requisite part profile and accuracy, e.g. bed
capability

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani
167

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General Work Holding Methods Support Structures

The main requirements of the support structure are:
 Rigidity
 Impact resistance
 Accuracy of guideways
 Wear resistance

They may be classified as beds (horizontal structures) or columns (vertical structures).

• Bed provides a support for all the elements present in a machine tool.
• It also provides for the true relative positions of all units in machine tools.
• Some of these units may be sliding on the bed or fixed.

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• For the purpose of sliding, accurate guideways are provided.
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Different types of structures Power Transmission

• The main power is provided by the spindle motor in most of the machine tools.
• From this source with a standard speed, the power need to be transmitted to run the spindle at
different speeds and also provide feeds as required for differing machining situations

The choice of the range of speeds that need to be provided will depend upon the range of cutting
speeds to be obtained along with the range of diameters of work pieces that need to be cut.
The final speed at the spindle can be obtained in two ways:
a) Stepped drive (Fixed Speeds)
b) Stepless drive (Infinite Speed)

170 171
Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

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Important Elements of Power Transmission Important Elements of Power Transmission

A. Maximum Spindle speed required (𝑁 ) The maximum and minimum spindle speeds can be obtained from an idea of the maximum and minimum

B. Minimum Spindle speed required (𝑁 ) work piece that need to be considered assuming it to be a lathe.
To obtain maximum and minimum spindle speeds, we can consider the idea of the maximum and
C. Total number of speeds (n) Using relation,
minimum D of the work piece. Hence,
D. Total number of stages 𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑉= 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛 Where,
E. Speed range (𝑁 ) = 1000
. 𝑉 =maximum cutting speed to be used
Rewriting it as: Max Spindle speed, 𝑁 = .
𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑉 =minimum cutting speed to be used
.
Where, 1000. 𝑉 Min Spindle speed, 𝑁 = 𝑟𝑝𝑚
𝑁= 𝑟𝑝𝑚 . 𝐷 =maximum diameter of workpiece/cutter
V = Cutting speed 𝜋𝐷
𝐷 =minimum diameter of workpiece/cutter
D = Diameter of workpiece
N = Spindle speed 172 173

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Step less Drives Guideways

Problem with Stepped drives:- Guideways (slideways) are linear bearings for translatory movement
• Fixed Spindle speeds thus, it is not possible to use optimum cutting speeds with any of the work between two members of a machine tool, such as carriage and bed
piece diameters.
in a lathe.
• This reduces the productivity of the machining operations since the operator will be working at They should provide:
non-optimum values most of the time.  Alignment and fit
• Also the speed change operation reduces the productivity further since the machine has to be  Ample load carrying capacity
stopped.  Absence of stick-slip jerk
Thus, Step less drives are essential in ensuring better productivity and optimality of machine  Adjustment for wear and lubrication
tools. • When motion starts there should be instant and accurate
response with repeatability both for feeding and pre-locating.

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Guideways

ANTI-FRICTION
SLIDEWAYS
-Guideways with GUIDEWAYS WAYS
sliding friction -Guideways with
rolling friction
Design of Jigs and Fixtures
1. V-Slideways
2. Flat Slideways
3. Round Slideways
4. Dovetail Slideways

Department of Mechanical Engineering, BITS Pilani

Introduction
Introduction
• Before carrying out a machining operation, it • Fixtures are manually or semiautomatically operated
is first necessary to place, orient, and hold the mechanical devices which enables easy, quick and
workpiece properly to establish its correct consistently accurate locating, supporting and clamping
dimensional and positional relationship with the w/p against tool.
respect to the cutting tool. • Jigs additionally provide tool guidance.
• In job shop and small lot production, the • There are basic principles and general guidance systems
position of the feature to be machined is and methods of designing jigs and fixtures for locating,
marked manually using surface gauges by supporting, clamping, tool guidance according to the
inscribing layout lines on the job surface as type of job and machining requirements.
shown in Fig. 1. • Indexing is another feature that often need to be
incorporated in jig or fixtures.
Fig. 1 Setting up of workpiece with the help of
layout lines

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Jigs and Fixtures

Purpose of Using Fixtures And Jigs
For drilling hole in workpiece with CONVENTIONAL DRILLING MACHINE following approach may
required to be follow:
Approach 1- Drill with conventional drilling machine, Manual punch on w/p, simple holding elements
Approach 2- Drill with conventional drilling machine, 3 jaw vertical chuck, table movements for eccentricity

Fig. 2 Jigs and Fixtures

Approach 3- Drill with conventional drilling machine, use of jig and fixture (most feasible for mass and batch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HVbbSl5W
reA&ab_channel=AniMech
production)

Advantages of using Jigs and Fixtures

1. There is higher productivity due to the reduction of the non-productive time.
2. There is higher productivity due to the possibility of simultaneously machining several components
in a single setting.
3. Properly designed fixtures allow rigid clamping of the work piece, which enables machining at higher
cutting speed and feed, thereby reducing the machining time and increasing productivity.
Self-study
4. Freedom from the dependence on the operator’s skills allows for consistent setting, which in turn
provides better reproducibility of dimensional accuracy.
5. Higher uniformity of dimensional tolerances reduces the production cost by simplifying quality
control and cutting down assembly time.
6. Simplification of the location and clamping of workpieces allows for the replacement of highly
skilled operators by operators of lower skills, thereby reducing production cost.

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Outline Introduction

• The ultimate objective of the manufacturing engineer is to produce

• What is economics of machining? the objects at the most economical cost

• Optimization conditions • To do this, analysis of machining process for all possible costs is
required so that operations can be optimized to get minimum
• Which costs are associated? possible cost

• E.g.: Basic Turning operation

• Derivation of optimal parameters for conditions
• How would you decide machining
• Example Problem & Solution parameters like cutting speed, feed
rate, depth of cut?
• Restrictions
• What would be your objective for
finalizing parameters?

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Optimization criteria Costs Associated

1. Minimization of overall machining cost 1. Manpower Cost , Cl which is measured in per unit time, generally

2. Maximization of the production rate/ Minimization of production hours that operator is employed

time 2. Machine Tool operating (Overhead) costs ,CO. (CO = Cm + Cl)

3. Maximizing of the profit rate (Cm includes machine depreciation, power consumed, maintenance
overhead, consumable etc.)
3. Job handling cost (idle time, special equipment requirement etc.)
The profit criterion requires more information in terms of various 4. Tool cost (Ct)
costs, which may not be available to process planning department.

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Costs Associated Costs Associated

Considering Simple Turning operation

Cost of all overheads
• Length, L mm
• Diameter D mm
• Cutting speed of V m/min 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑝 𝑡 +𝑡 +𝑡 +𝑡
• Feed rate of f mm/rev
• Depth of cut of d mm
• Spindle RPM N ta = tool advance and withdrawal time
tl = job loading time
tul = job unloading time
𝐿 to = initial setup time of the machine for a batch of components
Machining Time 𝑇 =
𝑓𝑁 p = number of parts produced per batch
𝜋𝐷𝑁
Cutting Speed 𝑉=
1000

Costs Associated Costs Associated

Tool Cost
Tool regrinding/indexing cost

For carbide and ceramic tools with throw

away tips:
Tool changing cost Tool regrinding /
indexing cost 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑖𝑡
𝐶 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑡
Cost incurred due to where,
change of tool Ct = initial cost of the tool
Carbide and ceramic HSS and brazed For HSS and brazed carbide tools: r = number of regrinds possible for
tools with throw carbide tools one tool
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙 + 𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 × 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑠
away tips 𝐶 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑠 + 1
Cg = cost of regrinding the tool
pg = number of components
𝐶 + 𝑟𝐶 produced between regrinds
𝐶 =
𝑟+1 = T/ Tm
T = useful life of the tool

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Costs Associated Costs Associated

Total tool cost
Cutting cost

Tool changing cost Total Cutting Cost is given by:

𝑝𝐶 𝑡 where,
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = tc = tool change time 𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑝𝑇
𝑝

𝐿 𝜋𝐷𝑁
Total Tool Cost = Tool changing cost + Tool regrinding/indexing cost Substituting Tm and N from expressions: 𝑇 = 𝑉=
𝑓𝑁 1000
𝑝[𝐶 + 𝐶 𝑡 ] 𝑝𝐶 𝜋𝐷𝑙
𝐶 = 𝐶 =
𝑝 1000𝑓𝑉

Costs Associated Costs Associated

Total Machining Cost For Minimization of Cost

Cost per batch = Cost of all overheads Total tool cost Total cutting cost Consider Taylor’s tool life equation: 𝑉𝑇 = 𝐶
𝑝
𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑝(𝑡 + 𝑡 +𝑡 )+𝑡 + 𝐶 + 𝑡 𝐶 + 𝐶 𝑝𝑇 𝑇 1000 𝑉𝑓𝑇
𝑝
The number of pieces produced per regrind is: 𝑝 = =
𝑇 𝜋𝐷𝑙

Cost per piece of production = 1

Thus, for a straight turning application:
𝑡 𝐶 +𝑡 𝐶
𝐶 =𝐶 𝑡 +𝑡 +𝑡 + + +𝐶 𝑇
𝑝 𝑝 Total Cost per 𝑡 𝜋𝐷𝑙 𝐶 + 𝑡 𝐶 𝐶 𝜋𝐷𝑙
𝐶 =𝐶 𝑡 +𝑡 +𝑡 + + +
piece by- 𝑝
1000𝑓𝐶 𝑉
1000𝑓𝑉

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Costs Associated Costs Associated

For Minimization of Cost For Minimization of Cost (Minimum cost tool life)

For optimum speed, Total Cost expression can be differentiated w.r.t cutting For tool life under same conditions, substituting optimal speed expression in
speed while considering other factors like feed rate etc. as constant. Taylor’s tool life equation we get,

𝐶 1−𝑛
𝜕𝐶
=
𝜋𝐷𝑙 𝐶 + 𝑡 𝐶 1−𝑛
𝑉 −
𝐶 𝜋𝐷𝑙
𝑉 =0 𝑇 = (𝑡 + )( )
𝜕𝑉 𝑛 1000𝑓 𝐶 𝑛
1000𝑓𝐶

𝐶 𝑛 𝐶 𝑛
𝑉 =𝐶 𝑉=𝐶 𝑇 = [𝑡 + ]( )
𝐶 +𝑡 𝐶 1−𝑛 𝐶 +𝑡 𝐶 1−𝑛

Costs Associated Costs Associated

For Maximum Production rate For Maximum Production rate

For optimal speed under given conditions, we differentiate total time w.r.t
Maximizing Production rate is similar to minimizing production time. Thus,
cutting speed V and equating it to 0.
we shall focus on minimization of total production time

Total time for manufacturing: 𝜕𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝜋𝐷𝑙𝑉 𝑡 𝜋𝐷𝑙 1−𝑛

𝑡 𝑇 𝑡 =− + 𝑉 =0
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + + 𝑇 + 𝜕𝑉 1000𝑓 𝑛
𝑝 𝑇 1000𝑓𝐶

For single pass turning job: 𝑛 𝑡 (1 − 𝑛)

𝑡 𝜋𝐷𝑙 𝑡 𝜋𝐷𝑙 𝑉=𝐶
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑡 + 𝑡 + 𝑡 + + + 𝑡 (1 − 𝑛) 𝑇=
𝑝 1000𝑉𝑓 𝑛
1000𝑓𝐶 𝑉
Optimum Cutting Speed Minimum Production Time

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Numerical Numerical

A 600 mm long job of diameter 150 mm of AISI 4140 steel is to be turned

with a DOC of 1.5 mm and feed rate 0.25 mm/rev. The following data is For brazed tools:
applicable for the problem (in Rs.): Initial cost = 60; Grinding time = 5 min/edge
Labour cost/hr. = 12; Machine overhead/hr. = 40; Grinding cost/hr. = 15; Tool change time = 2 mins; 9 grinds /tool before salvage
Grinding machine overhead/hr. = 50; Idle time = 5 mins.
Taylor’s tool life equation: 𝑉𝑇 . = 475
The operation can be carried out using tungsten carbide tools either as brazed
or throw away tools. For throw away tips:
Find the optimum cutting speed, tool life and the cost of the operation for both Initial cost = 40; Tool change time = 1.5 mins;
the brazed tip and the throw away type using the following criteria: Total cutting edges = 8
1. Minimum production cost
2. Maximum production rate
Comment on the result obtained.

Numerical Numerical

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Numerical Numerical

Solution
Parameters Brazed Tools Throw-away Tools

Minimum Cost Max Production Rate Minimum Cost Max Production Rate

Cutting Speed 199.5 308.7 232.4 328.87

m/min

Tool life, min 51.58 7.09 25.77 5.318

Machining Time, 5.669 3.664 4.866 3.439

min

Operation Time, 10.89 9.679 10.149 9.409

min

Cost, INR 10.63 14.02 9.74 11.388

Numerical

Key Insights
● When the production rate is to be maximized, the cutting speed has
increased to nearly the maximum value, giving rise to a very low
value for the tool life and vice-versa
● This is happening because the earlier optimization does not have
any constraints on the variables. Hence the variables go to the Thank You
extreme.
● However, it is necessary to get more useful values so that the
optimization can be carried out using various constraints on the
variables.

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